Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Reportpreparedfor:
MightyRiverPowerLtd
Reportpreparedby:
Tonkin&TaylorLtd July2011 T&TRef:85143.001
Tableofcontents
1 General 1.1 Introduction 1.2 RelationshipofEngineeringandConstructionManagementReports SiteDescription 2.1 SiteDescription ScopeofInvestigations 3.1 DeskTopReview 3.2 GeologicalMapping 3.3 SubsurfaceInvestigations 3.3.1 Drilling 3.3.2 TestPits 3.4 QuarryAggregateAssessment EngineeringGeology 4.1 GeologicalSetting 4.2 PublishedSiteGeology 4.3 GeomorphologyandGeology 4.4 ObservedSiteGeology 4.4.1 GeologicalSequence 4.5 StructuralGeology 4.5.1 RegionalSeismicity 4.5.2 MajorFaults 4.5.3 ActiveFaults 4.6 NZGeoPreservationSocietySites Sinkholes,KarstandGeohydrology 5.1 KarstLandforms&Features 5.1.1 LargeCaves,ConduitsandCavities 5.1.2 SmallConduitsandFissures 5.1.3 Sinkholes 5.1.4 SwallowHoles 5.1.5 KarrenSurface 5.1.6 DryValleys 5.2 KarstPotentialEffectsandMitigation 5.2.1 OverviewofKarstRelatedDesignandConstructionManagement Philosophy 5.3 Geohydrology 5.3.1 SurfaceDrainageandGroundwaterVolume 5.3.2 GroundwaterMovement 5.3.3 NaturalSedimentMovement 5.3.4 GeotextilesFilterFabric 5.4 SedimentPonds SlopeStability 6.1.1 LargeRelicLandslides 6.1.2 TranslationalLandslidesonSiltstone 6.1.3 ColluvialFans 6.1.4 RockFalls 6.1.5 SmallShallowEarthFlowsandSlumping 6.1.6 Surficial(orsuperficial)CreepintheSurfaceLoessandColluvium 1 1 1 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 8 8 15 15 16 16 16 17 17 17 18 18 22 23 24 25 26 31 31 31 33 34 34 35 35 36 37 37 38 39
2 3
10
11 12
13
14
SeismicConsiderations 7.1 EarthquakeShaking 7.2 SiteSubsoilClass 7.3 Liquefaction MaterialCharacteristics&DesignParameters 8.1 GeneralEarthworksPropertiesandDesignParameters 8.2 PerformanceofExistingCut&FillSlopes 8.3 RecommendedSlopeAnglesforEarthworksDesign 8.4 WorkabilityandExcavatability 8.5 Undercutting 8.6 CableTrenching 8.7 SettlementPotentialofSoils 8.8 SedimentCharacteristics(earthworks) 8.8.1 Materialbehaviour WindTurbineFoundations 9.1 FoundationConditions 9.2 ShallowPadFoundations 9.3 PiledandAnchorFoundations GeneralBuildingFoundations 10.1 GeneralSoilPropertiesandFoundations 10.2 SubstationandBatchingPlant Pavements AggregateAssessment 12.1 Introduction 12.2 AggregateAvailability 12.3 AggregateSuitabilityandCurrentSupply 12.4 RecommendedAggregateSources 12.5 SandSuitabilityforConcrete Conclusions 13.1 ProjectFeasibilityandAssessment 13.2 SiteGeology 13.3 SinkHolesandKarst 13.4 Groundwater&Sediment 13.5 SlopeStability 13.6 ProposedEarthworks&Roads 13.7 Foundations 13.8 SeismicConsiderations 13.9 DetailedDesign&Construction Applicability
40 40 40 40 42 42 43 44 45 46 46 46 46 46 48 48 48 49 50 50 50 51 52 52 52 52 54 54 55 55 55 55 56 57 57 57 57 58 59
AppendixA: AppendixB:
A4Figures SiteInvestigationLogs
Executivesummary
ThisgeotechnicalassessmentsupportsMightyRiverPowerLtdsproposedPuketoi windfarm.Theobjectivesofthegeotechnicalassessmentaretoprovidegeotechnicaldata anddesigntosupportthecivildesignandtheassessmentofenvironmentaleffects. Theproposedwindfarmextendsalonga22kmsectionofthePuketoiRange.Theproject consistsof53windturbineslocatedonthewesternslopes,closetothecrestoftherange. Thewindturbinesareconnectedwithaspineroad.Therearefourproposedaccessroads fromtheMakuriValleyflooruptothespineroads. SiteGeology ThegeologyofthesiteconsistsofOnokegroupdeposits.Thesedepositsaresubdivided intoanumberofgeologicalformations,theseare(oldesttoyoungest): Rongomailimestone; Raukawamudstone; TeOnepulimestone; KumeroaFormation(sandsandsilts); Totaranuilimestone.
ThemajorityoftheprojectislocatedovertheTeOnepuandRongomailimestonelayers, whichtypicallyformthesurfaceofthehigherslopesontherange. KarstFeatures Limestoneonthesiteissubjecttoslowdissolution.DissolutionisaprocesswhereCO2 enrichedwaterpercolatingthroughthesurfacesoilsformaweakcarbonicacid(H2CO3)that slowlydissolvestherock. Thedissolutionoftherockoftenoccursalongbeddingplanesandfractures,creatingKarstic features.Thesefeaturesincludesinkholes,cavities,conduitsandtunnels.Therateof dissolutionisveryslow.Thereisunlikelytobeanysignificantenlargementordevelopment ofKarstfeaturesoverthedesignlifeoftheproject.Sinkholesarecommonovertheground surfaceabovelimestonelayers.Thesefeaturestypicallyoccurwhereasurfacemantleof sandorsiltsoilswashintotheunderlyinglimestonedrainagenetwork(conduitsandjoints). Groundwater&Sediment Thedevelopmentofsinkholesandassociatedsedimenttransportisanongoingnatural process.Sedimententrainedingroundwaterisobservedtodischargefromlowlevel limestoneoutcrops(springs).Thesespringsoftenincludeadownstreamfanofsediment thathassettledoutofthewaterflow. Aswellasnaturalsedimentanderosionprocesses,sedimentiscurrentlygeneratedonthe projectsite,throughfarmingandquarryingactivities. Theproposedearthworkswillbeundertakeninaccordancewithaconstructionand environmentalmanagementplan(CEMP).Thesemethodswillminimisethegenerationand dischargeofsedimentfromtheworks.Typicallythesoilsarecoarseandwillrespondwell tobestpracticeerosionandsedimentmanagementtechniques. Thegeologicallayeringofthesitedipsat10to20tothewest.Eachofthelimestone layersisconstrainedaboveandbelowbyfinegrainedlayers.Theselowpermeabilitylayers
formaquitardsorlayersthatrestrictwaterflow.Thereisnodirectconnectionbetweenthe separatelimestonelayers.Entrainedsedimentwithinthelimestonedrainagenetworkwill notflowthroughtheaquitards. Entrainedsedimentisthereforelikelytodischargefromspringsatthelowestpartswithin eachofthelimestonelayers.Thelowpointsofthelimestoneoutcrop(i.e.thelocationsof largersprings)havebeenidentified.Aselectionoftheseshouldbeincludedinthe proposedconstructioneffectsmonitoringregime. Thereisnodirectgroundwaterconnection(throughwhichsedimentcantravel)between thewesternslopeoftherange(theprojectarea)andthewatercoursesorgroundwater springsontheeasternsideoftherange. TheproposedprojectalignmentshouldavoidasmanyKarstfeaturesaspossible.Effectson remainingKarstfeaturescanbeminimisedthroughthedesignandconstructionphasesof theproject.Protocolsforavoidance,remedyormitigationarediscussedinthisreport. SlopeStability Thelandsliderisktotheprojectislow.Localised(smallscale)landinstabilitycanbeavoided ormanagedwithintheearthworksdesign. Theproposedearthworks,includingfilldisposalareasandfoundationsareunlikelytohave anyadverseeffectonslopestability. Seismic Seismichazardislikelytopresentalowrisktotheprojectandcanbemanagedthrough earthworksandfoundationdesign.Potentialliquefiablesoilsarelikelytobepresentat sometransmissiontowersitesonalluvialterraces.Foundationsintheseareasshouldbe piledanddesignedtoaccommodatepotentialliquefactionandlateralspreading. Foundations Thefoundationdesignforthewindturbineswillincludereinforcedconcretepads.Some foundationpilesmayberequiredwherecavitiesareidentifiedinthelimestoneunderthe turbinesite. Standardshallowfoundationsarelikelytobesuitableforsubstationsitesandancillary structures. Thetransmissiontowersarelikelytobefoundedonpiles(orpilegroups)wheredrillingrig accessisavailable.Whereaccessisrestrictedtohelicopteraccess,thetransmission foundationsarelikelytobeshallowconcretepadswithgroundanchors. Conclusions Subjecttoappropriatecivildesign,theproposedprojectisfeasibleforthegeotechnical conditionsthatarelikelytobeencounteredonthesite.Theprojectcivildesignshouldbe developedinaccordancewiththegeotechnicalrecommendationsofthisreport.The projectisunlikelytohaveanadverseeffectonslopestabilityorgroundwatersystemson thesite.TheeffectsonKarstfeatureswillbeminimisedasdetailedinthisreport. Additionalgeotechnicalinvestigationswillberequiredduringdetaileddesignand construction.Acharteredprofessional(Geotechnical)shouldremaininvolvedthroughout thedetaileddesignandconstructionoftheproject.
1
1.1
General
Introduction
Thisreportpresentstheresultsofaninvestigationandassessmentofthegeologicaland geotechnicalconditionsforMightyRiverPowerLtds(MRP)proposedwindfarmprojectalongthe PuketoiRange,eastofPahiatua.Theproposedwindfarmdevelopmentincludes53turbinesanda transmissionlinefromthewindfarmtoapointterminatingontheeasternslopesoftheTararua RangesjustnorthofMakomako. ThisassessmenthasbeencarriedoutbyTonkin&TaylorLtd(T&T)attherequestofMRPto providegeotechnicaldatatosupportthecivildesigndevelopmentandassessmentof environmentaleffects.Insummary,thisreportpresents: SiteInvestigationssummary; Interpretedgeologicalandhydrogeologicalconditionsacrossthesite; Designconsiderationsandgeotechnicalconstraintsacrossthesite; Windturbinefoundationandroadpavementrecommendations; Geotechnicalconditionsandfoundationrequirementsforsupportinginfrastructure; Quarryandaggregatesuitabilityassessment.
