Wind Farm

REPORT
Mighty River Power Ltd
Reportpreparedfor:
MightyRiverPowerLtd
PuketoiWindfarm GeotechnicalInvestigationand DesignReport
Reportpreparedby:
Tonkin&TaylorLtd July2011 T&TRef:85143.001
Tableofcontents
1 General 1.1 Introduction 1.2 RelationshipofEngineeringandConstructionManagementReports SiteDescription 2.1 SiteDescription ScopeofInvestigations 3.1 DeskTopReview 3.2 GeologicalMapping 3.3 SubsurfaceInvestigations 3.3.1 Drilling 3.3.2 TestPits 3.4 QuarryAggregateAssessment EngineeringGeology 4.1 GeologicalSetting 4.2 PublishedSiteGeology 4.3 GeomorphologyandGeology 4.4 ObservedSiteGeology 4.4.1 GeologicalSequence 4.5 StructuralGeology 4.5.1 RegionalSeismicity 4.5.2 MajorFaults 4.5.3 ActiveFaults 4.6 NZGeoPreservationSocietySites Sinkholes,KarstandGeohydrology 5.1 KarstLandforms&Features 5.1.1 LargeCaves,ConduitsandCavities 5.1.2 SmallConduitsandFissures 5.1.3 Sinkholes 5.1.4 SwallowHoles 5.1.5 KarrenSurface 5.1.6 DryValleys 5.2 KarstPotentialEffectsandMitigation 5.2.1 OverviewofKarstRelatedDesignandConstructionManagement Philosophy 5.3 Geohydrology 5.3.1 SurfaceDrainageandGroundwaterVolume 5.3.2 GroundwaterMovement 5.3.3 NaturalSedimentMovement 5.3.4 GeotextilesFilterFabric 5.4 SedimentPonds SlopeStability 6.1.1 LargeRelicLandslides 6.1.2 TranslationalLandslidesonSiltstone 6.1.3 ColluvialFans 6.1.4 RockFalls 6.1.5 SmallShallowEarthFlowsandSlumping 6.1.6 Surficial(orsuperficial)CreepintheSurfaceLoessandColluvium 1 1 1 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 8 8 15 15 16 16 16 17 17 17 18 18 22 23 24 25 26 31 31 31 33 34 34 35 35 36 37 37 38 39
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Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd
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SeismicConsiderations 7.1 EarthquakeShaking 7.2 SiteSubsoilClass 7.3 Liquefaction MaterialCharacteristics&DesignParameters 8.1 GeneralEarthworksPropertiesandDesignParameters 8.2 PerformanceofExistingCut&FillSlopes 8.3 RecommendedSlopeAnglesforEarthworksDesign 8.4 WorkabilityandExcavatability 8.5 Undercutting 8.6 CableTrenching 8.7 SettlementPotentialofSoils 8.8 SedimentCharacteristics(earthworks) 8.8.1 Materialbehaviour WindTurbineFoundations 9.1 FoundationConditions 9.2 ShallowPadFoundations 9.3 PiledandAnchorFoundations GeneralBuildingFoundations 10.1 GeneralSoilPropertiesandFoundations 10.2 SubstationandBatchingPlant Pavements AggregateAssessment 12.1 Introduction 12.2 AggregateAvailability 12.3 AggregateSuitabilityandCurrentSupply 12.4 RecommendedAggregateSources 12.5 SandSuitabilityforConcrete Conclusions 13.1 ProjectFeasibilityandAssessment 13.2 SiteGeology 13.3 SinkHolesandKarst 13.4 Groundwater&Sediment 13.5 SlopeStability 13.6 ProposedEarthworks&Roads 13.7 Foundations 13.8 SeismicConsiderations 13.9 DetailedDesign&Construction Applicability
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AppendixA: AppendixB:
A4Figures SiteInvestigationLogs
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Executivesummary
ThisgeotechnicalassessmentsupportsMightyRiverPowerLtdsproposedPuketoi windfarm.Theobjectivesofthegeotechnicalassessmentaretoprovidegeotechnicaldata anddesigntosupportthecivildesignandtheassessmentofenvironmentaleffects. Theproposedwindfarmextendsalonga22kmsectionofthePuketoiRange.Theproject consistsof53windturbineslocatedonthewesternslopes,closetothecrestoftherange. Thewindturbinesareconnectedwithaspineroad.Therearefourproposedaccessroads fromtheMakuriValleyflooruptothespineroads. SiteGeology ThegeologyofthesiteconsistsofOnokegroupdeposits.Thesedepositsaresubdivided intoanumberofgeologicalformations,theseare(oldesttoyoungest): Rongomailimestone; Raukawamudstone; TeOnepulimestone; KumeroaFormation(sandsandsilts); Totaranuilimestone.
ThemajorityoftheprojectislocatedovertheTeOnepuandRongomailimestonelayers, whichtypicallyformthesurfaceofthehigherslopesontherange. KarstFeatures Limestoneonthesiteissubjecttoslowdissolution.DissolutionisaprocesswhereCO2 enrichedwaterpercolatingthroughthesurfacesoilsformaweakcarbonicacid(H2CO3)that slowlydissolvestherock. Thedissolutionoftherockoftenoccursalongbeddingplanesandfractures,creatingKarstic features.Thesefeaturesincludesinkholes,cavities,conduitsandtunnels.Therateof dissolutionisveryslow.Thereisunlikelytobeanysignificantenlargementordevelopment ofKarstfeaturesoverthedesignlifeoftheproject.Sinkholesarecommonovertheground surfaceabovelimestonelayers.Thesefeaturestypicallyoccurwhereasurfacemantleof sandorsiltsoilswashintotheunderlyinglimestonedrainagenetwork(conduitsandjoints). Groundwater&Sediment Thedevelopmentofsinkholesandassociatedsedimenttransportisanongoingnatural process.Sedimententrainedingroundwaterisobservedtodischargefromlowlevel limestoneoutcrops(springs).Thesespringsoftenincludeadownstreamfanofsediment thathassettledoutofthewaterflow. Aswellasnaturalsedimentanderosionprocesses,sedimentiscurrentlygeneratedonthe projectsite,throughfarmingandquarryingactivities. Theproposedearthworkswillbeundertakeninaccordancewithaconstructionand environmentalmanagementplan(CEMP).Thesemethodswillminimisethegenerationand dischargeofsedimentfromtheworks.Typicallythesoilsarecoarseandwillrespondwell tobestpracticeerosionandsedimentmanagementtechniques. Thegeologicallayeringofthesitedipsat10to20tothewest.Eachofthelimestone layersisconstrainedaboveandbelowbyfinegrainedlayers.Theselowpermeabilitylayers
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formaquitardsorlayersthatrestrictwaterflow.Thereisnodirectconnectionbetweenthe separatelimestonelayers.Entrainedsedimentwithinthelimestonedrainagenetworkwill notflowthroughtheaquitards. Entrainedsedimentisthereforelikelytodischargefromspringsatthelowestpartswithin eachofthelimestonelayers.Thelowpointsofthelimestoneoutcrop(i.e.thelocationsof largersprings)havebeenidentified.Aselectionoftheseshouldbeincludedinthe proposedconstructioneffectsmonitoringregime. Thereisnodirectgroundwaterconnection(throughwhichsedimentcantravel)between thewesternslopeoftherange(theprojectarea)andthewatercoursesorgroundwater springsontheeasternsideoftherange. TheproposedprojectalignmentshouldavoidasmanyKarstfeaturesaspossible.Effectson remainingKarstfeaturescanbeminimisedthroughthedesignandconstructionphasesof theproject.Protocolsforavoidance,remedyormitigationarediscussedinthisreport. SlopeStability Thelandsliderisktotheprojectislow.Localised(smallscale)landinstabilitycanbeavoided ormanagedwithintheearthworksdesign. Theproposedearthworks,includingfilldisposalareasandfoundationsareunlikelytohave anyadverseeffectonslopestability. Seismic Seismichazardislikelytopresentalowrisktotheprojectandcanbemanagedthrough earthworksandfoundationdesign.Potentialliquefiablesoilsarelikelytobepresentat sometransmissiontowersitesonalluvialterraces.Foundationsintheseareasshouldbe piledanddesignedtoaccommodatepotentialliquefactionandlateralspreading. Foundations Thefoundationdesignforthewindturbineswillincludereinforcedconcretepads.Some foundationpilesmayberequiredwherecavitiesareidentifiedinthelimestoneunderthe turbinesite. Standardshallowfoundationsarelikelytobesuitableforsubstationsitesandancillary structures. Thetransmissiontowersarelikelytobefoundedonpiles(orpilegroups)wheredrillingrig accessisavailable.Whereaccessisrestrictedtohelicopteraccess,thetransmission foundationsarelikelytobeshallowconcretepadswithgroundanchors. Conclusions Subjecttoappropriatecivildesign,theproposedprojectisfeasibleforthegeotechnical conditionsthatarelikelytobeencounteredonthesite.Theprojectcivildesignshouldbe developedinaccordancewiththegeotechnicalrecommendationsofthisreport.The projectisunlikelytohaveanadverseeffectonslopestabilityorgroundwatersystemson thesite.TheeffectsonKarstfeatureswillbeminimisedasdetailedinthisreport. Additionalgeotechnicalinvestigationswillberequiredduringdetaileddesignand construction.Acharteredprofessional(Geotechnical)shouldremaininvolvedthroughout thedetaileddesignandconstructionoftheproject.
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1.1
General
Introduction
Thisreportpresentstheresultsofaninvestigationandassessmentofthegeologicaland geotechnicalconditionsforMightyRiverPowerLtds(MRP)proposedwindfarmprojectalongthe PuketoiRange,eastofPahiatua.Theproposedwindfarmdevelopmentincludes53turbinesanda transmissionlinefromthewindfarmtoapointterminatingontheeasternslopesoftheTararua RangesjustnorthofMakomako. ThisassessmenthasbeencarriedoutbyTonkin&TaylorLtd(T&T)attherequestofMRPto providegeotechnicaldatatosupportthecivildesigndevelopmentandassessmentof environmentaleffects.Insummary,thisreportpresents: SiteInvestigationssummary; Interpretedgeologicalandhydrogeologicalconditionsacrossthesite; Designconsiderationsandgeotechnicalconstraintsacrossthesite; Windturbinefoundationandroadpavementrecommendations; Geotechnicalconditionsandfoundationrequirementsforsupportinginfrastructure; Quarryandaggregatesuitabilityassessment.
1.2
RelationshipofEngineeringandConstruction ManagementReports
ThegeotechnicalreporthasbeenpreparedinconjunctionwithTonkin&Taylor`sCivilDesign Report,TransmissionLineGeotechnicalandCivilReport,andtheDraftConstruction EnvironmentalManagementPlan.Therelationshipbetweeneachofthesereportsissummarised inFigure1below.
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GeotechnicalInvestigationandDesign Report
Engineering/StructuralGeology Karsttopographyandgeohydrology Geotechnicalconditions Slopestability&Seismicconsiderations Geotechnicalproperties Earthworksdevelopmentprincipals TurbineFoundationdesign Aggregateresourcesandroadpavement solutions
TransmissionLineCivil& GeotechnicalReport
Geologicalconditionsandgeotechnical constraints TowerFoundationSolutions Roadingandearthworksrequirements foraccessroutes Civilworksconstructionmethodology
CivilDesignReport
Descriptionofproposeddevelopment Roadandearthworksdesign Constructionmethodology Waterdemand/Supply Contractorsamenities/laydownareas Concretebatching Bridge/streamcrossing Turbinelaydownareas
DraftConstructionandEnvironmentalManagementPlan(CEMP)
TheDraftCEMPsetsouttheconstructionandmanagementobjectivesfortheconstructionand commissioningoftheproposedwindfarm&transmissionline.Thiswillremainadraftdocument untiltheconditionsofconsentarefinalisedandintegratedintothisdocument.Management procedures(describedbythisdocument)toavoid,remedyormitigateeffectsmayinclude: Hoursofworks Earthworksmanagement ErosionandsedimentControl Revegetation andStabilisation Dustcontrol Visualmitigation Culverts&fords andothers
SupplementaryEnvironmentalManagementPlans (SEMPs)
SEMPsarelocationoractivityspecificandwillbeprepared withtherelevantcontractortoachievetheobjectivesoutlined intheCEMP. NinepotentialSEMPsareproposedforthis project.SEMPswillinclude: Actionstominimiseextentandeffectsofearthworks Identificationofsiteswithspecialecologicaland archaeologicalvaluesandmeasurestoavoidorminimise impactsonthesevalues Workprogramme Scheduleandplanofspecificsedimentcontrolmeasures Revegetationschedule Monitoringschedule
Draft SupplementaryEnvironmental ManagementPlan#3

