Ritzenthaler 19-43

Ritzenthaler, Mary Lynn, Nature of Archival Materials, Preserving Archives and Manuscripts, Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1993,
pp. 19-43
The material nature of the archival record is diverse and potentially limitless, depending upon what is seen as having archival significance and thus is accessioned into a repository. Most institutions have their share of strange and wonderful objects, such as pieces of wedding cake, portraits executed in macaroni, and letters written on two-by-fours (see Figure 3-1).1 Rapid changes in the technology of recording and transmitting information will have a great impact on the archives of the future. Record materials that are traditional by today's standards eventually may be largely replaced by electronic media. In the meantime, however, archivists must have an understanding of more common materials and structures. This includes familiarity with (1) the support or base materials traditionally used for collection items, such as paper, glass, plastic film, and animal skin, and (2) the medium, or manner, in which the information was recorded. Archivists must be able to recognize the material nature of the records in order to make informed decisions regarding handling, use, storage, and preservation requirements. Beyond recognizing the various materials that are most likely to be represented in a collection, the archivist also must understand how component materials work together. Most archival records are complex rather than simple assemblages. They may be composed of many materials, and also may have interdependent mechanical properties. A ledger, for example, consists of paper, inks, boards, adhesives, thread, and covering material. Ideally, these components function compatibly and in unison to preserve and allow access to information. If any element breaks down, however, the archivist should be able to evaluate the problem and select the appropriate preservation option. Since archival records can be complex physical and chemical objects having very specific handling and treatment needs; a primary responsibility of the archivist is to become acquainted with the increasingly wide range of record materials, both historical and contemporary. In order to plan deliberately for their storage and care, it is important to know which processes, materials, and images are fragile, vulnerable, or ephemeral. Also essential is an understanding of how the structural elements of an object-book, scrapbook, film-relate to accessing and preserving its informational content (see Figure 3-2). The archivist must be able intellectually to break down a record into its component parts and to consider its format and content as well as its physical condition, in order to develop systems to manage and preserve the (sometimes fragile) whole. Paper Paper is the most common material found in archival collections. While the precise history of its development is somewhat murky, the invention is attributed to the Chinese, and paper samples have been found dating back to 200 B.C.2 Papermaking was primarily a hand process until the invention of the Fourdrinier papermaking machine, which was put into operation in 1803.3 Paper may be defined very simply as fibers that have been reduced to pulp, suspended in water, and then matted into sheets. Although a wide range of fibrous material may be used to form paper, it is made primarily from plant fibers, such as cotton, wood, flax, straw, and mulberry, which are rich in cellulose. Cellulose, the most important constituent of paper, is composed of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. It is a stable, naturally occurring polysaccharide polymer that serves as the structural element for plants, forming the walls of plant cells. Besides cellulose, plant fibers contain sugars, starches, carbohydrates, and lignin (the non-carbohydrate, non-fibrous substance in the cell walls of living plants that is responsible for their strength and rigidity, but that in paper contributes to its degradation). During the hand papermaking process, suitable fibers are soaked in water, cooked in
Preservation Sampler #3: Archives, p. 1
caustic soda and ash, and often fermented. The fibers are then macerated or beaten so that they flatten out and small hairlike fibers called fibrils develop: The fibrils remain attached to the fibers and provide a greater surface for bonding during sheet formation. Originally, beating was done by hand, as it still is today in some papermaking processes in various parts of the world. However, the water-driven stamping mill, invented in the twelfth century, speeded up the process and still produced a relatively long fibered pulp through the use of wooden beaters (or stampers) in a wooden tub. Once the fibers are macerated to a pulp, they are added to a vat of water to form a dilute slurry. The water swells the fibers, distributes them evenly in the suspension, and promotes hydrogen bonding, which holds the dry fibers together. A paper mold is dipped into the vat vertically, lifted out horizontally, and shaken vigorously until an even layer of slurry rests on the porous screen of the mold (see Figures 3-3, 3-4). The slurry is retained by the surround, or top half of the mold, called the deckle (see Figure 3-5). Excess water passes through the screen, which traps the fibers, and the remaining mat of fibers is laid (or couched) onto a piece of wool felt. The paper sheet is formed by mechanical intertwining of the fibers, surface tension between fibers, and chemical bonding of adjacent cellulose molecules (i.e., hydrogen bonding). Once a stack of sheets has been made and layered between pieces of felt, additional water is removed by pressing and air drying (see Figure 3-6). Sizing is added to allow the paper to accept writing and printing inks. Without sizing, paper behaves like a blotter and inks applied to it feather and spread. Unsized sheets are known as water leaf. Traditional sizing agents were animal glue and gelatin, which were applied by immersing dry sheets into tubs of hot size. Some contemporary handmade papers are still sized with gelatin, although synthetic sizing agents are also employed.4 Handmade paper generally does not have a dominant grain direction because the fibers are aligned randomly as the papermaker manipulates the mold after lifting it from the vat. This means that handmade paper will usually neither tear nor fold more readily in one direction than another. Since paper made by hand is formed individually sheet by sheet, no two pieces are exactly alike, nor is a single sheet of uniform thickness throughout. Unless handmade paper has been cut or trimmed (which is seen as sacrilege by some), it has a distinctive deckle (or feathered) edge around all four sides, formed as slurry seeps between the deckle and frame of the mold. Papermaker's tears are another distinctive characteristic of some handmade paper. These small roundish impressions in the paper, somewhat thinner than the surrounding area, result if a drop of slurry falls onto the newly formed sheet, forcing the fibers to disperse slightly.
Figure 3-1. This roll petition has both artifactual and informational value, and poses a great storage and access challenge. (Courtesy of the National Archives and Records Administration.)
Figure 3-2. This volume is of a size that almost defies standard handling and housing procedures; it exemplifies the inability of some binding structures to support and protect large, heavy textblocks. (Courtesy of the Library of Congress.) Handmade paper often contains a watermark, a design that can be seen in the finished sheet through transmitted light. Watermarks were first used in Italy at the end of the thirteenth century and were commonly used throughout Europe by the fifteenth century. This bent wire design or symbol is attached to the grid of the mold. During sheet formation, fewer fibers settle over the design, resulting in greater translucency in this localized area. A smaller and subsidiary watermark known as the countermark, introduced in the seventeenth century and placed in the opposite half of the sheet to the main watermark, often contained the name or initials of the papermaker as well as the date and place of manufacture. Watermarks are important bibliographic tools in identifying and
dating paper. The process of making paper by machine is essentially the same as the simple hand process outlined above, although the scale is obviously much larger and the steps are mechanized. Also, on the Fourdrinier-style machine, the paper is formed in a continuous roll rather than in individual sheets. The fiber mat is formed on a high-speed screen and carried through successive steps to drying, calendering (i.e., running the paper between rollers to give it a smooth surface), and finishing (see Figure 3-7). If desired, a dandy roll is employed when the fibers are still wet to impress a design (such as laid and chain lines to simulate handmade paper) or watermarks into the newly formed paper as it passes beneath the revolving roll. Machine-made paper has two deckle edges formed by strips of soft rubber along each side of the machine to prevent the slurry from running off, although it can be manufactured with four simulated deckle edges. Imitation deckle edges also can be created on dry paper by various methods of tearing or cutting. Machine-made papers have a definite grain direction; the fibers align themselves in the direction of the moving screen. Paper will fold and tear more readily with. the grain than against it. Also, when machine-made paper is dampened or pasted, the fibers swell or expand across their width to a greater degree than along their length. This characteristic has implications for printers, bookbinders, and paper conservators, who must know the working properties of the paper when it is exposed to moisture or wet treatment. Unfortunately, the quality of paper has steadily declined since the late eighteenth century. Prior to that time, papermaking was primarily a handprocess using cotton and linen rags as the source of cellulose. As noted above, the fibers were beaten in a stamping mill, which retained much of their length and resulted in the formation of fibrils that did not separate completely from the fibers. Also, no additives were used that had a deteriorative effect on the paper. Paper from this period is generally still quite strong and flexible. As the demand for paper increased, forcing greater mechanization, processes and materials were introduced that resulted in much poorer quality paper. By the midseventeenth century, alum (potassium aluminum sulphate) was added as an agent to harden the gelatin sizing as well as to control the growth of mold and bacteria in the hot gelatin. The presence of alum, a hydrated double salt that in the presence of moisture breaks down to-form several products, including sulphuric acid, greatly diminishes the useful life of paper. The Hollander beater was invented in the Netherlands in about 1680 to macerate the fibers mechanically using metal blades against a metal bed plate. The Hollander beater, which replaced the water-driven stamper, speeded up the pulping process but also produced a shorter rather than the more desirable longer fibered pulp. The action of the metal blades against the metal plate also left small metallic particles in the pulp. Metallic traces in paper can catalyze deteriorative chemical reactions and may contribute to the formation of foxing. The water used in the papermaking process can be another source of trace metals. In 1774, chlorine was introduced to bleach colored rags to a tone considered acceptable for paper. If not completely removed, residual chlorine-a strong oxidizing agent-reacts in the presence of moisture to produce hypochlorous acid, which is damaging to cellulose. In the decade between 1840 and 1850, alum rosin sizing became widely used as a replacement for gelatin, because it could be added directly to the vat rather than applied after sheet formation, making the process faster and more economical. Alum was used in conjunction with rosin (the actual sizing agent) to insure that the rosin was precipitated on the paper fibers. Alum also aided in the dispersal of plant fibers in the slurry. "Papermaker's alum" (aluminum sulphate), developed in the late nineteenth century for economic reasons, was even more acidic than the earlier alum compound and therefore contributed even more to the decline in paper stability. In the late eighteenth century, increased literacy and recordkeeping surpassed the
availability of rags for paper, and other sources of plant fibers were sought that would be both plentiful and cheap. Experiments were made with a wide range of curious and wonderful fibers, from potatoes to wasps' nests; but by the middle of the nineteenth century wood pulp was being used extensively to create inexpensive papers.5 Wood is the primary source of cellulose fiber for paper being produced today. Depending upon species, wood consists of approximately 45 percent cellulose, 6 20-25 percent hemicelluloses,7 16-34 percent lignin, and less than 5 percent of other substances. Groundwood pulp, which is produced by mechanically grinding or macerating wood into separate fibers as its name implies, does not produce stable paper. After the bark is removed, logs are ground on a revolving stone. The resulting pulp retains all of the components of wood, except for water-soluble materials, which wash away during the grinding process. The fibers are short, and a large amount of lignin (which is unstable, light-sensitive, and breaks down into acid compounds as it ages) is retained.8 While groundwood paper is always unstable, it is possible to obtain relatively strong, high-quality paper from wood pulp that has been chemically treated to remove as much of the lignin and other non-cellulosic material as possible.9 Chemical wood pulp is created by cooking chips of wood in various chemical solutions under pressure at high temperature. The cellulose fibers are left in an aqueous suspension and then bleached and washed to remove lignin and other undesirable materials. The soda process employs caustic soda to cook the wood chips and produces a soft, short-fibered, and relatively weak paper. The sulphite process uses a solution of calcium bisulphite for cooking the wood and creates a stronger, longer-fibered paper than does the soda process. The sulphate or kraft process, which is now the dominant chemical pulping process, employs sodium sulphide as the primary cooking agent, and produces the strongest of the chemical wood pulps. The chemical wood pulping processes preserve a much longer fiber than does the mechanical wood pulping process, which is a contributing factor to paper strength and durability.
