Point of View

These columns of ICJ offer an opportunity to the engineering fraternity to express their views on the current practices in design, construction and management being followed in the industry. To share your opinion with our readers, you may send in your inputs in about 1500 words via e-mail to editor@icjonline.com

Applications of structural engineering in projects and other associated issues A brief review
K.K. Ganguly

An attempt has been made to review the type of design and construction that are being done in some specific areas other than major industrial applications. This covers different forms of construction with various types of materials. Structural applications are also included to some limited extent. Some photographs have been included to explain innovative structural applications. Special use with respect to structural morphology are highlighted briefly and the important issues in engineering buildings in the built environment are discussed apart from fire engineering and connected items. Facade engineering and hybrid construction is also referred. Repair and restoration of structures especially heritage structures is an important responsibility of structural engineers. Some comments on restoration of structures have been made. Finally, specific comments are given about future trends highlighting structural safety, ready mix concrete, high strength concrete, self compacting concrete, decorative concrete, admixtures, recycling of wastes, etc. It is commented that both architects and engineers will have to work together to produce purposeful and innovative design for modern buildings. The education and training of engineers is also touched upon. The review of different structural engineering applications and associated issues as presented here is limited and restricted to a few specific areas only as per the liking of the author and hence cannot be treated as complete by any standard.

It is interesting to mention that the structural design in all the cases have been carried out with close interaction with the architects and engineers of other services. It may be noted that structural morphology was given top priority for all the applications mentioned here A few photographs (Figures 1 - 31) of different projects are also presented. These are chosen from non-industrial projects (i.e. not from industrial projects like power plants). It will be interesting to note the structural morphology as demonstrated by the architects in the different projects. Structural forms and shapes are generally different in each project in order to meet the requirements and to produce innovative design.

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The photographs have been selected carefully to present various structures from different parts of the country. These structures have been built by different contractors.

Industrial and other projects

A brief review of different structural engineering applications in industrial projects has been made in the past.1 The basic layout of a power plant is normally developed by mechanical/electrical engineers using equipment manufacturers guidelines/requirements and with the help of architects/planners who are responsible for the development of the total master plan of the project. The basic dimensions of the plant, therefore, are related to the layout of major equipment, the operational requirements and maintenance. The architects have limited freedom regarding the layout of the plant buildings of such projects. After carrying out 1 or 2 such projects, the job may become repetitive in most cases and the challenges to a structural engineer may also be restricted. Furthermore, references from the past and similar projects may be used by the consulting houses wherever possible to cut down the design time. Incidentally, the cost of civil and structural items is less as compared to equipment cost. Hence, the attempts for innovative design to reduce civil/structural cost are not there and not important.Therefore, opportunities for refinement of structural analysis and design may be limited. In some cases, however, bigger structural dimensions may have to be provided when the loading data including other details are not properly available at the time of designing the structure. Hence, structural design work may not be very challenging as the structural design may have to be carried out using higher loads intentionally. The question of economy on structural items may be missing in industrial projects due to various reasons and the emphasis is on the completion of the structural design quickly. This situation may not

be encouraging to the structural designer which may demotivate him/her. In non-industrial projects such as university complexes, hotels/resorts, hospitals, housing projects, commercial complexes, etc. the architects normally play a major role in the development of the layout, building form, aesthetics, etc. The cost of architectural finishes along with services may also be very high in such projects. The challenges are more here for the structural designer and there will be pressure to cut down the dimensions of structural elements for visual and other requirements and to produce economical design for different structural schemes. The services of structural engineers are more demanding and more appreciated in this case as compared to industrial projects. Engineers and architects are dependent on each other to design and construct innovative modern buildings. Structural engineers must learn to work with the architects in harmony for creative and innovative design. Each profession has different skills and carries different responsibilities. Structural engineers would have to learn to work in multi-disciplinary teams having different professionals and understand how others think and work. Architectural creativity must be supported by engineering skill to produce innovative design. The clients should be convinced that the innovation will be worthwhile and cost effective. The engineering