FortrackMC40&AccesstoWT31 36.This planhasbeendevelopedasanexampleto demonstratehowtheobjectivesoftheCEMP arelikelytobeachievedduringconstruction andcommissioningoftheproject.Itcontains procedures,schedulesanddrawingsofthe constructionandenvironmentalmanagement forthissectionoftheproject.
Figure1:RelationshipofEngineeringandConstructionManagementReports
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2.1
SiteDescription
SiteDescription
ThesectionofthePuketoiRangewherethewindfarmdevelopmentislocated,isaSWtoNE trendingcuesta.Acuestaisaridgeformedbygentlytiltedsedimentaryrockstrata.Acuestais characterisedwithasteepescarpmentononesideoftheridgeandagentlerslopeontheother.
Cuesta
Dipslope
Photograph1:ViewlookingsouthalongPuketoiRangeshowingthewestfacingdipslope
Thegentleslopeistypicallyunderlainwithamoreerosionresistantrocklayer.AtPuketoithe gentlewesternslopesaresubparalleltothelayeringoftheunderlyingrockstrata.Thisslopeis referredtoasadipslope. Thesiteextendsalongtheescarpmentforapproximately22kmandistypicallybetween0.5km and3.5kmwidefromnorthtosouthrespectively.Landuseispredominantlypastoralfor agriculturalfarmingofsheepandcattle. Thesouthernsectionofthesiteisseparatedfromthecentralandnorthernsectionsbyanincised valleyandtheadjacentPahiatuaPongaroaRoadcutting. Agenerallayoutplanshowingpublicroads,windfarmroads,turbinesandotherstructuresis shownonDrawingMRPPKT3301.
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ScopeofInvestigations
Siteinvestigationsspecifictothisprojectincludegeologicalmappingofsoilandrockexposures acrossthesite,boreholes,testpitsandscalapenetrometers.Testlocationsareshownon DrawingsMRPPKT3201to3203.
3.1
DeskTopReview
Lee,J.M.;Begg,J.G.(compilers)2002:GeologyoftheWairarapaarea.Instituteof Geological&NuclearSciences1:250000geologicalmap11.1sheet+66p.LowerHutt, NewZealand.InstituteofGeologicalandNuclearScienceLimited; contourdata; aerialphotographs; publisheddatafromtheNZGeopreservationInventory; Publishedgeotechnicalandgeologicalassessmentreportsandinvestigationdatafromthe neighbouringproposedwindfarmatWaitahora,namely; o BECACarterHollings&FernerLtd(Beca),2010,WaitahoraWindFarm GeotechnicalFactualReportVolume1 o BECACarterHollings&FernerLtd(Beca),2010,WaitahoraWindFarmGeology andHydrogeologicalAssessment o BECACarterHollings&FernerLtd(Beca),2010,WaitahoraWindFarm GeotechnicalAssessment KarstGeomorphologyofthePuketoiRange,NorthernWairarapa,NewZealandMSc thesis,SLHalliday,1987(MasseyUniversity,PalmerstonNorth); PublishedpapersonKarstgroundconditions,namelyWaltham,A.C.,andFookes,P.G., 2003:EngineeringClassificationinKarstgroundConditions.QuarterlyJournalof EngineeringGeologyandHydrogeology.36:101118;
Adesktopcomponentoftheinvestigationincludedreviewofthefollowinginformation:
3.2
GeologicalMapping
Reconnaissanceandgeologicalmappinghasbeencompletedacrossthesiteinnumerousvisits betweenApril2010andMay2011.Thesitevisitshaveprogressivelybuiltupourknowledgeand understandingofthesiteconditions.Thisapproachhasallowedthecivildesigntodevelop concurrentlywiththegeotechnicalassessment.Thegeotechnicalassessmentandinvestigations havethenbecomemorefocusedastheturbinesites,roadingandinfrastructurehavebeen refined. AninitialsitevisitwasmadebyseniorTonkin&TaylorLtdGeotechnicalEngineersand EngineeringGeologistsinApril2010withdetailedgeologicalmappingundertakeninMarch2011. Thesitevisitsincluded: Mappingofoutcropsandlandforms; Identificationandlocationofgeotechnicalhazardsandconstraints; Observationandmeasurementofexistingcutandnaturalslopeangles,fillsand assessmentoftheirstability; Locationanddescriptionofsinkholefeaturesandotherkarsticlandforms.
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Therearenumerousexposuresofsoilandrockonthissite.Theseareobservedwherestreams havecutdownintothestrata,farmtrackshavebeencutintotheslopes,andinparticular,the verylargeroadcuttingsalongthePahiatuaPongaroaRoad. Duringoursitevisitswehaveobservedgoodsoilandrockexposureovermanytensofkilometres offarmtrackscutintoslopeandalsonaturaloutcrops.Theseexposuresprovideinvaluable informationoverextensiveareas,andenableasignificantlybetterappreciationofthelateral extentofparticulargroundconditionsthanaretypicallygatheredatisolatedinvestigationpoints suchasboreholesortestpits.
3.3
SubsurfaceInvestigations
Thepurposeoftheseinvestigationswastoconfirmtheconsistencyoftheassumedgeological model(basedongeologicalmappingabove),investigatespecificareasofinterestandassistinthe characterisationofthesitematerials.
3.3.1
Drilling
Twoboreholes(BH1andBH2)weredrilledatthissite.Theboreholeswerelocatedateachendof theproposeddevelopmentareaandwere15.5mto17mdeeprespectively. Theboreholesextend15mintothelimestonebedrockandunconfinedcompressivestrength (UCS)testinghasbeencompletedonrecoveredcoresamples. BoreholeslogsandcorephotographsareprovidedinAppendixBofthisreport.
3.3.2
TestPits
Nineteentestpits(TP01toTP19)havebeencompletedusinga16tonneSumitomoSH160 trackedexcavator.Thetestpitdepthsrangedfrom1.2mto4.0mdepth. Testpitshaveinvestigatedthesurfacesoils,thedepthtothebedrockandexcavatability. ThetestpitlogsandphotographsareprovidedinAppendixB.Scalapenetrometerandshearvane testinghasalsobeencompletedatthepitsites.
3.4
QuarryAggregateAssessment
Wehavereviewedexistinglocalquarriesandgeologicalresourcesinthearea.Thisassessmentis forpotentialconcreteandroadingaggregate.Detailsofthesesitesanddiscussiononthe suitabilityofthequarryaggregatesareprovidedinSection12.
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4.1
EngineeringGeology
GeologicalSetting
TheWairarapacoastalregionwhichincludesPuketoiisdescribedbyLee&Begg(2002)asbeing situatedonthemarginofanactivetectonicsystem.Here,thePacificPlateisbeingsubducted beneaththeAustralianPlatesome65to125kmeastoftheWairarapacoast.TheWairarapa regionhasbeenshapedbythetectonicforcesexertedatthisintraplatemargin,andby fluctuationsinsealevelinthegeologicalpast. AccordingtoLee&Beggtheprocessofsubductionhasresultedinazoneofaccretionand compressionwithintheWairaraparegion.MaterialscrapedfromthedescendingPacificPlatehas accretedaswedgesofsedimentalignedparalleltotheplatemargin(northeasttosouthwest).The compressionalregimehascausedthismaterialtoundergoconsiderabledeformation.Foldingand faultsystemshavedevelopedlargeanticline(upwarped)rangesandsynclinebasins (downwarped).Duringthelast24millionyears,avarietyofshallowmarinesediments (limestones)anddeepermarinesediments(siltstones/mudstones)havebeendepositedover theseranges,accumulatingthicklyinthebasins(Kempetal.1988).Thesealternatingmaterials reflectthefluctuationsofsealeveloverthisperiod.
4.2
PublishedSiteGeology
ThegeologyofthePuketoiRangeisdescribedintheInstituteofGeologicalandNuclearSciences (IGNS)reportontheGeologyoftheWairarapaArea1.Thisincludesthe1:250,000geologicalmap 11Wairarapa. TheregionalscalegeologicalmappreparedbyLeeandBegg(2002)showsthegeologyofthe PuketoiRangetocomprisePlioceneage(5.3millionto1.8millionyearsold),OnokeGroupmarine deposits.Thesearebluegreymudstoneswithalternatingsandstones,limestonesandrhyolitic tephra.Theyaredescribedasaccumulatinginintertidal,shallowseaandshelfenvironments(the sandstone/limestone),tooutershelf,seafloor,deeperbasinconditions(themudstone),with volcaniceruptiondeposits(therhyolitictephra). TheOnokeGroupdepositsaresubdividedintoanumberofgeologicalformationsfromoldestto youngest.Theseincludethefollowingformationswithinthewindfarmsite: RongomaiLimestone; RaukawaMudstone; TeOnepuLimestone; KumeroaFormation; TotaranuiLimestone.
LeeandBegg(2002)showthePuketoiRangegeologywithinthesitearea(eastofCoonoorRoad) tocomprisedipslopesofTeOnepuLimestone,describedasayellowgrey,crossbedded, barnaclerichcoquina(coquinalimestoneisformedalmostentirelyofsortedandcementedfossil debris,mostcommonlycoarseshellsandshellfragments)overlyingsandstonesandsiltstones (RaukawaFormation)andtheRongomailimestone(describedasasandy,barnaclebivalve

1
Lee,J.M.;Begg,J.G.(compilers)2002:GeologyoftheWairarapaarea.InstituteofGeological&Nuclear Sciences1:250000geologicalmap11.1sheet+66p.LowerHutt,NewZealand.InstituteofGeologicaland NuclearScienceLimited.

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coquinalimestone)withmudstonesthenunderlyingtheRongomailimestone.TheRongomai limestoneisshownonthegeologicalmapexposedinthePahiatuatoPongaroaRoadcutting towardsthesouthwesternendofthesite. AbovetheTeOnepulimestonearebedsofsiltstones,mudstonesandsandstones,knownasthe KumeroaFormation.Abovethisisanotherbedoflimestone(TotaranuiLimestone).Accordingto LeeandBegg(2002)theTotaranuilimestoneisnotrecordedtooutcropwithinthesitearea. Halliday(1987)showsasmallareaofoutcropatthebottomofthesiteneartheCoonoorRoad/ TowaiRoadjunction. Geologicalstructureatthesite(eastofCoonoorRoad)showsTeOnopulimestonebedsdipping between7and18NW.ImmediatelywestofCoonoorRoadthelimestonebedsareshown dippingtotheeastonthewestlimbofthePorisynclineasaresultofdragmovementonthe activeMakuriWaewaepafault(discussedinSection4.5.3).Thefaultisshowndippingsteeply westwithreversemovementbringingmucholderMesozoicagedinduratedsedimentsincontact withtheyoungerOnokeGroupsediments. Beddingacrosstherangedipssteeperatthecrest,andshallowstowardsthebaseoftherange towardsCoonoorRoad,creatingacurveddipslope.
Site
Figure2:RegionalGeologicalSectionincludingthePuketoiRangelookingnorth(fromLeeandBegg2002)
4.3
GeomorphologyandGeology
TheproposedwindfarmsiteliesonthewestfacingslopesofPuketoiRange,aprominentnorth eastsouthwesttrendingescarpment(cuesta)thatformedasaresultofregionaltiltingand warpingofathicksedimentarysequenceofOnokeGrouplimestonewithinterbedded sandstone/siltstone(Photograph1).Thehighestpointontheescarpmentreachesapproximately 800mabovesealevel,withtheescarpmenttypicallybetween700and750mabovesealevel.
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8 Thesequenceistiltedbetween10and20tothenorthwestforminglongwestfacingdipslopes. Incontrasttheeastfacingslopescrosscutsteeplythroughbedding(Photograph2).
Photograph2:Viewlookingsouthatthesteepeastfacingescarpmentslopes.
4.4
4.4.1
ObservedSiteGeology
GeologicalSequence
Theobservedgeologicalsequenceatthesiteisdescribedinthefollowingsectionsandisshown onthestratigraphiccolumninFigure3andonthegeologicalcrosssectioninFigure4.Further crosssectionsareshowninDrawingsMRPPKT3204to3206. Thestratigraphiccolumndevelopedfromourfieldworkisshownincomparisonwiththose preparedbyLee&Begg(2002)andHalliday(1987). ThesequenceisbestexposedinthemoreorlesscontinuousroadcuttingsalongthePahiatua PongaroaRoadandunnamedstreambankswheretheycutthroughthePuketoiRange.
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Figure3:ComparisonofschematicstratigraphiccolumnsofthePuketoiRange
Theobservedgeologyacrossthewindfarmsiteisdescribedfromoldesttoyoungestbelow.
WindfarmSite
Figure4:SchematiceastwestcrosssectionofWindfarmsitegeology
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10 4.4.1.1 OnokeGroupUndifferentiatedSandstones,SiltstonesandMudstones
Theserocksoutcroptotheeastoftheprojectsite,belowthePuketoiRangeescarpment.Theyare notexposedatthesurfacewithinthesite,withtheexceptionofasmallexposureofsandstoneon thecentraluppersiteatalowpointonthecrestbetweenWT26andWT27. TheyaredescribedbyLee&Beggasbluegrey,relativelyhomogeneous,sandysiltstonesandsilty sandstoneswithconcretionsandshells.
Photograph3:Viewlookingsoutheastatmudstone/siltstoneterrain
4.4.1.2
LowerLimestone(Rongomai/Awapapa)
A4050mthicklimestoneunitisexposedattheeasternendofthePahiatuaPongaroaRoad cuttingoverlyingtheundifferentiatedOnokeGroupsediments.Thislimestoneconsistsof interbeddedcoarsegrainedshellbeds(grainstone),calcareoussandbedsandalsowellcemented coquinashellbeds.Thelimestonebedsrangeinstrengthfromextremelyweaktomoderately strongwherethebedsarecemented. Theuppersurfaceofthelimestoneformsaprominentdipslopewheretheoverlyingsandstone hasbeenremovedbyerosion.Thissurfacecanbetracedtonorthandsouthawayfromthe PahiatuaPongaroaRoad.Erosionhasproducedakarsticsurfaceonthelimestoneinplaces. Lee&Begg(2002)haveidentifiedthislimestoneunitastheRongomaiLimestonewhereasthe earlierworkofHalliday(1987)nameditasAwapapalimestone.WehaveadoptedtheLee&Begg identification.
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TeOnepuLimestone Sandstone(RaukawaFormation) RongomaiLimestone
OnokeGroup (undifferentiated sediments)
Photograph4:Viewlookingnortheastattheescarpmentslopes.ViewedfromsouthofPahiatua PongaroaRoad.
4.4.1.3
Sandstone(Raukawa(Mudstone)Formation)
Athick(150200m)bedofyellowandorangebrown,relativelyuniform,extremelyweakandvery weak,predominantlyfinegrainedsandstoneoverliestheLower(Rongomai)Limestoneintheroad section.Remnantsofthissandstoneoverlythelimestoneonsomeofthelimestonedipslopes. Thesandstonecanbetracedalongtheescarpmenttothenorthwesttothecentralpartofthe site.Halliday(1987)identifiedthisastheRaukawa(Mudstone)Formation.Wehaveadoptedthis formationname.