Figure 3-3. This demonstration of Japanese-style sheet forming at the University of Iowa Center for the Baok papermaking facility shows the technique of building up layers of pulp on the su, or flexible papermaking screen. (Courtesy of the UI Foundation.)
Figure 3-4. Having formed the sheet, the vatman lets excess water drain away before removing the deckle from the mold. (Courtesy of the author.) -
Figure 3-5. Paper mold with watermarking wires. (Drawing by Pamela Spitzmueller.)
Figure 3-6. A stock of newly formed sheets of paper layered between felts is placed in on hydraulic press to remove additional water and compress the fibers. (Courtesy of the author.)
Figure 3-7. A continuous web of paper is made on a papermaking machine. (Courtesy of the author.) Paper made today is much more complex than at produced in previous centuries. Many substances in varying combinations are added to the pulp to achieve desired results, in addition to the sizing agents described above. For example, fillers are added to improve the color (often whiteness) of the paper, to achieve a smooth sheet that has good printing qualities, and to improve the dimensional and chemical stability of the paper. Fillers may be natural, such as clay, talc, or ground limestone (i.e., chalk), or they may be manufactured, such as titanium dioxide or precipitated calcium carbonate. Optical brighteners and fluorescent dyes are added to enhance paper brightness. "Wet-strength" additives (various resins) are added to the pulp to achieve a paper that will retain its strength when wet. All of these additives, and the various finishing processes, have a direct bearing on the chemical and physical properties of the paper, as well as on its appearance, texture, and surface characteristics. Paper technology and the paper industry are ever-changing, in response to technical innovations, the availability of natural resources, environmental concerns, economics, and consumer requirements. Since the 1960s, whole trees have been converted to chips at the harvest site, which has resulted in less waste. Hardwoods are increasingly being used for a pulp source as softwood forests become depleted, and the use of recycled fibers from waste papers and sawmill waste has also increased. In the pulping process, grinding stones are being replaced by disk refiners that can digest wood chips and sawdust, thereby achieving a high yield. Thermomechanical pulp (TMP), produced by heating wood chips under pressure and passing the softened chips through a disk refiner, achieves a stronger fiber than
does traditional ground wood pulp, although lignin is retained. Chemithermo mechanical pulp (CTMP), another recent innovation, also contains lignin but not groundwood. Such innovations have a direct impact on the physical and chemical properties of the paper produced, and must be considered in efforts to achieve standards for permanent paper. Changing methods of pulping, the use of different pulp combinations, the addition of various nonfibrous additives, and the evolution of physical and chemical treatments carried out during paper manufacture, combine to make contemporary paper wonderfully diverse and complex. While papermaking relies greatly on science, art and craft (and perhaps a little magic) still have a place in the process. Acidity in Paper The period from 1850 to the present has often been considered "the era of bad paper." The quality of paper progressively declined, primarily as a result of the increased use of alum rosin sizing and groundwood pulp, both of which introduced a high degree of acidity into paper. Other sources of acid include residual bleaching chemicals, inks, sulphur dioxide and other acid-forming pollutants, and migration. Acid migration (or transfer) refers to the ability of acid to move from an acidic material to items of less or no acidity. This transfer takes place through direct contact with adjacent acidic materials (for example, secondary materials such as manila file folders as well as poor quality papers such as newspaper clippings), or through exposure to acidic vapors in the surrounding environment (such as a closed box or file drawer). Acidity is one other primary causes of paper deterioration. Acidity causes paper to lose its strength by hydrolysis of its cellulose molecules; the polymer chains gradually break down and the paper becomes weak, brittle, and discolored. Much of the paper produced today has a life expectancy of less than fifty years, unlike the handmade paper produced three hundred years ago, much of which is still in very usable condition today.
Acidity and alkalinity are measured on the pH scale (see Figure 3-8).10 This is an arbitrary numerical scale ranging from 0 to 14, 7.0 being the point of neutrality. All numbers above this point represent increasing alkalinity, and all numbers below 7.0 indicate increasing acidity. Since the scale is logarithmic, each numerical whole unit represents a ten-fold change in acidity or alkalinity. Thus, a pH of 5 is ten times more acidic than a pH of 6, and a pH of 4 is one hundred times more acidic than a pH of 6. While the greatest concern is for acidity in paper, brought about by modern manufacturing processes and the environment, high alkalinity-pH 11 to 14-is potentially equally destructive. Consider, for example, the effect of a strong alkali such as sodium hydroxide (lye) that is used to pulp paper for testing purposes. Although the chemical reactions are different, both strong acids and strong bases are damaging. Acid hydrolysis leads to chain breakage and a loss in the degree of polymerization in the cellulose molecule, while strong bases cause the chains to
break or shorten from the ends rather than the middle. The concepts of paper permanence and durability developed as efforts were made to produce papers that were free of acid and that would resist the effects of aging. William J. Barrow was a leader in research and development in this area; the reports of the W. J. Barrow Research Laboratory (see Bibliography, Appendix B) document his pioneering efforts. Permanence relates to the chemical stability of paper and its ability to retain initial chemical properties over time. Durability relates to the degree to which paper retains its original strength, especially under conditions of sustained use. A paper may be permanent (i.e., chemically stable) but not durable, and vice versa. It is possible to produce paper that is both permanent and durable by controlling the following factors: quality of source fiber; fiber length and degree of fiber-to-fiber bonding; contamination of the pulp by residual chemicals, bleach, metals, and other impurities; pH; and sizing. Groundwood papers should be avoided when creating archival records, for preservation applications (such as folders, interleaving sheets, or photocopies), or for any paper that must sustain heavy use. As discussed previously, the chemical properties of paper greatly affect its quality and potential for long-term preservation. Some of the paper types described briefly below are manufactured today to specifications that result in permanent paper that is ideally suited for archival and preservation applications. Acid-free and alkaline papers made from fully purified pulp should be specified for all preservation applications, including all paper supplies coming into direct contact with archival records (such as folders, envelopes, sleeves, interleaving sheets, cross-reference forms and other administrative inserts). Archivists also must share their technical knowledge regarding paper, its preservation, and the economic benefits accruing from using alkaline papers, in order to influence records creators to require (via administrative mandate or legislation) that permanent records be created on alkaline papers.11 Acid-free Paper. Contains no free acids and has a pH of 7.0 or greater. Care is taken in the manufacturing process to prevent residual acidity. Cotton, chemical wood pulp, or similar fibers may be used. Unless treated with an alkaline substance capable of neutralizing acids, papers that are acid-free at the time of manufacture may become acidic through contact with acidic storage materials or atmospheric pollutants. "Acid-free" has become almost a generic term used to denote a broad range of desirable characteristics of archival storage materials. While the term is convenient, it is often used casually to imply that paper and board stock have an alkaline reserve and all other good qualities, whether or not this is actually the case. The shorthand use of "acid-free" is probably a necessity in many institutional situations; to instruct staff to use acid-free folders is much easier than adding a great number of other qualifiers to describe the intended folders more precisely. However, when writing specifications, ordering supplies, evaluating supply catalogs, and writing internal guidelines or procedures, terminology should be used that precisely describes the pH range and other characteristics of the paper and paperboard materials required for various applications. Alkaline Buffered Paper. Contains an alkaline reserve (an alkaline earth salt like magnesium carbonate or calcium carbonate) and-for most preservation applications-has a pH in the range of 8.5-10.0. The alkaline earth salt counteracts or neutralizes acid that might later enter the paper from the surrounding air or nearby acidic materials. Papers intended to resist acid for a long period should have approximately 2-3 percent precipitated carbonate by weight of paper. Except when otherwise specified, archival storage materials-folders, boxes, wrapping and interleaving papers, etc.-should be fabricated from stock having an alkaline reserve. Due to a desire for increased commercial availability of permanent papers for printing and recordkeeping, as well as to concern for environmental issues (air and water pollution), agitation for greater production of alkaline papers has increased during the last decade.12 Lobbying groups and alliances (composed variously of publishers, librarians,