1.2
RelationshipofEngineeringandConstruction ManagementReports
GeotechnicalInvestigationandDesign Report
Engineering/StructuralGeology Karsttopographyandgeohydrology Geotechnicalconditions Slopestability&Seismicconsiderations Geotechnicalproperties Earthworksdevelopmentprincipals TurbineFoundationdesign Aggregateresourcesandroadpavement solutions
TransmissionLineCivil& GeotechnicalReport
Geologicalconditionsandgeotechnical constraints TowerFoundationSolutions Roadingandearthworksrequirements foraccessroutes Civilworksconstructionmethodology
CivilDesignReport
Descriptionofproposeddevelopment Roadandearthworksdesign Constructionmethodology Waterdemand/Supply Contractorsamenities/laydownareas Concretebatching Bridge/streamcrossing Turbinelaydownareas
DraftConstructionandEnvironmentalManagementPlan(CEMP)
TheDraftCEMPsetsouttheconstructionandmanagementobjectivesfortheconstructionand commissioningoftheproposedwindfarm&transmissionline.Thiswillremainadraftdocument untiltheconditionsofconsentarefinalisedandintegratedintothisdocument.Management procedures(describedbythisdocument)toavoid,remedyormitigateeffectsmayinclude: Hoursofworks Earthworksmanagement ErosionandsedimentControl Revegetation andStabilisation Dustcontrol Visualmitigation Culverts&fords andothers
SupplementaryEnvironmentalManagementPlans (SEMPs)
SEMPsarelocationoractivityspecificandwillbeprepared withtherelevantcontractortoachievetheobjectivesoutlined intheCEMP. NinepotentialSEMPsareproposedforthis project.SEMPswillinclude: Actionstominimiseextentandeffectsofearthworks Identificationofsiteswithspecialecologicaland archaeologicalvaluesandmeasurestoavoidorminimise impactsonthesevalues Workprogramme Scheduleandplanofspecificsedimentcontrolmeasures Revegetationschedule Monitoringschedule
Figure1:RelationshipofEngineeringandConstructionManagementReports
2
2.1
SiteDescription
SiteDescription
Cuesta
Dipslope
Photograph1:ViewlookingsouthalongPuketoiRangeshowingthewestfacingdipslope
Thegentleslopeistypicallyunderlainwithamoreerosionresistantrocklayer.AtPuketoithe gentlewesternslopesaresubparalleltothelayeringoftheunderlyingrockstrata.Thisslopeis referredtoasadipslope. Thesiteextendsalongtheescarpmentforapproximately22kmandistypicallybetween0.5km and3.5kmwidefromnorthtosouthrespectively.Landuseispredominantlypastoralfor agriculturalfarmingofsheepandcattle. Thesouthernsectionofthesiteisseparatedfromthecentralandnorthernsectionsbyanincised valleyandtheadjacentPahiatuaPongaroaRoadcutting. Agenerallayoutplanshowingpublicroads,windfarmroads,turbinesandotherstructuresis shownonDrawingMRPPKT3301.
ScopeofInvestigations
3.1
DeskTopReview
Lee,J.M.;Begg,J.G.(compilers)2002:GeologyoftheWairarapaarea.Instituteof Geological&NuclearSciences1:250000geologicalmap11.1sheet+66p.LowerHutt, NewZealand.InstituteofGeologicalandNuclearScienceLimited; contourdata; aerialphotographs; publisheddatafromtheNZGeopreservationInventory; Publishedgeotechnicalandgeologicalassessmentreportsandinvestigationdatafromthe neighbouringproposedwindfarmatWaitahora,namely; o BECACarterHollings&FernerLtd(Beca),2010,WaitahoraWindFarm GeotechnicalFactualReportVolume1 o BECACarterHollings&FernerLtd(Beca),2010,WaitahoraWindFarmGeology andHydrogeologicalAssessment o BECACarterHollings&FernerLtd(Beca),2010,WaitahoraWindFarm GeotechnicalAssessment KarstGeomorphologyofthePuketoiRange,NorthernWairarapa,NewZealandMSc thesis,SLHalliday,1987(MasseyUniversity,PalmerstonNorth); PublishedpapersonKarstgroundconditions,namelyWaltham,A.C.,andFookes,P.G., 2003:EngineeringClassificationinKarstgroundConditions.QuarterlyJournalof EngineeringGeologyandHydrogeology.36:101118;
Adesktopcomponentoftheinvestigationincludedreviewofthefollowinginformation:
3.2
GeologicalMapping
Reconnaissanceandgeologicalmappinghasbeencompletedacrossthesiteinnumerousvisits betweenApril2010andMay2011.Thesitevisitshaveprogressivelybuiltupourknowledgeand understandingofthesiteconditions.Thisapproachhasallowedthecivildesigntodevelop concurrentlywiththegeotechnicalassessment.Thegeotechnicalassessmentandinvestigations havethenbecomemorefocusedastheturbinesites,roadingandinfrastructurehavebeen refined. AninitialsitevisitwasmadebyseniorTonkin&TaylorLtdGeotechnicalEngineersand EngineeringGeologistsinApril2010withdetailedgeologicalmappingundertakeninMarch2011. Thesitevisitsincluded: Mappingofoutcropsandlandforms; Identificationandlocationofgeotechnicalhazardsandconstraints; Observationandmeasurementofexistingcutandnaturalslopeangles,fillsand assessmentoftheirstability; Locationanddescriptionofsinkholefeaturesandotherkarsticlandforms.
3.3
SubsurfaceInvestigations
3.3.1
Drilling
3.3.2
TestPits
3.4
QuarryAggregateAssessment
4
4.1
EngineeringGeology
GeologicalSetting
TheWairarapacoastalregionwhichincludesPuketoiisdescribedbyLee&Begg(2002)asbeing situatedonthemarginofanactivetectonicsystem.Here,thePacificPlateisbeingsubducted beneaththeAustralianPlatesome65to125kmeastoftheWairarapacoast.TheWairarapa regionhasbeenshapedbythetectonicforcesexertedatthisintraplatemargin,andby fluctuationsinsealevelinthegeologicalpast. AccordingtoLee&Beggtheprocessofsubductionhasresultedinazoneofaccretionand compressionwithintheWairaraparegion.MaterialscrapedfromthedescendingPacificPlatehas accretedaswedgesofsedimentalignedparalleltotheplatemargin(northeasttosouthwest).The compressionalregimehascausedthismaterialtoundergoconsiderabledeformation.Foldingand faultsystemshavedevelopedlargeanticline(upwarped)rangesandsynclinebasins (downwarped).Duringthelast24millionyears,avarietyofshallowmarinesediments (limestones)anddeepermarinesediments(siltstones/mudstones)havebeendepositedover theseranges,accumulatingthicklyinthebasins(Kempetal.1988).Thesealternatingmaterials reflectthefluctuationsofsealeveloverthisperiod.
4.2
PublishedSiteGeology
ThegeologyofthePuketoiRangeisdescribedintheInstituteofGeologicalandNuclearSciences (IGNS)reportontheGeologyoftheWairarapaArea1.Thisincludesthe1:250,000geologicalmap 11Wairarapa. TheregionalscalegeologicalmappreparedbyLeeandBegg(2002)showsthegeologyofthe PuketoiRangetocomprisePlioceneage(5.3millionto1.8millionyearsold),OnokeGroupmarine deposits.Thesearebluegreymudstoneswithalternatingsandstones,limestonesandrhyolitic tephra.Theyaredescribedasaccumulatinginintertidal,shallowseaandshelfenvironments(the sandstone/limestone),tooutershelf,seafloor,deeperbasinconditions(themudstone),with volcaniceruptiondeposits(therhyolitictephra). TheOnokeGroupdepositsaresubdividedintoanumberofgeologicalformationsfromoldestto youngest.Theseincludethefollowingformationswithinthewindfarmsite: RongomaiLimestone; RaukawaMudstone; TeOnepuLimestone; KumeroaFormation; TotaranuiLimestone.
coquinalimestone)withmudstonesthenunderlyingtheRongomailimestone.TheRongomai limestoneisshownonthegeologicalmapexposedinthePahiatuatoPongaroaRoadcutting towardsthesouthwesternendofthesite. AbovetheTeOnepulimestonearebedsofsiltstones,mudstonesandsandstones,knownasthe KumeroaFormation.Abovethisisanotherbedoflimestone(TotaranuiLimestone).Accordingto LeeandBegg(2002)theTotaranuilimestoneisnotrecordedtooutcropwithinthesitearea. Halliday(1987)showsasmallareaofoutcropatthebottomofthesiteneartheCoonoorRoad/ TowaiRoadjunction. Geologicalstructureatthesite(eastofCoonoorRoad)showsTeOnopulimestonebedsdipping between7and18NW.ImmediatelywestofCoonoorRoadthelimestonebedsareshown dippingtotheeastonthewestlimbofthePorisynclineasaresultofdragmovementonthe activeMakuriWaewaepafault(discussedinSection4.5.3).Thefaultisshowndippingsteeply westwithreversemovementbringingmucholderMesozoicagedinduratedsedimentsincontact withtheyoungerOnokeGroupsediments. Beddingacrosstherangedipssteeperatthecrest,andshallowstowardsthebaseoftherange towardsCoonoorRoad,creatingacurveddipslope.
Site
Figure2:RegionalGeologicalSectionincludingthePuketoiRangelookingnorth(fromLeeandBegg2002)
4.3
GeomorphologyandGeology
8 Thesequenceistiltedbetween10and20tothenorthwestforminglongwestfacingdipslopes. Incontrasttheeastfacingslopescrosscutsteeplythroughbedding(Photograph2).
Photograph2:Viewlookingsouthatthesteepeastfacingescarpmentslopes.
4.4
4.4.1
ObservedSiteGeology
GeologicalSequence
Figure3:ComparisonofschematicstratigraphiccolumnsofthePuketoiRange
Theobservedgeologyacrossthewindfarmsiteisdescribedfromoldesttoyoungestbelow.
WindfarmSite
Figure4:SchematiceastwestcrosssectionofWindfarmsitegeology
10 4.4.1.1 OnokeGroupUndifferentiatedSandstones,SiltstonesandMudstones
Photograph3:Viewlookingsoutheastatmudstone/siltstoneterrain
4.4.1.2
LowerLimestone(Rongomai/Awapapa)
A4050mthicklimestoneunitisexposedattheeasternendofthePahiatuaPongaroaRoad cuttingoverlyingtheundifferentiatedOnokeGroupsediments.Thislimestoneconsistsof interbeddedcoarsegrainedshellbeds(grainstone),calcareoussandbedsandalsowellcemented coquinashellbeds.Thelimestonebedsrangeinstrengthfromextremelyweaktomoderately strongwherethebedsarecemented. Theuppersurfaceofthelimestoneformsaprominentdipslopewheretheoverlyingsandstone hasbeenremovedbyerosion.Thissurfacecanbetracedtonorthandsouthawayfromthe PahiatuaPongaroaRoad.Erosionhasproducedakarsticsurfaceonthelimestoneinplaces. Lee&Begg(2002)haveidentifiedthislimestoneunitastheRongomaiLimestonewhereasthe earlierworkofHalliday(1987)nameditasAwapapalimestone.WehaveadoptedtheLee&Begg identification.