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before deciding on the design of buildings in the built environment. The following points are relevant 1. Continuous supply of irreplaceable construction materials and the use of cheap non-renewable energy is going on. This condition cannot continue forever. 2. Population growth is very high and it is now over 6 billion and likely to be 9 billion by 2050. Some researchers have estimated the above figure to be more2. The rate of increase is about 80 million. extra persons per year worldwide. This is the most serious problem on our hands. 3. Carbon dioxide loading is an indicator of pollutant potential. As per current estimate it is about 5.5 t of CO2 per person per year for USA, 2.7 t for Europe and 0.8 t for China.2 4. Building activities would have to take into account the geographical imbalance of wealth and population. 5. It is reported that 70% of our forest has already been destroyed and going by the current rate, 100% destruction might take place by the year 2027. 6. Global warming is already taking place and according to some estimates, the temperature rise in next 100 years may be in the region of 5.8oC. It is also suggested that after 2020, (i) winters will be reduced in length (ii) summers will have more hotter spells with periods of drought (iii)

argument should not come in the way of architectural solutions. Mutual respect and appreciation between architects and structural engineers will be required as there will always be an engineering solution to a good architecture. Best buildings can be designed and constructed from a symbiotic relationship between architects and engineers. Structural engineers have to shoulder a bigger responsibility of the work both in design and construction to produce a safe and durable structure at the end.

engineering buildings in the built environment

It is very important to assess carefully the present situation that is developing on our planet earth

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separation to provide the required time. The design of the structures must consider fire load cases also along with normal working loads for obtaining the best solution. This may vary from a simpler prescription identifying required thickness of applied fire protection to steel or cover to reinforcing bars in concrete to more complicated analytical calculations using whole frame action with real fire loads for design. The degree of complexity will increase depending upon the particular circumstance and objectives of the particular design. The structural performance under fire may not be the direct measure of protection of life or protection of property. The other considerations such as provision of sprinklers to reduce the spread of fire, increased ventilation to lower fire temperature, corner columns and beams cooler than internal columns and beams, providing safe means of escape, etc., also will have influence on fire design. Simpler prescribed rules will be easy to operate and guidance may be obtained from national building standards and manufacturers literature. Alternatively, designing for less stress level for normal working load condition and keeping provision for higher fire performance against fire loads is also a good option. The other option will be complex and the engineers will need additional knowledge of ventilation condition, fire loads and knowledge of high temperature performance of the structural material including lining if any with adequate analytical skill. To study the provisions of both passive and active fire protection systems in buildings becomes important. The post fire assessment should cover possible cause and duration of fire, overall stability, strength and robustness of the structure, defects and damage to the building, fire safety provisions after fire, serviceability and durability aspect. Proposals for strengthening and repair work, etc, also will have to be considered. It seems that fire engineering for structures will be more detailed in the future at least for important buildings.

tidal heights will increase (iv) wind speeds will be variable and may be stronger.3 We cannot pass on our planet in this condition to our children and grandchildren. We must save the planet for our future generations. The challenges before the engineers/architects are (a) better whole life performance (b) to use less primary materials (c) to use less non-renewable energy (d) wasting less (e) causing less disturbance to natural environment (f) to reduce the burden on the planet and working out solutions that fulfil social, environmental and economic criteria. Hence, it is important for the engineering and management team to work together on all issues covering conception, planning, modelling and calibration, construction, operation and use.

Fire engineering for structures

Following recent fires in various parts of the world, the performance of structures during fire has become a very important design issue for engineers. The real structure, however, will behave differently from a simple beam commonly tested in a furnace for obtaining data for fire design. The actual structures will have in-built secondary load paths which are often mobilised during fire when structural deflections are larger4. Fire engineering is a multi-disciplinary activity but the structural engineers have to play a major role. It is important to adopt performance based design approach against fire loads for the structures. Previous designs were primarily based on the control of the structure for non-combustibility and

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hybrid construction

Hybrid construction utilising different materials especially precast and in situ concrete has been in use for some time. The structural engineers generally will need more experience in such technique specially for the performance of joints and their detailing. A few aspects such as aesthetics, function, speed, safety integration, buildability, etc. will need very special care. Hybrid concrete construction may in some cases be more expensive than conventional in situ concrete or structural steel frames with concrete decks.5 High standard of finish is possible with precast concrete elements and the same may be accommodated to the structural forms. Composite action should be considered for economy.