MiddleLimestone (TeOnepu)
Sandstone(Raukawa(Mudstone)Formation) LowerLimestone (Rongomai)
Photograph5:SandstonebedbetweenlimestonesnearthetopofMC40Road
4.4.1.4
MiddleLimestone(TeOnepu)
Thismiddlelimestoneunitformsthemajorpartofthedipslopesonthewesternflankofthe PuketoiRange.Thelimestonegenerallycompriseslightyellowgrey,veryweaktomoderately
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12 strong,mediumandcoursegrainedsandyshellbeds,coquinashellbedsandcalcareous sandstones.ThelimestoneisidentifiedasTeOnepubyLee&Begg(2002)andthisnameis retainedinthisreport.Theunitisintheorderof150mto250minthickness.Itwasmeasuredin thePahiatuaPongaroaRoadcuttingtobeapproximately250mthick. KarstictopographyhasdevelopedonmuchoftheexposedTeOnepudipslopes.Karsttopography isdescribedinSection5.
Photograph6:TeOnepulimestoneexposureinPongaroaroadcut.
Photograph7:TeOnepuLimestoneoutcropstothewestofWT12/WT13.
Interbedsarealsonotedwithinthelimestoneunit.Asiltstone/mudstoneinterbedisvisiblefrom thetrackfurtherdownfromPhotograph7.Hallidayidentifiedathickinterbed(orlens)of mudstonewithintheTeOnepusequenceonhisgeologicallegend.
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4.4.1.5
UndifferentiatedSiltstonesandMudstones(KumeroaFormation)
A50morgreaterthicknessofextremelyweakandweak,bluegreyandalsoorangemottled, relativelyhomogeneousshellysiltstones,sandysiltstonesandmudstonesarepresentonthe lowerslopesandinthelowerstreamgullysoverthewesternpartofthesite. TherearemultipleexposuresofthisunitalongCoonoorRoad. 4.4.1.6 UpperLimestone(Totaranui)
Alimestonebedoverliesthemudstonesandlocallyformscapstosomeridgesandknobsonthe lowerslopesalongthewesternsideofthesite.Therearealsomanyisolatedblocksandboulders ofthislimestonesittingontopoftheKumeroa.Thesearethelastremnantsoftheeroded limestonebed.
TotaranuiLimestone
KumeroaFormation
Photograph8:TotaranuilimestoneoverlyingKumeroaFormationviewedfromCoonoorRoad
Thislimestoneiscoarsegrained,weaktomoderatelystrongandstrong,shelly,crossbedded, yellowbrownandgreywithcalcareoussandstones.BasedonmappingbyHalliday(1987),we haveadoptedtheTotaranuilimestonename.
Photograph9:TypicalexposureofTotaranuilimestoneboulders.
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14 4.4.1.7 SurfaceSoils(Loess,ColluviumandRemnantSand)
Exposuresandtestpitsindicatethelimestonedipslopesarecommonlymantledwithasilt,sandy siltandsiltysandsoils.Thesedepositsareacombinationofloessialandcolluvialorigin,butalso includeremnantsoftheoverlyingsandstonebeds. TheRongomaidipslopesaretypicallymantledwithathinveneerofcolluvium(slopewashorsoil creep)deposits.Thesedepositsareshallow(typicallylessthan2m)andrepresentremobilised remnantsanddeposits. Thesandandsiltsoilsareoverlainbytopsoiloftypically0.1mto0.4mdepth.Thesoilprofile typicallyextendstoanaveragedepthof2.0m.Howeverthedepthofsurfacesoilsvarieslocally duetokarsticweathering(Section5).Thisischaracterisedbythepinnaclesofrockshownin Photograph10.
Topsoil Soilthicknessvariability overshortdistance Loess Colluvium
Limestone
Photograph10:Typicalkarsticweathering
4.4.1.8
Alluvium
Alluvialdepositsarerelativelyinfrequentintheprojectarea.Smallalluvialterracesconsistingof gravelsandsandsarepresentalongthebanksoftheMakuriStream.Thesegravelsandsandsare derivedbyerosionofboththeOnokeGrouprocksandgreywackebasementrocks. 4.4.1.9 ManMadeFills
Manmadefillsareuncommonatthesitewithsomelocalisedreprofilingoftheground undertakentoformroads,farmaccesstracksandworkingareasandstockponds.Wenotedthat somesinkholesinthelimestonehavebeenbackfilledbyfarmers(i.e.nearthebottomofMC30 Road). LargerfillshavebeenformedattheTowaiRoadquarrybythedisposalofoverburden.
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4.5
StructuralGeology
Geologicalmappingundertakenduringourinvestigationsconfirmthatthewestfacingslopesof thePuketoiRangereflectsthebeddingattitudewithinthelimestoneandgenerallydipsat between10to20towardsbetweenN290toN320.Theseminorvariationsindip/dipdirection giverisetogentleundulationsonthedipslopes.Beddingdipgenerallyreducesfrom20alongthe escarpmentontheeastsideofthesite,tonearer10atthevalleyflooronthewestside. Asmallnumberoffaultsandlineationshavebeenrecognisedformingstepsinthedipslopeson boththeRongomaiandTeOnepulimestone.TheselineationstrendbothNWtoSEandNEtoSW andareconsideredtobeassociatedwiththeregionaltectonicsthatcausedtiltingtothe sedimentarysequence,ultimatelyformingthePuketoiRange.
Beddipdirection Lineation
Sandstone
RongomaiLimestone
Photograph11:SandstonebedbetweenlimestonesneartopofMC40Road.NoteNWSEtrending lineationonRongomaidipslope.
Localisedsteepeningofthelimestonebedswasobservedonthelowerslopesatonelocation withintheprojectarea(nearthebottomoftheMC40Road).Inthislocalitybeddingangle increasedtonearly40,indicatingprobabledowndraggingbyafaultrunningalongthevalley floor.
4.5.1
RegionalSeismicity
LeeandBegg(2002)describetheWairaraparegionasoneofthemostseismicallyactiveareasof NewZealandduringhistoricaltimes.Therehavebeennumerousearthquakesintheregionsince recordsbeganin1840,i.e.Magnitude5to6(atleast40),6to7(atleast9)andgreaterthan7+ (atleast3).ThelargestearthquakeinrecordedtimeswasatthesouthernendoftheWairarapa Faultwhichrupturedin1855resultinginaM8.2event. Theregularityandseverityoftheseismicactivityintheareaisduetothecloseproximityofthe subductionzonebetweenthePacificplateandtheAustralianplateofftheeastcoastof Wairarapa.Seismicactivityintheareaisexpectedtocontinueinthefuturewithsimilarregularity andseverity.
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4.5.2
MajorFaults
Therearenomajorfaults(asdefinedbyTable3.6inNZS1170.5:2004)within20kmofthesite. MajorFaultsrequirenearfaultfactorstobeappliedwhenassessingstructuraldesignactions. ThereareonlyfourmajorfaultsintheNorthIslandofNewZealand,namelytheMohaka, Wairarapa,WairauandWellingtonFaults.
4.5.3
ActiveFaults
Thereisnoevidenceofactivefaultswithintheprojectsite,however,thereareanumberofactive faultscloseby.ThenearestknownactivefaultistheMakuriWaewaepaFaultapproximately2km tothewestofthesite.ThisfaultisanorthernextensionoftheWairarapaFaultandislocated immediatelywestofCoonoorRoadtothewestoftheprojectarea.TheWairarapaFaulthasa rupturereoccurrenceintervalofnearly2000yearsandiscapableofproducinganearthquakeof magnitudeof8.08.3(Mw).LeeandBegg(2002)andIGNS`sActiveFaultDatabasedonotprovide singleeventdisplacementsfortheMakuriWaewaepaFault,althoughitsreoccurrenceintervalis estimatedtobebetween2000and3500years. TheactiveSaundersRoadFaultliesapproximately510kmfromtheeasternsideofthesite.This faulthasarupturereoccurrenceintervalof3500yearsandisthoughttobecapableofproducing anearthquakeofmagnitudeof6.97.4(Mw).TheSaundersRoadFaultisestimatedtohavelast rupturedlessthan100yearsago(BeggandLee2002). Theeffectswithinthesiteofstrongearthquakeshakingasaresultoflocalfaultrupturecould includeslopeinstabilityofsteepslopesandliquefactionofalluvialsedimentsontheMakuririver terracesandlocaliseddepositsinthebaseofsomegullies.SlopestabilityisdescribedinSection6, andliquefactioninSection7.3.
4.6
NZGeoPreservationSocietySites
TheJointEarthScienceSocietiesWorkingGroupontheNewZealandGeopreservationInventory publishedareportin1996titledInventoryandMapsofImportantGeologicalSitesand LandformsintheManawatuandWellingtonRegions.Nogeologicalsitesofsignificanceare includedwithinthesiteareainthisreport.Thenearestsitesarecavestothenorthandwestof CoonoorandTowaiRoads. Furthertothe1996publication,ThePuketoiRangehasrecentlybeenaddedtothe GeopreservationInventory.IthasbeengivenaC3classification.C3meansthatthelandform, whenconsideredfromageologicalperspective,isregionallysignificant,butonewhichisnot expectedtobedamagedbyhumans.TherangeisdescribedinthepublicationasbeingOneof thebestexamplesofacuestalandformintheNorthIsland.Dipslopeswithdryvalleysareclearly visiblefromlocationsasdistantastheTararuaandRuahineRanges. NumerouscuestasexistacrosstheHawkesBayRegion,includingthewellknownTeMataPeakto thesoutheastofHavelockNorth.Cuestasarecommonthroughthisregion,trendingNEtoSW, duetotheregionaltectonicsthathascausedtiltingtothesedimentarysequenceandthe presenceofstrongerbeds(likelimestone)thatformmoreresistantcapstothehills. Theproposedearthworksarerelativelysurficalincomparisontothesizeofthegeological landform.Theproposedroadshavebeenlocatedtominimisetheeffectsondryvalleysandother limestonekarstfeaturesasdetailedinSection5.
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Sinkholes,KarstandGeohydrology
Karstisacomprehensivetermappliedtolimestoneareasthatpossesatopographypeculiarto anddependentuponundergroundsolutionandthediversionofsurfacewaterstounderground routes(ThornburyW.,D.1954:PrinciplesofGeomorphologypublishedbyJohnWiley&Sons). ThornburynotedthatfourconditionscontributetothemaximumdevelopmentofKarst: 1. Limestonemustbepresentnearoratthegroundsurface. 2. Thelimestoneshouldbedense,highlyjointedandpreferablythinbeddedotherwisekarst featuresareonlyweaklydeveloped. 3. Groundwatermustbeabletodescendthroughthelimestone,carryoutitssolutional work,andemergeintosurfacestreams. 4. Theregionshouldhaveatleastamoderateamountofrainfall. ThedevelopmentofKarstonlyoccursonthissitewheretheaboveconditionsoccur.Thekarst featuresaremoreprevalentintheTotaranuilimestoneformationasthisismoredensethanthe TeOnepuandRongomailimestones. Karstfeaturesarecreatedbydissolutionoftherockoftenalongbeddingplanesandfractures. CO2enrichedwaterpercolatingthroughthesurfacesoilsformaweakcarbonicacid(H2CO3)that slowlydissolvestherock.Wherethewaterfollowsbeddingplanesorfracturesthedrainage pathwayswidenovertime.Thecavities,tunnelsorconduitscausedbythedissolutionofthe limestonearecollectivelyreferredtoasdolinefeatures. Halliday(1987)estimatesthatthesolutionerosionrateofalimestonebasinwithinthePuketoi Rangeisintheorderof58.2m3/km2/yr.Thereisverylittleriskthatdissolutioncavitieswillgrow significantlywithinthedesignlifeoftheproject.Thenaturalenlargementofthesefeatures thereforepresentsnorisktotheproposeddevelopment. Thepotentialforadverseeffectstothesekarsticfeaturesfromthedevelopmentarelimitedto: Increasingtheloadontheroofofexistinglimestonecavitiestounacceptablelevels, promotingcollapseofthecavityroof; Temporaryincreaseinsedimentrunofffromearthworkedareasenteringthesubsurface drainagenetworkinthelimestone; Damagetosurfacekarstfeaturesbyearthworks.
Eachofthesepotentialadverseeffectscanbereasonablyavoided,remediedormitigatedthrough appropriatedesignandconstructionmanagement.Adescriptionofkarstfeatures,geohydrology andhoweachofthesepotentialadverseeffectsshouldbemanagedisdescribedinthefollowing section.
5.1
KarstLandforms&Features
ThelocationswhereKarstandsinkhole/dolinefeaturestypicallyoccuronthePuketoiRangeare shownonDrawingMRPPKTF5inAppendixA.
5.1.1
LargeCaves,ConduitsandCavities
Caves,conduitsandcavitiesarecausedbydissolutionofthelimestonerockbywatertracking alongbeddingplanesandfractures/joints.Largecavesandcavitiesarerareonthissite,
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18 particularlyintheareaoftheproposedwindfarmroadsandinfrastructure.TheMakuriCoonoor areaiswellknownforlimestonecaves.Somecaveshaveincludedfossilrichdepositsincluding birdandreptileremains.Thebestknowncavesarelocatedinthreedistinctareassurroundingthe site.Theseare: OntheWaewaepaStationtothenorthoftheprojectsite; TothenorthandwestoftheCoonoorTowaiRoadjunction;and AsmallconcentrationtothesouthoftheMakuritownship.
AllofthesenotablecavesarelocatedwithintheTotaranuilimestonebeds. TheTotaranuiistheyoungestofthelimestoneformationsinthisareaandthehighestinthe geologicalsequence.TheproposedwindfarmworkswillnotencounteroraffecttheTotaranui limestone.Allproposedroads,earthworksandprojectinfrastructurearelocatedonthematerials lowerinthegeologicalsequence.ThelimestoneswhichunderlietheprojectworksaretheTe OnepuandRongomailimestones.Theselimestoneshavefewerkarsticfeaturesthanthe Totaranuilimestone.CavesandcavitiesdoexistintheRongomaiandTeOnepulimestones,but theyarerareandofsignificantlylesserscalethanthoseobservedintheTotaranuilimestone. SeveralmodestsizecavesandconduitshavebeenobservedontheprojectsiteintheTeOnepu Limestone.Thelargestconduitobservedisapproximately700mmwide.Theselargerconduitsare typicallylocatedinthefloorofgulliesordrainagecoursesonthemidtolowerslopesoftherange wheretherearepermanentorsemipermanentstreamflows. SignificantcavesandconduitsarerareintheLimestoneontheupperslopesoftherange.The onlyconduitidentifiedclosetotheridgeandclosetotheproposedearthworksareais approximately100mwestofWT9.Thisconduitisapproximately500mmwideattheentrance, locatedatS40.26,609m,E176.07,719m.Thissmallconduitmaypossiblyextendunderthe proposedaccessroadwestoftheconduitentrance.Providedtheroadisconstructedonsuitable filloverthisarea,itpresentsminimalrisktotheconduit. Generallytheriskoflargecavesandcavitiesaffectingtheproposeddevelopmentislow.There aretwoareasofrelativelyhigherrisk(basedontopography&geologicalconditions).Theseareas willrequireahigherlevelofinvestigationduringdetaileddesignandconstruction.Theseare locatedat: MC30betweenchainages7300mand7850m; MCB0betweenchainages400mand700m.
5.1.2
SmallConduitsandFissures
SmallconduitsorfissuresarelikelytobeencounteredwithintheTeOnepuandRongomai limestone.Thesesmallconduitsaretypicallyformedbydissolutionoflimestonealongfractures/ jointswithintherock.Wherethesesmallconduitsinterconnecttheycreateasubsurfacedrainage networkwithinthelimestone.Thesefeaturesarelikelytounderliethesinkholesonthesite. Thesefeaturesarelikelytobemorecommoninthefloorofdryvalleys.Fromobservationof extensiveexistingtrackcuttingsoverthesitetheywillberareandawayfromdryvalleys.
5.1.3
Sinkholes
Sinkholesordolines(alsoknownlocallyastomos)areholesordepressionsintheground.The featureshavedevelopedbydissolutionofthelimestone.Thereareavarietyofdifferentsinkhole typesasdetailedinFigure6below.
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Figure6:Sinkholetypes(TakenfromWalthamA.C.andFookesP.G.2003)
Withintheprojectarea,suffosionsinkholesarethemostcommonformofsinkholeontheupper slopes.Thesearecausedbyerosionofsandunitsintofissuresorconduitsintheunderlying limestone.ThesesinkholestypicallyoccurinthesiltysanddepositsoverlyingtheRongomaiand TeOnepulimestonebeds.
Photograph12:Flowofwaterandsiltintoconduitwithinlimestone
DropoutsinkholesaremorecommononthelowerslopeswherethecappingmaterialovertheTe Onepulimestoneismudstoneofthe(lower)KumeroaFormation(seePhotograph13).Thereare alsoexamplesofsinkholeswherethereisacombinationofsuffosionanddropoutmechanisms occurring.Wehavenotobservedanyexamplesofcollapseorcaprocksinkholesonthissite.Allof theobservedactivesinkholesarerelatedtosurficialsoilswashingintoconduitsintheunderlying limestone.
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Silt
Photograph13:TypicalexampleofsiltswashingintounderlyingconduitnearbottomofMC30Road
Thelocationsofsinkholesmappedinthevicinityoftheproposedroadsandassociatedworksare shownonDrawingsMRPPKT3306to3315.Thesefeatureshavebeenlocatedbyacombination offieldmapping(fixedbyGPS),reviewofaerialphotographandcontourinformation.
Photograph14:Largesuffosion/dropoutsinkholeinKumeroaFormation
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Sinkholes
Photograph15:SuffosionsinkholesinRaukawasandbedoverRongomailimestoneonrangecrest
Sinkholesobservedonthesiteareofvariablediameteranddepth.Withintheprojectareathey arepredominantlylessthan8mwideand5mdeep.Thesinkholesaretypically(butnot exclusively)locatedclosetothefloorofvalleyswheresurfaceorsubsurfacewaterflowsarelikely tobeconcentrated.Occasionalsinkholesupto2030mindiameterwererecorded.Thelarger sinkholesarelocatedwithintheKumeroaformation(erodingintotheunderlyingTeOnepu limestone).Theprojectroadsorinfrastructurelocatedclosetolargesinkholes(typicallywithin Kumeroaformation)arelimitedto: MC30betweenchainages7300mand7850m; MCB0betweenchainages400mand700m; MCA0Betweenchainages900mand1200m; MC20Betweenchainages100mand600m.
Theselargesinkholesindicateactivesubsurfacedrainageconduitsinthevicinitywithpotentialfor largesubsurfacecavities.Theseareaswillbethefocusofmoreextensivegeotechnical investigationsinthedesigndetailingandconstructionphasestoensurepotentialrisksare avoidedormitigated.
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Photograph16:LargesuffosionsinkholeonlowerslopesinKumeroaFormation
5.1.4
SwallowHoles
Swallowholes,alsocalledstreamsinks,arelocationswherewaterdisappearsintotheground tofollowasubterraneanflowpathoftenreappearingagainafewtensofmetresfurtherdown slope.Thissubterraneanflowpathisusuallyformedbydissolutionofthelimestonetoformopen conduits.
Figure7:LimestoneFeatures(TakenfromFarlexonlineEncyclopaedia)
FigureMRPPKTF8inAppendixAshowsaschematicofhowstreamsinkswithinstreambeds relatetothegeologicalsequencingobservedatthissite.
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Photograph17:Streamsinkintoalluvium
5.1.5
KarrenSurface
Karrenisageneraltermusedtodescribethegradualsculptingorshapingofalimestonesurface bydissolution.Anexampleofkarsticweatheringonthetopoflimestoneblocksisshownin Photograph18.
Photograph18:Examplekarstsurfaceonlimestoneexposure
Karrensurfacesarecommononexposededgesofthelimestonebedsthroughoutthesite.
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Photograph19:Preferentialweatheringalongjointsinlimestone(Totaranuilimestone)
Casehardeningisanothersurfacecharacteristicoflimestonewhereithasbecomeharderatthe surfacethanwithintheunderlyingrock.ThemechanismforcasehardeningatPuketoiisthought tobeduetothereprecipitationofdissolvedcalciumcarbonateatornearthesurface(Halliday 1987). Somelimestonesurfaceoutcropsareremnantbouldersfrompastrockfallscausedbyprogressive erosionoftheunderlyingstrata(refertoSection6.1.4andPhotograph26).Ifrequiredfor ecologicalorvisualmitigationpurposes,therewillthereforebeopportunitytorelocatesuch bouldersiftheyareencounteredbytheproposedearthworks.
5.1.6
DryValleys
Dryvalleysarevalleyswithoutobservablesurfacewatercoursesinthemorwherethe watercoursesareonlytemporary(i.e.runonlyduringveryheavyrainfallevents).Numerousdry valleysareencounteredacrossthesite.
Photograph20:DryvalleynearcrestofescarpmentnearWT31
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MuchofthedipslopeofthePuketoiRangeisincisedwithdryvalleys.Theoccurrenceofthesedry valleysistheresultof: Highpermeabilitysurficialsandlayerswherethesurfacewaterrapidlyinfiltratesbelow ground(seePhotograph20);or Inlimestonewheresurfacewaterdrainstothegroundwaternetworkviastreamsinks, openjointsorconduits. ThedryvalleysaremoreextensivewithintheRaukawaandKumeroaformationswherethey thinlyoverlythelimestonebedsbelow(i.e.thedepthisshallowtorelativelyfreedraining limestonebelow).Themainspineroadhasbeenpositionedclosetothetopofthe escarpmenttoavoidasmanyofthedryvalleysaspractical.
Photograph21:Dryvalleynearcrest,becomingmoreincisedwithdistancefromthecrest
Avariationofadryvalleyisablindvalley.Ablindvalleydevelopswhereasinkingcreekhas terminatedataswallowholeforsolongthatithascutavalleyupstreamfromthatswallowhole. Waterflowsfromtheseblindvalleysdischargetotheunderlyinglimestonedrainagenetwork. Therearefewexamplesofblindvalleysontheprojectsiteandallobservedexamplesarelocated aroundthelowerslopesatthesouthernendofthesitewithinKumeroaformation.
5.2
KarstPotentialEffectsandMitigation
KarsttopographyhasdevelopedonallthreelimestoneformationsatPuketoiandtheecological andscientificvalueofthesefeaturesisrecognised. Themaineffectsthatdevelopmentinthelimestoneterrainmayhaveonthekarstfeaturesare: Increasingtheloadontheroofofexistinglimestonecavitiestounacceptablelevels, promotingcollapseofthecavityroof; Temporaryincreaseinsedimentrunofffromearthworkedareasenteringthesubsurface limestonedrainagenetwork,withconsequentdownstreameffects; Lossordamagetosurfacekarstfeatures(ecological,visual&scientificvalues).
Thewindfarmdesign(inparticulartheassociatedearthworksdesign)shouldbedevelopedto minimisetheeffectsonthesekarstfeatureswheretheycannotbeavoided.Withappropriate
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26 designandconstructionmanagementthesepotentialeffectscanbeavoided,remediatedor mitigated. Thelevelofdetailintheinvestigations,particularlythemappingofsinkholeshasdevelopedasthe designhasbecomemoredefined.
5.2.1
5.2.1.1
OverviewofKarstRelatedDesignandConstructionManagement Philosophy
PreliminaryGeotechnicalDesign
Thegeotechnicalassessmentanddesigndevelopedtodateincludes: Identifybygeologicalmappingthelimestoneformationsandtheirdistributionoverthe site; Understandthetypeandmechanismsofkarstrelatedfeaturesassociatedwitheach limestoneformationandoverlyingsoils; Collaborationbetweenexpertstoidentifyapreferredroutethatavoidsorminimisesthe effectsofearthworksonkarstfeaturesandotherconstraints; Locationofcavityandsinkholefeatures(withsurfaceexpression)withintheinfluenceof theproposedearthworksandfoundations; Collaborationbetweenexpertstorelocateandamendthedesigntoavoidspecific featureswherepossible. DesignDetailing
5.2.1.2
Inthedetaileddesignstagethefollowingprocessisenvisaged: Reviewconsentconditions; Whererequiredundertakefurtherdetailedgeologicalmappingandgeotechnical investigationstoimproveunderstandinginareasofremaining(geotechnicalrelated)risk; Workupspecificsolutionstoavoid,remedyormitigateeachareaofpotentialrisk; Completedetaileddesignandfinalisetheconstructionmanagementplans;
TheprioritiesforwhichKarstfeatureswillbeavoidedorminimised,forspecificelementsofthe projectareoutlinedinTable51. 5.2.1.3 Construction
Asconstructioncommences,soilanduppersurfaceoflimestonewillbeexposedbythe earthworks.Theseearthworkswillbemonitoredandmappedbyanengineeringgeologist. Furtherdetailedinvestigationsmaybecarriedoutatthisstagetodeterminetheextentofkarst developmentinparticularareas.Wherekarstfeaturesareidentifiedtheywillbetreatedin accordancewiththekarstmanagementprotocolsdiscussedinTables51and52,withspecific detailsshownondrawingsMRPPKT3207and3208. TheseprotocolswillbeincludedintheprojectCEMP.
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Table51KarstFeaturesPotentialEffectsandProposedMitigation KarstIssue
Sediment Mitigation
PotentialAdverseEffect
Sedimentladenrunoffenteringkarstdrainagenetwork
ProposedMitigation
SedimentanderosioncontrolinaccordancewiththeCEMPandSEMP.Themainobjectivesofthisplanare: Minimisesedimentgenerationbyminimisingexposureofsoils Minimisethetimesoilsareexposedbystagingtheearthworks Minimisecatchmentarea Implementsedimenttreatmentmeasuressuchassedimentpits,decantpondsetc. Collectandtreatsedimentladenrunoffbeforeitcanenterthesubsurfacedrainagenetworksuntreated.
Constructingearthworksdirectlyoversinkholes.Potential forsoilstomigratedirectlyintosubsurfacedrainage network
InaccordancewiththeprinciplesoutlinedinTable5.1,wherepossibletheproposedearthworkswillbelocatedto avoidsinkholesandtheunderlyingkarsticfeatures(withinthelimestone).Inthoseareaswhereearthworksare locatedoversinkholestheplacedsoilswillbeseparatedfromtheunderlyingkarstfeature(conduitorfissure)by filterfabric.Filterfabricwillbeeffectiveinpreventingsoilsmigratingintotheunderlyingcavityorconduit.In instanceswheretheunderlyingfeatureiswideorcannotbepracticallysubexcavateddowntothelimestone surface,geogridwillbeusedunderthefilltoprovidetensilecapacity(strength)totheundersideofthefill.Thiswill allowthefilltospanoveridentifiedorpotentialvoids.DetailsforthesetreatmentsareshownonDrawingsMRP PKT3207to3708. Topreventsurfacewaterenteringthesefeaturesuntreated.Thefollowingtechniqueswillbeimplemented: Forconduitsorvoidsexposedwithinthewatertabledrains,thetopofthevoidwillbesubexcavated(as perDrawingMRPPKT3208)filterfabricplacedoverthevoidandthesurfacebackfilledwithconcreteto min300mmdepth.Theconcretewillpreventlargequantitiesofwaterenteringthelimestonedrainage network.Thefilterfabricwillpreventconcreteenteringtheunderlyingcavity. Forconduitsandvoidsnotexposedtoconcentratedsurfaceflowtheareawillbesubexcavatedandfilter fabricplacedandbackfilledwithcompactedgranularlimestone.Voidsexposedincutslopeswillgenerally beleftuntreatedasthesewilldraintowardstheexcavation.
Exposureofconduitsinlimestonetosurfacewaterflow. Followingearthworksopenconduitsmaybeexposedon thefinishedsurfaces
Whereconduitswillneedtosupportloadi.e.underroads,thecavitywillbefilledwithclean,freedraininglimestone boulders. Earthworksoveropenjoints.Assoilsareworkedduring Onlymodestvolumesofsedimentarelikelytoentertheopenjointsorconduitsduringexcavation.Virtuallyallthis
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excavationthereispotentialforsmallvolumesof sedimenttobeworkedintoajointorconduit. sedimentwillbelimestonederivedsowillbegraveltosandsizelimestone.Thefollowingtechniqueswillbeusedto minimisethesedimententeringthelimestonedrainagenetworkviaopenjointsandconduits: Stopexcavationwhenrainfallcausessurfacerunoffontheworkingareas. Stripamajorityofthetopsoilandloessialmantleawayfromthelimestonebeforeexcavatingintothe underlyinglimestone. Forlargelimestoneexcavations,excavatetofulldepthinonepass(ratherthanloweringinmultiple passes)toavoidcontinuallyworkingdebrisoveranopenjoint. Whenaconduitjointorvoidisobserved,excavatematerialawayfromthefeatureratherthanpushingor draggingmaterialoverit. Assoonasexcavationistogradeundercutthetopofthefeature,placefilterfabricandbackfillwith compactedlimestonerefertoDrawingMRPPKT3208.
CaveRoof Excavatingdownandbreakingthroughroofofunderlying Collapse/Daylight cavesystem
Therisksofencounteringlargecavitieswithintheprojectworksareconsideredlowassuchfeaturesarerarewithin theTeOnepuorRongomailimestones. Thefollowinghasbeenimplementedtominimisetherisk: Sinkholestypicallyaligndowntheslope,beingmostcommonindryvalleys.Associatedunderlyingcaves andconduitswillbelargerwheretherearesemipermanentstreamflows.Theproposedworkshavebeen positionedtoavoidasmuchaspracticalareasoflargesinkholes,dryvalleysandstreambedswherethere areactivestreamsinks. Geologicalmappinghasidentifiedareasofhigherriskbasedongeological,geohydrologicaland topographicalconditions.Inareaswhereproposedroads,earthworksfoundationsorotherinfrastructure arewithin(astheycannotpracticallyavoid)highriskareas,detailed.Geotechnicalinvestigationswillbe completed.