11
Photograph4:Viewlookingnortheastattheescarpmentslopes.ViewedfromsouthofPahiatua PongaroaRoad.
4.4.1.3
Sandstone(Raukawa(Mudstone)Formation)
Photograph5:SandstonebedbetweenlimestonesnearthetopofMC40Road
4.4.1.4
MiddleLimestone(TeOnepu)
Thismiddlelimestoneunitformsthemajorpartofthedipslopesonthewesternflankofthe PuketoiRange.Thelimestonegenerallycompriseslightyellowgrey,veryweaktomoderately
Photograph6:TeOnepulimestoneexposureinPongaroaroadcut.
Photograph7:TeOnepuLimestoneoutcropstothewestofWT12/WT13.
13
4.4.1.5
UndifferentiatedSiltstonesandMudstones(KumeroaFormation)
TotaranuiLimestone
KumeroaFormation
Photograph8:TotaranuilimestoneoverlyingKumeroaFormationviewedfromCoonoorRoad
Photograph9:TypicalexposureofTotaranuilimestoneboulders.
14 4.4.1.7 SurfaceSoils(Loess,ColluviumandRemnantSand)
Exposuresandtestpitsindicatethelimestonedipslopesarecommonlymantledwithasilt,sandy siltandsiltysandsoils.Thesedepositsareacombinationofloessialandcolluvialorigin,butalso includeremnantsoftheoverlyingsandstonebeds. TheRongomaidipslopesaretypicallymantledwithathinveneerofcolluvium(slopewashorsoil creep)deposits.Thesedepositsareshallow(typicallylessthan2m)andrepresentremobilised remnantsanddeposits. Thesandandsiltsoilsareoverlainbytopsoiloftypically0.1mto0.4mdepth.Thesoilprofile typicallyextendstoanaveragedepthof2.0m.Howeverthedepthofsurfacesoilsvarieslocally duetokarsticweathering(Section5).Thisischaracterisedbythepinnaclesofrockshownin Photograph10.
Limestone
Photograph10:Typicalkarsticweathering
4.4.1.8
Alluvium
15
4.5
StructuralGeology
Beddipdirection Lineation
Sandstone
RongomaiLimestone
Photograph11:SandstonebedbetweenlimestonesneartopofMC40Road.NoteNWSEtrending lineationonRongomaidipslope.
4.5.1
RegionalSeismicity
16
4.5.2
MajorFaults
4.5.3
ActiveFaults
Thereisnoevidenceofactivefaultswithintheprojectsite,however,thereareanumberofactive faultscloseby.ThenearestknownactivefaultistheMakuriWaewaepaFaultapproximately2km tothewestofthesite.ThisfaultisanorthernextensionoftheWairarapaFaultandislocated immediatelywestofCoonoorRoadtothewestoftheprojectarea.TheWairarapaFaulthasa rupturereoccurrenceintervalofnearly2000yearsandiscapableofproducinganearthquakeof magnitudeof8.08.3(Mw).LeeandBegg(2002)andIGNS`sActiveFaultDatabasedonotprovide singleeventdisplacementsfortheMakuriWaewaepaFault,althoughitsreoccurrenceintervalis estimatedtobebetween2000and3500years. TheactiveSaundersRoadFaultliesapproximately510kmfromtheeasternsideofthesite.This faulthasarupturereoccurrenceintervalof3500yearsandisthoughttobecapableofproducing anearthquakeofmagnitudeof6.97.4(Mw).TheSaundersRoadFaultisestimatedtohavelast rupturedlessthan100yearsago(BeggandLee2002). Theeffectswithinthesiteofstrongearthquakeshakingasaresultoflocalfaultrupturecould includeslopeinstabilityofsteepslopesandliquefactionofalluvialsedimentsontheMakuririver terracesandlocaliseddepositsinthebaseofsomegullies.SlopestabilityisdescribedinSection6, andliquefactioninSection7.3.
4.6
NZGeoPreservationSocietySites
TheJointEarthScienceSocietiesWorkingGroupontheNewZealandGeopreservationInventory publishedareportin1996titledInventoryandMapsofImportantGeologicalSitesand LandformsintheManawatuandWellingtonRegions.Nogeologicalsitesofsignificanceare includedwithinthesiteareainthisreport.Thenearestsitesarecavestothenorthandwestof CoonoorandTowaiRoads. Furthertothe1996publication,ThePuketoiRangehasrecentlybeenaddedtothe GeopreservationInventory.IthasbeengivenaC3classification.C3meansthatthelandform, whenconsideredfromageologicalperspective,isregionallysignificant,butonewhichisnot expectedtobedamagedbyhumans.TherangeisdescribedinthepublicationasbeingOneof thebestexamplesofacuestalandformintheNorthIsland.Dipslopeswithdryvalleysareclearly visiblefromlocationsasdistantastheTararuaandRuahineRanges. NumerouscuestasexistacrosstheHawkesBayRegion,includingthewellknownTeMataPeakto thesoutheastofHavelockNorth.Cuestasarecommonthroughthisregion,trendingNEtoSW, duetotheregionaltectonicsthathascausedtiltingtothesedimentarysequenceandthe presenceofstrongerbeds(likelimestone)thatformmoreresistantcapstothehills. Theproposedearthworksarerelativelysurficalincomparisontothesizeofthegeological landform.Theproposedroadshavebeenlocatedtominimisetheeffectsondryvalleysandother limestonekarstfeaturesasdetailedinSection5.
17
Sinkholes,KarstandGeohydrology
Karstisacomprehensivetermappliedtolimestoneareasthatpossesatopographypeculiarto anddependentuponundergroundsolutionandthediversionofsurfacewaterstounderground routes(ThornburyW.,D.1954:PrinciplesofGeomorphologypublishedbyJohnWiley&Sons). ThornburynotedthatfourconditionscontributetothemaximumdevelopmentofKarst: 1. Limestonemustbepresentnearoratthegroundsurface. 2. Thelimestoneshouldbedense,highlyjointedandpreferablythinbeddedotherwisekarst featuresareonlyweaklydeveloped. 3. Groundwatermustbeabletodescendthroughthelimestone,carryoutitssolutional work,andemergeintosurfacestreams. 4. Theregionshouldhaveatleastamoderateamountofrainfall. ThedevelopmentofKarstonlyoccursonthissitewheretheaboveconditionsoccur.Thekarst featuresaremoreprevalentintheTotaranuilimestoneformationasthisismoredensethanthe TeOnepuandRongomailimestones. Karstfeaturesarecreatedbydissolutionoftherockoftenalongbeddingplanesandfractures. CO2enrichedwaterpercolatingthroughthesurfacesoilsformaweakcarbonicacid(H2CO3)that slowlydissolvestherock.Wherethewaterfollowsbeddingplanesorfracturesthedrainage pathwayswidenovertime.Thecavities,tunnelsorconduitscausedbythedissolutionofthe limestonearecollectivelyreferredtoasdolinefeatures. Halliday(1987)estimatesthatthesolutionerosionrateofalimestonebasinwithinthePuketoi Rangeisintheorderof58.2m3/km2/yr.Thereisverylittleriskthatdissolutioncavitieswillgrow significantlywithinthedesignlifeoftheproject.Thenaturalenlargementofthesefeatures thereforepresentsnorisktotheproposeddevelopment. Thepotentialforadverseeffectstothesekarsticfeaturesfromthedevelopmentarelimitedto: Increasingtheloadontheroofofexistinglimestonecavitiestounacceptablelevels, promotingcollapseofthecavityroof; Temporaryincreaseinsedimentrunofffromearthworkedareasenteringthesubsurface drainagenetworkinthelimestone; Damagetosurfacekarstfeaturesbyearthworks.
5.1
KarstLandforms&Features
ThelocationswhereKarstandsinkhole/dolinefeaturestypicallyoccuronthePuketoiRangeare shownonDrawingMRPPKTF5inAppendixA.
5.1.1
LargeCaves,ConduitsandCavities
Caves,conduitsandcavitiesarecausedbydissolutionofthelimestonerockbywatertracking alongbeddingplanesandfractures/joints.Largecavesandcavitiesarerareonthissite,
AllofthesenotablecavesarelocatedwithintheTotaranuilimestonebeds. TheTotaranuiistheyoungestofthelimestoneformationsinthisareaandthehighestinthe geologicalsequence.TheproposedwindfarmworkswillnotencounteroraffecttheTotaranui limestone.Allproposedroads,earthworksandprojectinfrastructurearelocatedonthematerials lowerinthegeologicalsequence.ThelimestoneswhichunderlietheprojectworksaretheTe OnepuandRongomailimestones.Theselimestoneshavefewerkarsticfeaturesthanthe Totaranuilimestone.CavesandcavitiesdoexistintheRongomaiandTeOnepulimestones,but theyarerareandofsignificantlylesserscalethanthoseobservedintheTotaranuilimestone. SeveralmodestsizecavesandconduitshavebeenobservedontheprojectsiteintheTeOnepu Limestone.Thelargestconduitobservedisapproximately700mmwide.Theselargerconduitsare typicallylocatedinthefloorofgulliesordrainagecoursesonthemidtolowerslopesoftherange wheretherearepermanentorsemipermanentstreamflows. SignificantcavesandconduitsarerareintheLimestoneontheupperslopesoftherange.The onlyconduitidentifiedclosetotheridgeandclosetotheproposedearthworksareais approximately100mwestofWT9.Thisconduitisapproximately500mmwideattheentrance, locatedatS40.26,609m,E176.07,719m.Thissmallconduitmaypossiblyextendunderthe proposedaccessroadwestoftheconduitentrance.Providedtheroadisconstructedonsuitable filloverthisarea,itpresentsminimalrisktotheconduit. Generallytheriskoflargecavesandcavitiesaffectingtheproposeddevelopmentislow.There aretwoareasofrelativelyhigherrisk(basedontopography&geologicalconditions).Theseareas willrequireahigherlevelofinvestigationduringdetaileddesignandconstruction.Theseare locatedat: MC30betweenchainages7300mand7850m; MCB0betweenchainages400mand700m.
5.1.2
SmallConduitsandFissures
5.1.3
Sinkholes
19
Figure6:Sinkholetypes(TakenfromWalthamA.C.andFookesP.G.2003)
Photograph12:Flowofwaterandsiltintoconduitwithinlimestone
20
Silt
Photograph13:TypicalexampleofsiltswashingintounderlyingconduitnearbottomofMC30Road
Photograph14:Largesuffosion/dropoutsinkholeinKumeroaFormation
21
Sinkholes
Photograph15:SuffosionsinkholesinRaukawasandbedoverRongomailimestoneonrangecrest
Sinkholesobservedonthesiteareofvariablediameteranddepth.Withintheprojectareathey arepredominantlylessthan8mwideand5mdeep.Thesinkholesaretypically(butnot exclusively)locatedclosetothefloorofvalleyswheresurfaceorsubsurfacewaterflowsarelikely tobeconcentrated.Occasionalsinkholesupto2030mindiameterwererecorded.Thelarger sinkholesarelocatedwithintheKumeroaformation(erodingintotheunderlyingTeOnepu limestone).Theprojectroadsorinfrastructurelocatedclosetolargesinkholes(typicallywithin Kumeroaformation)arelimitedto: MC30betweenchainages7300mand7850m; MCB0betweenchainages400mand700m; MCA0Betweenchainages900mand1200m; MC20Betweenchainages100mand600m.