Accommodation of floor movement c) Accommodation of other movements. The use of stones and glass curtain walls with different types of fixing arrangement are quite common. The complexity of faade design has to be understood especially when glass and stone panels are adopted. In recent years, the use of coloured aluminium sheets in faade design is gaining popularity. Other materials include metals, plastics, timber, ceramics, polymers and fabrics. The external envelope takes most of the wear, the cladding or roof will be subjected to risk from premature failure well before the service life of the structure. One has to be careful about leakage problems through the

Faade engineering

Faade is the envelope of the building and it is generally composed of all exposed walls, roofs and floors. The engineering relates to various aspects and parts of the envelope design and creating an innovative look at the end. Faade engineering presents more challenges to the structural engineer to maintain the aesthetic look of the building and the safety of cladding system adopted. The cladding and main structure interaction is very important and it is primarily related to, a) Load transfer Apart from vertical loads, horizontal loads from wind and seismic forces will also be applicable b)

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joints especially in the case of glass and stone panels6. The provision of cleaning and maintenance of the faade materials should be given due importance in the design.

The use of computers for engineering calculations

Nowadays, software packages are used for all structural engineering design activities. It is observed that a shift in emphasis from design calculations to structural modelling has taken place7. This may lead to, in some

cases, inappropriate modelling and wrong results at the end. The use of computers have definitely cut down the time consumed for design computation which was a major time consuming factor for the structural designer in the past. The engineering calculations may be treated as a series of modelling exercises and may be broken down to, (a) an engineering model representing the physical existence (b) a conceptual model that allows for material and structural behaviour (c) a computational model (a description of the structural arrangement in a form suitable for computer analysis).7

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Each stage should be checked against acceptance criteria and final outcome should be assessed against overall modelling review. The guidelines published by the Institution of Structural Engineers, London related to use of computers for engineering calculations may be referred.7 The responsibility of checking the modelling exercise should not fall on the analyst. This review should be done in-house by a senior engineer. In large and important projects such responsibility may be given to an independent consultant also. The engineering model will consider the overall geometry of the structure, all load bearing components with dimensions, supports, materials used and loads including lateral loads. Nonstructural components are not considered but their effects are assessed and considered in the calculations.

The detailed analysis of the model is carried out using the theory of analysis, material behaviour, boundary condition, loads and the geometry of the structure. 3D modelling for analysis and design and the use of software packages have led to a tremendous increase in the productivity in the design office which until recently was unimaginable8. This, in turn, has given engineers the opportunity to provide better services and a better final product to the clients.

Construction materials

Different materials for construction have been tried by engineers and architects over the years. Out of these concrete and structural steel have been mostly used. Other materials include brick, stone, timber, glass and different composites. Figure 21 shows a combination of load bearing rammed earth construction with

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down time. Proper seismic detailing will be essential to control damages to the structure. Providing correct cover to reinforcement during construction is very important for structural performance especially with reference to strength, durability and fire. Some concrete structures may not achieve their intended design lives due to deficiencies of cover actually provided during construction. Due to inadequate cover, structures may have to be demolished prematurely or may have to undergo expensive repair and protection work. It is reported that for an external concrete wall sheltered from rain and having 30 mm cover will provide 135 years of protection to reinforcement but 10 mm of cover will only give 10 years of life for the same wall.9 Spacers and chair as per BS:7973 may be considered for construction.10 Plastic and cementitious spacers and wire chairs are recommended for use. It is important to specify the use of the same in the specification and to show the correct type of spacers and chairs in the drawings, i.e., at least the standard details for easy understanding and use in construction. The major comments made after Chi-Chi (Taiwan) earthquake in 1999 are improper lap splices of rebar, column tie hooks without 135o bend and poor concrete quality control at job site. 11 These are the typical comments after examining the earthquake damages of structures and are applicable in our country also. Care should be taken by the site engineers to ensure that the construction is done correctly as per the drawings.

