MATH 1071 Linear Algebra

Problems
Michaelmas 2012
We will (probably) not discuss all problems on the list while on the other hand during the term I
will add a few more problems.
1 The vector space in R
n
1. Find the lengths of the two vectors and the angle between them in each of the following cases:
(i)
_
1
2
_
,
_
3
1
_
in R
2
; (ii)
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
,
_
_
2
3
1
_
_
in R
3
;
(iii)
_
_
_
_
1
1
1
1
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
2
1
2
_
_
_
_
in R
4
; (iv)
_
_
_
_
1
2
0
2
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
2
1
2
0
_
_
_
_
in R
4
.
2. Find all the unit vectors in R
4
which are orthogonal to
_
_
_
_
1
1
1
1
_
_
_
_
and
_
_
_
_
1
1
1
1
_
_
_
_
and make an angle of /4 with
_
_
_
_
1
0
0
0
_
_
_
_
.
3. Find the cross products of the following pairs of vectors:
(i)
_
_
3
2
0
_
_

_
_
1
7
0
_
_
; (ii)
_
_
1
2
5
_
_

_
_
3
1
7
_
_
; (iii)
_
_
3
2
7
_
_

_
_
1
1
1
_
_
; (iv)
_
_
8
8
1
_
_

_
_
5
5
2
_
_
.
1
1 THE VECTOR SPACE IN R
N
2
4. Find the most general form for the vector u satisfying the equation
u
_
_
2
1
1
_
_
=
_
_
1
0
0
_
_

_
_
2
1
1
_
_
5. If a, b R
3
with a = 0 show that the equation a u = b has a solution if and only if a b = 0
and nd all the solutions in this case. [Hint: Before you start, ask yourself what sort of answer
you expect to get and what the set of solutions represents geometrically.]
6. Show that there are exactly two unit vectors in R
3
which make an angle of

3
with both of the
vectors
_
_
1
2
2
_
_
,
_
_
2
1
2
_
_
.
Find the angle these two unit vectors make with each other.
7. Determine the orthogonal projection of each of the standard basis vectors of R
n
onto the vector
subspace dened by x
1
+ + x
n
= 0.
8. Find the equation (in the form ax + by + cz = d) of the planes in R
3
which contain the triples
of points:
(i)
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
,
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
,
_
_
2
2
1
_
_
; (ii)
_
_
2
3
1
_
_
,
_
_
2
2
3
_
_
,
_
_
4
1
1
_
_
.
9. Given a line in R
3
and a point a not on show that there is a unique plane containing a
and . Find the equation of in the form ax + by + cz = d when
a =
_
_
1
2
1
_
_
and is the line
x 2 =
y 1
3
=
z 2
2
.
10. If is a line in R
3
and a is a point not on show that there is a unique plane through a which
meets orthogonally. Find the equation of in the form ax + by + cz = d when
a =
_
_
1
2
1
_
_
and is the line
x 1
2
=
y + 1
2
= z.
1 THE VECTOR SPACE IN R
N
3
11. Write down the equations for the line in R
3
through the point
a =
_
_
1
2
4
_
_
parallel to the line
x 1 =
y + 5
2
=
z
2
.
Find the distance between these lines.
12. Find the distance between the lines
1
and
2
in R
3
when:
(i)
1
:
x 2
3
=
y 5
2
=
z 1
1
,
2
:
x 4
4
=
y 5
4
= z + 2;
(ii)
1
: x = y = z,
2
: 2x 1 = y + 1 = 2z + 1.
13. If
1
,
2
are non-parallel lines in R
3
show there is a unique line
3
which meets
1
and
2
orthog-
onally. Find
3
when
1
,
2
are given by

1
: x 2 =
y 1
3
=
z 3
2
,
2
: x + 1 = y + 2 = z + 3.
14. If is a line in R
3
and a is a point not on show that there is a unique line

through a which
meets orthogonally. Find

when
a =
_
_
1
2
1
_
_
and is the line
x + 2 =
y 1
2
=
z + 1
2
.
15. Determine all lines which meet the lines