Theseinvestigationswillconfirmthatthecave/cavitysystemsareeithernotpresentoralternativelysolutionswill canbedevelopedtoavoiddaylightingorcollapsingpotentialstructures.Potentialsolutionsmayinvolveaslight alignmentchangetoavoidasignificantcavityorabridgeconstructedonthegroundtopreventtrafficloadsbeing appliedoveranunderlyingcavityatshallowdepth. Accidentalbreakthroughtolargecavity If,duringexcavation,anunidentifiedvoidisencounteredintheexcavation(belowtheformationlevel).Thecavity willbebackfilledwithlargegranular(sitesourced)limestoneboulders.Thetopofthecavitywillbecappedwith geogridandfilterfabrictosupporttrafficloadsandpreventsoilfinesenteringthecavity.Thelimestoneboulders willbeusedastheywillnotintroduceanysoilsintothelimestonecavity.Theboulderswillalsoallowtheground
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watertopasswithoutsignificantdisruption Openjointsandfissures Openjointsandfissuresexposedonthebaseoftheformationwillbeundercutandlinedwithfilterfabric.In instanceswhereloadisrequiredtobecarriedoverthefeature,geogridandbackfillingwithlimestonegravelwillbe includedasshownonDrawingMRPPKT3207. AsdiscussedinSection9,windturbinefoundationsaresitedonridgesandspurswheretheriskofsignificant sinkholefeaturesislower.Wehavealsoselectedlocationsonsitethatareclearofsignificantsinkholes. Asthesoilsoverlyingthelimestonewillbestrippedundertheproposedfoundationtheriskofsuffosionordropout sinkholedevelopmentwillberemoved. Therewillremainariskofsubsurfacecavitieswithinthelimestone.Generallyconduitsorcavitiesupto1min diameterareunlikelytohaveaneffectthefoundationperformance.Largercavitiesmayhaveanadverseeffectif theyareclosetofoundationlevel.Itisrecommendedthatduringdetaileddesignorconstruction,ground investigations(e.g.airtrackpatterndrilling)arecompletedtoconfirmthesubsurfaceconditions. Techniquessuchasgroundpenetratingradararesuitedtothistaskonceaflatplatformhasbeenexcavated. Intheeventthatalargecavityisfound(thatmayadverselyaffectfoundationperformance)apilecanbeextended throughthevoidtotransferfoundationloadstounderlyingcompetentground.Thepileswillbecasedtoensurethe integrityofthepilesandpreventconcretedispersingintothecavity. Itislikelythatadditionalinvestigationssuchasboreholeswillbeundertakeninconjunctionwith(orinsteadof) geophysicalinvestigations. Accelerate sinkhole developmentby pondingwater Increasedwaterseepagefromdecantpondsmaycause accelerationofsoilerosionintounderlyinglimestone drainagenetwork. Manyoftheproposeddecantpondswillbelocatedwithinlimestoneterrain.Thesewillbemanagedasdiscussedin Section5.2. Decantpondlocationswillbelocatedwherepossibletominimisepotentialtoacceleratesinkholedevelopment.Any openjointsor,conduitsthatareobservedduringconstructionorfillingwillbetreatedbyliningwithfilterfabricand asoilorgeosyntheticliner. Somedecantpondswillbelocatedinareasofhigherpotentialrisk.Areasofhighriskarelikelytoincludesiteswhere thereisashallowdepthofnoncohesivesandysoilsoverlimestone,therearealsolikelytobeexistingsinkholeand karstfeaturesinthevicinity.Sitesthatarelikelytobeatriskwill(dependingonthesituation): Beconstructedwithfilterfabricliningplaceddirectlyoverthelimestonesurface.Thefilterfabricwill preventsedimentdirectlyenteringthelimestone. Thepondwillbelinedwithalowpermeabilitysoilorplasticmembrane.Thisliningwillminimisewater
Voidsunderproposedturbinefoundations
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travellingintothefoundationsoils. Allpondswillbeobservedduringfilling.Ifwaterlossorformationofsinkholesisobservedthepondwillbe dewateredandmitigationmeasures,asabove,willbeimplemented. Adiffusedischargewillbeusedfromthedecantpondsinhigherriskareastopreventconcentrateddischargeof waterontotheerodiblesoils.Overflowspillwaydischargeswillgenerallybedirectlytooverlandflowpathswhere normalstormflowswouldbeconcentratednaturally. CaveEntrances Lossordisruptiontorecreationalorscientificcavers AsdiscussedinSection5.1.1,thenotedcavesinthisareaarelocatedwithintheTotaranuilimestone.Totaranui limestoneisnotaffectedbytheproposeddevelopment. Ifcaveentrancesareencounteredtheywillbeavoided.
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5.2.1.4 GeophysicalInvestigations Furthergeotechnicalinvestigationsshouldbeundertakenthroughdetaileddesignand constructionphases. Geophysicssuchasgroundpenetratingradar(GPR)canbeusedtoassistdetectionofsubsurface karsticfeatures(dissolutioncavities,tunnelsorconduits).Thesetechniquesshouldbeutilised wheregeologicalmappingindicatesariskthatsubsurfacefeaturesmayaffect(orbeaffectedby) theproposedworks. Geophysicaltechniquesarelikelytodetectthepresenceofmoderatetolargecavitieswithin5to 10metresofthegroundsurface.Beyondthisdepthsuchfeaturesareunlikelytopresenta significanthazardtotheproposedroadingorturbinefoundations. GPRislikelytobethemostpracticalgeophysicaltoolfordetectingshallowdolinefeatures.GPRis bestusedonaflatsurfacesofortheturbinesiteswillmostlikelybeadoptedaftertheplatform hasbeencut. Geophysicaltechniqueswillneedtobecalibratedusingconventionalsubsurfaceinvestigation techniquessuchasboreholes.
5.3
Geohydrology
Theproposeddevelopment(notablytheearthworks)willhaveaminimaleffectonthe groundwatersystemorsedimentprocesses.Thefollowingsectionsdescribethegroundwater regimeandhowsedimenttransportoccursnaturallyinthissystem.
5.3.1
SurfaceDrainageandGroundwaterVolume
ThewestfacingdipslopesofthePuketoiRangearedrainedbyregularlyspacedstreamsflowing moreorlessdirectlydowndipontheTeOnepuLimestonewithlateralbranchesflowingobliquely acrossthemoreresistant(nonporous)stratawithinthelimestone,givingrisetoarectangular drainagepattern.OnlyafewstreamsoccurontheupperdipslopesoftheRongomaiLimestone. TheonlystreamthatdissectsthePuketoiRangeistheunnamedstreamfollowingthePahiatuato PongaroaRoad.Thedrainageoffthewestfacingdipslopesiscollectedatthetoeoftheslopeby theMakuriStreaminthenorthandtheMakuriRiverinthesouth. Groundwaterrechargeontherangecomesfromdirectrainfallandinfiltrationthroughthesurface rocksandsoils.Theproposeddevelopmentwillnotchangetheamountofwaterfallingonthe range.Theroadswillbesurfacedwithgravelandthefilldisposalsiteswillberevegetated.The changeinpermeabilityofthegroundsurfaceaffectedbyearthworkswillthereforebenegligible. TheearthworksalsoaffectonlyafractionofonepercentofthesurfaceareaofthePuketoiRange. Theproposedworksaregenerallylocatedonthewesternslopesoftherangeandaretherefore withintheMakuriStream/MakuriRivercatchment,withexceptionofa280mlengthofroad betweenWT33andWT34. Theproposedearthworkswillnotnoticeablyaffectthesizeofcatchments(i.e.workswillnot redirectflowsfromonestreamcatchmenttoanother).Thereforetheeffectsonsurfaceor groundwaterflowswillbeinsignificantoneithersideoftheRange.
5.3.2
GroundwaterMovement
GroundwatermovementwithinthePuketoiRangeisstronglycontrolledbythepermeability contrastsbetweenthelimestoneandthelesspermeableinterbeddedsandstones,siltstonesand mudstones.Therearealsolesssolubleinterbedswithinthelimestonethatformpermeability barriers.
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32 Dissolutionofthelimestonealongjointsandthininterbedshasledtoahighsecondary permeabilityintheformofadrainagenetworkofopencavitieswithinthelimestone. Groundwaterwillflowrelativelyfreelythroughthisdrainagenetwork,butwillberestrictedfrom flowingbetweenlimestoneformationsbyfinegrainedlayers(sandstones,mudstonesand siltstones)whichseparatethelimestoneformations.Theselowerpermeabilitylayersarecalled aquitards. Thegeologicalbeddingontherangefallstothewest.Aswaterinfiltratesintothegroundonthe topoftherangethepredominantgroundwaterflowisinawesterlydirectiondownthedipofthe geologicalbedding. ThelikelygroundwaterflowmechanismsareillustratedonFiguresMRPPKTF8toF11in AppendixA. Whilegroundwaterwillflowslowlythroughtheseaquitardlayers,entrainedsedimentwillnot. Theparticlegrainsizeofthesandstones,siltstonesandmudstonesissufficientlyfinethatno sedimentwillpassthroughtheselayers.Itfollowsthatthereisnodirectlinkthatwillallow sedimenttopassthroughtheseaquitardlayers. TheonlylimestoneformationsaffectedbytheprojectaretheTeOnepuandRongomai limestones. AsshownonFigureMRPPKTF5inAppendixA,thegeologicalbeddingdipsataslightlysteeper anglethantheoverallgroundslopeonthewesternsideoftherange.Theonlydirectoutletsfor groundwater(andthereforeentrainedsediment)fromtheselimestonelayersoccurwheregullies orstreamshavecutdownthroughthelimestonelayers.Springsoccurwheretheselimestone layersdipoutofthelocallyincised(steeper)slopes.Insomeinstancesgroundwaterwillrun laterallyalongthebeddinglayers(ratherthandown)toreappearasaspringatthelowestpoints ofsurfaceoutcrop. Thelowestoftheseoutcrops(andsprings)occur: atthebaseoftherangetothenorthofMakuritownship;and wherestreamshavecutperpendicularlyintothefootoftherange.Forexamplethe unnamedstreamsbeside: o thePahiatuaPongaroaRoad, o MC40Roadand o MC30Road. ThelocationswheretheTeOnepulimestoneoutcropsclosetothevalleyfloorandwherethe largestspringsfromtheselayersareexpectedareshownonDrawingsMRPPKT3201to3203. ThereisalsoanoutcropofRongomailimestoneintheunnamedtributarybelowthePahiatua PongaroaRoad.Theselocationshavethelargestcatchment(oflimestonederivedsprings)and thereforethegreatestpotentialtobeaffectedbytheproposeddevelopment.Werecommend thattheselocationsbeincludedintheproposedmonitoringregime. TheRongomaiandTeOnepulimestoneoutcrops(andrelatedsprings)occuralmostentirely abovetheleveloftheMakuriStream/River.Therewillbeminimaldirectconnectionofthe limestonetotheMakuriStream/Riverorpotentialforsedimenttopassfromtheprojectsite directlytotheMakuriStreamorRiver. Whilethelowlevelspringsdescribedaboveoutletclosetothevalleyfloor,mostofthelimestone drainagenetworksclosetotheridgetopsarelikelytooutletwithinafewhundredmetresofthe infiltrationpoint.Thisisbecausemostofthesurfacelimestonelayersareincisedbylocalgullies.
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Springsareoftenobservedonthesteeperslopesthatexposedownslopedippinglimestone. Thesespringsareoftenassociatedwithfansofsediment(seePhotograph22).Thefansare depositedfromsedimententrainedingroundwaterflowingthroughthelimestonedrainage network.Thiserosionandredepositionofsedimentispartofanongoingnaturalprocess. Cavitiesorconduitsbelowthelevelofthelowestsurfacesprings(orregionalgroundwaterlevel) arelikelytoberareduetoreducedpotentialfordissolution.Generallycavitiesbelowthislevel wouldalsobecongestedwithsedimentduetonaturalsedimentdeposition. Thereisnodirectconnection(throughwhichsedimentcantravel)betweenthewesternslopeof therangeandthewatercoursesorgroundwaterspringsontheeasternsideoftherange.Thisis illustratedinFigureMRPPKTF9inAppendixA.
Photograph22:Smallactivesedimentfanbelowspringfromlimestone
5.3.3
NaturalSedimentMovement
Sedimententeringthelimestonedrainagenetworkisanongoingnaturalprocess.Allofthe sinkholefeaturesobservedonsitearecausedbysoilserodingintounderlyinglimestoneconduits andjoints. Smallactivesedimentfansareobservedontheslopesbelowgroundwaterspringsfromlimestone asshowninPhotograph22.Thesefansareformedbysedimentladenwaterdischargingfrom jointsinthelimestone. Sedimentisalsoroutinelygeneratedontheprojectsitethroughhumanactivitysuchasfarming andthelimequarryoperationonTowaiRoad. Farmingactivitiesthatgeneratesedimentinclude: Stockandvehiclemovementparticularlyinwetconditions Formationandmaintenanceoffarmtracksandfarmponds Fillingofsinkholestolimitstockloss
Thereislittleifanysedimentmitigationinplaceforthesefarmingoperations.
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34 Theproposedwindfarmdevelopmentislikelytogenerateminorsedimentduringconstruction. TheproposedearthworkswillbeundertakeninaccordancewiththeCEMPtominimisethe generationofsedimentandthepotentialeffectsthismightcause.
5.3.4
GeotextilesFilterFabric
Filterfabricsareroutinelyusedinearthworksandothercivilengineeringprojects.Theyare commonlyusedasafiltertopreventsoilsfineswashingintocoarsersoils.Theyarecommonly usedtopreventdrainsfromclogging. Waterisabletoflowthroughthefilterfabricbutsoilparticlesareheldinplace.Filterfabricsare specifiedforuseinthisprojectparticularlyasameansofpreventingsoilfinesmigratingfrom earthworksintotheunderlyingdrainagenetwork. Filterfabricsarecommonlyreferredtoasgeotextiles.Typicallymadefromsyntheticmaterials theyaremanufacturedusingeitherwovenornonwoventechniques.Geotextilesareusedfor filtration,separationandstrengthapplications.Typicallynonwovengeotextileshaveabetter abilitytofiltersmallerparticleswhilewovengeotextilesaretypicallyabletoprovidehighertensile strengths. ForthisprojectFilterfabricsshouldbeusedtopreventsoilerosionintounderlyingsinkhole features.Anonwovenneedlepunchedpolyesterislikelytobespecified.Thisgeotextilewillhave suitabledrainageandfiltrationcharacteristics.Dependingontheexactproductspecifiedthepore sizes(orholes)inthefabricrangebetween80to120um.Thisfineporesizeallowswatertopass butthesiltyandsandysoilswillremainintact.
5.4
SedimentPonds
SedimentpondswillbeconstructedaroundthesiteasdiscussedintheCEMP.Pondsconstructed overlimestonedohavesomerisksthatwillbemanagedduringconstruction.Theseinclude: Losingwaterintodissolutioncavitiesintheunderlyingandadjacentlimestonebeds.The pondswillbelocatedclearofobvioussinkholesorunderlyingcavities.Waterlevelsinthe sedimentpondswillbeobservedregularly.Ifwaterlossishigherthanexpectedor noticeableleaksaredetected,thepondwillbelinedwithafilterfabriclayerandalow permeableliner.Thefilterfabricwillpreventthesiltorclaysoilsfineswashingintothe underlyinglimestone. Acceleratinginternalsoilerosionduetorisinggroundwaterwaterpressuresand subsurfaceflow.Pondingwatercanincreasethegroundwaterpressuregradientsinthe soilssurroundingthepond.Insiltsandsandsanincreaseofgroundwaterflowthrough thesesoilsintounderlyingcavitiescanaccelerateinternalerosionandtheformationof dropoutandsuffosionsinkholes.Therisksatthissitearelowbecausethedepthofstored waterislimitedtoonly1.5mto2minheightsogroundwaterpressureincreaseswillbe modest. Theriskwillalsobeminimisedbyobservationduringfilling.Formationofsinkholeswill likelybeproceededbylossofwater(orslowerthananticipatedfilling)fromthepond. Siltywaterspringsarealsolikelytobeobservedinthestreambedbelowthepond.If theseoccurrencesareobserved,thepondwillbedewateredandthesinkholetreated. Thetreatmentwillinvolveundercutthenplacingfilterfabricandalowpermeabilitysoil linerovertheaffectedarea.
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SlopeStability
Basedonourlandslidemappingwithintheprojectareaweexpectthatthelandsliderisktothe proposedprojectislow.Wehavenotidentifiedanylargescaleordeepseatedinstabilitycloseto theproposedearthworksroadalignments,windturbinesorotherinfrastructure.Thesectionsof thesteepeastfacingslopesatthecrestofPuketoiRangemaybesubjecttominorretreatby collapsealongsteeplydippingstressreliefdefectsstrikingparalleltothecrestlineduringsevere earthquakeshaking.Weexpectthattheeasternsideofthecrestcouldretreatbyupto10min discreteareasundersevereearthquakeshaking.Suchretreatoftheeasternescarpmentwould notaffecttheproposedwindfarmorinfrastructure. Isolatedexamplesofsmallerscalelandinstabilityareobservedaroundthesitewithinspecific geologicalterrains.Thelimestoneslopes(whichpredominantlyunderlieturbinesitesandthe upperroad)showlittlesignofslopeinstabilityduetosliding.Themudstonesencounteredonthe lowerslopesoftherangearepronetoshallowtranslationallandsliding. Instabilitymechanismsthatareobservedonorclosetotheprojectsiteare: Largereliclandslideswithinthebeddinglayers(tonorthofsiteonly); LargereliclandslideinthevalleyfloorbetweenWT45andWT46; Shallowtranslationallandslidesoverpoorlydrainedweakersiltstones; Smallscalerockfalls; Smallshallowearthflows; Soilcreeponsteepslopes.
Observedinstabilitiesshouldbeprincipallyavoidedwherepracticable.Whereanypotential instabilityfeaturescannotbeavoidedtheycanberemediatedbystandardengineeringworks suchasundercutting,underdrainageorretaining.Wherethecolluvialmantle(onwetslopes greaterthanapprox25)isundercutbyearthworks,theriskofshallowslumpingcanbe practicallymanagedbyacombinationofflatteningthebatterslopeatthecrest,installingslope drainagesoilnailsandsurfaceerosionprotection. Subjecttoappropriatecivildesign,theproposedearthworksincludingfilldisposalsitesare unlikelytohaveanadverseeffectonslopestability.Conservativecutslopeangleshavebeen recommendedinSection8.3.Fillslopesshouldbeconstructedinareasthathavebeenassessed tobesuitableforfillplacement(i.e.whereslopesarenotoverlysteepandnoinstabilityhasbeen observed).Cutslopesshouldalsobereinspectedduringconstructionworks. Turbinefoundationshavebeenlocatedbyinspectiontobesetbackfromanypotentialslope instability,thereforeinstabilitywheretheturbinesaretobelocatedisunlikely.
6.1.1
LargeRelicLandslides
Nolargescalereliclandslideshavebeenidentifiedthatarelikelytounderlieoraffectthe proposedwindfarmearthworksorinfrastructure. TwoprobablerelicfeatureshavebeenidentifiedinthevalleybetweenWT45and46(Photograph 23)andtothenorthofthePahiatuaPongaroaRoad.Thesefeaturesarelargereliclandslidesthat haveoccurredwithintheRaukawaformationandassociatedsandstones.Theyareassociated withthedowncuttingandsteepeningoftheslopebystreamerosionatthetoeoftheslopes. Theyweremostlikelyseismicallyinduced.Reactivationofthesefeaturesisunlikelywithinthelife
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36 ofthisproject,nevertheless,proposedroadsandearthworksshouldbesetwellbackfromthese featureswherepracticable.
Photograph23:Largescalereliclandslide
6.1.2
TranslationalLandslidesonSiltstone
Relativelyshallowtranslationallandslidesandearthflowsandarecommononthesteepsiltstone slopes.Thismechanismiscommononsteepsiltstoneslopesduetopoordrainageofthematerial andasurfaceweakeningduetoacombinationofstressreleaseandsurfaceshrinkswelldueto wettinganddrying.Anexampleofatranslationallandslideofapproximately4mto5mindepthis showninPhotograph24below.Thisislocatedonthelowerslopestothesouthoftheofthe MC40road.
Photograph24:Displacedblockwithassociatedearthanddebrisflowfromsteeponasiltstoneslope.
Siltstonesaretypicallyonlyencounteredonthelowerslopesoftherange.Accessroadscross thesematerialsforminimaldistances.Thecurrentroadlayoutavoidsidentifiedunstablesiltstone
37
slopes.ThelowerendofthecurrentMC40Roadhasbeenrealignedfollowinggeologicalmapping toavoidthelandslipshowninPhotograph24.
6.1.3
ColluvialFans
ThelowersectionofMC30Roadwillsidleupacrosssmallcolluvialfansandlobes(Photograph 25).Thesefansarederivedfromlandslipdebrisandslopewashfromtheslopesabove.Theyalso includesedimentdepositionexitingfromthelimestonedrainagenetworkfurtherupslope(i.e. sandsthathaveerodedintothelimestoneintheformationofsinkholes,redepositingasthe groundwaterreemergeslowerontheslope).Furtherdepositionislikelytooccurnaturallyinthe futureextremerainfallevents.Thedepositsthemselvesaregenerallyinactiveandstablewhen excavatedhoweverprovisionwillneedtobemadeforculvertsundertheproposedaccessto allowthesesedimentsanddepositstopassundertheproposedMC30Road.
Photograph25:Colluvial(debris)fansatbottomofMC30Road.
6.1.4
RockFalls
Aswithescarpmentretreatdiscussedabove,themoreresilientlimestonebedswithinthe layeringsequencebecomeunderminedbypreferentialweatheringanderosionoftheunderlying weakerbeds.Thiscausestheremainingoverhangingrocktobecomeunderminedandcanfallin localisedordiscreteblocks. Runout(rolldistance)ofthedisplacedblocksaredependentupontheslopeangleandvegetation /debriscoverbelow.Photograph26showslimestoneblocksthathavefallenfromthelimestone bedatthetopoftheslope.Notalltheseblockswouldhaverunoutdownthisslope.The progressiveerosionoftheunderlyingweakersiltstoneresultsinthelimestoneblocksbecoming furtherawayfromthecurrentoutcrop.
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Limestoneoutcrop
Siltstone Limestoneblocks
Photograph26:Smallrockfallsoflimestone
Rockfallsfromthenaturallimestoneoutcropswillbeextremelyinfrequentandareonlylikelyto occurduringextremeearthquakeshaking.Rockfallswillposeverylittlerisktotheproposed windfarmconstructionoroperation.Theturbinesandmostroadsareelevatedabovemostofthe steepoutcrops,whichshouldminimisetheriskfurther.
6.1.5
SmallShallowEarthFlowsandSlumping
Minorshallowlandslidesareobservedonthelowerslopes(Photograph27).Thesefeaturesare rareandareavoidedbytheproposedroadlayout,thereforetheywillhavenoeffectonthe proposedwindfarminfrastructure. Theselandslidescorrespondtoseepageoccurringtypicallyoverthetopofthesiltstonelayers. Thesefeaturesaretypicallyshallowandlimitedtotensofmetresinwidthandlength.Theyare likelytograduallyregressataveryslowratewithperiodicreactivationofthedebrislobes.
Photograph27:Exampleofshallowslumping
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6.1.6
Surficial(orsuperficial)CreepintheSurfaceLoessandColluvium
Soilcreepaffectsthenearsurfacesoils(typicallylessthan0.5mthickness)andoccursinsoilson slopestypicallysteeperthan3035.Itisusuallycausedbythecyclicshrinkswellduetowetting anddryingcyclesofthemoresiltysoils. Inisolatedcaseswheretheroadscannotavoidareasofpotentialsoilcreeptheformationshould beexcavatedthroughthissurfacelayerandtheoutsideshoulderoftheroadstabilised(preferably withgeogrid)tominimisedeflectionoftheouteredge.
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7
7.1
SeismicConsiderations
EarthquakeShaking
Theearthquakeshakinghazardatthissiteisgenerallycomparabletothehazardoftheremainder ofthelowerNorthIsland.Theseismichazardisnotcriticalinthedesignofturbinefoundation loads,whichwillbemoreheavilyinfluencedbyconsiderationofextremewindloading.Seismic loadingforinfrastructureandearthworkscanbeassessedusingNewZealandStandard NZS1170.5:2004. NZS1170.5:2004isaNewZealandStandardprovidingproceduresforthedeterminationof earthquakeactionsonstructuresinNewZealand.Itgivestherequirementsforverification procedures,sitehazarddetermination,theevaluationofstructuralcharacteristics,structural analysisforearthquakeactioneffects,thedeterminationandlimitsfordeformationsandthe seismicdesignofpartsofstructures. Eachsiteisassessedaccordingtoitsgeographiclocation,surfacesoilthicknessandstrength,and proximitytomajorfaults. WithreferencetoNZS1170.5:2004,theprojectsitehazardfactor(Z)shouldbetakenas0.45.The nearestmajorfault(theWellingtonMohakaFault)ismorethan20kmaway,sowillnotsubject thissitetoanynearfaultamplicationeffects.
7.2
SiteSubsoilClass
Sitesubsoilclassisusedtodetermineearthquakeloadsfordesign.Itdefinestheperformanceof localgroundinanearthquakebasedonthematerialstrengthanddepth.Allsitesareclassifiedby theclassesAtoE. Thefollowingsitesubsoilclassifications(withreferencetoNZS1170.5:2004)arebasedon recordedgeotechnicalpropertiesfromboreholes,testpitsandsiteobservationsaroundthe proposedsite. ThesitecanbeclassifiedasSiteSubsoilClassBandC.Thisisbasedonadepthofsoftsoilbeing lessthan20mdeep(ClassC),andinmanyplaceswhereturbinesaretobefounded,thedepthof softsoilislikelytobelessthan3m(ClassB). ClassBisconsideredappropriateforturbinefoundationdesignassoilswillberemovedand foundationsplacedontherockbelow.
7.3
Liquefaction
Theliquefactionrisktotheproposedturbines,infrastructureandamajorityofroadsisverylow. Earthquakeinducedliquefactioncanoccurwhenaloosesaturatedsoilbecomesmoredenseand theporewaterpressuresgeneratedareunabletodissipate.Alossofstrengthresultsandthesoil behavesmorelikeaviscousfluid. Liquefactionsusceptiblesoilsaretypically: Saturated Nonplastic HaveaparticlesizefallingbetweencoursesilttocoarsesanddefinedbyTsuchida& Hayashi(1971). Inaveryloosetomediumdensestate(N=0to30orscalaresultsoflessthan7blowsper 50mm).
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Theinvestigationsindicatethesurficialsandsandalluviumgenerallyfallwithintheliquefaction susceptibilitycriteriawithrespecttolowplasticity,particlesizedistributionanddensity. Liquefactionwillhowever,onlyoccurwherethesandsaresaturated.Saturatedloosesandswill onlybepresentatisolatedlocationsinlowlyingareascontainingalluvium.Deepersandsonthe upperslopeareoverconsolidatedandwelldrainedandthereforepresentalowriskof liquefaction.Therock,siltstonesandsandstonesalsopresentlowliquefactionhazard. Anycriticalstructuresonloosesaturatedsoils(potentiallyontheriverterracesandonalluvium withinvalleyfloors)shouldbedesignedtomanagethepossibleeffectsofliquefaction(i.e.by piling,groundimprovementorsimilar).
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MaterialCharacteristics&DesignParameters
Thissectionprovidesrecommendationsandcommentaryonengineeringparametersfordesign. Likelyengineeringcharacteristicsofgeologicalmaterialshavebeenassessedonthebasisofthe fieldinvestigations.Thenatureandcontinuityofsubsoilawayfromthetestsitesandobserved exposuresisinferred. Observationofconditionsbyanengineeringgeologistorgeotechnicalengineerduringexcavation, moredetailedinvestigationsandtestingduringdesigndetailingwillberequiredtoconfirmlocally specificgroundconditions. Parametershavebeenbasedon: Sitespecificinvestigations Observationofmaterialperformanceonsite Test results in the same materials from adjacent Waitahora site (refer BECA Waitahora WindfarmGeotechnicalAssessmentreportdated2010); Ourexperienceandknowledgeofthesematerialsfromothersites.
8.1
GeneralEarthworksPropertiesandDesignParameters
GeneralGeotechnicalpropertiesforeachofthegeologicalmaterialslikelytobeencounteredon theprojectareprovidedinTable81:GeneralEarthworksGeotechnicalProperties.These propertiescanbeusedinthepreparationandcostingoftheearthworksdesignaswellas sedimentanderosionmanagement.