timber roofing. This application has been done by the architect in the north-eastern part of the country. Timber trusses were preferred to suit local conditions. Fly ash and lime-sand bricks have also been tried in many projects in recent years. Figures 24, 25, 27 and 28 show the use of compressed earth blocks (CEB) in place of conventional burnt bricks. The compressed earth blocks have been produced with the help of hand operated machines. Different types of arches, domes etc. have been constructed using compressed earth blocks as shown in Figures 16, 17, 25, 27 and 28. Applications of ferrocement roofing units have been shown in Figures 16, 24, 25 and 27.

repair and restoration work

Structural engineers have to play an important role in restoration work. Using nondestructive test (NDT) methods, the causes for damage are studied initially. The engineers then develop a suitable technical specification and methodology for carrying out restoration/

Structural detailing

Simple and practical detailing should always be aimed for during design. Aesthetically, detailing should be presentable and must avoid clumsy joints. Special emphasis has to be put on seismic detailing in order to provide ductile behaviour. Column-beam junctions will need additional care to ensure flow of concrete between bars especially when ductile detailing has been done for confinement of concrete. Often the details for joints are not shown fully in the drawings to cut

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retrofitting work. Injection grouting, replacement or anticorrosive treatment to rebars, use of bonding aids, jacketing to structural members, patch repair, applying special coating/treatment to protect structures against harmful exposure/environment, water proofing, etc. are often adopted. Various materials are available and the engineers have to be careful to select the right one after detailed investigations and as per the requirements. More care will be necessary for underwater repair work and repairing of large floors. For repairing/restoring heritage structures, clients and government authorities may insist upon the use of original materials for the repair work. Materials like polyurea has been used in pharmaceutical and other industries to seal fine cracks and to maintain dust free environment. FRP composite systems are also being used in our country for strengthening structural elements. Brief comments are made below on externally bonded FRP systems.

externally bonded FrP systems for strengthening concrete structures

Composite materials made of fibres in a polymeric resin, are known as fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) and this material may be used to strengthen concrete members.12 The method is an alternative to traditional strengthening systems like steel plate bonding, section enlargement, external post tension, etc. The advantages of adopting FRP system over traditional methods are (a) light weight (b) relatively easy to install (c) non corrosive. The constituent materials include resin primer, putty, adhesives and fibres. The long term performance of FRP systems is not yet available. ACI committee : 440 suggested reduction factors for various environments to take care of the effects of long term degradation

and durability12. Carbon, glass and aramid fibres are generally used in the composite materials. Proper detailing and installation of FRP systems is important to prevent debonding failure modes. It is not recommended to use this system for compressive reinforcement. Mechanical and other forms of anchoring systems may present problems due to the brittle and isotropic nature of composite materials. FRP systems are expected to be damaged in fire. This system should not be applied on concrete members containing corroded reinforcing bars or deteriorated concrete unless the substrate is repaired properly. While using FRP systems for repair/retrofitting work, care should be taken to verify the following : 1. Existing dimensions of structural members 2. Location, size and cause of cracks and spalls

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3. Location and extent of corrosion of reinforcement steel 4. Quantity and location of existing reinforcement steel 5. Compressive strength of concrete 6. Soundness of concrete at all areas where FRP system is to be bonded to the concrete and especially concrete cover. art of economical structural design has to be learned and developed in stages through experience.