22
Photograph16:LargesuffosionsinkholeonlowerslopesinKumeroaFormation
5.1.4
SwallowHoles
Figure7:LimestoneFeatures(TakenfromFarlexonlineEncyclopaedia)
FigureMRPPKTF8inAppendixAshowsaschematicofhowstreamsinkswithinstreambeds relatetothegeologicalsequencingobservedatthissite.
23
Photograph17:Streamsinkintoalluvium
5.1.5
KarrenSurface
Photograph18:Examplekarstsurfaceonlimestoneexposure
Karrensurfacesarecommononexposededgesofthelimestonebedsthroughoutthesite.
24
Photograph19:Preferentialweatheringalongjointsinlimestone(Totaranuilimestone)
5.1.6
DryValleys
Photograph20:DryvalleynearcrestofescarpmentnearWT31
25
MuchofthedipslopeofthePuketoiRangeisincisedwithdryvalleys.Theoccurrenceofthesedry valleysistheresultof: Highpermeabilitysurficialsandlayerswherethesurfacewaterrapidlyinfiltratesbelow ground(seePhotograph20);or Inlimestonewheresurfacewaterdrainstothegroundwaternetworkviastreamsinks, openjointsorconduits. ThedryvalleysaremoreextensivewithintheRaukawaandKumeroaformationswherethey thinlyoverlythelimestonebedsbelow(i.e.thedepthisshallowtorelativelyfreedraining limestonebelow).Themainspineroadhasbeenpositionedclosetothetopofthe escarpmenttoavoidasmanyofthedryvalleysaspractical.
Photograph21:Dryvalleynearcrest,becomingmoreincisedwithdistancefromthecrest
5.2
KarstPotentialEffectsandMitigation
Thewindfarmdesign(inparticulartheassociatedearthworksdesign)shouldbedevelopedto minimisetheeffectsonthesekarstfeatureswheretheycannotbeavoided.Withappropriate
5.2.1
5.2.1.1
OverviewofKarstRelatedDesignandConstructionManagement Philosophy
PreliminaryGeotechnicalDesign
Thegeotechnicalassessmentanddesigndevelopedtodateincludes: Identifybygeologicalmappingthelimestoneformationsandtheirdistributionoverthe site; Understandthetypeandmechanismsofkarstrelatedfeaturesassociatedwitheach limestoneformationandoverlyingsoils; Collaborationbetweenexpertstoidentifyapreferredroutethatavoidsorminimisesthe effectsofearthworksonkarstfeaturesandotherconstraints; Locationofcavityandsinkholefeatures(withsurfaceexpression)withintheinfluenceof theproposedearthworksandfoundations; Collaborationbetweenexpertstorelocateandamendthedesigntoavoidspecific featureswherepossible. DesignDetailing
5.2.1.2
27
Table51KarstFeaturesPotentialEffectsandProposedMitigation KarstIssue
Sediment Mitigation
PotentialAdverseEffect
Sedimentladenrunoffenteringkarstdrainagenetwork
ProposedMitigation
SedimentanderosioncontrolinaccordancewiththeCEMPandSEMP.Themainobjectivesofthisplanare: Minimisesedimentgenerationbyminimisingexposureofsoils Minimisethetimesoilsareexposedbystagingtheearthworks Minimisecatchmentarea Implementsedimenttreatmentmeasuressuchassedimentpits,decantpondsetc. Collectandtreatsedimentladenrunoffbeforeitcanenterthesubsurfacedrainagenetworksuntreated.
InaccordancewiththeprinciplesoutlinedinTable5.1,wherepossibletheproposedearthworkswillbelocatedto avoidsinkholesandtheunderlyingkarsticfeatures(withinthelimestone).Inthoseareaswhereearthworksare locatedoversinkholestheplacedsoilswillbeseparatedfromtheunderlyingkarstfeature(conduitorfissure)by filterfabric.Filterfabricwillbeeffectiveinpreventingsoilsmigratingintotheunderlyingcavityorconduit.In instanceswheretheunderlyingfeatureiswideorcannotbepracticallysubexcavateddowntothelimestone surface,geogridwillbeusedunderthefilltoprovidetensilecapacity(strength)totheundersideofthefill.Thiswill allowthefilltospanoveridentifiedorpotentialvoids.DetailsforthesetreatmentsareshownonDrawingsMRP PKT3207to3708. Topreventsurfacewaterenteringthesefeaturesuntreated.Thefollowingtechniqueswillbeimplemented: Forconduitsorvoidsexposedwithinthewatertabledrains,thetopofthevoidwillbesubexcavated(as perDrawingMRPPKT3208)filterfabricplacedoverthevoidandthesurfacebackfilledwithconcreteto min300mmdepth.Theconcretewillpreventlargequantitiesofwaterenteringthelimestonedrainage network.Thefilterfabricwillpreventconcreteenteringtheunderlyingcavity. Forconduitsandvoidsnotexposedtoconcentratedsurfaceflowtheareawillbesubexcavatedandfilter fabricplacedandbackfilledwithcompactedgranularlimestone.Voidsexposedincutslopeswillgenerally beleftuntreatedasthesewilldraintowardstheexcavation.
28
excavationthereispotentialforsmallvolumesof sedimenttobeworkedintoajointorconduit. sedimentwillbelimestonederivedsowillbegraveltosandsizelimestone.Thefollowingtechniqueswillbeusedto minimisethesedimententeringthelimestonedrainagenetworkviaopenjointsandconduits: Stopexcavationwhenrainfallcausessurfacerunoffontheworkingareas. Stripamajorityofthetopsoilandloessialmantleawayfromthelimestonebeforeexcavatingintothe underlyinglimestone. Forlargelimestoneexcavations,excavatetofulldepthinonepass(ratherthanloweringinmultiple passes)toavoidcontinuallyworkingdebrisoveranopenjoint. Whenaconduitjointorvoidisobserved,excavatematerialawayfromthefeatureratherthanpushingor draggingmaterialoverit. Assoonasexcavationistogradeundercutthetopofthefeature,placefilterfabricandbackfillwith compactedlimestonerefertoDrawingMRPPKT3208.
Therisksofencounteringlargecavitieswithintheprojectworksareconsideredlowassuchfeaturesarerarewithin theTeOnepuorRongomailimestones. Thefollowinghasbeenimplementedtominimisetherisk: Sinkholestypicallyaligndowntheslope,beingmostcommonindryvalleys.Associatedunderlyingcaves andconduitswillbelargerwheretherearesemipermanentstreamflows.Theproposedworkshavebeen positionedtoavoidasmuchaspracticalareasoflargesinkholes,dryvalleysandstreambedswherethere areactivestreamsinks. Geologicalmappinghasidentifiedareasofhigherriskbasedongeological,geohydrologicaland topographicalconditions.Inareaswhereproposedroads,earthworksfoundationsorotherinfrastructure arewithin(astheycannotpracticallyavoid)highriskareas,detailed.Geotechnicalinvestigationswillbe completed.
29
watertopasswithoutsignificantdisruption Openjointsandfissures Openjointsandfissuresexposedonthebaseoftheformationwillbeundercutandlinedwithfilterfabric.In instanceswhereloadisrequiredtobecarriedoverthefeature,geogridandbackfillingwithlimestonegravelwillbe includedasshownonDrawingMRPPKT3207. AsdiscussedinSection9,windturbinefoundationsaresitedonridgesandspurswheretheriskofsignificant sinkholefeaturesislower.Wehavealsoselectedlocationsonsitethatareclearofsignificantsinkholes. Asthesoilsoverlyingthelimestonewillbestrippedundertheproposedfoundationtheriskofsuffosionordropout sinkholedevelopmentwillberemoved. Therewillremainariskofsubsurfacecavitieswithinthelimestone.Generallyconduitsorcavitiesupto1min diameterareunlikelytohaveaneffectthefoundationperformance.Largercavitiesmayhaveanadverseeffectif theyareclosetofoundationlevel.Itisrecommendedthatduringdetaileddesignorconstruction,ground investigations(e.g.airtrackpatterndrilling)arecompletedtoconfirmthesubsurfaceconditions. Techniquessuchasgroundpenetratingradararesuitedtothistaskonceaflatplatformhasbeenexcavated. Intheeventthatalargecavityisfound(thatmayadverselyaffectfoundationperformance)apilecanbeextended throughthevoidtotransferfoundationloadstounderlyingcompetentground.Thepileswillbecasedtoensurethe integrityofthepilesandpreventconcretedispersingintothecavity. Itislikelythatadditionalinvestigationssuchasboreholeswillbeundertakeninconjunctionwith(orinsteadof) geophysicalinvestigations. Accelerate sinkhole developmentby pondingwater Increasedwaterseepagefromdecantpondsmaycause accelerationofsoilerosionintounderlyinglimestone drainagenetwork. Manyoftheproposeddecantpondswillbelocatedwithinlimestoneterrain.Thesewillbemanagedasdiscussedin Section5.2. Decantpondlocationswillbelocatedwherepossibletominimisepotentialtoacceleratesinkholedevelopment.Any openjointsor,conduitsthatareobservedduringconstructionorfillingwillbetreatedbyliningwithfilterfabricand asoilorgeosyntheticliner. Somedecantpondswillbelocatedinareasofhigherpotentialrisk.Areasofhighriskarelikelytoincludesiteswhere thereisashallowdepthofnoncohesivesandysoilsoverlimestone,therearealsolikelytobeexistingsinkholeand karstfeaturesinthevicinity.Sitesthatarelikelytobeatriskwill(dependingonthesituation): Beconstructedwithfilterfabricliningplaceddirectlyoverthelimestonesurface.Thefilterfabricwill preventsedimentdirectlyenteringthelimestone. Thepondwillbelinedwithalowpermeabilitysoilorplasticmembrane.Thisliningwillminimisewater
Voidsunderproposedturbinefoundations
30
travellingintothefoundationsoils. Allpondswillbeobservedduringfilling.Ifwaterlossorformationofsinkholesisobservedthepondwillbe dewateredandmitigationmeasures,asabove,willbeimplemented. Adiffusedischargewillbeusedfromthedecantpondsinhigherriskareastopreventconcentrateddischargeof waterontotheerodiblesoils.Overflowspillwaydischargeswillgenerallybedirectlytooverlandflowpathswhere normalstormflowswouldbeconcentratednaturally. CaveEntrances Lossordisruptiontorecreationalorscientificcavers AsdiscussedinSection5.1.1,thenotedcavesinthisareaarelocatedwithintheTotaranuilimestone.Totaranui limestoneisnotaffectedbytheproposeddevelopment. Ifcaveentrancesareencounteredtheywillbeavoided.