Table81:GeneralEarthworksGeotechnicalProperties
Geological Material InsituStrength (observedin field) Loosetomedium dense FirmtoveryStiff Excavatability (1=easy,4=hard) usinga16t excavator 12 1 Indicative ParticleSize (mm) 0.060.2 IndicativeSilt sizedfraction (est%) 5080% Indicative Permeability (m/s) 104106 LikelyBulking Factor(from insitutofill) 1.1
Loess/Remnant Sand/colluvium Siltysand Sandysilt
Rongomai/Te Extremelyweak OnepuLimestone tomoderately strong Raukawa Formation Sandstone Kumeroa Siltstone/ mudstone/ sandstone Extremelyweak andveryweak Extremelyweak andveryweak
14(duetobed variability)
0.26 Coquina(6 60) 0.060.2
<5%
104106or upto 102injoints
1.2
13
<10%
104106
1.3
12
<0.06
90%+
104108
1.3
Recommendedeffectivestrengthparametersforthedifferentsoilslikelytobeencounteredare providedinTable82.Theseparametersshouldbeusedinfoundation,earthworksandslope stabilitydesign.RecommendedparametersoffillsareprovidedinTable83.

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Table82:RecommendedInSituEffectiveStressDesignParameters*
Geological Material Depthto topof layer (m) 0.10.3 Thickness oflayer (m) Bulk Density (kN/m3) Effective Cohesion c(kPa) Effective Friction Angle () 35 Undrained Shear Strength (MPa) UCS mv (MPa) (200kPa)
Loessand remnantsand Silt/sand Sandstone TeOnepu Limestone Rongomai Limestone Siltstone Mudstone
0.63.5
18
1.0 5.0 1.0 10.0 1.0 10.0 0.3 5.0 0.1 8.0
0.15to 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.1 <0.1
0.9 0.72.8 0.753.1 0.4 0.4
3.1+ 15+ 15+ 2.6+ 2.6+
19 20 20 19 19
15 50 50 30 30
45 50 50 35 35
0.52.5 0.55.0 0.55.0 0.152.5 0.054.0
Wherelaboratorytestingunavailable,parameterscalculatedfromfieldclassificationofsoil/rockstrengthandT&Tpastexperience withsimilarmaterials.
Table83:RecommendedEffectiveStressDesignParametersforFills
GeologicalMaterial Loessandremnantsand (BulkFill) Silt/sand Sandstone BulkFill* EngineeredFill** Limestones BulkFill* EngineeredFill** Siltstone/Mudstone BulkFill* EngineeredFill** 18 19 18 19 19 19 5 8 5 15 5 10 35 37 38 40 30 32 BulkDensity (kN/m3) 18 EffectiveCohesion c(kPa) 3 EffectiveFrictionAngle () 35
*Bulkfillistrackrolledonly **EngineeredtoNZS4431:1989compactionstandard
8.2
PerformanceofExistingCut&FillSlopes
Therearemanytensofkilometresofexistingfarmaccessroadsexcavatedthroughoutthesite. Theobservedperformanceoftheseearthworksprovidesvaluableinformationonhoweachofthe geologicalmaterialsarelikelytobehaveinfutureearthworks.
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44 Ofparticularnotethereare: VerysteeppoorlycompactedfillsassociatedwiththeexistingTowaiRoadlimequarry thatarestandingatbetween3040upto20mhigh. TheroadcuttingabovethePahiatuaPongaroaRoad,thathascutslopesatbetween55 65upto15mhigh. Asummaryofoursiteobservationsofexistingearthworkscutperformanceareprovidedin Table84below.