education and training of engineers

We have to initiate rigorous training programmes for the young and fresh engineers in order to make them fully prepared to cope with the requirements of design, construction and project management. This is not being done seriously at present. A lot more will be required to train our engineers. Employers are always looking for experienced engineers. With our university education it has been noted that engineers are not fully prepared and they have to actually learn from senior persons, the different aspects of analysis, design and detailing of structures. There is a tendency among young structural engineers to learn structural engineering software packages with a lot of interest but there is not much interest to understand the behaviour of structures and to check the acceptability of the results generated by the software. It is very important to check the computer output before acceptance of the design. Fresh engineers should be exposed to the practical aspects of design and detailing. To carry out the analysis of an idealised structure using a software package is only a small (but very important) part of the total work. The structural engineer has to visualise and understand the complete behaviour of the structure. He/she should largely and will be able to check some salient parts of the computer output with some simple calculations or by some other software packages to eliminated design errors. We have to reexamine the nature of education and training that is being offered to our students so that they are given proper knowledge ad skills to cope with the challenges of the modern times. The potential employers including consulting houses must spend time and money to formulate training procedures for

Site supervision

Generally, as per contract, consulting engineers are requested to do only periodic supervision and not constant monitoring to cut down costs by saving the fees paid to him/her. The structural engineer from the consulting house may visit the site as per the contract and site requirements. Hence, continuous supervision may be missing if the structural engineer is from the design office of a consulting house. However, proper supervision and project management is required from the consulting house in case of large industrial or power projects. It is vitally important for the structural designer to supervise continuously the construction of different structural elements that he has designed. This will provide valuable experience to the structural engineer and help him to become a better designer. Further, the structural engineer is made aware of the cost aspect, variation of quantities (due to incomplete details in some cases), non-scheduled items (due to changes done later), etc., thus giving him/her insights into the practical aspects of construction and design. The structural designer is not supposed to just carry out an analysis mechanically by using a software or provide reinforcement details as per the computer output. The

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chemicals is also dangerous as it may be more harmful to people as compared to buildings. Much will depend on the size of the bomb, type of explosive and how it is detonated. Blast on buildings The ideal shape of a building against blast is the circular shape.13 Balconies are desirable as a clean and smooth facade amplifies the blast forces. The provision of a central core may provide space for shelter during emergency. Stone claddings in buildings may not perform satisfactorily in a blast. Replacement of stone or glass after damage especially in a multistoreyed building is not an easy task. If glass can be replaced from inside it will save money. Blast on glass Glass is often used in the facade of a building. This is a high risk material and can cause a lot of damage when exposed to a bomb blast. Flying glass pieces are responsible for most injuries. The type of glass used in the building is important. A blast can destroy all the windows in a building while leaving the structure undamaged. Hence, care should be taken to ensure that glass and the frame remain intact and withstand the blast. Unprotected annealed plain glass will break from a blast at a distance of 100 m away and cause potential injury upto 50 m from the place of explosion.

our young engineers. They must be encouraged to stay in the profession and carry out their work efficiently in a competitive market.

Future trend

Some of the future trends are briefly highlighted below:

design for security13

In recent years design for security has taken a prominent place especially for buildings. Architects and engineers have to understand the different aspects with respect to the safety of the building components. Some basic issues associated with building design are briefly mentioned blow. Blast Blast pressures decrease significantly with distance. A blast within 5-10 m can cause damage to modern framed buildings and major damage to load bearing masonry building. A canopy at the entrance can trap and enhance blast pressure. Bomb threats This can cause significant local damage. Car and lorry bombs can damage nearby structures also. The use of

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Toughened glass on the contrary will offer twice the protection of plain glass. Laminated glass can also offer good performance with proper frame design.