31
5.2.1.4 GeophysicalInvestigations Furthergeotechnicalinvestigationsshouldbeundertakenthroughdetaileddesignand constructionphases. Geophysicssuchasgroundpenetratingradar(GPR)canbeusedtoassistdetectionofsubsurface karsticfeatures(dissolutioncavities,tunnelsorconduits).Thesetechniquesshouldbeutilised wheregeologicalmappingindicatesariskthatsubsurfacefeaturesmayaffect(orbeaffectedby) theproposedworks. Geophysicaltechniquesarelikelytodetectthepresenceofmoderatetolargecavitieswithin5to 10metresofthegroundsurface.Beyondthisdepthsuchfeaturesareunlikelytopresenta significanthazardtotheproposedroadingorturbinefoundations. GPRislikelytobethemostpracticalgeophysicaltoolfordetectingshallowdolinefeatures.GPRis bestusedonaflatsurfacesofortheturbinesiteswillmostlikelybeadoptedaftertheplatform hasbeencut. Geophysicaltechniqueswillneedtobecalibratedusingconventionalsubsurfaceinvestigation techniquessuchasboreholes.
5.3
Geohydrology
5.3.1
SurfaceDrainageandGroundwaterVolume
ThewestfacingdipslopesofthePuketoiRangearedrainedbyregularlyspacedstreamsflowing moreorlessdirectlydowndipontheTeOnepuLimestonewithlateralbranchesflowingobliquely acrossthemoreresistant(nonporous)stratawithinthelimestone,givingrisetoarectangular drainagepattern.OnlyafewstreamsoccurontheupperdipslopesoftheRongomaiLimestone. TheonlystreamthatdissectsthePuketoiRangeistheunnamedstreamfollowingthePahiatuato PongaroaRoad.Thedrainageoffthewestfacingdipslopesiscollectedatthetoeoftheslopeby theMakuriStreaminthenorthandtheMakuriRiverinthesouth. Groundwaterrechargeontherangecomesfromdirectrainfallandinfiltrationthroughthesurface rocksandsoils.Theproposeddevelopmentwillnotchangetheamountofwaterfallingonthe range.Theroadswillbesurfacedwithgravelandthefilldisposalsiteswillberevegetated.The changeinpermeabilityofthegroundsurfaceaffectedbyearthworkswillthereforebenegligible. TheearthworksalsoaffectonlyafractionofonepercentofthesurfaceareaofthePuketoiRange. Theproposedworksaregenerallylocatedonthewesternslopesoftherangeandaretherefore withintheMakuriStream/MakuriRivercatchment,withexceptionofa280mlengthofroad betweenWT33andWT34. Theproposedearthworkswillnotnoticeablyaffectthesizeofcatchments(i.e.workswillnot redirectflowsfromonestreamcatchmenttoanother).Thereforetheeffectsonsurfaceor groundwaterflowswillbeinsignificantoneithersideoftheRange.
5.3.2
GroundwaterMovement
32 Dissolutionofthelimestonealongjointsandthininterbedshasledtoahighsecondary permeabilityintheformofadrainagenetworkofopencavitieswithinthelimestone. Groundwaterwillflowrelativelyfreelythroughthisdrainagenetwork,butwillberestrictedfrom flowingbetweenlimestoneformationsbyfinegrainedlayers(sandstones,mudstonesand siltstones)whichseparatethelimestoneformations.Theselowerpermeabilitylayersarecalled aquitards. Thegeologicalbeddingontherangefallstothewest.Aswaterinfiltratesintothegroundonthe topoftherangethepredominantgroundwaterflowisinawesterlydirectiondownthedipofthe geologicalbedding. ThelikelygroundwaterflowmechanismsareillustratedonFiguresMRPPKTF8toF11in AppendixA. Whilegroundwaterwillflowslowlythroughtheseaquitardlayers,entrainedsedimentwillnot. Theparticlegrainsizeofthesandstones,siltstonesandmudstonesissufficientlyfinethatno sedimentwillpassthroughtheselayers.Itfollowsthatthereisnodirectlinkthatwillallow sedimenttopassthroughtheseaquitardlayers. TheonlylimestoneformationsaffectedbytheprojectaretheTeOnepuandRongomai limestones. AsshownonFigureMRPPKTF5inAppendixA,thegeologicalbeddingdipsataslightlysteeper anglethantheoverallgroundslopeonthewesternsideoftherange.Theonlydirectoutletsfor groundwater(andthereforeentrainedsediment)fromtheselimestonelayersoccurwheregullies orstreamshavecutdownthroughthelimestonelayers.Springsoccurwheretheselimestone layersdipoutofthelocallyincised(steeper)slopes.Insomeinstancesgroundwaterwillrun laterallyalongthebeddinglayers(ratherthandown)toreappearasaspringatthelowestpoints ofsurfaceoutcrop. Thelowestoftheseoutcrops(andsprings)occur: atthebaseoftherangetothenorthofMakuritownship;and wherestreamshavecutperpendicularlyintothefootoftherange.Forexamplethe unnamedstreamsbeside: o thePahiatuaPongaroaRoad, o MC40Roadand o MC30Road. ThelocationswheretheTeOnepulimestoneoutcropsclosetothevalleyfloorandwherethe largestspringsfromtheselayersareexpectedareshownonDrawingsMRPPKT3201to3203. ThereisalsoanoutcropofRongomailimestoneintheunnamedtributarybelowthePahiatua PongaroaRoad.Theselocationshavethelargestcatchment(oflimestonederivedsprings)and thereforethegreatestpotentialtobeaffectedbytheproposeddevelopment.Werecommend thattheselocationsbeincludedintheproposedmonitoringregime. TheRongomaiandTeOnepulimestoneoutcrops(andrelatedsprings)occuralmostentirely abovetheleveloftheMakuriStream/River.Therewillbeminimaldirectconnectionofthe limestonetotheMakuriStream/Riverorpotentialforsedimenttopassfromtheprojectsite directlytotheMakuriStreamorRiver. Whilethelowlevelspringsdescribedaboveoutletclosetothevalleyfloor,mostofthelimestone drainagenetworksclosetotheridgetopsarelikelytooutletwithinafewhundredmetresofthe infiltrationpoint.Thisisbecausemostofthesurfacelimestonelayersareincisedbylocalgullies.
Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011
33
Springsareoftenobservedonthesteeperslopesthatexposedownslopedippinglimestone. Thesespringsareoftenassociatedwithfansofsediment(seePhotograph22).Thefansare depositedfromsedimententrainedingroundwaterflowingthroughthelimestonedrainage network.Thiserosionandredepositionofsedimentispartofanongoingnaturalprocess. Cavitiesorconduitsbelowthelevelofthelowestsurfacesprings(orregionalgroundwaterlevel) arelikelytoberareduetoreducedpotentialfordissolution.Generallycavitiesbelowthislevel wouldalsobecongestedwithsedimentduetonaturalsedimentdeposition. Thereisnodirectconnection(throughwhichsedimentcantravel)betweenthewesternslopeof therangeandthewatercoursesorgroundwaterspringsontheeasternsideoftherange.Thisis illustratedinFigureMRPPKTF9inAppendixA.
Photograph22:Smallactivesedimentfanbelowspringfromlimestone
5.3.3
NaturalSedimentMovement
Sedimententeringthelimestonedrainagenetworkisanongoingnaturalprocess.Allofthe sinkholefeaturesobservedonsitearecausedbysoilserodingintounderlyinglimestoneconduits andjoints. Smallactivesedimentfansareobservedontheslopesbelowgroundwaterspringsfromlimestone asshowninPhotograph22.Thesefansareformedbysedimentladenwaterdischargingfrom jointsinthelimestone. Sedimentisalsoroutinelygeneratedontheprojectsitethroughhumanactivitysuchasfarming andthelimequarryoperationonTowaiRoad. Farmingactivitiesthatgeneratesedimentinclude: Stockandvehiclemovementparticularlyinwetconditions Formationandmaintenanceoffarmtracksandfarmponds Fillingofsinkholestolimitstockloss
Thereislittleifanysedimentmitigationinplaceforthesefarmingoperations.
5.3.4
GeotextilesFilterFabric
Filterfabricsareroutinelyusedinearthworksandothercivilengineeringprojects.Theyare commonlyusedasafiltertopreventsoilsfineswashingintocoarsersoils.Theyarecommonly usedtopreventdrainsfromclogging. Waterisabletoflowthroughthefilterfabricbutsoilparticlesareheldinplace.Filterfabricsare specifiedforuseinthisprojectparticularlyasameansofpreventingsoilfinesmigratingfrom earthworksintotheunderlyingdrainagenetwork. Filterfabricsarecommonlyreferredtoasgeotextiles.Typicallymadefromsyntheticmaterials theyaremanufacturedusingeitherwovenornonwoventechniques.Geotextilesareusedfor filtration,separationandstrengthapplications.Typicallynonwovengeotextileshaveabetter abilitytofiltersmallerparticleswhilewovengeotextilesaretypicallyabletoprovidehighertensile strengths. ForthisprojectFilterfabricsshouldbeusedtopreventsoilerosionintounderlyingsinkhole features.Anonwovenneedlepunchedpolyesterislikelytobespecified.Thisgeotextilewillhave suitabledrainageandfiltrationcharacteristics.Dependingontheexactproductspecifiedthepore sizes(orholes)inthefabricrangebetween80to120um.Thisfineporesizeallowswatertopass butthesiltyandsandysoilswillremainintact.
5.4
SedimentPonds
SedimentpondswillbeconstructedaroundthesiteasdiscussedintheCEMP.Pondsconstructed overlimestonedohavesomerisksthatwillbemanagedduringconstruction.Theseinclude: Losingwaterintodissolutioncavitiesintheunderlyingandadjacentlimestonebeds.The pondswillbelocatedclearofobvioussinkholesorunderlyingcavities.Waterlevelsinthe sedimentpondswillbeobservedregularly.Ifwaterlossishigherthanexpectedor noticeableleaksaredetected,thepondwillbelinedwithafilterfabriclayerandalow permeableliner.Thefilterfabricwillpreventthesiltorclaysoilsfineswashingintothe underlyinglimestone. Acceleratinginternalsoilerosionduetorisinggroundwaterwaterpressuresand subsurfaceflow.Pondingwatercanincreasethegroundwaterpressuregradientsinthe soilssurroundingthepond.Insiltsandsandsanincreaseofgroundwaterflowthrough thesesoilsintounderlyingcavitiescanaccelerateinternalerosionandtheformationof dropoutandsuffosionsinkholes.Therisksatthissitearelowbecausethedepthofstored waterislimitedtoonly1.5mto2minheightsogroundwaterpressureincreaseswillbe modest. Theriskwillalsobeminimisedbyobservationduringfilling.Formationofsinkholeswill likelybeproceededbylossofwater(orslowerthananticipatedfilling)fromthepond. Siltywaterspringsarealsolikelytobeobservedinthestreambedbelowthepond.If theseoccurrencesareobserved,thepondwillbedewateredandthesinkholetreated. Thetreatmentwillinvolveundercutthenplacingfilterfabricandalowpermeabilitysoil linerovertheaffectedarea.