1
:
x 1
2
=
y
2
= z 1,
2
: x 1 =
y + 1
2
=
z
2
at an angle of

3
. What do you notice about the conguration formed by these lines?
16. Let be a line in R
3
not passing through the origin. Show that there is a unique line through
the origin that intersects orthogonally. What goes wrong if passes through the origin?
17. (i) Show that every pair of opposite edges of a regular tetrahedron is orthogonal.
(ii) Show that if two pairs of opposite edges of a tetrahedron are orthogonal then the third pair
of opposite edges are also orthogonal.
(iii) Is it true that if every pair of opposite edges of a tetrahedron is orthogonal then the
tetrahedron is regular? Give either a proof or a counterexample.
2 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 4
2 Systems of linear equations
18. Find the solution sets to the following (nonlinear!) equations or systems of equations (with x
and y real):
(i)
_
y = x
2
, (x 1)
2
+ y
2
= 1.
_
. ;
(ii) {2x + 3y = 2, 4x + 6y = 8} . ;
(iii) 1 2x =

x
2
+ 3x + 7;
(iv) sinx = 1/

2;
(v) y = x
2
+ 1.
19. Solve the following systems of linear equations:
(i)
2x
1
+x
2
+3x
3
= 0,
3x
1
2x
2
+x
3
= 0,
x
1
3x
2
2x
3
= 1.
(ii)
x
1
+x
2
x
3
= 7,
4x
1
x
2
+5x
3
= 4,
2x
1
+2x
2
3x
3
= 0.
(iii)
x
1
+x
2
x
3
= 7,
4x
1
x
2
+5x
3
= 4,
6x
1
+x
2
+3x
3
= 18.
(iv)
2x
1
x
2
x
3
= 0,
x
1
+x
2
+2x
3
= 0,
7x
1
+x
2
3x
3
= 0,
2x
2
x
3
= 0.
(v)
x
1
+ x
2
x
3
x
4
= 1,
3x
1
+4x
2
x
3
2x
4
= 3,
x
1
+2x
2
+ x
3
= 5.
(vi)
x
1
2x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 2,
3x
1
+2x
3
2x
4
= 8,
4x
2
x
3
x
4
= 1,
5x
1
+3x
3
x
4
= 0.
2 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 5
(vii)
x
2
+x
3
+ +x
n1
+x
n
= 1,
x
1
+x
3
+ +x
n1
+x
n
= 2,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
1
+ +x
r1
+x
r+1
+ +x
n
= r,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
1
+x
2
+x
3
+ +x
n1
= n.
20. Find the conditions on a, b, c such that the system of linear equations
2x
1
+3x
2
x
3
= a,
x
1
x
2
+3x
3
= b,
3x
1
+7x
2
5x
3
= c.
is consistent and nd the set of solutions in this case.
21. Prove that the system of linear equations
x
1
+2x
2
+3x
3
3x
4
= k
1
,
2x
1
5x
2
3x
3
+12x
4
= k
2
,
7x
1
+x
2
+8x
3
+ 5x
4
= k
3
.
has a solution if and only if 37k
1
+13k
2
9k
3
= 0. Find the solutions when k
1
= 1, k
2
= 2, k
3
= 7.
22. For which values of t does the system of linear equations
tx
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 1,
x
1
+tx
2
+ x
3
= 1,
x
1
+ x
2
+tx
3
= 1.
have (a) a unique solution; (b) innitely many solutions; (c) no solution? Find the solutions in
cases (a) and (b).
23. Use Maple to solve the equations
x 2y + 3z = v
1
,
3x 2y + z = v
2
,
x + 2y + 4z = v
3
when
(i) v =
_
_
v
1
v
2
v
3
_
_
=
_
_
1
2
1
_
_
, (ii) v =
_
_
v
1
v
2
v
3
_
_
=
_
_
1
2
1
_
_
.
Use Maple to produce a plot of the planes given by the equations in (i) and (ii) where the point
of intersection can be clearly seen.
3 MATRICES 6
3 Matrices
24. Compute each of the following matrix products:
(i)
_
3 1 0
0 2 5
_
_
_
1 1 0
0 2 1
4 1 3
_
_
; (ii)
_
_
1 1 1
0 1 1
1 0 2
_
_
_
_
1 1 1
2 6 1
7 0 1
_
_
;
(iii)
_
_
1
1
2
_
_
_
3 0 1
_
; (iv)
_
_
2 0
1 3
0 4
_
_
_
2 1 0
3 0 5
_
;
(v)
_
2 1 0
3 0 5
_
_
_
2 0
1 3
0 4
_
_
.
25. Find a, b, c, d such that
_
2 1
4 2
__
a b
c d
_
=
_
1 3
2 6
_
.
Do there exist p, q, r, s such that
_
p q
r s
__
2 1
4 2
_
=
_
1 3
2 6
_
?
26. Compute
_
_
1 a c
0 1 b
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
1 x z
0 1 y
0 0 1
_
_
.
Hence show by induction that
_
_
1 1 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
n
=
_
_
1 n n(n 1)/2
0 1 n
0 0 1
_
_
.
27. Let A, B, C be matrices of sizes m p, p q, q n respectively. Find expressions (in terms
of m, n, p, q) for the number of times matrix entries are multiplied together in the computa-
tions of (AB)C and A(BC). If m > p > q > n which of (AB)C and A(BC) requires fewer
multiplications?
28. Show that an n n matrix A commutes with every n n matrix if and only if it A is a scalar
matrix, that is to say A = kI for some scalar k.
Hint: Consider AE and EA, where E is an elementary matrix.
29. Determine which of the following matrices are invertible and nd the inverse when it exists.
(i)
_
1 2
3 4
_
, (ii)
_
1 2
2 4
_
, (iii)
_
1 n
0 1
_
, (iv)
_
1 1
1 1
_
,
(v)
_
0 1
1 0
_
, (vi)
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, (vii)
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
.
3 MATRICES 7
30. Determine which of the following matrices are invertible and nd the inverse when it exists.
(i)
_
_
2 1 0
3 2 1
4 3 2
_
_
, (ii)
_
_
2 3 4
1 2 3
0 1 2
_
_
, (iii)
_
_
2 1 0
1 2 1
0 1 2
_
_
, (iv)
_
_
1 a c
0 1 b
0 0 1
_
_
,
(v)
_
_
2 1 2
1 2 2
2 2 1
_
_
; (vi)
_
_
2 1 2
2 2 2
1 2 1
_
_
; (vii)
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
_
_
.
31. Find the inverses of the following matrices:
(i)
_
_
_
_
1 3 0 2
3 12 2 6
2 10 2 5
1 6 1 3
_
_
_
_
(ii)
_
_
_
_
2 1 0 0
1 2 1 0
0 1 2 1
0 0 1 2
_
_
_
_
(iii)
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
_
_
_
_
(iv)
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
(v)
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 2 n 1 n
0 1 n 2 n 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
32. If A is an n n matrix such that A
2
+ 2A + 3I = 0 show that A is invertible and express A
1
as a polynomial in A.
33. Let A be an n n matrix such that A
r
= 0 for some positive integer r (such a matrix is called
nilpotent). Show that I + A is invertible and express the inverse as a polynomial in A. Deduce
that, under the same assumptions on A, any polynomial in A with nonzero constant term is
invertible.
34. An n n matrix A = (a
ij
) is upper triangular if a
ij
= 0 for i > j. Show that the inverse of an
invertible upper triangular matrix is upper triangular.
35. Show that the inverse of an invertible symmetric matrix is symmetric. Is the inverse of an
invertible skew-symmetric matrix skew-symmetric?
36. Show that every n n matrix A can be written in the form A = B + C where B is symmetric
and C is anti-symmetric. If A = B