Structural safety
Periodic inspection of the structure covering salient load bearing elements is crucial in identifying weak areas and thus would help avoid catastrophic collapse that may take place later. Based on the inspection it is necessary to provide warning to engineers to carry out preventive measures quickly. Inadequacy in the structure may often manifest initially as serviceability losses and may finally lead to collapse from corrosion of reinforcement, spalling of concrete and large deflections. Errors in calculations may lead to safety values much less than intended. During construction, situations may arise where safety will be in jeopardy. In such cases, detection by alert engineers in advance will help in averting catastrophic failure and ensure safety.

of material aggregates in the manufacture of concrete blocks. Crushed concrete rubble, after being separated from other construction and demolition wastes and sieved, can be used as a substitute for natural coarse aggregates in concrete. Generally, the fine fraction is not commonly used due to its higher contamination and water absorption levels. Recycled wastes have been used in our country for the construction of roads. We have to devise methods so that more recycled materials are available and used in projects with confidence.

high strength concrete

The use of high strength concrete will reduce structural dimensions and lead to economical design. 1 The definition of high strength concrete as per ACI code states that the compressive strength of high strength concrete should be at least 42 Mpa. We should use high strength concrete in our structural design. With the improvement of cement quality now, it is not difficult to produce concrete of M 30 - M 40 strength quite easily at most construction sites in our country. Concretes with compressive strength around 140 Mpa have been produced in USA15. In such a scenario, there is no point

recycling of wastes into aggregate for construction

Engineers have attempted to use waste materials for construction especially from the building industry by recycling the same. This approach is particularly important as the raw material stock is dwindling rapidly. Attempts have been made in Hong Kong to produce paving and partition blocks by recycling construction waste and waste glass.14 A mechanised moulding method is used for producing the concrete paving and partition blocks. The method uses, recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste, and waste glass as 50 - 100% replacement by weight

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while completely filling up the formwork of different shapes and even around congested reinforcement. The placing of this type of concrete is noiseless as vibrators are not required for compaction. Portland cement is often partially replaced by GGBS or PFA for technical and economic reasons. Fillers must be carefully selected after studying their effects on water demand for determining flow characteristics and workability retention. Modern superplasticiser such as poly carboxylated ethers (PCEs) are particularly relevant to SCC. At similar watercement ratios, the characteristic strengths and strength development will be similar to that of traditional concrete.16

Concrete admixtures
The use of admixtures in concrete design and construction has increased steadily over the years. The advantages of using an admixture in a concrete mix has been well understood by engineers. It is expected that admixtures will be used more and more in concrete construction in the future. In the UK, according to the current statistics, over 75% of ready mixed, site mixed and precast concrete now contains an admixture.17 The percentage of admixture usage, in concrete construction is comparatively low in our country. However, the use of the same is increasing slowly. With the changes in design requirements, it seems admixtures would be a normal in designing structural elements now for M 20 grade of concrete. For producing high strength concrete (above M - 40) with controlled water cement ratio, silica fume, PFA, GGBS, superplasticiser, etc., may be required depending on the requirements. Ready mix concrete produced using the local raw materials may be considered for consistent supply and economy. Contractors must be familiar with the techniques associated with placing the material when ready mix concrete is used. Quality assurance is a must and the quality control lab must be able to analyse it. Engineers are expected to be familiar with the knowledge of production of high strength concrete consistently at site. High strength concrete is often referred to as high performance concrete (HPC) since it has been found to be not only stronger but also more durable. HPC is a material with low water/binder ratio (0.3 - 0.4) and needs to undergo sufficient water curing to control its dimensional stability.

Self compacting concrete

Self compacting concrete (SCC) is getting popular in the construction industry. SCC in its plastic state flows under its own weight and maintains its homogeneity

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constituent of concrete in the future. The important points for consideration are: 1. Economical - Mix design can be optimised 2. Placing - Helps to provide required consistency, compatibility, cohesion, setting and strength development. 3. Customisation - Helps to produce concrete that will meet special needs with reference to placing or performance. 4. Durability - Ensures that intended design life will be met as per requirement. 5. Environmental - Helps to reduce different negative aspects of health and safety normally associated with construction especially during placement. It also reduces the environmental impact of concrete constructions. One type of admixture may not meet all the above requirements and as per the requirements, more than one admixture may be necessary. With the advances in technology and especially the introduction of polycarboxylated ethers (PCEs) based plasticisers and superplasticisers has made a remarkable change in the performance of admixtures. Previous generations of cement dispersants were mainly based on ligno sulphonates or sulphonated melamine or naphthalene formaldehyde condensates. BS:5075 has been withdrawn and replaced by European Standard BSEN:934-2. All admixture types are not covered by BSEN:934-2. The cement and concrete associations in U.K. are working to cover the following: 1. underwater concrete admixtures 2. shrinkage reducing admixtures 3. corrosion inhibiting admixtures 4. pumping aids 5. segregation reducing admixtures 6. foaming admixtures 7. semi dry concrete admixtures Admixtures are probably the least variable concrete constituent. Components are either synthetic or highly refined and carefully controlled at each stage before and after delivery to the admixture manufacturer. The manufacturers should provide more technical information and details to the engineers and also provide specific assistance that may be required during finalisation of the mix design.