archivists, and environmentalists) have been formed to promote this through economic and legislative means. Creators and custodians of published works and historical materials have expressed concern about problems associated with acidic papers and the high costs of preserving and reformatting information recorded on them (see Figure 3-9). To meet these concerns, standards for permanent paper are being developed and legislation has been passed establishing a national policy on permanent papers.13
Figure 3-9. This brittle and water damaged paper typifies problems associated with poor quality paper stored under adverse conditions. (Courtesy of the Minnesota Historical Society.) Archivists have been actively involved in building awareness of these issues within their constituencies, and must continue to make strides to influence change. Legislative bodies at federal, state, and local levels must be informed of the high costs of creating records on impermanent materials, and corporate bodies must be made similarly aware. Prospective donors of manuscript collections also should be encouraged to use permanent papers as they conduct their affairs. Since many donors are already convinced of the importance of their work and its place in history, they should need little persuasion to use permanent paper. They will, however, need information on types of paper available and sources of supplies. Types of Paper Paper is available in a wide range of size, weight, color, finish, and texture; each variety is designed to meet specific writing, printing, artistic, and storage or packaging needs. Thus, paper of virtually any historical and contemporary type is likely to find its way into an archives. Handmade papers will be found in repositories that contain materials dating prior to 1850 as well as contemporary fine press books or works of art on paper. Japanese papers with long, strong fibers are commonly used for mending archival documents; such papers also have been used for woodblock printing and other artistic works. A wide variety of paper and paperboard is used to fabricate storage enclosures for archival materials: folders, boxes, sleeves, and envelopes. By and large, however, machine-
made papers are the prevalent substrate for modern archival records. The following are the most common paper types: Bond. Strong and durable paper having good writing and erasing qualities, as well as good printing qualities, as many bond papers have printed letterheads. Commonly used for typed manuscripts, correspondence, printed forms, and electrostatic copies. Originally referred to paper produced for government bonds and securities. Carbon Paper. First made in the early nineteenth century by immersing thin paper in oil-based printing ink. The ink was retained on both sides of the paper so that two copies could be made at once. Carbon paper made to be used with the typewriter (developed in the early 1870s) was coated with carbon black pigment in oil and naphtha. Later, carbon black pigments were at times replaced by oil- or wax-soluble coal tar dyes, and more recent carbon papers contain a pigment or pigment combinations (not always black as the name implies), mineral oils, and wax emulsions. The quality of the paper carrier varies, which affects the desired properties of firmness, toughness, pliability, and durability. Pigment is imparted to the copy paper by impact or pressure of a typewriter or writing instrument. Carbon copies made with carbon pigment are stable in light but are susceptible to erasing and smudging. Carbonless Copies. Papers that contain pressure-sensitive recording media that transfer an image to receptor sheet(s) through pressure exerted by a writing instrument or impact typewriter or printer. There are both physical and chemical systems, with many commercial variations, although chemical pressure-sensitive media are dominant. These employ image-forming dye contained in microcapsules that rupture in response to pressure and react with chemicals in the receptor sheet to form an image. Carbonless copies cannot be considered permanent. Coated. Paper that has had a coating (such as clay or other pigments, adhesive materials, etc.) applied to the core or base paper to improve its finish for printing or other end use. The core of a coated paper may be acidic, neutral, or alkaline, and one or both sides of a paper may be coated. Coatings control ink absorption and enhance graphic reproduction, especially with multiple colors and half-tone illustrations. Coatings increase the opacity and gloss of paper, and alkaline coatings can enhance its preservation. If exposed to very damp or wet conditions, coated papers can block-together, which is of concern in disaster planning and recovery. Copying Paper. Thin tissue of the type found in letterpress copy books that is used to receive copies of text written in copying ink. Paper is unsized and strong in proportion to its weight. Cover. Heavy paper stock used as covers for pamphlets or brochures to provide protection for text. Generally strong with good folding qualities. Decorated. Papers (originally decorated by hand, but now often printed) used for book and pamphlet covers or endsheets. Marbled, paste, embossed, and stencil papers are often found in ledgers, journals, and daybooks; quality varies depending upon paper, pigments, process, and skill of the artist. Decorated papers can provide useful bibliographic clues and are a subject of study in themselves. Kraft. Strong flexible paper made via the sulphate or kraft process. If the pulp is unbleached, the paper is usually light brown in color and is typically used for wrapping paper, shopping bags, and envelopes. Such paper is durable but not chemically stable. Historically has often been used to wrap or house archival materials, but is not suitable for this purpose. Fully bleached and purified kraft pulp can be used to make a chemically stable paper, such as archival bond. Ledger. Paper originally used for handwritten ledgers and account books; now used for printing. Heavily sized (traditionally tub-sized with gelatin), strong, durable, and erasable, with a uniform surface for writing and ruling lines. Also known as account book paper.
Manifold. Thin translucent tissue, which may be glazed, used for duplicating and especially as interleaving with carbon paper. Term formerly used to refer to "carbonized" paper. Manila. Originally applied to paper stock made from manila hemp or jute. The term now refers not to the pulp source (which is frequently unbleached chemical wood pulp), but to paper that has a brownish color resembling that of the original. The term "manila folder" is often used to refer to commercial or office quality folders that do not meet preservation requirements. Newsprint. Generic term commonly used for the type of paper used in printing newspapers. A soft paper with short fibers, largely composed of groundwood pulp. Not permanent. Often found in archival holdings as second (carbon) sheets, forms, receipts, invoices, telegrams, pamphlets, and newspapers. Onionskin. Lightweight, durable, highly glazed, nearly transparent paper used for carbon copies of typewritten material and for airmail letters. Made from cotton fibers, bleached chemical wood pulp, or combinations. Parchment Paper. Vegetable or imitation parchment, made by passing unsized paper through a bath of sulphuric acid, followed by thorough washing in water, immersion in dilute ammonia to neutralize the acid, and sometimes a coating or bath of glycerine or glucose, followed by drying. Strong, durable, translucent paper with a good writing surface. Often used instead of genuine parchment (made from animal skin) for legal documents and certificates. Text or Book. Range of papers with varying characteristics (appearance, texture, finish) to meet printing requirements for books. Usually a high grade uncoated paper. Transparent or Tracing. Thin paper with a hard, smooth surface having excellent optical transmission properties. Prepared tracing paper is made by impregnating paper with gums, oil, and/or resin to transparentize it. Natural tracing paper is made by highly beating the fiber during the papermaking process to increase its surface area, then compressing and compacting the formed sheet. Prepared tracing papers may become brittle and discolored as they age, while modern natural tracing papers, which are free of impregnating agents, tend to remain in good condition. Colored Papers Colored papers contain dyes or pigments to achieve the desired shade and hue, or they may be naturally colored as a result of the stock material used. (Dyes are also used to alter the natural tone of the pulp to achieve the desired shade of white in the finished paper.) Dyes are usually added to the pulp in the beater, or they may be added to the surface of the finished sheet in a suitable medium. While it is possible to achieve colored alkaline papers, there are inherent limitations because some dyes will function in the acid range; but not in the alkaline. Also, the calcium carbonate in alkaline papers tends to make the colors less intense. The three types of soluble dyes are acid, base, and direct. Since they vary in their affinity to cellulose fibers, various systems are used to retain them (such as alum and size or a mordant containing tannic acid). Generally, acid dyes achieve less brilliant shades than basic dyes; both are usually fugitive to light. Direct dyes have a great affinity for cellulose and do not require a mordant (fixative); while their shades are somewhat dull, they are relatively lightfast. Finely divided pigment particles (which do not dissolve) are retained on cellulose fibers with the aid of alum. Inorganic pigments, such as Prussian blue or carbon black, can be used to achieve colors that are lightfast. Preservation problems posed by colored papers relate to potential acidity, degree of light or colorfastness, and degree of solubility if exposed to water. It is safe to assume that most colored papers currently found in archival holdings are not very stable for any