+ C

is another such decomposition show that B = B

and
C = C

.
37. Let n be an integer, not necessarily positive. Find all 2 2 matrices B (with real coecients)
such that B
n
= A when :
(i) A =
_
1 0
0 3
_
, (ii) A =
_
1 1
0 1
_
, (iii) A =
_
1 2
4 5
_
, (iv) A =
_
2 1
1 0
_
.
3 MATRICES 8
Hint: For (i) and (ii) use the fact that, for any such B, BA = B
n+1
= AB. For (iii) and (iv)
consider PAP
1
where
P =
_
2 1
1 1
_
and then use (i) and (ii).
38. For each n 4 Give an example of an n n matrix A such that A
n
= 0 but A
n1
= 0. (Try
the cases n = 2 and n = 3 rst.)
39. If A = (a
ij
) is an n n matrix the trace of A is dened by
tr(A) =
n

i=1
a
ii
.
Show that if A and B are nn matrices then tr(AB) = tr(BA) and deduce that if B is invertible
then tr(BAB
1
) = tr(A).
40. An n n matrix A is strictly upper triangular if, for all i j, the (i, j)-entry a
ij
= 0. Prove
that:
(a) the product of any two strictly upper triangular matrices is strictly upper triangular;
(b) the product of any three strictly upper triangular 3 3 matrices is zero.
Formulate and prove the result corresponding to (b) for strictly upper triangular nn matrices.
41. (i) Suppose that A is an nn matrix and (during, for example, an attempt to nd the inverse
of A) the matrix (A | I
n
) has been transformed by EROs into the matrix (A

| B). Using
the fact that EROs may be performed by multiplying on the left by certain matrices, or
otherwise, show that A