Table84: Cutandfillslopeangles
Material Type
ExistingCut slopeangles (observed) 5070
Existingslopeheight (observed)
Stabilitycomments
Limestone
Typically25mhighon farmtracks,butbenched inPongaroaRoadcutto approximately15mhigh Typically13mhighon farmtracks,Coonoor Roadcutstypicallyupto 5mhigh
Oldcutsremainstable.Minimalvery smalllocaliseddropoutsonly.Easily cleanedup.Minimal/noerosionof face. Shallowsurficialslakingonslopes greaterthan50duetostress releaseandwetting/drying. Slumpingupto1mdepthisobserved onsteepersaturatedcutandnatural slopesgreaterthan40. Predominantlystable.Minimalsmall surficialfaceslumpingobserved. Likelytooccurfollowingheavy rainfallevents. Predominantlystable.Minimalsmall surficialfaceslumpingobserved. Predominantlystable.Minimalsmall surficialfaceslumpingobserved. Generallystable.Shallowsurface slumpinginloosenoncompacted overspillonly.
Siltstone/ Mudstone
5070
Sandstone
5070
Typically13mhighon farmtracks.
Loess
4050
Typically1mhigh
Sand
4050
Typically1mhigh
Limestone 3040 FillinQuarry
Variablebutsomefill slopesare>20mhigh.
8.3
RecommendedSlopeAnglesforEarthworksDesign
Basedonsiteinvestigationresults,stabilityanalysis,previousexperienceandobserved precedence,werecommendthedesignprofilesoutlinedinTable85.Theseprofilesareexpected tobeconservativeformostoftheconditionslikelytobeencountered.Therewillbeinstances whereoninspectionbyanengineerduringconstruction,theslopesmaybelocallysteepenedto minimiseearthworks,disturbanceandexposedbatterheights.Theremayalsobesomeareas wheregroundconditionslocallyrequireflatterbatterslopes.