combination of the above reasons. Information recorded on colored paper can be difficult to duplicate because of limited contrast between the text orimage and the background. Record materials (such as colored writing paper) should be protected from exposure to light, while internal archives forms printed on colored stock should be replaced by paper stock of known stability that is alkaline and that contains no colors that will bleed or fade. Unstable Copy Papers Many techniques have been used over time to generate copies of written or graphic material as a means of disseminating information. Such copies may eventually find their way into archival and manuscript holdings, where they reside-for all practical purposes-as the copy of record, even if they were created by impermanent processes for ephemeral purposes. Copy stability relates to three factors: quality of the paper used, stability of the medium, and adhesion of the medium to the paper. As with most technical innovations, quick copy processes were not created with a view to long-term permanence. Therefore, archivists must be able to recognize the dominant copying processes and initiate steps to preserve their informational content. The processes described below are commonly found in archival holdings and represent classes of similar processes that were marketed under various trade names.14 Gelatin Dye Transfer. Employs a light-sensitive matrix (gelatin containing dye and developed silver halides) from which prints are obtained by physical transfer. Copies are made by exposing the matrix in direct contact with the document to be copied, activating the exposed matrix in an alkaline solution, and transferring the image to copy paper via a roller or squeegee. Copy paper is uncoated, but absorbent to allow it to take up image dye. Image tone is dark grey at maximum density but changes to brownish grey. Copies are relatively stable.15 Example: Verifax1i> (Eastman Kodak Company). Thermographic. Employs heat-sensitive coated paper, with which text to be copied IS exposed to infrared radiation. The text, which must be recorded in a pencil or ink containing carbon or a metallic compound, absorbs infrared radiation. The heat is sufficient to convert the chemical compounds in the sensitized paper, forming a visible image corresponding to the text. Thermographic papers continue to be heat-sensitive and will darken with age and exposure to elevated temperatures. Example: Thermo-Fax (3M Company; introduced in 1950; produced only letter and legal size copies). The above copying processes, which were designed for making single copies or a modest number of multiples, may be contrasted with duplication or edition processes. . Mimeograph. Stencil duplication. The stencil is typewritten or cut by hand with a stylus, and then printed using a rotary-type duplicating machine. The mimeograph image is generally black, but other ink colors can also be used. Stability is related to paper quality; image quality is sometimes poor depending. upon crispness of stencil and quantity of ink employed. Example: Mimeograph (A.B. Dick Company); but the term has taken on generic connotations. Hectograph. Spirit duplicating. The image is typed or drawn on a carbon master. Copies are produced by solvent action and pressure on a press that moistens the surface of the copy paper and brings it into contact with the carbon master. A thin layer of carbon from the master is thereby transe_rred and adhered to the copy paper. Since the master becomes depleted, each edition is limited to about 500 copies. Image color of copies is purple. Trade names: Ditto, Speedograph. Xerographic Copies The first commercial xerographic copier was introduced in 1959-60 by the Haloid (now Xerox) Corporation, based on the work of the inventor of xerography, Chester F. Carlson,
and others. Xerographic copiers produced by many companies have proliferated since then, with an ever greater number of copies finding their way into archival repositories.16 Typically, xerographic copies are made on a bond paper of any color; for permanent copies, the paper must be alkaline and carbon black toner must be completely fused to the paper. (See section on "Photocopying," Chapter 9.) Also called the transfer or indirect electrostatic process, xerography (formed from the Greek words for "dry" and "writing") is based on the principles of static electricity-that is, materials having opposite electrical charges attract while materials with the same charge repel.17 Xerography employs selenium (or other photo conductor material), which is capable of holding an electrostatic charge and dissipating it upon exposure to light. A selenium coated surface (drum or plate) is given an electrostatic charge and then, via a lens system, exposed to a projection of the document to be copied. Upon exposure to light, the electrostatic charge remains only in the image areas (electrostatic latent image). Developer, a fine powder that consists of a carrier (minute spherical particles or beads composed of magnetized iron, steel, or iron oxide, with a polymer coating on the surface) and toner, a thermoplastic pigmented powder (usually carbon black dispersed in a resin binder), is caused to fall evenly over the charged surface where it clings by electrostatic attraction to the image area. The carrier does not become part of the final toner image, but is simply a physical vehicle to disperse the toner particles, and is reused. Uncoated (plain) paper is given a positive electrostatic charge, which attracts the toner. The thermoplastic toner is then physically fused to the paper by heat and/or pressure, causing it to adhere and fix the image to the paper. This basic technology is realized in many commercial xerographic copiers that use a variety of photoconductors and toner systems. Color xerography employs the same charge-expose-develop process, but rather than carbon black, it uses color developer materials (pigments or dyes, or a mixture of the two, in a thermoplastic polymer). Since this technology is proprietary and is changing so rapidly, there is no way to predict the stability of color xerographic images found in archival holdings. Complicating the issue is the fact that what may appear to be a color xerographic copy may in fact be produced by some other non-impact imaging process, which cannot necessarily be considered permanent. All materials of suspect stability should be copied onto alkaline paper using the xerographic process with carbon black toner. Facsimile Copies Capabilities for telefacsimile (fax) transmission are proliferating in offices everywhere, and fax copies, like their historical counterparts, are beginning to appear in archival collections. This is yet another area where technology is rapidly changing and commercial systems are competing to meet immediate needs for information. The first facsimile transmission was achieved by an American, Alexander Bain, in 1842, while the precursor to contemporary fax machines was invented in 1850 in England by Frederick Bakewell. In 1922, a machine similar to Bakewell's was used to transmit pictures over Western Union telegraph lines; in 1971, the first modern facsimile machine, the Xerox Telecopier, was introduced.18 Telefacsimile machines transmit an exact copy of a document, in a matter of seconds, over standard telephone lines, where it is received on another machine. At the transmitting end, a scanner reacts to light and dark areas on the paper by generating corresponding electronic pulses that are transmitted; at the receiving end, another facsimile machine converts the pulses to signals that activate a printing device. Obviously, commercial priorities relate to speed and quality of transmissions, not to possibilities for longterm retention of the copies generated. The three most common non-impact printing technologies for facsimile copies are:
thermal printing on paper with a heat-sensitive coating, thermal transfer printing on paper using a pigmented medium that is transferred from a ribbon by heat, and electrophotographic printing on paper using an electrostatic charge to transfer the pigmented medium which is then fused by heat. Thermal facsimile copies (as opposed to plain paper electro-photographic copies) are currently dominant due to their lower cost. They are sensitive to heat and light, can react with chemicals typically found in an office environment (such as markers, hairspray, and polyvinylchloride [PVC] plastic folders), and contain impermanent dyes. For these reasons, text on thermal copies is likely to fade, become illegible, and/or the paper may darken overall in a relatively short period of time. They cannot be considered permanent. While the paper quality of electrophotographic copies should be satisfactory, the adhesion of the image to the paper, and thus its long-term stability, is unknown. Given the difficulty of differentiating between potentially stable and unstable facsimile copies, all should be photocopied onto alkaline bond paper. Inks and Other Media A variety of ink types are encountered in archival and manuscript holdings. Inks have been made for centuries, either by hand or commercially manufactured, for various writing, drawing, recording, and printing purposes. Qualities and characteristics of inks vary depending upon their composition and method of formulation. Very simply, inks consist of pigments or dyes (to impart color) in a carrier or vehicle (to transmit and adhere color to paper); various additives affect fluidity, speed of drying, penetration, and other requirements of specific inks. The degree to which various inks are stable (chemically balanced, lightfast, soluble, acidic, etc.) will have a bearing on their long-term effect on paper and should affect decisions regarding exhibition, treatment, and housing of record materials. Archivists thus should be aware of common inks and their characteristics, although inquiry in this area is complicated by several factors. Commercial formulations of inks are not static and there is some tendency toward industry reticence on the entire subject (see Figure 3-10). In addition, there has been little research undertaken that bears directly on specific archival concerns. Since the possibility of definitively identifying a given ink on paper is limited at any rate without analytical means, archivists should approach all inks as though they may be vulnerable in various situations. For example, it is appropriate to assume that all inks have the potential to fade if overly exposed to light, and that all inks have the potential to bleed or transfer if exposed to moisture.