= BA.
(This provides an alternative proof that the inversion algorithm works and also proves a
method of checking, in the middle of such a calculation, that no error has crept in.)
(ii) Show that if AB is a product of matrices then the result of performing a certain ERO on
AB is the same as that of performing this ERO on A and then multiplying the result (on
the right) by B.
4 DETERMINANTS 9
4 Determinants
42. Compute the following determinants:
(i) det
_
_
1 3 4
2 0 1
1 3 2
_
_
, (ii) det
_
_
5 3 1
2 0 0
1 2 0
_
_
, (iii) det
_
_
x y z
y z x
z x y
_
_
,
(iv) det
_
_
x 1 1
1 x 1
1 1 x
_
_
, (v) det
_
_
_
_
3 1 2 4
1 1 0 3
2 4 1 5
6 4 1 2
_
_
_
_
, (vi) det
_
_
_
_
x y z t
y z t x
z t x y
t x y z
_
_
_
_
,
(vii) det
_
_
_
_
x 1 0 0
1 x 1 0
0 1 x 1
0 0 1 x
_
_
_
_
.
In the case of (iii) and (vi) express the determinant as a product of linear factors.
Hint: To do this you will need to use complex 3rd and 4th roots of unity respectively. For
example, the answer to (iii) is (x + y + z)(x + y +
2
z)(x +
2
y + z), where = e
2i/3
.
43. Show that the determinant of the n n matrix
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
x a a a
a x a a
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a a x a
a a a x
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
is (x + (n 1)a)(x a)
n1
.
44. Express the determinant of the n n matrix
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
x 0 0 0 0 a
n
1 x 0 0 0 a
n1
0 1 x 0 0 a
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 x 0 a
3
0 0 0 1 x a
2
0 0 0 0 1 x a
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
as a polynomial in x.
45. For which values of is the matrix I A singular when A is
(i)
_
1 2
1 1
_
, (ii)
_
_
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
, (iii)
_
_
0 1 2
1 0 1
2 1 0
_
_
?
4 DETERMINANTS 10
46. Comparative eciency of methods for calculating determinants:
(a) Find the number of arithmetic operations (counting each multiplication and addition as
a separate operation) needed to evaluate a 3 3 determinant by, on the one hand, using
row operations to reduce to echelon form and, on the other hand, expanding by a row or
column.
(b) Find a corresponding estimate for the number of arithmetic operations needed for each
method in the n n case.
47. Show that the quadrilaterals with the following vertices are parallelograms and nd their areas:
(i)
_
1
2
_
,
_
0
1
_
,
_
2
2
_
,
_
1
1
_
; (ii)
_
2
1
_
,
_
1
5
_
,
_
3
9
_
,
_
0
3
_
.
48. Find the area of the triangles with vertices:
(i)
_
1
3
_
,
_
2
4
_
,
_
1
2
_
; (ii)
_
4
2
_
,
_
2
4
_
,
_
1
1
_
.
49. Find the scalar triple products of the following sets of vectors:
(i)
_
_
_
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
,
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
,
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
_
_
_
; (ii)
_
_
_
_
_
3
2
1
_
_
,
_
_
7
3
5
_
_
,
_
_
2
4
1
_
_
_
_
_
; (iii)
_
_
_
_
_
2
1
0
_
_
,
_
_
2
3
4
_
_
,
_
_
0
4
4
_
_
_
_
_
.
50. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with vertices
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
,
_
_
0
1
1
_
_
,
_
_
1
0
2
_
_
,
_
_
1
2
0
_
_
,
_
_
2
0
0
_
_
,
_
_
0
2
2
_
_
,
_
_
1
3
1
_
_
,
_
_
2
3
1
_
_
.
51. Find the volume of the tetrahedron with vertices
a =
_
_
1
2
3
_
_
, b =
_
_
4
2
0
_
_
, c =
_
_
2
5
2
_
_
, d =
_
_
1
3
1
_
_
.
5 SPANNING SETS AND LINEAR INDEPENDENCE 11
5 Spanning sets and linear independence
52. Determine whether or not each of the given sets of vectors is linearly independent :
(i)
_
_
_
_
_
3
4
2
_
_
,
_
_
7
1
3
_
_
,
_
_
1
2
8
_
_
_
_
_
, (ii)
_
_
_
_
_
3
4
2
_
_
,
_
_
7
1
3
_
_
,
_
_
1
1
8
_
_
_
_
_
,
(iii)
_

_
_
_
_
_
1
0
2
1
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
2
4
3
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
2
1
1
3
_
_
_
_
_