35
SlopeStability
Basedonourlandslidemappingwithintheprojectareaweexpectthatthelandsliderisktothe proposedprojectislow.Wehavenotidentifiedanylargescaleordeepseatedinstabilitycloseto theproposedearthworksroadalignments,windturbinesorotherinfrastructure.Thesectionsof thesteepeastfacingslopesatthecrestofPuketoiRangemaybesubjecttominorretreatby collapsealongsteeplydippingstressreliefdefectsstrikingparalleltothecrestlineduringsevere earthquakeshaking.Weexpectthattheeasternsideofthecrestcouldretreatbyupto10min discreteareasundersevereearthquakeshaking.Suchretreatoftheeasternescarpmentwould notaffecttheproposedwindfarmorinfrastructure. Isolatedexamplesofsmallerscalelandinstabilityareobservedaroundthesitewithinspecific geologicalterrains.Thelimestoneslopes(whichpredominantlyunderlieturbinesitesandthe upperroad)showlittlesignofslopeinstabilityduetosliding.Themudstonesencounteredonthe lowerslopesoftherangearepronetoshallowtranslationallandsliding. Instabilitymechanismsthatareobservedonorclosetotheprojectsiteare: Largereliclandslideswithinthebeddinglayers(tonorthofsiteonly); LargereliclandslideinthevalleyfloorbetweenWT45andWT46; Shallowtranslationallandslidesoverpoorlydrainedweakersiltstones; Smallscalerockfalls; Smallshallowearthflows; Soilcreeponsteepslopes.
Observedinstabilitiesshouldbeprincipallyavoidedwherepracticable.Whereanypotential instabilityfeaturescannotbeavoidedtheycanberemediatedbystandardengineeringworks suchasundercutting,underdrainageorretaining.Wherethecolluvialmantle(onwetslopes greaterthanapprox25)isundercutbyearthworks,theriskofshallowslumpingcanbe practicallymanagedbyacombinationofflatteningthebatterslopeatthecrest,installingslope drainagesoilnailsandsurfaceerosionprotection. Subjecttoappropriatecivildesign,theproposedearthworksincludingfilldisposalsitesare unlikelytohaveanadverseeffectonslopestability.Conservativecutslopeangleshavebeen recommendedinSection8.3.Fillslopesshouldbeconstructedinareasthathavebeenassessed tobesuitableforfillplacement(i.e.whereslopesarenotoverlysteepandnoinstabilityhasbeen observed).Cutslopesshouldalsobereinspectedduringconstructionworks. Turbinefoundationshavebeenlocatedbyinspectiontobesetbackfromanypotentialslope instability,thereforeinstabilitywheretheturbinesaretobelocatedisunlikely.
6.1.1
LargeRelicLandslides
36 ofthisproject,nevertheless,proposedroadsandearthworksshouldbesetwellbackfromthese featureswherepracticable.
Photograph23:Largescalereliclandslide
6.1.2
TranslationalLandslidesonSiltstone
Photograph24:Displacedblockwithassociatedearthanddebrisflowfromsteeponasiltstoneslope.
Siltstonesaretypicallyonlyencounteredonthelowerslopesoftherange.Accessroadscross thesematerialsforminimaldistances.Thecurrentroadlayoutavoidsidentifiedunstablesiltstone
Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011
37
slopes.ThelowerendofthecurrentMC40Roadhasbeenrealignedfollowinggeologicalmapping toavoidthelandslipshowninPhotograph24.
6.1.3
ColluvialFans
Photograph25:Colluvial(debris)fansatbottomofMC30Road.
6.1.4
RockFalls
38
Limestoneoutcrop
Siltstone Limestoneblocks
Photograph26:Smallrockfallsoflimestone
6.1.5
SmallShallowEarthFlowsandSlumping
Photograph27:Exampleofshallowslumping
39
6.1.6
Surficial(orsuperficial)CreepintheSurfaceLoessandColluvium
40
7
7.1
SeismicConsiderations
EarthquakeShaking
Theearthquakeshakinghazardatthissiteisgenerallycomparabletothehazardoftheremainder ofthelowerNorthIsland.Theseismichazardisnotcriticalinthedesignofturbinefoundation loads,whichwillbemoreheavilyinfluencedbyconsiderationofextremewindloading.Seismic loadingforinfrastructureandearthworkscanbeassessedusingNewZealandStandard NZS1170.5:2004. NZS1170.5:2004isaNewZealandStandardprovidingproceduresforthedeterminationof earthquakeactionsonstructuresinNewZealand.Itgivestherequirementsforverification procedures,sitehazarddetermination,theevaluationofstructuralcharacteristics,structural analysisforearthquakeactioneffects,thedeterminationandlimitsfordeformationsandthe seismicdesignofpartsofstructures. Eachsiteisassessedaccordingtoitsgeographiclocation,surfacesoilthicknessandstrength,and proximitytomajorfaults. WithreferencetoNZS1170.5:2004,theprojectsitehazardfactor(Z)shouldbetakenas0.45.The nearestmajorfault(theWellingtonMohakaFault)ismorethan20kmaway,sowillnotsubject thissitetoanynearfaultamplicationeffects.
7.2
SiteSubsoilClass
Sitesubsoilclassisusedtodetermineearthquakeloadsfordesign.Itdefinestheperformanceof localgroundinanearthquakebasedonthematerialstrengthanddepth.Allsitesareclassifiedby theclassesAtoE. Thefollowingsitesubsoilclassifications(withreferencetoNZS1170.5:2004)arebasedon recordedgeotechnicalpropertiesfromboreholes,testpitsandsiteobservationsaroundthe proposedsite. ThesitecanbeclassifiedasSiteSubsoilClassBandC.Thisisbasedonadepthofsoftsoilbeing lessthan20mdeep(ClassC),andinmanyplaceswhereturbinesaretobefounded,thedepthof softsoilislikelytobelessthan3m(ClassB). ClassBisconsideredappropriateforturbinefoundationdesignassoilswillberemovedand foundationsplacedontherockbelow.
7.3
Liquefaction
Theliquefactionrisktotheproposedturbines,infrastructureandamajorityofroadsisverylow. Earthquakeinducedliquefactioncanoccurwhenaloosesaturatedsoilbecomesmoredenseand theporewaterpressuresgeneratedareunabletodissipate.Alossofstrengthresultsandthesoil behavesmorelikeaviscousfluid. Liquefactionsusceptiblesoilsaretypically: Saturated Nonplastic HaveaparticlesizefallingbetweencoursesilttocoarsesanddefinedbyTsuchida& Hayashi(1971). Inaveryloosetomediumdensestate(N=0to30orscalaresultsoflessthan7blowsper 50mm).
T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011
41
42
MaterialCharacteristics&DesignParameters
Thissectionprovidesrecommendationsandcommentaryonengineeringparametersfordesign. Likelyengineeringcharacteristicsofgeologicalmaterialshavebeenassessedonthebasisofthe fieldinvestigations.Thenatureandcontinuityofsubsoilawayfromthetestsitesandobserved exposuresisinferred. Observationofconditionsbyanengineeringgeologistorgeotechnicalengineerduringexcavation, moredetailedinvestigationsandtestingduringdesigndetailingwillberequiredtoconfirmlocally specificgroundconditions. Parametershavebeenbasedon: Sitespecificinvestigations Observationofmaterialperformanceonsite Test results in the same materials from adjacent Waitahora site (refer BECA Waitahora WindfarmGeotechnicalAssessmentreportdated2010); Ourexperienceandknowledgeofthesematerialsfromothersites.
8.1
GeneralEarthworksPropertiesandDesignParameters
Rongomai/Te Extremelyweak OnepuLimestone tomoderately strong Raukawa Formation Sandstone Kumeroa Siltstone/ mudstone/ sandstone Extremelyweak andveryweak Extremelyweak andveryweak
14(duetobed variability)
<5%
1.2
13
<10%
104106
1.3
12
<0.06
90%+
104108
1.3
43
Table82:RecommendedInSituEffectiveStressDesignParameters*
Geological Material Depthto topof layer (m) 0.10.3 Thickness oflayer (m) Bulk Density (kN/m3) Effective Cohesion c(kPa) Effective Friction Angle () 35 Undrained Shear Strength (MPa) UCS mv (MPa) (200kPa)
Loessand remnantsand Silt/sand Sandstone TeOnepu Limestone Rongomai Limestone Siltstone Mudstone
0.63.5
18
1.0 5.0 1.0 10.0 1.0 10.0 0.3 5.0 0.1 8.0
19 20 20 19 19
15 50 50 30 30
45 50 50 35 35
Wherelaboratorytestingunavailable,parameterscalculatedfromfieldclassificationofsoil/rockstrengthandT&Tpastexperience withsimilarmaterials.
Table83:RecommendedEffectiveStressDesignParametersforFills
GeologicalMaterial Loessandremnantsand (BulkFill) Silt/sand Sandstone BulkFill* EngineeredFill** Limestones BulkFill* EngineeredFill** Siltstone/Mudstone BulkFill* EngineeredFill** 18 19 18 19 19 19 5 8 5 15 5 10 35 37 38 40 30 32 BulkDensity (kN/m3) 18 EffectiveCohesion c(kPa) 3 EffectiveFrictionAngle () 35
*Bulkfillistrackrolledonly **EngineeredtoNZS4431:1989compactionstandard
8.2
PerformanceofExistingCut&FillSlopes
Material Type
Existingslopeheight (observed)
Stabilitycomments
Limestone
Oldcutsremainstable.Minimalvery smalllocaliseddropoutsonly.Easily cleanedup.Minimal/noerosionof face. Shallowsurficialslakingonslopes greaterthan50duetostress releaseandwetting/drying. Slumpingupto1mdepthisobserved onsteepersaturatedcutandnatural slopesgreaterthan40. Predominantlystable.Minimalsmall surficialfaceslumpingobserved. Likelytooccurfollowingheavy rainfallevents. Predominantlystable.Minimalsmall surficialfaceslumpingobserved. Predominantlystable.Minimalsmall surficialfaceslumpingobserved. Generallystable.Shallowsurface slumpinginloosenoncompacted overspillonly.
Siltstone/ Mudstone
5070
Sandstone
5070
Typically13mhighon farmtracks.
Loess
4050
Typically1mhigh
Sand
4050
Typically1mhigh
Variablebutsomefill slopesare>20mhigh.