Figure 3-10. Unfortunately, records carved on stone do not last forever and not all inks survive the ravages of time, despite manufacturer's claims. (Courtesy of the author.) Carbon Inks. The earliest inks (sometimes known as India or Chinese ink) were made of carbon soot mixed with a glue size and molded into sticks. A stick would be dissolved in water for use as ink, usually applied with a brush. Fluid carbon inks are suspensions of lampblack or ivory black in water and gum arabic (a water-soluble binding agent obtained from the acacia tree). Carbon inks were used widely until the nineteenth century (with quill pens) and are still used today primarily for calligraphy and art work. In their purest form, carbon inks are permanent, lightfast, and nondamaging to paper. Iron Gallotannate (commonly called iron gall) Inks. Made by combining ferrous sulphate (copperas) with gallic and tannic acid derived from nut galls. The liquid was thickened with gum arabic to give the ink enough body to flow properly from a pen. Initially, the ink is almost colorless on paper, but upon exposure to air, it oxidizes and becomes dark. In this chemical reaction sulphuric acid is formed. An especially acidic ink can "burn" into paper, 'resulting in a lacy effect where the paper is perforated or exhibits losses. By contrast, some inks are less acidic and fade over time. One reason for this is the use of insufficient quantities of gallic and tannic acids in the ink formulation. (The formulation of ink was not scientific, due to a lack of analytical techniques for determining the chemical composition of the components. In addition, individuals compounded their own inks, using a variety of home formulas that incorporated such ingredients as hydrochloric acid, wine, and vinegar.) Today, iron gall inks may range in color from dark black to light brown. Many are still quite legible. The manner and rate in which iron gall inks age depend on the formula used to make the ink (and therefore the degree to which the ink is acidic), the concentration of the ink on the document, the quality of the paper, and the conditions under which the paper has been stored. Iron gall ink was important to Europeans because it had a good "bite" on vellum and parchment and, therefore, could not be erased or removed easily without leaving evidence of the alteration. Iron gall ink continued to be used after the introduction of paper, despite the fact that it was less suitable for this material. In the United States, iron gall inks were used almost exclusively during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Iron gall ink was sometimes reduced to a powder and reformulated with water as needed. Copying Inks. Inks that allow a direct offset copy to be made from an original document. Many inks will produce a "copy" if a damp sheet of paper is pressed against the
original document soon after it is written and before the ink thoroughly dries, althoughdue to transfer of color from the original to the copy paper-only a limited number of copies can be produced before the legibility of the original is affected. Therefore, iron gall inks made especially for copying documents onto thin moistened paper in a letterpress book became common in the 1870s. Such inks were formulated with sufficient colorant to produce multiple, legible copies without diminishing the original, and dextrin or gum arabic was added to assist in adhering the ink to the copy paper. To keep these concentrated inks from drying out too quickly, glycerine or some other humectant was added. Copying had to occur before the iron gall ink completely oxidized and became insoluble. Iron gall ink to which soluble dyes (like the soluble blue aniline dye developed in the early 1860s) were added could produce copies even after the ink completely oxidized. A press copy contains but a small part of the color from the original document; the image is more intense on the back of the tissue (which was in direct contact with the original) than it is on the front (from which side the image is read). Modern Manuscript Inks. Early fountain pen inks were essentially iron gall inks made with less iron content and more dyes (originally vegetable dyes). Thickeners such as glycerine were added to insure that the ink would flow properly from a pen. Since the introduction of aniline dyes in the 1860s, most inks have been made from synthetic dyes, generally as aqueous solutions with preservatives and thickeners added to make the ink sufficiently viscous. While stability has improved, most inks made with synthetic dyes tend to be acidic and impermanent. Porous Pens. Known variously as felt-tip and fiber-tip pens and "magic markers"; pen points have been made from such materials as tightly glued plastic spheres or filaments and treated bamboo. The inks used in such porous pens are water- and/or solventsoluble (depending on the material needed to dissolve the dye) and are usually highly susceptible to feathering or bleeding if exposed to water or moisture. They are generally not permanent, are often acidic, and-depending upon the color-are quite fugitive upon exposure to visible light and ultraviolet radiation. Such temporary markers consist usually of synthetic dyes dissolved in a mixture of isopropyl alcohol and water, although more stable pigment pens are now available.19 "Permanent" markers (capable of writing on such surfaces as plastic and metal as well as paper) consist of dyes dissolved in a solvent (usually xylene). The current widespread use of porous pens and markers has implications for archives wishing to exhibit records written or signed in such inks; and archives staff should be prohibited from using such writing instruments when labelling boxes and file folders. Printing Inks. Traditionally made of carbon or lampblack (soot) in boiled linseed oil, which hardened or dried by oxidation. These inks produced a very stable permanent image. Modern printing inks often contain both pigments and dyes, may substitute mineral oils for the more costly linseed oil, and utilize drying agents to speed up oxidation, which is necessary for modern high-speed printing processes. They are less permanent than early printing inks, which had no unstable additives. Printing inks vary widely in quality and are manufactured to have different properties (such as viscosity, rate and method of drying) for various printing applications. Typewriter Ribbon Inks. Pigments or dyes in a slow-drying oil carrier; they dry by absorption into the paper. Fabric ribbons that carried the ink in a typewriter replaced early methods of inking that brought the type into contact with inking pads or inking rollers. Ribbons were made of silk or cotton; the inks were composed/of carbon black, dyes, or a mixture in an oil carrier. Modern ribbons are made from fabric or plastic, and the inks are combinations of pigments, dyes, solvents, fatty acids, and a wetting agent. Conventionally, an image is transferred via impact of the character against an inked ribbon into paper (see Figure 3-11). Typewriter inks that can be lifted off by correcting ribbons are made with fewer solvents and oils, so that the ink remains on the surface of the paper and is not easily
absorbed into it.
Figure 3-11. Typewriters were once hailed as a technological wonder. (Courtesy of Moon Rabbit'M Post Cards.) Non-impact Printing Inks. A wide variety of proprietary inks are used in non-impact printing processes that create computer hard copy.20 In liquid ink jet printing, a stream of ink droplets is released from a nozzle and deposited on paper (or other surface) to form an image. Non-impact printing inks, which are generally aqueous, contain dyes, binders, humectants, defoamers, solubilizing agents/dispersants (to keep nozzles from clogging), and corrosion inhibitors, among many other substances. In addition, bubblejet inks (thermal inkjet technology) must be able to withstand temperatures over 300C. Solid (hotmelt) ink jet inks have also been developed that are solid at room temperature but liquid at operating temperature; they are extremely fast drying. Specially coated paper is required to achieve high quality ink jet prints, although it is possible to print on non-coated but heavily sized paper. Stability of non-impact printing inks is unknown.21 Ballpoint Pen Inks. Developed for commercial use by the 1930s and originally composed of dye dissolved in an oil base, which dried by absorption of the oil into the paper. These early inks were retained on the surface of the paper and had a tendency to smudge. Contemporary quick-dry or glycol inks consist of colorants (soluble dyes or insoluble pigments) in an alcohol solvent base with other additives (such as polyethylene glycol) that control the viscosity of the ink and its ability to turn the ball bearing in the point socket. Glycol inks dry by absorption into the paper and evaporation of the solvent. Metalized dyes are used that are lightfast and highly solvent-soluble. Water-based inks for ballpoint pens are also made that flow well from the pen and dry quickly. They contain water soluble dyes or water dispersable pigments, water, wetting agents, gums, and a solvent that helps the ink to dry more quickly. Graphite. Graphite is a naturally occurring crystalline form of carbon, which is also made artificially by a furnace process. For use in pencils, pure graphite with some added
clay is consolidated and hardened by firing at high temperatures. It has been confused with lead (also used as a writing material); thus graphite is commonly referred to as a "lead pencil" Graphite is chemically stable but capable of smudging; not affected by exposure to light. Animal Skins Leather, parchment, and vellum are made from animal skin that is treated in a series of complex steps to make a stable and durable material used for a variety of purposes. Archival repositories contain parchment used as surfaces for printing and writing, as well as many types of leather used as book coverings or fabricated into clothing or functional or decorative objects. Vegetable tanned leather was the most common covering material for books until the nineteenth century. During processing, skins are taken through a series of steps to remove the outer layer of the skin, hair, grease, and other unwanted material through scraping and soaking in chemical solutions. The skins are then chemically stabilized, or tanned, with vegetable tannins (obtained primarily by cooking tree nut galls in water) to prevent decay. The most stable leathers were produced through the sixteenth century by a slow tanning process that left protective salts, known as non-tans, in the skins. These early vegetable tanned leathers were resistant to decay and acid deterioration. During the late seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, the demand for leather increased and shortcuts were introduced into the tanning and dyeing processes; they introduced strong acids to speed up the processes and also eliminated the beneficial non-tans that protected the leather from acidic decay. The resulting leathers quickly deteriorated because of residual sulphuric acid, which was present in the skins as a result of the manufacturing process or was absorbed from the environment. Leather is naturally acidic by virtue of the tanning process. However, excessive acidity in leather results in a condition known as "red rot," which eventually can cause leather to become hard and brittle so that it deteriorates to a crumbly reddish-brown powder. Leather in such a state cannot be restored or revitalized. For many years, the most satisfactory leather for bookbinding and conservation was considered to be that meeting the requirements of the test developed by the Printing Industries Research Association of Great Britain (PIRA), which determined the resistance of vegetable tanned leather to sulphur dioxide in the air. However, research has shown that there is little correlation between the leather's actual performance and the performance predicted by the PIRA test.22 Many bound volumes in archival collections are covered partially or fully in leather: account books, ledgers, diaries, and presentation volumes in particular. Leathers that commonly have been used for bookbinding include: o Calf-Used predominantly until the end of the eighteenth century. Calf has little noticeable grain and thus is easily decorated. The surface of calf is delicate and soft; it readily scratches and mars. Calf is often found on account books and ledgers as well as on sets of law books. o Goat-Soft, pliable, and strong. The grain is distinctively textured with small ridges and furrows in an all-over pattern. Goatskin has traditionally been used for fine bookbinding since the seventeenth century. It is also known as levant, niger, morocco, and oasis. o Pigskin-Strong and durable; suitable for large books. Hair follicles, which are arranged in triangular groups of three, create a distinctive grain pattern, which is an identifying characteristic. o Sheepskin-Soft, porous leather, usually grained to imitate higher quality and more expensive skins. Not very strong. Natural colored "law sheep" was used to cover law books. o Suede-Leather (calf, goat, etc.) that has been buffed on the flesh (inner) side to