_
, (iv)
_

_
_
_
_
_
1
0
3
1
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
2
1
0
3
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
1
7
0
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
3
1
5
2
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
4
7
1
3
_
_
_
_
_

_
,
(v)
_

_
_
_
_
_
3
1
4
2
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
2
3
3
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
0
1
2
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
1
4
1
_
_
_
_
_

_
, (vi)
_

_
_
_
_
_
2
1
1
2
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
2
2
1
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
1
1
1
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
0
3
1
2
_
_
_
_
_

_
.
53. For what values of t is each of the following subsets of R
3
linearly independent?
(i )
_
_
_
_
_
1
2
3
_
_
,
_
_
2
1
4
_
_
,
_
_
3
t
4
_
_
_
_
_
(ii )
_
_
_
_
_
2
3
1
_
_
,
_
_
4
6
2
_
_
,
_
_
t
1
2
_
_
_
_
_
.
54. Identify which of the following are bases of R
3
:
(i)
_
_
_
_
_
0
1
2
_
_
,
_
_
1
1
3
_
_
,
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
_
_
_
; (ii)
_
_
_
_
_
0
1
2
_
_
,
_
_
1
1
3
_
_
,
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
_
_
_
;
(iii)
_
_
_
_
_
2
1
0
_
_
,
_
_
1
2
1
_
_
,
_
_
0
1
2
_
_
_
_
_
; (iv)
_
_
_
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
,
_
_
1
1
0
_
_
,
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
_
_
_
.
55. Consider the vectors:
a =
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
, b =
_
_
1
1
2
_
_
, c =
_
_
2
4
1
_
_
, d =
_
_
1
5
1
_
_
, e =
_
_
1
2
3
_
_
, f =
_
_
0
0
0
_
_
Which of the following subsets of R
3
is (a) linearly independent, (b) a spanning set, (c) a basis?
(i) {a, b}, (ii) {a, c}, (iii) {a, b, c}, (iv) {a, b, c, d},
(v) {a, b, e}, (vi) {a, b, d, e}, (vii) {a, b, e, f }.
56. Which of the following subsets of R
4
are (a) linearly independent, (b) a spanning set, (c) a basis?
(i)
_

_
_
_
_
_
1
0
2
3
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
3
1
0
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
0
1
2
1
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
1
2
1
_
_
_
_
_

_
, (ii)
_

_
_
_
_
_
1
0
2
3
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
3
1
0
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
0
1
2
1
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
0
2
1
2
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
3
4
4
5
_
_
_
_
_

_
.
5 SPANNING SETS AND LINEAR INDEPENDENCE 12
57. Show that
_

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
1
0
1
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
1
1
0
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
0
1
0
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

_
is a linearly independent subset of R
5
and nd a basis of R
5
which contains it.
58. Show that if a, b, c are vectors in R
3
then
_
b + c, c + a, a + b
_
is a basis of R
3
if and only if
_
a, b, c
_
is.
59. If a, b, c are vectors in R
3
the show that
_
b c, c a, a b
_
is a basis of R
3
if and only if
_
a, b, c
_
is.
60. If
__
a
b
_
,
_
c
d
__
is a basis for R
2
express
_
1
0
_
and
_
0
1
_
as linear combinations of
_
a
b
_
and
_
c
d
_
.
61. Show that
_
_
_
_
_
0
2
1
_
_
,
_
_
7
5
0
_
_
,
_
_
3
1
1
_
_
_
_
_
is a basis for R
3
and nd the coordinates of the vectors
_
_
7
13
0
_
_
and
_
_
1
3
2
_
_
with respect to this basis.
62. Show that
_

_
_
_
_
_
0
1
1
1
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
0
1
1
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
1
0
1
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
1
1
0
_
_
_
_
_