8.3
RecommendedSlopeAnglesforEarthworksDesign
45
Table85: ProposedCutSlopeAngles
Limestone
Sandstone
Siltstones/ Mudstones
Cutbatterslopes(Max) FillBatterslopes(Max)
63(1V:0.5H) 34(1V:1.5H)
Mostmaterials(especiallythelimestonesandsandstones)havegoodstrengthcharacteristicsand arethereforelikelytoperformverywellincutslopes.Forthisreason,therearenoengineering basedrestrictionsonmaximumcutheights.Proposedfillsinexcessof10minheight(or4minsilt ormudstone)shouldbesubjecttoaspecificengineeringassessmentanddesign. Whererequiredtoavoidspecificfeaturesorminimisefootprintarea,fillslopescanbesteepened withtheuseofgeogridreinforcementorhighercompactionstandards(i.e.fillplacedas engineeredfilltoNZS4431:1989compactionstandard). Thetypicalgroundconditionsovertheareaofearthworksconsistofamantleofloess,orremnant siltysandoverlimestone,sandstoneorsiltstone/mudstonerock.Fortheseconditionstheprofile showninFigure12belowislikelytobetypical.
Figure12:Typicalcutprofileangles
63 Rock 45 Soil
8.4
WorkabilityandExcavatability
46
8.5
Undercutting
Thesurficaltopsoilandsiltytopsoilcovertypicallyvariesbetween0.1mto0.5mindepth.Insome drainagecoursesandgulliestherearelocaliseddepositsofhigherorganiccontentpossiblyupto 1mdepth.Whenroadembankmentscrosssuchfeaturesexcavationofthetopsoilandorganics willberequiredtoprovidesuitablefoundationconditions. Theunderlyingsands,sandstonesandsiltstonesaretypicallyverystiffandoverconsolidatedand sowillnotrequiresignificantundercuttingduringearthworkspreparation.Softerlensesof disturbedsoilsarelikelytobeencounteredoversinkholefeatures.Civildesignshouldaddress potentialsoftmaterialandconsidermeasurestominimiseerosionofsoilintotheunderlay limestoneconduits. Therequirementtoundercutbelowsoftororganiclayersforgeneralearthworksandroadingin thesands,sandstonesandsiltstoneswillberare.
8.6
CableTrenching
8.7
SettlementPotentialofSoils
8.8
8.8.1
SedimentCharacteristics(earthworks)
Materialbehaviour
Limestonesandsandstonesareunlikelytogeneratesignificantfine(i.e.siltorclaysized) sediments.Thegrainsizeofthesematerialsistypicallyfinetocoarsesandsize.Limestonewill
47
Theupperweatheredloess(sandysilt)ismoresiltyandthepredominantgrainsizeissmallerthan sandsized.Althoughthesesoilsarenotoverlysusceptibletoerosion,duringearthworkstheywill generatefinersedimentthanthelimestoneandsandstone.ThesandylenseswithintheKumeroa foundationareconsistofnonplasticsandysilt. Thesesoilsmaybemoderatelyerodiblewhenexposedtosurfacewaterflow.Shallowrunnels haveformedinwatertabledrainsbesidefarmtrackscutintosiltysandsoftheKumeroaand Raukawaformation.Erosionandsedimentcanbeappropriatelymanagedthroughthe implementationofanappropriateCEMP. 8.8.1.3 Finegrainedsediments
48
9
9.1
WindTurbineFoundations
FoundationConditions
Theproposedwindturbinesarelocatedclosetotheridgetopsoronsignificantspurs.The geologicalconditionslikelytobeencounteredateachsiteare: WT1toWT24inclusiveTeOnepuLimestone; WT25RaukawaFormation(Sandstone); WT26toWT33inclusiveRongomaiLimestone; WT34toWT36inclusiveTeOnepuLimestone; WT37toWT42inclusiveRongomaiLimestone; WT43RaukawaFormation(Sandstone); WT44toWT52inclusiveTeOnepuLimestone; WT53KumeroaFormation(sandysilts)
Themostefficientfoundationsolutionfortheseconditionsisshallowgravityfoundationpads.
9.2
ShallowPadFoundations
Shallowpadfoundationsarerecommendedoverpiledfoundationsatthissitepredominantly because: 1. Duetogoodbearingcapacitiesandfoundationstiffnesstherewouldbeonlyamarginal increaseinconcretevolumescomparedtoapiletypesolution;and 2. Pilesandanchorsaretechnicallycomplexandcontainmorerisktoconstruct.Theyare alsoexpensiveandmoretimeconsuminginvolvinglargerandmorespecialistplant. CalculatedfoundationdimensionsforvariousturbinesizesareshowninTable91below.The padswillconsistofreinforcedconcretecastinanoctagonalshape. Windturbinefoundationwidthsandvolumesforoctagonalshapedreinforcedconcrete foundations(asshowninFigure13)areprovidedinTable91.Theassumeddesignloadsandfinal sizingwillbeconfirmedduringdetaileddesign.
Table91:ShallowPadFoundations
LargeConsenting EnvelopeTurbine
49
Width
Width
Plan
SectionAA
Figure13:TypicalTurbineShallowPadFoundation
Forfoundationsonlimestone,thereisariskthattheremaybekarstfeatures(cavitiesorvoids)in theunderlyingrockwithintheloadinginfluenceoftheturbinefoundation.Askarstfeaturesare rareontheridgesandspurstheyareunlikelytoadverselyaffectthefoundations.Howeverthe possibilityofdolinefeaturesaffectingproposedturbinefoundationscannotberuledout. Somemicrositingandfurtherinvestigationswillberequiredtomitigatetheriskofunderlying karstfeatures.Inthecasethatrepositioningormicrositingisnotpracticaltoavoidsignificant karstfeatures,piledorreducedfoundationswithtensionanchorscanbeadoptedtoprovidea suitablesolution.Thescaleandconstructioneffectsofapiledoranchoredfoundationarenot significantlydifferenttoatraditionalconcretepad. Furtherinvestigationswillberequiredduringconstructionsuchasgroundpenetratingradarand percussiondrillholestoconfirmthedesignrequirementsandacceptabilityofeachproposed turbinefoundation. Ifinvestigationhighlightsakarstfeaturelargeenoughandwithintheloadinfluenceofthe foundationa(orseveral)pile(s)maybeinstalledtomitigatetherisk.Pileswilltransferthe foundationloadfromtheshallowfoundationtocompetentunderlyinglimestone.Thepilecan thenbecasedthroughthecavitytoensuretheintegrityofthepileandpreventconcreteflowing intolargecavities.
9.3
PiledandAnchorFoundations
50
10
10.1
GeneralBuildingFoundations
GeneralSoilPropertiesandFoundations
10.2
SubstationandBatchingPlant
51
11
Pavements
1. 2.
52
12
12.1
AggregateAssessment
Introduction
Concreteforthewindturbinefoundationsandothercivilconstructionworks; Roadinganddrainage; Trenchbackfillaroundcables.
Coarseaggregateandsandwillberequiredmainlyfor:
Apreliminaryassessmentoftheavailabilityandsuitabilityofaggregatesforuseonthisprojectis discussedinthesectionsbelow. Theassessmentincludes: Areviewofthepublishedgeologicalmapstoassessregionalavailabilityandmaterial types; Areviewofexistingquarryproductspecificationsheets(whereavailable); AreviewofpublishedliteratureonNewZealandaggregatesandaggregateproperties, andalsoconcreteandaggregatestandards(i.e.NZS3121:1986,CCANZAlkaliSilica ReactionTechnicalReport3etc); Discussionswithlocalcontractorsandsuppliersregardingtheuseandperformanceof localaggregates.
12.2
AggregateAvailability
12.3
AggregateSuitabilityandCurrentSupply
AsummaryofthecurrentusesforthespecificquarryaggregatesisprovidedinTable121below. Currentsupplyuseisagoodindicatorofaggregatesuitabilityforthisproject. ThePahiatuaandDannevirkerivergravelquarriesallsupplyaggregateforuseinconcrete(thus meetingNZS3121:1986).TheyalsosupplyroadingaggregatetoNZTATM/4specification.The rivergravelquarryoffOhinereiataRoadalsoextractsgreywackegravel.Weunderstandthatthe currentconsentedlimitforthisquarryis25,000m/year.Thisishoweverregularlyvariedtosuit demand. TheHorizons(ManawatuWanganui)RegionalCouncilholdstheconsentforgravelextractedfrom theManawatuRiverandtherearenumerouscollectingzonesalongtheriverbank.Theclosest collectionpointtositeisbasedjustoutsideofPahiatua.Asthecouncilcontrolstheconsentsthe supplyisnotrestrictedtoaspecificsupplier.
Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011
53
Within site boundary: borrow pits along ridgeline during construction Ohinereiata Rd Quarry (off Coonoor Road)
Limestone: Sandy shelly limestone, predominantly weak to moderately strong. Basecourse, low spec / temporary road aggregate. Greywacke: River gravels Spec Not tested Greywacke: Moderately weathered Greywacke/Argilite, weak to moderately strong. Basecourse, low spec / temporary road aggregate. Limestone: Sandy shelly limestone, weak. Low spec / temporary road aggregate (main use for agricultural lime fertiliser). Floodplain gravels for road aggregate and concrete subject to screening. Greywacke: Concrete aggregate High spec TNZ/M4 road aggregate. Locally quarried by landowners Regional council manage consents. Local suppliers Quality Lime Infracon Aggregates NZ Road Makers
7km
16km
20km
27km
33km
As above
65km
35km
54
Figure14:MapofQuarryDistribution
12.4
RecommendedAggregateSources
PahiatuaorDannevirkerivergravelsforconcreteaggregate; Pahiatua,DannevirkeortheOhinereiatarivergravelsforhigherquality(runningcourse) roadingaggregate. MakairoPitQuarry,localquarriestosite,orsiteexcavatedmaterialsforlowerquality/ unsealedroadaggregate.
Thepreferredquarrysitesbasedonqualityandhauldistance(only)arethereforelikelytobe:
Detailedaggregatetestingandconcretemixtrialswillneedtobeundertakentoconfirmfinal concretemixformulasmeetthedesignspecifications.
12.5
SandSuitabilityforConcrete
55
13
Conclusions
ThekeyconclusionsofthegeotechnicalassessmentforthePuketoiWindfarmaresummarised below.
13.1
ProjectFeasibilityandAssessment
Theprojectdesignshouldbedevelopedwhiletakingaccountofthegeotechnical conditionsandconstraintsidentifiedanddescribed. Theproposedprojectisfeasibleforthegeotechnicalconditionsthatarelikelytobe encounteredonthesite. Thelevelofthegeotechnicalassessmentundertakeninthiscaseisconsideredhighfor ResourceConsentStage.Theassessment,foundedstronglyongeologicalmappingofthe site,issuchthatpotentialeffectsoftheprojectcanbereasonablyassessed. Materialchangestothedesignareunlikelytoberequired(duringdetaileddesignor construction)asaresultofgeotechnicalconditions.