produce a nap. Often used for blank books in the nineteenth century. The process of chrome tanning was developed in 1858. It is essentially a chemical process by which skins are treated with basic chromium sulphate. While durable, chrome tanned leathers are not very supple (and thus resist such bookbinding procedures as turning-in, or wrapping the leather around the edges of the boards to the inside). They also resist embossing and gold tooling. Chrome-tanned leathers are used for fine binding in France, but are not used extensively in the United States. Vellum and parchment were used extensively in the Middle Ages as writing surfaces for manuscripts; vellum also has been used since this period as a covering material in bookbinding. Traditionally, true vellum is the unsplit skin of a young calf, while parchment is made from split sheepskin. The method of producing both is the same, however. Skins are preserved by soaking them in a lime (strong alkali) solution, cleaned and scraped to remove the hair, and dried under tension on a wooden frame. While still under tension, skins are smoothed or finished by shaving them with a knife and rubbing them with pumice. Today, both vellum and parchment are made from the skin of any small animal, such as calf, sheep, or goat. Both skins are strong and long lasting (due in part to the lime, which is not removed during processing); they also are very reactive to changes in the moisture level. They will cockle (contract to form wrinkles and puckers) when dampened and allowed to dry without restraint, and many books covered in vellum have warped boards as a result of changes in the relative humidity. Vellum and parchment are not in common use today in the United States, except by artists and book conservators (although parchment is occasionally used for legal documents and certificates). These skins will be found, however, in archival collections that contain early manuscripts and legal documents, as well as in college and university archives that have parchment diplomas (the proverbial sheepskin). Both skins appear smooth and hard; depending on thickness, they may be translucent or opaque, with a color ranging from creamy white to ecru. Vellum and parchment can be stained any color, but usually are not; many skins have faint vein and hair markings. It is difficult for nonspecialists to differentiate between parchment and vellum, and parchment is the term often used generically to refer to either material. What is most important in an archival context is to recognize that a material is either parchment or vellum, as their handling and treatment needs are the same. Tawed skins may appear in some repositories, especially on seventeenth- or eighteenth-century books. Tawed skin is not tanned (and thus, like vellum and parchment, is not leather), but is preserved in solutions of alum and salt (and sometimes other materials, such as egg yolk or flour). After air drying, the skin is flexed over a blade to soften it. Tawed skins (generally pigskin and goatskin) are tough, flexible, and usually white in appearance; they are used today primarily for conservation bindings. Textiles A variety of textiles may be found in archival collections, including flags, needlework, coverlets, uniforms, ribbons, dresses, and other types of clothing and accessories. Such items, especially if they have had an active life of normal use, may be weak, damaged, and dirty. No attempt should be made to clean textiles. They require special care and storage (separate from other archival materials), and advice should be sought from a textile curator or conservator. Other textiles that may be found in archival collections include linen-which was often used as a support or backing for maps and architectural drawings-as well as silk, cotton, and muslin-all used as linings to support fragile paper documents (see Figure 3-12).
Figure 3-12. Although tracing cloth (architectural linen) is a stable support, it must be kept away from moisture because of its starch coating. (Courtesy of Moon Rabbit TM Post Cards.) Book cloths are likely the most common textiles found in archival holdings. Historically, a number of fabrics have been used to cover books, including silk and velvet. Calico came into use as a book cloth in England in the 1820s; early book cloth was starchfilled muslin that was colored and glazed. Since then, different materials and coatings have been used to make book cloth, and various finishing techniques have been employed (often passing the finished cloth through engraved rollers) to impart the desired pattern and texture to the cloth. Book cloth is sometimes embossed to imitate leather, and care must be taken to properly identify the covering material so that appropriate cleaning and treatment procedures are applied. Buckram is a heavy book cloth made from either cotton or linen; the term formerly referred to starchfilled cloth but now is used also for pyroxylin coated or impregnated cloth. Book cloth, which is available in a wide variety of types and weights, is classified as follows by the coating material used. o Starch-filled-Still in use today. Chemically stable but not durable; susceptible to abrasion, insect damage, mold, water spotting, and soiling. Easy to use and aesthetically pleasing. A slurry of water, starch, and clay is added to pigment(s), cooked, and then applied to the cloth. o Pyroxylin-treated-The base of the coating is cellulose nitrate (also known as nitrocellulose or gun cotton). Pyroxylin compound is composed of gelatinized cellulose nitrate, a plasticizer, pigment, and an organic solvent. Pyroxylin treated fabrics were introduced in the late nineteenth century; in 1922 DuPont introduced pyroxylin filled or impregnated cloth. Though it is relatively durable, pyroxylin treated cloth may stiffen in low temperatures and may become tacky in high temperatures. It is "washable" (i.e., can be wiped with a damp cloth), and is resistant to moisture and insects, but-given the presence of cellulose nitrate-pyroxylin treated book cloth is not as stable as starch-filled cloth. o Acrylic-Chemically stable and resistant to moisture, mold, and insects. Not yet in
common use and durability not tested. Environmentally, better than pyroxylin since production is water-based rather than solvent-based. Photographic Materials Photographic images are formed by the action of light on chemical compounds. Very simply, a photograph (print, negative, or positive transparency) may be defined as a support upon which an image-bearing layer is applied. The most common binder in which particles that make up the image resides is gelatin; however, albumen and collodion were common binders used in the nineteenth century. The image in most black-and-white prints is finely divided metallic silver, but other final image materials include platinum, pigments, and dyes. There are a number of possible support or base materials, including metal, glass, paper, and plastic film (cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate esters, and polyester). Various layers (such as anti-curl and anti-abrasion layers), adhesives, coatings (such as wax or varnish), and applied color may also comprise the structure of a photograph, depending upon the particular process and its date and place of fabrication. The baryta layer, which rests between the binder and the paper support on some prints, provides a consistent surface for the emulsion and also contributes reflectance to the image. As photographs have evolved from relatively simple structures made essentially by hand (typified by salted paper prints) to contemporary manufactured materials, they have become progressively more complex. Thus, problems with or failure of any of the component elements can mean damage to or loss of the image. For example, not only may the image bearing layer be susceptible to such damage as fading, scratches, flaking, or staining, but the support may fail (i.e., glass may break or plastic may shrink). Long believed to be inert and chemically stable, glass is in fact subject to deterioration depending upon its chemical composition. Under conditions of high relative humidity, unstable photographic glass supports are subject to corrosion, which can cause softening of the emulsion and varnish layers as well as image fading. The glass/emulsion interface is physically vulnerable to low relative humidity, which can result in tension between the two layers and eventual lifting or delamination of the gelatin emulsion as it contracts.23 Historically, fine paper (such as writing paper) has been used for photography. Contemporary photographic papers, which are manufactured to exacting specifications to meet processing and finishing requirements, are high in alpha-cellulose content and contain no metallic impurities. Thus, support papers are extremely stable and do not contribute to image degradation. Resin-coated (RC) papers, which are coated on both sides with polyethylene, were introduced in the 1960s. Unlike "fiber-based" papers, which can readily absorb processing chemicals, RC papers inhibit or control absorption and thus processing times are reduced. Early resin-coated papers tended to develop cracks in the plastic coating that disrupted the image; although the stability of more recent RC papers has improved, they do not yet meet requirements for archival purposes. Cellulose nitrate film, introduced for commercial use in 1889, was manufactured in various roll and sheet formats until the early 1950s. It is inherently unstable, flammable, and emits oxides of nitrogen, which, in the presence of moisture, convert to nitric acid as the film deteriorates. Beginning in the 1930s, cellulose nitrate film was gradually replaced by various cellulose ester safety films (diacetate, triacetate, acetate propionate, acetate butyrate). While the flammability problem of nitrate was solved, some cellulose ester films have proved to be chemically unstable. Many cellulose acetate esters shrink as they age, causing distortion and buckling of the emulsion; acetic acid is among the by-products of their deterioration (see Figure 3-13).24 Cellulose triacetate is the most common film base manufactured and used today. Until recently it was thought to be chemically stable, but there is increasing evidence that it does not have good long-term keeping properties. Periodic inspection of archival holdings of cellulose triacetate film is recommended, and, when undertaking negative duplication projects, polyester film should be specified.25
Polyester (polyethylene terepthalate) is dimensionally and chemically stable and should supplant cellulose triacetate film in all archival applications.