_
is a basis for R
4
and nd the coordinates of the vectors
_
_
_
_
1
2
3
4
_
_
_
_
and
_
_
_
_
1
2
1
2
_
_
_
_
5 SPANNING SETS AND LINEAR INDEPENDENCE 13
with respect to this basis.
63. Show that
_
_
_
_
_
2i
1
0
_
_
,
_
_
2
1
1
_
_
,
_
_
0
1 + i
1 i
_
_
_
_
_
is a basis for C
3
and nd the coordinates of the vectors
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
,
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
and
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
with respect to this basis.
64. Write down the dimension of the subspace of R
5
of solutions each of the following systems of
linear equations and check your answer by nding a basis in each case:
(i)
4x
1
+x
3
x
5
= 0,
x
2
3x
4
= 0,
x
4
+5x
5
= 0.
(ii)
x
1
x
2
+x
3
x
4
+x
5
= 0,
x
2
+x
3
+x
4
+x
5
= 0,
x
3
+x
4
x
5
= 0,
x
4
+4x
5
= 0.
(iii)
3x
1
+2x
2
x
3
+2x
4
x
5
= 0,
5x
1
x
2
+3x
3
x
4
+x
5
= 0.
(iv)
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ x
5
= 0.
65. If a
1
, a
2
R
n
show that:
(i) any subset of Span{a
1
, a
2
} containing three elements is linearly dependent;
(ii) if b
1
, b
2
are linearly independent vectors in Span{a
1
, a
2
} then Span{a
1
, a
2
} = Span{b
1
, b
2
}.
66. Let a
1
, a
2
, a
3
R
2
be three noncollinear points. Show that every v R
2
may be uniquely
expressed in the form
v =
1
a
1
+
2
a
2
+
3
a
3
,
1
+
2
+
3
= 1,
1
,
2
,
3
R.
Draw the set of points v R
2
for which
1
,
2
,
3
0 when
a
1
=
_
1
0
_
, a
2
=
_
1
2
_
, a
3
=
_
1
2
_
,
6 OTHER REAL VECTOR SPACES 14
and nd
1
,
2
,
3
when
v =
_

1
3
0
_
.
6 Other real vector spaces
67. Show that the following pairs of functions are linearly independent in the vector space of all
functions from R to R:
(a) 1, t; (b) t, t
2
; (c) e
t
, t; (d) te
t
, e
2t
; (e) sin(t), cos(t); (f) sin(t), sin(2t).
68. Show that for any integer n 1 the functions
1, cos t, sint, . . . , cos nt, sinnt
are linearly independent in the vector space of question 67.
69. Let r be a xed real number. Show that {1, x + r, (x + r)
2
} is a basis for R[x]
2
and nd the
coordinates of a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
with respect to this basis.
70. The k-th Legendre polynomial P
k
(x) is dened by
P
k
(x) =
1
2
k
k!
d
k
dx
k
(x
2
1)
k
.
Show that, for each non-negative integer n, the set {P
0
(x), . . . , P
n
(x)} is a basis for R[x]
n
.
71. Show that the subset of R[x]
n
, (n 4), of those polynomials whose graphs touch the x-axis
tangentially at x = 0 and x = 1 is a vector subspace and nd its dimension. Also nd a basis
for this subspace. (If you cannot do the case of general n, try n = 4, 5 rst.)
72. Show that the subset
_
f(x) R[x]
n
|f(0) = f(1) = 0, f

(0) = 1, f

(1) = 1
_
is an ane subspace but not a vector subspace of R[x]
n
.
(An ane subspace of a vector space V is a subset of the form
a + U = {a +u| u U},
where U is a vector subspace of V .)
73. (Magic squares) Let M(d), (d R) be the subset of M
3
(R) consisting of those 3 3 matri-
ces such that the sum of the elements in each row, each column, on the diagonal and on the
codiagonal is d. (An element of M(d) is called a magic square with magic number d.)
(i) Show that M(0) is a vector subspace of M
3
(R) and nd a basis for M(0).
6 OTHER REAL VECTOR SPACES 15
(ii) Show that
M(d) =
d
3
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
+ M(0).
(iii) Find all magic squares whose entries are the integers 1 to 9.
74. Let W
1
and W
2
be the subsets of the vector space M
2
(R) of 2 2 matrices with real coe-
cients consisting of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices respectively. Show that W
1
, W
2
are
subspaces of M
2
(R) and nd bases for them. Show also that M
2
(R) = W
1