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Table85: ProposedCutSlopeAngles
Loess/ SurficialSand 45(1V:1H) N/A
Limestone
Sandstone
Siltstones/ Mudstones
Cutbatterslopes(Max) FillBatterslopes(Max)
63(1V:0.5H) 34(1V:1.5H)
63(1V:0.5H) 63(1V:0.5H) 26(1V:2H) 26(1V:2H)
Mostmaterials(especiallythelimestonesandsandstones)havegoodstrengthcharacteristicsand arethereforelikelytoperformverywellincutslopes.Forthisreason,therearenoengineering basedrestrictionsonmaximumcutheights.Proposedfillsinexcessof10minheight(or4minsilt ormudstone)shouldbesubjecttoaspecificengineeringassessmentanddesign. Whererequiredtoavoidspecificfeaturesorminimisefootprintarea,fillslopescanbesteepened withtheuseofgeogridreinforcementorhighercompactionstandards(i.e.fillplacedas engineeredfilltoNZS4431:1989compactionstandard). Thetypicalgroundconditionsovertheareaofearthworksconsistofamantleofloess,orremnant siltysandoverlimestone,sandstoneorsiltstone/mudstonerock.Fortheseconditionstheprofile showninFigure12belowislikelytobetypical.
Figure12:Typicalcutprofileangles
63 Rock 45 Soil
8.4
WorkabilityandExcavatability
Ourassessmentoftheexcavatabilityisbasedonsiteobservations,testpitexcavations, observationsofexcavationsmadeonoradjacenttothesite,anddiscussionswiththelimeworks quarryandlocalcontractors. Mostofthesitematerialsareeasilyworkableandearthworkscanbeundertakenwithstandard constructionplant.Thesands,sandstone,siltstonesandsandylimestonebedscanbeeasily excavatedwithexcavators.Isolatedharderlimestonebedsmayrequirerippingwithalarge bulldozer(i.e.aD9)orwithalargersizedexcavatorwithrockteeth.
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8.5
Undercutting
Thesurficaltopsoilandsiltytopsoilcovertypicallyvariesbetween0.1mto0.5mindepth.Insome drainagecoursesandgulliestherearelocaliseddepositsofhigherorganiccontentpossiblyupto 1mdepth.Whenroadembankmentscrosssuchfeaturesexcavationofthetopsoilandorganics willberequiredtoprovidesuitablefoundationconditions. Theunderlyingsands,sandstonesandsiltstonesaretypicallyverystiffandoverconsolidatedand sowillnotrequiresignificantundercuttingduringearthworkspreparation.Softerlensesof disturbedsoilsarelikelytobeencounteredoversinkholefeatures.Civildesignshouldaddress potentialsoftmaterialandconsidermeasurestominimiseerosionofsoilintotheunderlay limestoneconduits. Therequirementtoundercutbelowsoftororganiclayersforgeneralearthworksandroadingin thesands,sandstonesandsiltstoneswillberare.
8.6
CableTrenching
Thestabilityoftheinvestigationpitsprovidesagoodindicationoflikelycabletrenchstability. Generallythestabilityofthetestpitsideswasgood. Thetrencheswilltypicallyremainstableforthedurationofthecableinstallation.However, localisedfaceslumpingmayoccurindisturbedsiltysandsorwheregroundwaterseepageis encountered.
8.7
SettlementPotentialofSoils
Mostsoilsandrockonthesiteareunlikelytobesusceptibletosignificantconsolidation settlement.Forcriticalstructures,specificsettlementpredictionscanbecompletedusingthe parametersprovidedinTable82.Settlementandperformanceofturbinefoundationsis discussedinSection9. Softalluviumandreworkedmaterials(typicallyinvalleyfloorsorsinkholes)maybeproneto consolidationsettlementsunderadditionalfoundationorsurchargeloading.Settlementcanbe mitigatedbyspecificallyavoidingareasofpotentiallycompressiblesoils.Alternativelystructures canbespecificallydesignedtoaccommodatetheanticipatedsettlements,ormitigatesettlement riskbyengineeringworkssuchaspilingorgroundimprovement.
8.8
8.8.1
SedimentCharacteristics(earthworks)
Materialbehaviour
Theproposedearthworksarelikelytoencounterdifferentgeologicalmaterials.Therockandsoils aregenerallylowinfinesandnotoverlysusceptibletoerosionbyrainfallorsurfacewaterflow. DuetothedifferentsoilmaterialcharacteristicstheConstructionEnvironmentalManagement Plan(CEMP)andSupplementaryEnvironmentalManagementPlans(SEMP)shouldrecognisea slightlydifferentfocusforeachdifferentmaterialtype. SoilparametersforuseinthepreparationofCEMPandSEMPsareprovidedinTable81. Generalcommentsonlikelysedimentanderosioncharacteristicsaredescribedbelow. 8.8.1.1 Coarsegrainedsediments
Limestonesandsandstonesareunlikelytogeneratesignificantfine(i.e.siltorclaysized) sediments.Thegrainsizeofthesematerialsistypicallyfinetocoarsesandsize.Limestonewill
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comprisecrushedshellfragmentsandcalcareoussand.Limestoneexposedduringtheearthworks willgenerallyberesistanttoerosion.Largecutsinlimestoneobservedaroundthesiteshowno evidenceofsignificantsurfaceerosion.Anyerosionofsurfacedisturbedmaterialislikelytobe sandsizedparticlesthatwillsettleoutrapidlyinwater. 8.8.1.2 Mediumgrainedsediments
Theupperweatheredloess(sandysilt)ismoresiltyandthepredominantgrainsizeissmallerthan sandsized.Althoughthesesoilsarenotoverlysusceptibletoerosion,duringearthworkstheywill generatefinersedimentthanthelimestoneandsandstone.ThesandylenseswithintheKumeroa foundationareconsistofnonplasticsandysilt. Thesesoilsmaybemoderatelyerodiblewhenexposedtosurfacewaterflow.Shallowrunnels haveformedinwatertabledrainsbesidefarmtrackscutintosiltysandsoftheKumeroaand Raukawaformation.Erosionandsedimentcanbeappropriatelymanagedthroughthe implementationofanappropriateCEMP. 8.8.1.3 Finegrainedsediments
TheKumeroaFormationincludessomebedsoffinegrainedsiltstonesandmudstones.These materialswillproducefinesiltandclaysizedsediment. Earthworksinthesiltstonesandmudstonesarelimitedtoshortdistancesonthelowerslopeson roadsMC20,MC30,MC40,MC80andMCB0. Thesematerialsarecohesiveandsoarenotpronetoerosion,howeverearthworksmaygenerate siltandclaysizedsedimentparticularlyiftraffickedwhenwet.Accesstrackswillbecappedwitha runningcourseofgravel.Thiswillminimisesedimentgeneration.
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9
9.1
WindTurbineFoundations
FoundationConditions
Theproposedwindturbinesarelocatedclosetotheridgetopsoronsignificantspurs.The geologicalconditionslikelytobeencounteredateachsiteare: WT1toWT24inclusiveTeOnepuLimestone; WT25RaukawaFormation(Sandstone); WT26toWT33inclusiveRongomaiLimestone; WT34toWT36inclusiveTeOnepuLimestone; WT37toWT42inclusiveRongomaiLimestone; WT43RaukawaFormation(Sandstone); WT44toWT52inclusiveTeOnepuLimestone; WT53KumeroaFormation(sandysilts)
Themostefficientfoundationsolutionfortheseconditionsisshallowgravityfoundationpads.
9.2
ShallowPadFoundations
Shallowpadfoundationsarerecommendedoverpiledfoundationsatthissitepredominantly because: 1. Duetogoodbearingcapacitiesandfoundationstiffnesstherewouldbeonlyamarginal increaseinconcretevolumescomparedtoapiletypesolution;and 2. Pilesandanchorsaretechnicallycomplexandcontainmorerisktoconstruct.Theyare alsoexpensiveandmoretimeconsuminginvolvinglargerandmorespecialistplant. CalculatedfoundationdimensionsforvariousturbinesizesareshowninTable91below.The padswillconsistofreinforcedconcretecastinanoctagonalshape. Windturbinefoundationwidthsandvolumesforoctagonalshapedreinforcedconcrete foundations(asshowninFigure13)areprovidedinTable91.Theassumeddesignloadsandfinal sizingwillbeconfirmedduringdetaileddesign.
Table91:ShallowPadFoundations
TurbineSize Widthof Foundation(m) 130mRotor 100mHub Height 23m
AverageThickness ofFoundation(m) 2.25m
Volumeof Concrete 980m3
LargeConsenting EnvelopeTurbine
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Width
Width
Average Thickness Width A A
Plan
SectionAA
Figure13:TypicalTurbineShallowPadFoundation
Forfoundationsonlimestone,thereisariskthattheremaybekarstfeatures(cavitiesorvoids)in theunderlyingrockwithintheloadinginfluenceoftheturbinefoundation.Askarstfeaturesare rareontheridgesandspurstheyareunlikelytoadverselyaffectthefoundations.Howeverthe possibilityofdolinefeaturesaffectingproposedturbinefoundationscannotberuledout. Somemicrositingandfurtherinvestigationswillberequiredtomitigatetheriskofunderlying karstfeatures.Inthecasethatrepositioningormicrositingisnotpracticaltoavoidsignificant karstfeatures,piledorreducedfoundationswithtensionanchorscanbeadoptedtoprovidea suitablesolution.Thescaleandconstructioneffectsofapiledoranchoredfoundationarenot significantlydifferenttoatraditionalconcretepad. Furtherinvestigationswillberequiredduringconstructionsuchasgroundpenetratingradarand percussiondrillholestoconfirmthedesignrequirementsandacceptabilityofeachproposed turbinefoundation. Ifinvestigationhighlightsakarstfeaturelargeenoughandwithintheloadinfluenceofthe foundationa(orseveral)pile(s)maybeinstalledtomitigatetherisk.Pileswilltransferthe foundationloadfromtheshallowfoundationtocompetentunderlyinglimestone.Thepilecan thenbecasedthroughthecavitytoensuretheintegrityofthepileandpreventconcreteflowing intolargecavities.
9.3
PiledandAnchorFoundations
Pilesandanchorscanbeusedinconjunctionwithpadfoundationstoprovideasolutionwhere sinkholefeaturesareunavoidableasdescribedabove. Asdiscussedabove,specificpilefoundationsareunlikelytobethepreferredsolutionunless adversegroundconditionsareencountered. Wherepilesaretobeusedtheyarelikelytobeboredreinforcedconcretepiles.Pilesolutions mayormaynotincludeadditionaltiedownanchorstoresistupliftloadsontheupliftingsideof thefoundation.
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10
10.1
GeneralBuildingFoundations
GeneralSoilPropertiesandFoundations
Thesoilconditionsoveramajorityofthesitearesuitableforstandardshallowfoundations (subjecttokarstmanagementprotocolasdetailedinSection5).Theengineeringparametersof eachgeologicalmaterialareprovidedinSection8.Theseparameterscanbeusedtoassess specificfoundationbearingcapacities.Sitespecificgeotechnicalinvestigationswillberequiredto confirmsitespecificconditionsandallowoptimisationoffoundationdesigns.
10.2
SubstationandBatchingPlant
Thebuildingplatformsforthesestructureswillbeexcavatedintolimestone.Thismaterialwill typicallyprovidegoodfoundingconditionssuitableforshallowfoundations.Followingexcavation somelocalisedareasofsoilsinfill/pocketsmayremain.Dependingonthefoundationload requirementssomeoftheremainingsoilinfill/pocketsmayneedtobesubexcavatedand replacedwithcompactedgranularlimestone.Forcritical,heavilyloadedelementsofthe substation,geophysicalinvestigation(suchasgroundpenetratingradar)isrecommendedto identifypotentialcavitieswithintheunderlyinglimestone.Thepresenceofanysuchfeatures withintheloadinfluenceoffoundationscanbemitigatedusingcasedpilesolutionssimilarto thosediscussedinSection9.3.
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11
Pavements
Pavementsarethegranularlayersthatformthebasecourseandrunningsurfaceofroads. Pavementswillvaryacrossthesitedependingontrafficloading,gradeoftherouteandonthe stiffnessofthesubgrade(foundation)material.Anunsealedgranularpavementwillbeused acrossthesite.Differentgeologicalmaterialshavedifferentstiffnesscharacteristics.Thegeology alongagivensectionofroadwillthereforeinfluencethelikelypavementlayeringandthickness. Limestoneandsandstoneareexpectedtoprovidegoodsubgradeperformancerequiringthinner thicknessesofthegranularpavementthanwillsoilsandsiltstones.Table111indicatesexpected granularpavementthicknessfordifferenttrafficloadingsandsubgradegeologicalmaterial.

Table111:GranularPavementThicknesses Geological subgrade Likely California BearingRatio (CBR) High>50 Heavily traffickedareas1 Assumed ESA<50000 100mm Compacted GAP40 over Cut Mudstoneor Siltstone Assumed CBR>10 100mm Compacted GAP40 over 150mm Compacted AP70 50mmTop CourseAP20 over 150mm Compacted AP70 50mmTop CourseAP20 over 100mm Compacted Limestone Aggregate AP40 Overlying Soils Assumed CBR>5 Compacted 100mmGAP40 over 200mm Compacted AP70 50mmTop CourseAP20 over 200mm Compacted AP70 50mmTop CourseAP20 over 150mm Compacted Limestone Aggregate AP40 100mm Compacted Limestone AggregateAP40 (50mmTop CourseAP20 alsorequiredin locallow trafficked areas) 150mm Compacted Limestone AggregateAP40 (50mmTop CourseAP20 alsorequiredin localisedhigher trafficked areas) Moderate traffickedareas1 Assumed ESA<10000 50mmTop CourseAP20 over Cut Lowtrafficked areas1 Assumed ESA<1000 Limestoneor Sandstone Cutonly Cutonly Cranepads& hardstands1
1. 2.
AllgranularmaterialsdefinedbytheprefixesAPandGAPwithnoreferencetolimestonedefinesoffsite quarrysourcedmaterialsarelikelytobe(greywackeaggregate).Limestoneaggregatessourcedonsite. ESAequipmentstandardaxle.
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12
12.1

AggregateAssessment
Introduction
Concreteforthewindturbinefoundationsandothercivilconstructionworks; Roadinganddrainage; Trenchbackfillaroundcables.
Coarseaggregateandsandwillberequiredmainlyfor:
Apreliminaryassessmentoftheavailabilityandsuitabilityofaggregatesforuseonthisprojectis discussedinthesectionsbelow. Theassessmentincludes: Areviewofthepublishedgeologicalmapstoassessregionalavailabilityandmaterial types; Areviewofexistingquarryproductspecificationsheets(whereavailable); AreviewofpublishedliteratureonNewZealandaggregatesandaggregateproperties, andalsoconcreteandaggregatestandards(i.e.NZS3121:1986,CCANZAlkaliSilica ReactionTechnicalReport3etc); Discussionswithlocalcontractorsandsuppliersregardingtheuseandperformanceof localaggregates.
12.2
AggregateAvailability
Therearenosourcesofcoarseaggregateforconcretewithinthesitearea.Allconcreteaggregate willneedtobesourcedfromquarrieswithintheregion. Roadingaggregatecanbesourcedmorelocallythanconcreteaggregateasithasalower specificationrequirement.Somelimestoneaggregatefortemporaryorlowuseroadsand hardstandsmaybeavailablefromwithinthesitearea. Sevenquarrieshavebeeninvestigatedforthisstudy.Thesearethesevenclosestquarriestothe sitethatcouldsupplythevariousmaterialtypesrequired.Asummaryoftheinformationobtained fromeachquarryisshowninTable121andtheirlocationsareshownonFigure14.Thehaulage distanceshownistoMakuri.
12.3
AggregateSuitabilityandCurrentSupply
AsummaryofthecurrentusesforthespecificquarryaggregatesisprovidedinTable121below. Currentsupplyuseisagoodindicatorofaggregatesuitabilityforthisproject. ThePahiatuaandDannevirkerivergravelquarriesallsupplyaggregateforuseinconcrete(thus meetingNZS3121:1986).TheyalsosupplyroadingaggregatetoNZTATM/4specification.The rivergravelquarryoffOhinereiataRoadalsoextractsgreywackegravel.Weunderstandthatthe currentconsentedlimitforthisquarryis25,000m/year.Thisishoweverregularlyvariedtosuit demand. TheHorizons(ManawatuWanganui)RegionalCouncilholdstheconsentforgravelextractedfrom theManawatuRiverandtherearenumerouscollectingzonesalongtheriverbank.Theclosest collectionpointtositeisbasedjustoutsideofPahiatua.Asthecouncilcontrolstheconsentsthe supplyisnotrestrictedtoaspecificsupplier.
53
TheMakairoPitquarryonMakairoRoad(offCoonoorRoad)sourcesmoderatelyweathered, weaktomoderatelystrong,greywackesandstonerockthatmaybesuitableforlower specificationroadaggregate.ThequarryisoperatedbyInfraconAggregatesanditistheclosest testedquarrytoMakuri. Localquarriestothesitealreadysupplystoneforlocalroadsandfarmtracks.Thequarryon TowaiRoadsuppliesagriculturallime.Thelimestoneisnotusedforroadstone,asitistypically toosoftandnotsufficientlydurable.

Table121:SummaryofAggregateSources
Ref Quarry Aggregate Material Operator Distance to Makuri village N/A sourced on site
Within site boundary: borrow pits along ridgeline during construction Ohinereiata Rd Quarry (off Coonoor Road)
Limestone: Sandy shelly limestone, predominantly weak to moderately strong. Basecourse, low spec / temporary road aggregate. Greywacke: River gravels Spec Not tested Greywacke: Moderately weathered Greywacke/Argilite, weak to moderately strong. Basecourse, low spec / temporary road aggregate. Limestone: Sandy shelly limestone, weak. Low spec / temporary road aggregate (main use for agricultural lime fertiliser). Floodplain gravels for road aggregate and concrete subject to screening. Greywacke: Concrete aggregate High spec TNZ/M4 road aggregate. Locally quarried by landowners Regional council manage consents. Local suppliers Quality Lime Infracon Aggregates NZ Road Makers
7km
Makairo Pit Quarry, Makairo Road (off Coonoor Road)
16km
Towai Road Limestone Quarry, Towai Road
20km
Mangatoro Stream floodplain Manawatu River Gravels, Pahiatua
27km
33km
Manawatu River Gravels,
As above
Prenters Aggregates Ltd (suppliers) Infracon Aggregates
65km
Waitahora Pit Red Metal, Waitahora Valley Road
Greywacke: weathered river gravels. Low spec / temporary road aggregate.
35km
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Figure14:MapofQuarryDistribution
12.4

RecommendedAggregateSources
PahiatuaorDannevirkerivergravelsforconcreteaggregate; Pahiatua,DannevirkeortheOhinereiatarivergravelsforhigherquality(runningcourse) roadingaggregate. MakairoPitQuarry,localquarriestosite,orsiteexcavatedmaterialsforlowerquality/ unsealedroadaggregate.
Thepreferredquarrysitesbasedonqualityandhauldistance(only)arethereforelikelytobe:
Detailedaggregatetestingandconcretemixtrialswillneedtobeundertakentoconfirmfinal concretemixformulasmeetthedesignspecifications.
12.5
SandSuitabilityforConcrete
Therearenosuitablesandsourcesonsite,thereforethesandrequiredforconcretemakingwill havetobeimported.Sandsuitableforconcrete,inthisregionislikelytobemanafacturedfrom crushingaggregate.Forthisprojectthesematerialsarelikelytobesourcedfromthesame locationsasthemainaggregate.
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13
Conclusions
ThekeyconclusionsofthegeotechnicalassessmentforthePuketoiWindfarmaresummarised below.
13.1

ProjectFeasibilityandAssessment
Theprojectdesignshouldbedevelopedwhiletakingaccountofthegeotechnical conditionsandconstraintsidentifiedanddescribed. Theproposedprojectisfeasibleforthegeotechnicalconditionsthatarelikelytobe encounteredonthesite. Thelevelofthegeotechnicalassessmentundertakeninthiscaseisconsideredhighfor ResourceConsentStage.Theassessment,foundedstronglyongeologicalmappingofthe site,issuchthatpotentialeffectsoftheprojectcanbereasonablyassessed. Materialchangestothedesignareunlikelytoberequired(duringdetaileddesignor construction)asaresultofgeotechnicalconditions.
13.2

SiteGeology
TheproposedwindfarmsiteliesonthewestfacingslopesofthePuketoiRange,whichis aprominentnortheastsouthwesttrendingescarpment(acuesta). ThegeologyconsistsofathicksedimentarysequenceofOnokeGroupsediments comprisinglimestonewithinterbeddedsandstonesandsiltstone/mudstones. Thegeologicalsequenceistiltedbetween10and20NWformingthelongwestfacing dipslopes.Incontrasttheeastfacingslopesaresteepandcutsteeplythroughbedding. Theupperslopesoftherange(wheremostoftheroadsandinfrastructurewillbe located)aregenerallyunderlainwithathinmantleofsiltysandsoverlimestone.
13.3
SinkHolesandKarst
Karsttopographyisalandscapeshapedbythedissolutionofthelimestone.Itcreatesa distincttopographyanddrainagesystem.Itisimportanttorecogniseandprovidefor thesefeaturesinthedesign. Cavities,tunnelsandconduits,causedbythedissolution,haveformedinthelimestone. DissolutionrateoflimestoneonthePuketoiRangeisintheorderof58.2m3/km2/yr. Thereforeoverthelifeoftheprojecttheenlargementofcavitiesinlimestonewillbe minimal. Sinkholesarecommonoverthesite,particularlyinareaswherethemantleofsiltorsand soilshavewashedintokarstfeaturesintheunderlyinglimestone. Therisksthatkarstfeaturesmayposetothedevelopmentorwherepotentialforadverse effectsexistarelimitedto: Increasingtheloadontheroofofexistinglimestonecavitiestounacceptablelevels, promotingcollapseofthecavityroof; Accelerationofsedimententeringthesubsurfacelimestonenetwork; Lossofsurfacekarstfeaturesbyearthworks.
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13.4