ready mix concrete

One of the main purpose of using ready mix concrete is to maintain the quality of construction. Its use in different construction sites is increasing fast. Ready mix concrete ensures good quality concrete from all contractors including the small ones who are unable to arrange concrete from batching plants in their project. Suitable use of admixtures helps in transporting concrete to a long distance. The advantages of using ready mix concrete are18: 1. Economy - The cost/m3 would be economical as locally available raw materials are likely to be used for production.

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2. Ensures strength requirement - The design requirements will be met with confidence. Higher grades of concrete can be used by the engineers in the design for slender and stronger structures. 3. Easy and safe use - By using ready mix concrete it will be possible to ensure the speed of constructions, workability and better hygienic conditions. 4. Versatility - It adopts the specific needs of different work sites. 5. Service - The service would be regular and uniform to maintain the schedule as worked out for the construction. Pumps, conveyors, etc aid the use of ready mix concrete at site. 6. Quality - Ready mix concrete guarantees quality. The constituent materials are subjected to quality checks first and rigorous quality control checks are carried out throughout the manufacturing and delivery process. 7. Delivery - The deliveries of ready mix concrete can be taken from ready mix plants or the concrete can be delivered to worksites by concrete mixer trucks. The speed of delivery is as per the customers needs. The use of ready mix concrete keeps the work place clean. Dirt, congestion and noise would be at minimum level. Ready mix concrete offers different varieties of mix design. It can utilise different types of filler, cement and binders to produce special concrete as per the customers requirement. To optimise cost it will be necessary to have uniform and high quality concrete for durable and better structures as per specification. are to be followed for best results. Application of high performance wire-drawn steel fibres 60 mm long and 0.9 mm. in diameter has been done in floor slabs of multistorey buildings.19 The use of flat polymer fibres 40 mm. long has been done in composite steel deck floor construction in a multistorey residential complex.20 It has been observed that composite steel deck floors made with concrete reinforced with synthetic macro fibres can be completed quickly and at a cheaper price than with the more traditional methods.

decorative concrete
Coloured concrete has been covered in detail in various literature. It is possible to get coloured concrete from ready mix concrete plants also, with a wide range of colours that are consistent from batch to batch, permanent and durable.21 Pigments in powder and liquid form have been tried in the past and there were problems associated with uniformity in the colour of concrete, water demand, strength and durability. The present colouring system contains particles that are granular and they easily disperse into the mix. It often acts as a water reducing agent and hence less water is required for its production. The colourant is conveniently packed in water-soluble bags, each of which will produce one cubic metre of coloured concrete for a given cement content. This way it will be easy to produce consistent, uniformly coloured concrete covering a wide range of colours. It is expected that the use of coloured concrete will give architects/planners enough opportunities to go for decorative concrete that will blend and improve the built environment.