W
2
.
75. Show that the vector space of all symmetric n n-matrices has dimension n(n + 1)/2. What is
the dimension of the vector space of all skew-symmetric n n-matrices?
76. Let E be the 2 2 elementary matrix
_
1 1
0 1
_
and let W
1
, W
2
, W
3
be the vector subspaces of M
2
(R) dened by
W
1
= {A M
2
(R)|AE = EA},
W
2
= {A M
2
(R)|A
t
E = EA
t
},
W
3
= {A M
2
(R)|A = A
t
}.
Determine the dimensions of W
1
+ W
2
, W
1
W
2
, (W
1
+ W
2
) W
3
and W
1
W
2
W
3
and nd
a basis in each case.
77. Decide which of the following subsets of R[x]
3
are linearly independent, which are spanning sets
and which are bases:
(a) {1, 1 + x, 1 + x + x
2
};
(b) {1, 1 + x, 1 + x + x
2
, 1 + x + x
2
+ x
3
};
(c) {1 + x, x + x
2
, x
2
+ x
3
, 1 + x
3
, 1 + x + x
2
};
(d) {1 + x x
3
, 1 + x + x
2
, x + x
2
+ x
3
, 1 x + x
3
}.
78. Decide which of the following subsets of M
2
(R) are linearly independent, which are spanning
sets and which are bases:
(a)
__
1 0
0 0
_
,
_
1 1
0 0
_
,
_
1 1
1 0
__
;
(b)
__
1 0
0 0
_
,
_
1 1
0 0
_
,
_
1 1
1 0
_
,
_
1 1
1 1
__
;
7 LINEAR MAPS 16
(c)
__
1 0
0 1
_
,
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
_
1 1
0 0
_
,
_
0 0
1 1
__
;
(d)
__
1 1
0 1
_
,
_
1 0
1 1
_
,
_
1 0
0 1
_
,
_
0 1
1 0
__
.
79. If C

(R) is the vector space of innitely dierentiable functions f : R R show that the subset
{e
x
, e
2x
, e
3x
} of C

(R) is linearly independent.

(Hint: Given a linear relation
1
e
x
+
2
e
2x
+
3
e
3x
= 0 dierentiate this twice with respect
to x to get two other linear relations. What can you say, for each given value of x, about the
determinant of this system of 3 linear equations in 3 unknowns?)
80. If a
1
, . . . , a
n
are distinct real numbers show that the functions e
a
1
x
, . . . , e
a
n
x
are linearly inde-
pendent in the vector space C

(R).
7 Linear Maps
81. Give a sketch showing the image of the unit square in R
2
with vertices at the points
_
0
0
_
,
_
1
0
_
,
_
0
1
_
,
_
1
1
_
under each of the following linear transformations T : R
2
R
2
given by T(x) = Ax where:
(a) A =
_
2 0
0 3
_
, (b) A =
_
1 2
0 1
_
, (c) A =
_
1 2
2 4
_
,
(d) A =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, (e) A =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, (f) A =
_
2 1
1 2
_
,
(g) A =
_
1 2
2 1
_
.
82. Find the vectors obtained from
_
_
2
1
1
_
_
and
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
by reection in
(a) the plane x
1
2x
2
+ 2x
3
= 0;
(b) the plane x
1
2x
2
+ 2x
3
= 1.
[Hint: For (b) rst apply a translation (to all the data) to get a plane through the origin, do the
calculation for that plane, and then translate back again.]
7 LINEAR MAPS 17
83. Find the matrix A of the linear map of R
3
to itself given by reection in the plane 2xy+2z = 0.
Verify that A
2
= I.
84. Find the matrix A of the linear map of R
3
to itself given by orthogonal projection onto the plane
x + y + z = 0. Verify that A
2
= A.
85. Determine the matrices A, B of the linear map of R
3
to itself given by rotation through

3
about the line 2x = y = z. What do you notice about the way A is related to B? Check that
A, B are orthogonal matrices and compute A
2
and B
2
.
86. If T : R
3
R
3
is the linear transformation dened by
T
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
y + z
z + x
x + y
_
_
,
nd the image under T of each of the following:
(a) the line x = y = z;
(b) the plane x + y + z = 0.
Use your answer to describe T geometrically and nd T
1
.
87. Determine the matrix A of the linear map of R
n
to itself given by reection in the plane
x
1
+ . . . + x
n
= 0 and check that A is symmetric and orthogonal and that A
2
= I.
88. If A is a 2 2 matrix such that A
n
= 0 for some positive integer n, prove that A
2
= 0.
89. If A is a 2 2 matrix such that A
2
= 0 but A = 0, prove that there is an invertible 2 2 matrix
P such that
P
1
AP =
_
0 1
0 0
_
.
90. If A is a 2 2 matrix such that A
2
= A but A = 0, I, prove that there is an invertible 2 2
matrix P such that
P
1
AP =
_
1 0
0 0
_
.
91. Let T : R[x]
3
R be the function dened by
T(p(x)) =
_
1
0
p(x)dx, p(x) R[x]
3
.
Show that T is a linear map and nd a basis for ker(T).
92. Show that the following functions T : R[x]
n
R[x]
n
are all linear transformations:
(i) T(p(x)) = p(x + 1),
7 LINEAR MAPS 18
(ii) T(p(x)) = p