Figure 3-13. These two cellulose diacetate film negatives exhibit early and advanced stages of fissuring that exemplifies the deterioration of this material. (Courtesy of Sarah S. Wagner.) The long-term stability of photographic materials relates to a number of interrelated factors: 1) the inherent stability of the component materials; 2) the quality of original processing, including proper or improper fixing and washing; 3) exposure to an uncontrolled environment, including high temperature and relative humidity, light, and pollutants; 4) physical and chemical suitability of enclosure materials; and 5) handling and use procedures. Photographs are extremely sensitive to adverse environmental conditions. The laminate structure of most photographic materials makes them susceptible to fracturing, splitting, or extreme curling as disparate materials (such as gelatin or albumen on a thin paper support) respond differently to changes in relative humidity. Image silver is degraded by exposure to oxidizing gasses and atmospheric moisture, which can result in image discoloration, fading, and "silver mirroring" (the appearance of a metallic blue sheen on the surface of a photograph). Residual processing chemicals (thiosulphate complexes) also react with image silver and can cause yellow and brown staining. Exposure to adhesives (especially those containing sulphur) and poor quality enclosures and mounts also can result in image staining. All of these reactions are exacerbated by elevated temperature and relative humidity. Such conditions will also accelerate the rate of deterioration of chemically unstable materials, such as cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate films. Most archival repositories possess a diverse sampling of photographic materials representing the entire range of the technological development of photography, from the daguerreotype (announced to the world in 1839) through present color processes. Archivists must be able to recognize the dominant types of photographs in order to care for them properly. Preservation of photographs involves responding to the physical needs of the
format and structural materials, as well as to the requirements of auxiliary or secondary materials such as mounts, cases, and albums, which are integral to the photographic record (see Figures 3-14, 3-15). The creation of preservation reproductions (duplicates and copies) of inherently unstable as well as frequently requested images plays an important part in developing a preservation program for photographic materials.26
Figure 3-14. This original presentation mount has artifactual and association values that render it worthy of retention, although for preservation purposes it might be appropriate to store it separately from the photograph. Note deterioration across the upper third of the image caused by writing that is coming through from the back of the photograph. (Courtesy of the Library of Congress.)
Figure 3-15. The intrinsic value of this Potter Palmer real estate album containing albumen prints renders it necessary to retain it in original format. (Courtesy of the Chicago Historical Society.) Adhesives Adhesives are organic or synthetic substances that are capable of holding two surfaces together by achieving an appropriately strong interface between the two surfaces (i.e., adherends) through chemical and/or mechanical means. Adhesives vary in their composition, setting characteristics, bonding strength, flexibility, aging characteristics, and reversibility. Fillers, extenders, plasticizers, hardeners, anti-oxidants, preservatives, and-in the case of animal glues-even perfumes to mask unpleasant odors, are among the many additives employed to achieve desired properties. There are many classes of adhesive types, and a great variety of adhesives specifically formulated for different end purposes, from mending paper or china to joining aircraft components. The degree to which adhesives are stable and capable of retaining their original characteristics over time relates to their composition and the conditions to which they are exposed. Adhesives are a concern in archival settings for several reasons. First, they are often misapplied and thus cause damage to a wide variety of materials (see Figure 3-16). Wellmeaning people mend treasured letters and photographs with pressure-sensitive tape, ' for example, and scrapbooks often seem to be virtual catalogs of every known adhesive. Adhesives may break down over time, losing their adherent properties; they also may permanently stain documents and initiate harmful chemical reactions that hasten the deterioration of paper (see Figure 3-17). Archivists must contend with these problems and also ensure that only appropriate adhesives are used in conjunction with records in the context of conservation treatment, exhibit preparation, and for fabricating enclosures and housings for archival records. Adhesives used to construct housing must be suitably strong, chemically stable, and incapable of initiating chemical reactions that could have an adverse affect on archival records with which they are in proximity. However, such adhesives should not, by extension, be considered suitable for direct application to record materials. Each adhesive and adhesive application must be evaluated individually. Adhesives should never be applied directly to (nor removed from) archival records except by a qualified conservator during the course of conservation treatment; adhesives used in the context of treatment are
evaluated in terms of their composition, physical and chemical stability, aging properties, strength, flexibility, color, and reversibility. Adhesives should not be applied directly to records during the performance of preservation tasks. There are many nonadhesive preservation options available to protect and support weak or damaged materials, as well as many ways to avoid adhesive contact with records in exhibit preparation and mounting. Such approaches will be covered in the following chapters. Adhesives are applied in a fluid state and cure or set by converting to a solid or hardened state. Adhesives can be described by their setting characteristics: o Cooling of a thermoplastic-Adhesives that will repeatedly become soft and pliable when heated and will harden and set upon cooling without any change to their inherent properties, and that thus usually remain soluble. Commonly (but inaccurately) referred to as "heat-setting." Includes waxes, resins, some classes of acrylics, and "heatset" tissue.27 o Release of solvent-Starches (vegetable pastes), dextrins, protein glues (hide, bone, fish, gelatin), polyvinyl acetate emulsions, acrylics, and natural and synthetic rubber. The adhesive component is in a water or organic solvent carrier that evaporates, leaving the adhesive layer. o Chemical reaction (polymerization in situ)- Thermosetting adhesives, including epoxies, polyesters, urethanes, and some classes of rubber-based adhesives. Bonding occurs when two reaction-sensitive adhesives are brought into contact with one another with applied or contact pressure.
Figure 3-16. Band-aids were used creatively-if inappropriately-to cover sharp fasteners on this volume. To make the problem more interesting, the paper label referring to the Bandaids was attached with pressure-sensitive tape! (Courtesy of the National Archives and Records Administration.)
Figure 3-17. Pressure-sensitive mending tape has caused embrittlement and disfiguring staining of the paper. (Courtesy of the Minnesota Historical Society.) o Pressure-sensitive-Adhesives that will adhere to a surface by means of slight pressure at room temperature, such as cellophane tape, masking tape, and "archival" mending tape. Any of a number of adhesive types (including classes of acrylics and rubberbased), generally on a cloth, paper or plastic film carrier, that is thin, flexible, and conforms to the surface to which it is applied. Unlike other adhesives that harden, pressure-sensitive adhesives remain permanently tacky and have relatively low bond strength. Depending upon the adhesive and its formulation, the carrier often falls away or can be easily removed, while the adhesive mass is often difficult to remove and can cause permanent staining of the paper or other substrate. Organic solvents are often required to remove or reduce residual adhesive. Pressure-sensitive adhesives are not appropriate for use with permanently valuable archival materials. Adhesives that are likely to be associated with records (either as part of their original fabrication or applied later by their creator or donor) or used inhouse in an archives include the following: o Acrylic- Synthetic resin used as a fixative, consolidant, adhesive, and coating. Acrylic copolymer adhesives are strong, flexible, durable, and resistant to ultraviolet degradation and oxidation. Available in different formulations and applications, including solutions and as thermoplastic pressure-sensitive adhesives. Acrylic adhesives are recommended for fabricating enclosures and sealing taped polyester film encapsulations. Acrylic dispersions are used in formulating "heat-set" tissue. o Animal glues- Proteinaceous adhesives produced from animal hides, skins, and bones, such as hide glue, parchment size, and gelatin (various grades used for sizing paper and photographic emulsions). Soluble in water. Traditionally used as an adhesive in bookbinding, though now replaced by polyvinyl acetates. Dries to a hard brittle consistency; sometimes yellowish in appearance. o Cellulose acetate- Produced by the reaction of cellulose with acetic acid in the presence of a catalyst, usually sulphuric acid. Now considered unstable, cellulose acetate film has been used in laminating documents, and in solution as a consolidant for flaking media. Soluble in acetone. Cellulose acetates have also been used extensively as a
photographic film base. o Cellulose nitrate-Formed by the reaction of cellulose with nitric and sulphuric acids. The first synthetic plastic; used extensively as a photographic film base as well as a consolidant and an adhesive. Also used as a coating, as with pyroxylin coated book cloth. Unstable. o Methyl cellulose-Semi-synthetic adhesive; one of many cellulose ethers. A relatively weak adhesive, sometimes used for minor paper mends. Sets slowly; flexible; reversible with water. Also used as a poultice or sizing agent, and sometimes added to polyvinyl acetate or other adhesives to improve their working properties. Relatively long shelf life; resistant to but not incapable of supporting mold growth. o Starch paste- Mixture of vegetable (generally wheat or rice) starch and water. Strong tacky adhesive used in paper and book conservation. Sets slowly; moderately flexible if applied in a thin coat; reversible with water. Since pastes are susceptible to mold growth, fungicides are sometimes added. Dextrins are modified starches that have been widely used for stamps, envelopes, and similar uses where the adhesive is moistened for application. o Polyvinyl acetate (PVA)- Strong, flexible, synthetic polymer adhesive used especially in bookbinding and box making. Fast-drying white liquid that dries white to transparent, although certain formulations yellow with age. PVA can be diluted with water. Not easily reversible; when dry, PVA will swell in water and some other solvents but will not dissolve. Polyvinyl acetates can support mold growth; maximum shelf life of about one year. Should not be subjected to freezing temperatures, which has implications for the time of year PVA is shipped in or to cold climates. Not an appropriate adhesive for mending paper. o Rubber-based-Originally, natural rubber dissolved in naphtha. Today, rubber-based adhesives may be composed of natural or synthetic rubber and any of a wide variety of plasticizers, resins, tackifiers, and other substances. They are relatively low-strength and can cause permanent staining of paper. Rubber-based adhesives oxidize fairly readily, especially in the presence of light, and lose what little strength they have. Vulcanized rubber is chemically reacted with sulphur to increase its strength. Available in a number of forms, including rubber cement and pressure-sensitive surgical, masking, and cellophane tapes. Should never be used with archival materials; are especially damaging to photographs. It can be difficult to learn about the composition and potential stability of adhesives since most are commercial, proprietary products whose formulations are ever subject to change. Therefore, it is important to proceed cautiously in specifying adhesives for different applications and to contact the manufacturer for as much information as possible regarding composition and aging properties. These data should be confirmed, however, by reviewing the preservation and conservation literature, and by contacting conservators, conservation scientists, and institutional research and testing laboratories. This brief overview provides an introduction to materials that an archivist is likely to encounter with textual and graphic collections. Chapters 6 and 7 provide information on the material nature of machine dependent records and resultant storage and handling requirements. The readings in the bibliography will provide further guidance in all of these areas. However, reading books and articles must be combined with practical experience with the records themselves. It takes time to train one's eye and hand to discern subtle physical differences between materials. Careful examination and handling of many, many items will help. Advice also should be sought from knowledgeable colleagues (conservators, preservation administrators, archivists, curators, and librarians). To a degree, self-education in this area must correct the deficiencies of most formal archival and
library training programs. The goal is to approach and understand archival materials in a way that combines intellectual interest in their content with a curiosity regarding their physical nature. A number of records appraisal decisions legitimately, and of necessity, relate to considering archival materials from purely physical perspectives; an integrated recognition of historical value and physical need is required. Further, the technical development of record materials and the trades associated with them have a fascinating history all their own. Archivists who are capable of understanding and appreciating the records on this level as well will be better overall custodians of collections.