13.2
SiteGeology
TheproposedwindfarmsiteliesonthewestfacingslopesofthePuketoiRange,whichis aprominentnortheastsouthwesttrendingescarpment(acuesta). ThegeologyconsistsofathicksedimentarysequenceofOnokeGroupsediments comprisinglimestonewithinterbeddedsandstonesandsiltstone/mudstones. Thegeologicalsequenceistiltedbetween10and20NWformingthelongwestfacing dipslopes.Incontrasttheeastfacingslopesaresteepandcutsteeplythroughbedding. Theupperslopesoftherange(wheremostoftheroadsandinfrastructurewillbe located)aregenerallyunderlainwithathinmantleofsiltysandsoverlimestone.
13.3
SinkHolesandKarst
Karsttopographyisalandscapeshapedbythedissolutionofthelimestone.Itcreatesa distincttopographyanddrainagesystem.Itisimportanttorecogniseandprovidefor thesefeaturesinthedesign. Cavities,tunnelsandconduits,causedbythedissolution,haveformedinthelimestone. DissolutionrateoflimestoneonthePuketoiRangeisintheorderof58.2m3/km2/yr. Thereforeoverthelifeoftheprojecttheenlargementofcavitiesinlimestonewillbe minimal. Sinkholesarecommonoverthesite,particularlyinareaswherethemantleofsiltorsand soilshavewashedintokarstfeaturesintheunderlyinglimestone. Therisksthatkarstfeaturesmayposetothedevelopmentorwherepotentialforadverse effectsexistarelimitedto: Increasingtheloadontheroofofexistinglimestonecavitiestounacceptablelevels, promotingcollapseofthecavityroof; Accelerationofsedimententeringthesubsurfacelimestonenetwork; Lossofsurfacekarstfeaturesbyearthworks.
56 Theserisksorpotentialadverseeffectscanbereasonablyavoided,remediedormitigated throughappropriatedesignandconstructionmanagement.
13.4
Groundwater&Sediment
Theeffectstheproposeddevelopment(notablytheearthworks)mighthaveon groundwaterarelikelytobeminimal. Theproposedearthworkswillnotnoticeablyaffectthesizeorpermeabilityof catchments.Thereforetheeffectsonsurfaceorgroundwaterflowswillbeinsignificanton eithersideoftheRange. Groundwaterwillflowrelativelyfreelythroughdrainagenetworkswithinthelimestone, butwillberestrictedfromflowingbetweenlayersbyfinegrainedbeddinglayers (aquitards). Thegeologicalbeddinglayersontherangefalltothewest.Aswaterinfiltratestheground onthetopoftherangethepredominantgroundwaterflowisinawesterlydirection downtheselayers. Whilegroundwaterwillflowslowlythroughtheseaquitardlayers,anyentrained sedimentwillnot.Thereisnodirectlinkthatwillallowsedimenttopassthroughthese aquitardlayers. Thereisnodirectgroundwaterconnection(throughwhichsedimentcantravel)between thewesternslopeoftherangeandthewatercoursesorgroundwaterspringsonthe easternsideoftherange. Theonlydirectoutletforgroundwater(andthereforeentrainedsediment)fromthese limestonelayersiswheregulliesorstreamshavecutdownthroughthelimestonelayers. Springsoccurwheregullieshaveinciseddowntoexposethesidesorlowerendofthe limestonelayers. Insomeinstancesgroundwaterwillrunlaterallyalongthebeddinglayers(ratherthan down)toanoutlet(spring)atthelowestpointwherethatlayeroutcropstothesurface. Mostofthespringsfromthelimestoneoccurwithinafewhundredmetresofthepoint wherewaterhasinfiltratedtheslope.Howeversomeofthelargerstreamshaveexposed thetwoaffectedlimestoneformationslowerinthevalley.Theselocationsareshownon drawingMRPPKT3201and3202.Theselowerspringsshouldbemonitoredasdetailedin theproposedCEMP. Sedimententeringthelimestonedrainagenetworkisanongoingnaturalprocess.The activesinkholefeaturesobservedonsitearecausedbysoilserodingintounderlying limestoneconduitsandjoints. Activesedimentfansareoftenobservedontheslopesbelowgroundwaterspringsfrom limestone.Thesefansareformedbysedimentladenwaterdischargingfromjointsinthe limestone. Thereisnoevidencethatsedimentfromnaturalprocesses,historicdeforestation, ongoingfarmingorquarryingactivitieshavehadanoticeableorsignificantadverseeffect onthelimestonedrainagesystemorwaterquality. EarthworksshouldbeundertakeninaccordancewitharobustCEMPtominimisethe generationordischargeofsediment.
57
13.5
SlopeStability
Thelandsliderisktotheproposedprojectislow.Wehavenotidentifiedanylargescale ordeepseatedinstabilityclosetotheproposedearthworksroadalignments,wind turbinesorotherinfrastructure. Isolatedexamplesofsmallerscalelandinstabilityareobservedaroundthesite.Thecivil designhasbeenpositionedtoavoidtheobservedinstabilities.Wherepotentialinstability featurescannotbepracticallyavoidedtheycanberemediatedbystandardengineering workssuchasreducingbatterslopes,undercuttingandreplacement,underdrainageor retaining. Theproposedearthworksincludingfilldisposalsitesareunlikelytohaveanadverseeffect onslopestability.
13.6
ProposedEarthworks&Roads
RecommendedprofilesforproposedearthworksareoutlinedinTable85.Theseprofiles areexpectedtobeconservativeformostoftheconditionslikelytobeencountered. Therewillbeinstanceswhereuponinspectionbyanengineerduringconstruction,the slopesmaybelocallysteepenedtominimiseearthworks,disturbanceandexposedbatter heights.Theremayalsobesomeareaswheregroundconditionslocallyrequireflatter batterslopes. Aggregatesforconcreteandroadingwillneedtobeimportedtothesite.Suitable greywackeaggregatesourceshavebeenidentifiedwithin30kmofthesite.Limestoneand calcareoussandstone(fromsiteearthworks)arelikelytobecrushedonsiteforuseon lowuseroadsandhardstandareas.
13.7
Foundations
Theoptimalwindturbinefoundationsarelikelytoconsistofareinforcedconcretepad. Foundationsforlargeproposedturbinearelikelytobeintheorderof23mdiameterby 2.25maveragethickness(980m3). Forfoundationsonlimestone,thereisalow(butpotential)riskthattheremaybecavities intheunderlyingrockwithintheloadinginfluenceoftheturbinefoundation. Furtherinvestigationswillberequiredtoidentifypotentialcavitiesundertheproposed turbine(andothercritical)foundations.Iflargeenoughcavitiesareidentified,pilescanbe installedthroughthecavitytotransferthefoundationloadfromtheshallowfoundation tocompetentunderlyinglimestone.Thepilecanthenbecasedthroughthecavityto ensuretheintegrityofthepileandpreventconcreteflowingintolargecavities. Standardshallowfoundationsarelikelytobesuitableforsubstationsitesandother ancillarystructures.Designparametersandindicativebearingcapacitiesareprovidedin thisreport.
13.8
SeismicConsiderations
Seismichazardincludingliquefactionisconsideredtopresentaverylowrisktothe projectandcanbemanagedthroughearthworksorspecificfoundationdesign.
58
13.9
DetailedDesign&Construction
Additionalgeotechnicalinvestigationswillberequiredduringdetaileddesignand construction. ACharteredProfessionalEngineer(Geotechnical)shouldremaininvolvedinthedetailed designandconstructionoftheproject.
59
14
Applicability
ThisreporthasbeenpreparedaspartoftheresourceconsentapplicationforthePuketoiWind FarmandTransmissionRoute,anditmaynotberelieduponinothercontextsorforanyother purposewithoutourpriorreviewandagreement. Tonkin&TaylorLtd EnvironmentalandEngineeringConsultants Contributors: EmmaBeech GeotechnicalEngineer GeotechnicalEngineer SeniorEngineeringGeologist SeniorEngineeringGeologist PrincipalGeotechnicalEngineer&ProjectDirector
EricTorvelainen NickPeters
BernardHegan BruceSymmans
ReviewedbyGarySmith
SeniorEngineeringGeologist
AuthorisedforTonkin&Taylorby
................................... BruceSymmans
ncp/sacc https://puketoi.projectorbit.com/windfarm/draftaeereports/tonkin andtaylor engineering and sediment/geotechnical/final puketoi geotech investigation rpt v22.docx
AppendixA:
A4Figures
FiguresMRPPKTF5,F8toF11inclusive
WEST
EAST
DRAWING PROCESS DESIGNED BY: DRAWN BY: CHECKED BY: APPROVED BY: A Consent Issue 14.07.11
DATE
NCP BNRB
NOTES :
DRAWING STATUS:
PH: 09 308 8200 FAX: 09 308 8209
SCALE:
CONSENT ISSUE
DWG. No.: REV.
MGM
BY
REVISION DESCRIPTION
NTS
MRP-PKT-F5
AppendixB:
SiteInvestigationLogs
March 2011
TP01 Spoil 1
March 2011
TP02 Spoil 2
March 2011
TP03 Spoil 3
March 2011
March 2011
TP05 Spoil 5
March 2011
TP06 Spoil 6
March 2011
TP07 Spoil 7
March 2011
TP08 Spoil 8
March 2011
TP09 Spoil 9
March 2011
TP10 Spoil 10
March 2011
TP11 Spoil 11
March 2011
TP12 Base 12
March 2011
TP13 Spoil 13
March 2011
TP14 Base 14
March 2011
TP15 Spoil 15
March 2011
TP16 Spoil 16
March 2011
TP17 Spoil 17
March 2011
TP18 Spoil 18
March 2011
TP19 Spoil 19
Date: 16/03/2011 Operated by: ELB Logged by: ELB Checked by:
No. of Blows
Test No.
Sheet of
SC 01
1 1
2 0.5 0.5 1 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 5 5 4 3 2 3 2 2 3 4 4 4 2 2 4 2 4 4 6 3 4 3 3 2 3
500
1000
1500
2000
Depth (mm)
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Blows / 50 mm 7 8 9
10
Test Method Used: NZS 4402:1988 Test 6.5.2 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
Puketoi Wind Farm T&T job No.: 85143.001 10/06/2011
Date: 16/03/2011 Operated by: ELB Logged by: ELB Checked by:
No. of Blows
Test No.
Sheet of
SC 02
1 1
500
1000
1500
2000
Depth (mm)
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Blows / 50 mm 7 8 9
10
Test Method Used: NZS 4402:1988 Test 6.5.2 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
Puketoi Wind Farm T&T job No.: 85143.001 10/06/2011
85143.001
by ELB
Soil classification: SILT with minor sand, brown with occasional black mottling. Stiff, dry, moderate plasticity. Sand is fine.
Coordinates Result (kPa) Corrected (kPa) E N Peak Residual Peak Residual 84 40 131 62 2767047.98 6067277.45 82 24 128 37 2767043.09 6067340.59 92 53 144 83 2766902.34 6067354.69 87 49 136 76 2766563.92 6067864.49 80 24 125 37 2774633.32 6078152.01 Average 132.8 59