(x),
(iii) T(p(x)) = p

(x) + 2p

(x) + p(x).
Find the image and kernel of T in each case and nd a basis of ker(T) in each case.
93. Let A be an mn matrix, Q a non-singular mm matrix and P a non-singular n n matrix.
Show that r(QAP) = r(A).
94. Find the ranks of the following matrices:
(i)
_
_
2 1 3 0
1 4 3 9
3 1 2 5
_
_
, (ii)
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
, (iii)
_
_

+ + +

_
_
.
(consider all possible cases).
95. For each real number nd the rank of
(i)
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
, (ii)
_
_
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
_
_
_
_
.
96. Prove by induction on n that the rank of a skew-symmetric n n matrix is even.
97. Let A be an mn matrix, B an n p matrix. Prove that r(AB) min(r(A), r(B)).
98. Let T : R
3
R
2
and S : R
2
R
3
be linear transformations. Show that the composite
ST : R
3
R
3
is not invertible. Give an example of S, T for which TS : R
2
R
2
is invertible.
99. If
A =
_
a b
c d
_
and A
2
= A, show that r(A) = a + d.
100. Find the rank and nullity of the linear transformation T : R
3
R
3
when:
(i) T(x, y, z) = (x + y + z, x + y + z, x + y + z);
(ii) T(x, y, z) = (y + z, z + x, x + y);
(iii) T(x, y, z) = (y z, z x, x y);
(iv) T(x, y, z) = (y + z 2x, z + x 2y, x + y 2z).
101. For each R nd the rank and nullity of the linear transformation T

: R[x]
n
R[x]
n
dened
by
T

f(x) = (1 x
2
)f

(x) 2xf

(x) + f(x).
8 CHANGE OF BASIS 19
102. (a) Give an example of a linear transformation T : V V with ker(T) im(T) = {0}.
(b) Show that if T : V V is a linear transformation satisfying T
2
= T then we have
ker(T) im(T) = {0}.
103. A linear transformation P : V V of a vector space V is called a projection if P
2
= P. Show
that
(i) if P : V V is a projection then I P is a projection and V = im(P)

ker(P);
(ii) if P : V V is a projection, where V is a real vector space of nite dimension n, then the
trace of the matrix of P with respect to any basis of V is equal to the rank of P;
(iii) if P
1
, P
2
: V V are projections then P
1
+P
2
is a projection if and only if P
1
P
2
= P
2
P
1
= 0.
8 Change of basis
104. Let T : R
3
R
2
be a linear transformation whose matrix with respect to bases {e
1
, e
2
, e
3
} of
R
3
and {f
1
, f
2
} of R
2
is
A =
_
1 0 3
2 1 1
_
.
Find the matrix of T with respect to bases { e
1
, e
2
, e
3
} of R
3
and {

f
1
,

f
2
} of R
2
given by
_
_
_
e
1
= e
1
+e
2
,
e
2
= e
2
+e
3
,
e
3
= e
1
+e
3
_
_
_
,
_

f
1
= f
1
2f
2
,

f
2
= f
1
+ f
2
_
.
105. Let T : R
2
R
3
be given with respect to the standard bases of R
2
, R
3
by the matrix
A =
_
_
1 2
2 0
1 4
_
_
.
Find bases of R
2
, R
3
with respect to which T is given by a matrix of the form
_
I
r
0
0 0
_
where r is the rank of T and 0 stands for a matrix of zeros of the appropriate size (possibly
zero).
106. Find non-singular real matrices P and Q such that QAP has the canonical form
_
I
r
0
0 0
_
8 CHANGE OF BASIS 20
when
(a) A =
_
_
_
_
1 1 2
1 3 8
4 3 7
1 12 3
_
_
_
_
, (b) A =
_
_
1 2 3 4
0 1 1 5
3 4 11 2
_
_
.
107. Find bases of R
3
, R
4
with respect to which the linear transformation T : R
3
R
4
dened by
T(x, y, z) = (x y + z, 2x + y, 3y 2z, 3x + 3y z)
has matrix of the form
_
I
r
0
0 0
_
.
108. Let T : R
3
R
3
be the linear transformation dened by
T
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
3x + z
2x + y
x + 2y + 4z
_
_
.
Find the matrix which represents T with respect to:
(a) the standard basis in both copies of R
3
;
(b) the basis consisting of
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
,
_
_
1
2
1
_
_
,
_
_
2
1
1
_
_
in both copies of R
3
.
Show that T is invertible, and give an explicit formula for T
1
in each case.