Groundwater&Sediment
Theeffectstheproposeddevelopment(notablytheearthworks)mighthaveon groundwaterarelikelytobeminimal. Theproposedearthworkswillnotnoticeablyaffectthesizeorpermeabilityof catchments.Thereforetheeffectsonsurfaceorgroundwaterflowswillbeinsignificanton eithersideoftheRange. Groundwaterwillflowrelativelyfreelythroughdrainagenetworkswithinthelimestone, butwillberestrictedfromflowingbetweenlayersbyfinegrainedbeddinglayers (aquitards). Thegeologicalbeddinglayersontherangefalltothewest.Aswaterinfiltratestheground onthetopoftherangethepredominantgroundwaterflowisinawesterlydirection downtheselayers. Whilegroundwaterwillflowslowlythroughtheseaquitardlayers,anyentrained sedimentwillnot.Thereisnodirectlinkthatwillallowsedimenttopassthroughthese aquitardlayers. Thereisnodirectgroundwaterconnection(throughwhichsedimentcantravel)between thewesternslopeoftherangeandthewatercoursesorgroundwaterspringsonthe easternsideoftherange. Theonlydirectoutletforgroundwater(andthereforeentrainedsediment)fromthese limestonelayersiswheregulliesorstreamshavecutdownthroughthelimestonelayers. Springsoccurwheregullieshaveinciseddowntoexposethesidesorlowerendofthe limestonelayers. Insomeinstancesgroundwaterwillrunlaterallyalongthebeddinglayers(ratherthan down)toanoutlet(spring)atthelowestpointwherethatlayeroutcropstothesurface. Mostofthespringsfromthelimestoneoccurwithinafewhundredmetresofthepoint wherewaterhasinfiltratedtheslope.Howeversomeofthelargerstreamshaveexposed thetwoaffectedlimestoneformationslowerinthevalley.Theselocationsareshownon drawingMRPPKT3201and3202.Theselowerspringsshouldbemonitoredasdetailedin theproposedCEMP. Sedimententeringthelimestonedrainagenetworkisanongoingnaturalprocess.The activesinkholefeaturesobservedonsitearecausedbysoilserodingintounderlying limestoneconduitsandjoints. Activesedimentfansareoftenobservedontheslopesbelowgroundwaterspringsfrom limestone.Thesefansareformedbysedimentladenwaterdischargingfromjointsinthe limestone. Thereisnoevidencethatsedimentfromnaturalprocesses,historicdeforestation, ongoingfarmingorquarryingactivitieshavehadanoticeableorsignificantadverseeffect onthelimestonedrainagesystemorwaterquality. EarthworksshouldbeundertakeninaccordancewitharobustCEMPtominimisethe generationordischargeofsediment.
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13.5
SlopeStability
Thelandsliderisktotheproposedprojectislow.Wehavenotidentifiedanylargescale ordeepseatedinstabilityclosetotheproposedearthworksroadalignments,wind turbinesorotherinfrastructure. Isolatedexamplesofsmallerscalelandinstabilityareobservedaroundthesite.Thecivil designhasbeenpositionedtoavoidtheobservedinstabilities.Wherepotentialinstability featurescannotbepracticallyavoidedtheycanberemediatedbystandardengineering workssuchasreducingbatterslopes,undercuttingandreplacement,underdrainageor retaining. Theproposedearthworksincludingfilldisposalsitesareunlikelytohaveanadverseeffect onslopestability.
13.6
ProposedEarthworks&Roads
RecommendedprofilesforproposedearthworksareoutlinedinTable85.Theseprofiles areexpectedtobeconservativeformostoftheconditionslikelytobeencountered. Therewillbeinstanceswhereuponinspectionbyanengineerduringconstruction,the slopesmaybelocallysteepenedtominimiseearthworks,disturbanceandexposedbatter heights.Theremayalsobesomeareaswheregroundconditionslocallyrequireflatter batterslopes. Aggregatesforconcreteandroadingwillneedtobeimportedtothesite.Suitable greywackeaggregatesourceshavebeenidentifiedwithin30kmofthesite.Limestoneand calcareoussandstone(fromsiteearthworks)arelikelytobecrushedonsiteforuseon lowuseroadsandhardstandareas.
13.7
Foundations
Theoptimalwindturbinefoundationsarelikelytoconsistofareinforcedconcretepad. Foundationsforlargeproposedturbinearelikelytobeintheorderof23mdiameterby 2.25maveragethickness(980m3). Forfoundationsonlimestone,thereisalow(butpotential)riskthattheremaybecavities intheunderlyingrockwithintheloadinginfluenceoftheturbinefoundation. Furtherinvestigationswillberequiredtoidentifypotentialcavitiesundertheproposed turbine(andothercritical)foundations.Iflargeenoughcavitiesareidentified,pilescanbe installedthroughthecavitytotransferthefoundationloadfromtheshallowfoundation tocompetentunderlyinglimestone.Thepilecanthenbecasedthroughthecavityto ensuretheintegrityofthepileandpreventconcreteflowingintolargecavities. Standardshallowfoundationsarelikelytobesuitableforsubstationsitesandother ancillarystructures.Designparametersandindicativebearingcapacitiesareprovidedin thisreport.
13.8
SeismicConsiderations
Seismichazardincludingliquefactionisconsideredtopresentaverylowrisktothe projectandcanbemanagedthroughearthworksorspecificfoundationdesign.
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13.9

DetailedDesign&Construction
Additionalgeotechnicalinvestigationswillberequiredduringdetaileddesignand construction. ACharteredProfessionalEngineer(Geotechnical)shouldremaininvolvedinthedetailed designandconstructionoftheproject.
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14
Applicability
ThisreporthasbeenpreparedaspartoftheresourceconsentapplicationforthePuketoiWind FarmandTransmissionRoute,anditmaynotberelieduponinothercontextsorforanyother purposewithoutourpriorreviewandagreement. Tonkin&TaylorLtd EnvironmentalandEngineeringConsultants Contributors: EmmaBeech GeotechnicalEngineer GeotechnicalEngineer SeniorEngineeringGeologist SeniorEngineeringGeologist PrincipalGeotechnicalEngineer&ProjectDirector
EricTorvelainen NickPeters
BernardHegan BruceSymmans
ReviewedbyGarySmith
SeniorEngineeringGeologist
AuthorisedforTonkin&Taylorby
................................... BruceSymmans
ncp/sacc https://puketoi.projectorbit.com/windfarm/draftaeereports/tonkin andtaylor engineering and sediment/geotechnical/final puketoi geotech investigation rpt v22.docx
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AppendixA:

A4Figures
FiguresMRPPKTF5,F8toF11inclusive
WEST
EAST
DRAWING PROCESS DESIGNED BY: DRAWN BY: CHECKED BY: APPROVED BY: A Consent Issue 14.07.11
DATE
DATE May2011 May2011
FILE/LAYOUT NAME L:\85143\WorkingMaterial\CAD\FIG.akl\MRP-PKT-F5 - F5 Prepared by:
PUKETOI WIND FARM

GEOTECHNICAL Karst Features In Relation To Geology
Level 14, ANZ Centre 23-29 Albert St Auckland 1010
NCP BNRB
NOTES :
DRAWING STATUS:
PH: 09 308 8200 FAX: 09 308 8209
SCALE:
CONSENT ISSUE
DWG. No.: REV.
MGM
BY
NOT FOR CONSTRUCTION

This drawing is not to be used for construction purposes unless signed as approved
Tonkin & Taylor
REVISION DESCRIPTION
2011 Mighty River Power Ltd All rights reserved
NTS
MRP-PKT-F5
AppendixB:

SiteInvestigationLogs
BoreholeLogs TestPitlogsandPhotos ScalaPenetrometerLogs ShearVaneReadings
85143.001 Puketoi Investigation Test Pit photographs
March 2011
TP01 East wall
TP01 Spoil 1
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TP02 North east wall
TP02 Spoil 2
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TP03 Spoil 3
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TP05 North wall
TP05 Spoil 5
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TP06 North wall
TP06 Spoil 6
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TP07 North west corner (seepage at 0.7m)
TP07 Spoil 7
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TP08 Spoil 8
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TP09 West wall
TP09 Spoil 9
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TP10 South east wall
TP10 Spoil 10
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TP11 South west corner
TP11 Spoil 11
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TP12 Base 12
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TP13 South east wall
TP13 Spoil 13
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TP14 North wall
TP14 Base 14
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TP15 North wall
TP15 Spoil 15
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TP16 North west wall
TP16 Spoil 16
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TP17 North wall
TP17 Spoil 17
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TP18 East wall
TP18 Spoil 18
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TP19 West wall (seepage from wall at 2.1m)
TP19 Spoil 19
Puketoi SC01_SC02 logs.xls
TONKIN & TAYLOR
SCALA PENETROMETER LOG

Job No: 85143.001 Project: Puketoi Wind Farm Location: Tylee Property RL:
mm Driven 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150 2200 2250 2300 2350 2400 2450 2500 No. of Blows mm Driven 2550 2600 2650 2700 2750 2800 2850 2900 2950 3000 3050 3100 3150 3200 3250 3300 3350 3400 3450 3500 3550 3600 3650 3700 3750 3800 3850 3900 3950 4000 4050 4100 4150 4200 4250 4300 4350 4400 4450 4500 4550 4600 4650 4700 4750 4800 4850 4900 4950 5000
Date: 16/03/2011 Operated by: ELB Logged by: ELB Checked by:
No. of Blows
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SC 01
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Test Method Used: NZS 4402:1988 Test 6.5.2 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
Puketoi Wind Farm T&T job No.: 85143.001 10/06/2011
Puketoi SC01_SC02 logs.xls
TONKIN & TAYLOR
SCALA PENETROMETER LOG

Job No: 85143.001 Project: Puketoi Wind Farm Location: Tylee Property RL:
mm Driven 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150 2200 2250 2300 2350 2400 2450 2500 No. of Blows 1 1 2 3 2 3 4 4 6 7 3 10 4 5 8 16 20 mm Driven 2550 2600 2650 2700 2750 2800 2850 2900 2950 3000 3050 3100 3150 3200 3250 3300 3350 3400 3450 3500 3550 3600 3650 3700 3750 3800 3850 3900 3950 4000 4050 4100 4150 4200 4250 4300 4350 4400 4450 4500 4550 4600 4650 4700 4750 4800 4850 4900 4950 5000
Date: 16/03/2011 Operated by: ELB Logged by: ELB Checked by:
No. of Blows
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SC 02
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4000
4500
5000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Blows / 50 mm 7 8 9
10
Test Method Used: NZS 4402:1988 Test 6.5.2 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
Puketoi Wind Farm T&T job No.: 85143.001 10/06/2011
Puketoi Windfarm Site Investigation

Shear Vane testing on track cuttings on site : 16/03/2011
85143.001
by ELB
Soil classification: SILT with minor sand, brown with occasional black mottling. Stiff, dry, moderate plasticity. Sand is fine.
Shear Vane SV1 SV2 SV3 SV4 SV5
Coordinates Result (kPa) Corrected (kPa) E N Peak Residual Peak Residual 84 40 131 62 2767047.98 6067277.45 82 24 128 37 2767043.09 6067340.59 92 53 144 83 2766902.34 6067354.69 87 49 136 76 2766563.92 6067864.49 80 24 125 37 2774633.32 6078152.01 Average 132.8 59
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Mighty River Power Ltd

PuketoiWindfarm GeotechnicalInvestigationand DesignReport

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

Job no. 85143.001 July 2011

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

Job no. 85143.001 July 2011

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

ThegeotechnicalreporthasbeenpreparedinconjunctionwithTonkin&Taylor`sCivilDesign Report,TransmissionLineGeotechnicalandCivilReport,andtheDraftConstruction EnvironmentalManagementPlan.Therelationshipbetweeneachofthesereportsissummarised inFigure1below.

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Draft SupplementaryEnvironmental ManagementPlan#3

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

ThesectionofthePuketoiRangewherethewindfarmdevelopmentislocated,isaSWtoNE trendingcuesta.Acuestaisaridgeformedbygentlytiltedsedimentaryrockstrata.Acuestais characterisedwithasteepescarpmentononesideoftheridgeandagentlerslopeontheother.

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Siteinvestigationsspecifictothisprojectincludegeologicalmappingofsoilandrockexposures acrossthesite,boreholes,testpitsandscalapenetrometers.Testlocationsareshownon DrawingsMRPPKT3201to3203.

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Thepurposeoftheseinvestigationswastoconfirmtheconsistencyoftheassumedgeological model(basedongeologicalmappingabove),investigatespecificareasofinterestandassistinthe characterisationofthesitematerials.

Wehavereviewedexistinglocalquarriesandgeologicalresourcesinthearea.Thisassessmentis forpotentialconcreteandroadingaggregate.Detailsofthesesitesanddiscussiononthe suitabilityofthequarryaggregatesareprovidedinSection12.

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Lee,J.M.;Begg,J.G.(compilers)2002:GeologyoftheWairarapaarea.InstituteofGeological&Nuclear Sciences1:250000geologicalmap11.1sheet+66p.LowerHutt,NewZealand.InstituteofGeologicaland NuclearScienceLimited.

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

TeOnepuLimestone Sandstone(RaukawaFormation) RongomaiLimestone

OnokeGroup (undifferentiated sediments)

Sandstone(Raukawa(Mudstone)Formation) LowerLimestone (Rongomai)

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Interbedsarealsonotedwithinthelimestoneunit.Asiltstone/mudstoneinterbedisvisiblefrom thetrackfurtherdownfromPhotograph7.Hallidayidentifiedathickinterbed(orlens)of mudstonewithintheTeOnepusequenceonhisgeologicallegend.

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Alimestonebedoverliesthemudstonesandlocallyformscapstosomeridgesandknobsonthe lowerslopesalongthewesternsideofthesite.Therearealsomanyisolatedblocksandboulders ofthislimestonesittingontopoftheKumeroa.Thesearethelastremnantsoftheeroded limestonebed.

Thislimestoneiscoarsegrained,weaktomoderatelystrongandstrong,shelly,crossbedded, yellowbrownandgreywithcalcareoussandstones.BasedonmappingbyHalliday(1987),we haveadoptedtheTotaranuilimestonename.

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Topsoil Soilthicknessvariability overshortdistance Loess Colluvium

Alluvialdepositsarerelativelyinfrequentintheprojectarea.Smallalluvialterracesconsistingof gravelsandsandsarepresentalongthebanksoftheMakuriStream.Thesegravelsandsandsare derivedbyerosionofboththeOnokeGrouprocksandgreywackebasementrocks. 4.4.1.9 ManMadeFills

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Localisedsteepeningofthelimestonebedswasobservedonthelowerslopesatonelocation withintheprojectarea(nearthebottomoftheMC40Road).Inthislocalitybeddingangle increasedtonearly40,indicatingprobabledowndraggingbyafaultrunningalongthevalley floor.

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Therearenomajorfaults(asdefinedbyTable3.6inNZS1170.5:2004)within20kmofthesite. MajorFaultsrequirenearfaultfactorstobeappliedwhenassessingstructuraldesignactions. ThereareonlyfourmajorfaultsintheNorthIslandofNewZealand,namelytheMohaka, Wairarapa,WairauandWellingtonFaults.

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Eachofthesepotentialadverseeffectscanbereasonablyavoided,remediedormitigatedthrough appropriatedesignandconstructionmanagement.Adescriptionofkarstfeatures,geohydrology andhoweachofthesepotentialadverseeffectsshouldbemanagedisdescribedinthefollowing section.

Puketoi Windfarm Geotechnical Investigation Report Mighty River Power Ltd

T&T Ref. 85143.001 July 2011

Sinkholesordolines(alsoknownlocallyastomos)areholesordepressionsintheground.The featureshavedevelopedbydissolutionofthelimestone.Thereareavarietyofdifferentsinkhole typesasdetailedinFigure6below.