Conclusions

Use of fibres
The use of fibres in cement concrete and mortar has been proved beneficial. Steel, acrylic, polymer, glass, carbon, polypropylene and natural fibres etc. are commonly used. These fibres control /eliminate development of shrinkage cracks which may normally develop/ appear during concrete curing stage. If such cracks in the concrete can be prevented, then entry of water/ moisture through the cracks would also be controlled. Hence, the corrosion of primary reinforcing bars would be reduced. It is also reported that flexural strength of concrete increases with the addition of fibres. The fibres may be 12 mm long for concrete and 6 mm long for plastering work. The manufacturers recommendations

A brief review associated with the applications of structural engineering in non-industrial projects has been presented. A few relevant items on design covering fire engineering in buildings, faade design, hybrid construction, etc. are mentioned. Issues related to repair and restoration work and especially the role of FRP systems in strengthening reinforced concrete structural elements are referred. Structural engineers have to produce safe and economical design with proper structural detailing so that the structures can be constructed with minimum difficulties. It is commented that architects and structural engineers are required to work closely for creative/innovative designs associated with modern buildings. The structural engineers in a project are responsible for design and construction of safe and serviceable structures through efficient project management. The services that a structural engineer

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offers are challenging and commendable and he/she can surely claim to be an important member of the project team. Education and training of our engineers would play a very important role in meeting the demands of the future. Structural security and safety, fibre reinforced concrete, ready mix concrete, use of re-cycled materials and fibres, and SCC would be key components in the design and construction of structures in the future.
15. Daniel Jansen, and Herman Protze, Removing barriers to high strength concrete in Boston, Concrete, July-August 2001. 16. Rob Gaimster, and John, Gibbs, Current practice sheet No. 123 Self compacting concrete, Concrete, July-August 2001. 17. Dransfield, John, Admixture current practice - Part 1, Concrete, September 2006. 18. Report on ready mix Concrete, i-Structure, June-July, 2006 19. Robery, Peter, Construction of composite floor slabs using steel fibres in reinforced concrete, The Structural Engineer, December, 2002. 20. Perry, Bruce, Synthetic macro-fibre concrete in composite steel deck floor construction, Concrete, September, 2006. 21. Christie, Iain, Adding colour to concrete, Concrete, July/August 2001.

acknowledgement

The author would like to thank the management of Development Architects Private Ltd. (DAPL) for their encouragement. The author expresses his gratitude and appreciation for the opportunity of working with DAPL and the representatives of the clients and contractors on different projects whose names have not been mentioned specifically. references
1. Ganguly, K.K., A brief review of different applications with reinforced concrete, in industrial projects, with present and future trend, Proceedings of the International symposium on innovative world of concrete, ICI-IWC-93, Vol. I. 2. Dickson, Michael, Engineering buildings for a small planet : Towards construction without depletion, The Structural Engineer, February 2002, Vol. 80, No. 3. 3. Stansfield, Kathy, Global Warming : Issues for Engineers, The Structural Engineers, July 2001, Vol. 79. No. 14. 4. Chan, Berenice, Challenge for the future, The Structural Engineer, October 2001. 5. Downing, Mike, Hybrid construction : The way forward, The Structural Engineers, June 2001. 6. Ledbetter, Stephen, Faade engineering : The challenge for structural engineers, The Structural Engineer, June 2001. Vol. 79, No. 7. 7. Farmer, Ian, Using computers in engineering calculations, Reports, The Structural Engineer, February 2002. 8. Miller, Andrew, Productivity in 3D modelling and structural design, The Structural Engineer, February 2002. 9. Shaw, Cris, Cover to reinforcement Getting it right, The Structural Engineer, February 2007. 10. ______BS 7973, 2001, British Standard Institution, London. 11. Su, N., Lin, T.D. and Chai, H.W., Damage to structures and buildings from Chi-Chi (Taiwan) earthquake, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Structures & Buildings, February 2002. 12. ______Guide for the design and construction of externally bonded FRP systems for strengthening concrete structures, ACI Committee 440, American Concrete Institute, USA. 13. Stansfield, Kathy, Report on designing for security, The Structural Engineer, October 2001. 14. Recycling of wastes as aggregates for construction, IEI, News, July 2006.

Dr. K.K. Ganguly, PhD (London), is a director at Development Architects Private Ltd, Kolkata. His areas of interest are design and construction of industrial and non-industrial projects apart from teaching and research.

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The IndIan ConCreTe Journal JANUARY 2008