The institutions holding these items shall remain anonymous, but the objects cited are actual examples of non-traditional records! 2 During the hand papermaking process, suitable fibers are soaked in water, cooked in caustic soda and ash, and often fermented. The fibers are then macerated or beaten so that they flatten out and small hairlike fibers called fibrils develop: The fibrils remain attached to the fibers and provide a greater surface for bonding during sheet formation. Originally, beating was done by hand, as it still is today in some papermaking processes in various parts of the world. However, the water-driven stamping mill, invented in the twelfth century, speeded up the process and still produced a relatively long fibered pulp through the use of wooden beaters (or stampers) in a wooden tub. Once the fibers are macerated to a pulp, they are added to a vat of water to form a dilute slurry. The water swells the fibers, distributes them evenly in the suspension, and promotes hydrogen bonding, which holds the dry fibers together. A paper mold is dipped into the vat vertically, lifted out horizontally, and shaken vigorously until an even layer of slurry rests on the porous screen of the mold (see Figures 3-3, 3-4). The slurry is retained by the surround, or top half of the mold, called the deckle (see Figure 3-5). Excess water passes through the screen, which traps the fibers, and the remaining mat of fibers is laid (or couched) onto a piece of wool felt. The paper sheet is formed by mechanical intertwining of the fibers, surface tension between fibers, and chemical bonding of adjacent cellulose molecules (i.e., hydrogen bonding). 3 The first papermaking machine was invented by a Frenchman, Nicholas-Louis Robert, but was named after Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier, London papermakers who provided the necessary capital for the project. Bryan Donkin, an engineer, constructed the first operational machine, which was built after Robert's model; it was in use at the Frogmore Mill, Hertfordshire, in 1803. See Papermaking: Art and Craft (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1968), 55-56. In the United States, the first Fourdrinier machine was put into operation in 1827 in Saugerties, N.Y., while paper made by machine was first produced on a cylinder machine in 1817 near Wilmington, Del., at the Gilpin Mill. The cylinder machine, patented in 1816 by Thomas Gilpin, involves a revolving mold that is immersed in a vat of slurry; as the mold comes out of the vat, the fibers are transferred to a couch roll. The paper is thus formed sheet by sheet, rather than in a continuous roll as on the Fourdrinier machine. See Edwin Sutermeister, The Story of Papermaking <Boston: S.D. Warren Company, 1954), 150-52, 165. 4 Aquapel and Hercon 40 (both alkylketene dimers) are sizing agents that function under neutral or slightly alkaline conditions; they were important in the development of permanent/durable papers. 5 In 1854, Hugh Burgess and Charles Watt were granted a United States patent for a chemical wood pulping process (the soda process) that was put into operation the following year near Philadelphia. The first use of wood pulp paper for printing newspapers is considered to be the January 14, 1863, issue of the Boston Weekly Journal. The first groundwood pulp commercially produced in the United States was in 1867 near Stockbridge, Mass. Hunter, 377- 78, 381, 390. 6 Alpha cellulose is the portion of cellulose that is insoluble in a 17.5 percent solution of sodium hydroxide at 20C. Considered true cellulose, alpha cellulose is the primary constituent of stable paper. Other components of cellulose are beta cellulose and gamma cellulose. 7 Hemicelluloses are non-fibrous carbohydrates that are soluble in dilute alkali solutions. Hemicelluloses act as plasticizers in pulping, and their retention in paper improves tensile strength, although paper that contains a high percentage of hemicelluloses tends to discolor during thermal aging. 8 Lignin is an extremely complex molecule or molecules, the effects of which are not thoroughly understood. While groundwood papers with a high lignin content are universally felt to be unstable, it was proposed (as a result of artificially aging some lignin-containing papers)-but since rejected-that alkaline paper with as much as 7.5 percent lignin may meet the requirements for permanent paper in the draft standard now under review (see footnote 13). Chemical pulping
and bleaching processes remove most, but not all, traces of lignin. Phloroglucinol, the indicator solution used in the spot test for detecting the presence of lignin, does well when papers or board contain 11-12 percent lignin, but some semibleached sheets containing about 7 percent lignin have not shown the characteristic color. 9 For a concise and clear discussion of mechanical and chemical pulping processes, see Sutermeister, The Story of Paper Making. 10 As defined in the Proposed American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Publications and Documents in Libraries and Archives, pH is "the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion (activity) concentration in an aqueous solution or the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion (activity) concentration, measured on a scale of 0-14." ANSI/NISO Z39.48-199X (revision of Z.39.48-1984). 11 A good source of current information on the availability of alkaline papers and related issues is the bimonthly newsletter, Alkaline Paper Advocate (available from Abbey Publications, 7105 Geneva Drive, Austin, TX 78723). 12 Related to the issue of permanent papers and trends toward greater production of alkaline papers is the issue of recycled papers. On one hand, this is an environmental issue of great importance in the context of preserving natural resources and limiting the discharge of pollutants during the papermaking process. On the other hand, there is concern that limits on discharge will diminish the degree to which pulp can be sufficiently purified (which becomes more difficult as less water is used). Alkaline paper can be made from recycled fibers, though high quality recycled fibers (as opposed to newsprint) are currently in short supply; other problems relate to the ability of paper manufacturers to sufficiently remove contaminants such as ink from recycled post-consumer waste. It is difficult or impossible to remove all inks, and the deinking process creates its own undesirable end-product in the form of sludge and leftover chemicals. Of great concern from the perspective of permanent paper is the effect of recycled fibers (as much as 50 percent for some grades of paper) on paper durability, since fibers get shorter and shorter as paper is continually recycled. Despite these problems, it is clear that alkaline papers will continue to be composed of some percentage of recycled fibers, and standards for permanent paper must address this issue. 13 ANSI/NISO Z39.48-199X, Proposed American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Publications and Documents in Libraries and Archives, is a draft revision of Z39.48-1984, Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. The goal of the standard is to establish criteria for coated and uncoated papers that will last for several hundred years in libraries and archives under normal use and storage conditions; the properties of such papers are defined and tests specified to determine these properties. The draft specifies a minimum pH of 7.0 and 7.5 for coated and uncoated papers respectively, with a maximum pH of 10.0 for both. The proposed maximum allowable percentage of lignin content for both coated and uncoated paper has been 3S high as 7.5 percent; this was based on tests commissioned by NISO Standards Committee II that showed that alkaline papers with as much as 7.5 percent residual lignin retained durability equal to that of alkaline papers with less than 1 percent lignin. While still under discussion at the time this manual was written, permissible lignin content seems likely to be specified as a maximum of 1 percent lignin in the final standard. Public Law 101-423 (104 Stat. 912), Joint Resolution to Establish a National Policy on Permanent Papers, which was passed in October, 1990, states that it is the policy of the United States that federal records, books, and publications of enduring value be produced on acid-free permanent papers. 14 This subject represents a complex history all its own. For further information, see William R. Hawken, Copying Methods Manual, Library Technology Program Publication no. 11 (Chicago: American Library Association, 1966), and James Kelly, Classification and Identification of Modern Office Copiers (The American Board of Forensic Document Examiners, 1983). 15 John L. Ennis and Frank T. Hulswit, "The Permanence of Veri fax Copies," Photographic Science and Engineering 7 (May-June, 1963): 145-66.
Terminology can be confusing. Electrophotography is an electrostatic copying process. Xerography is one form of electrophotography. The terms "electrostatic copy" and "xerographic copy" are used interchangeably to refer to the same process. The term "Xerox_ copy" has crept into the language and is often used generically, though it is a trademark of the Xerox Corporation. 17 The majority of commercial electrophotographic systems are based on xerography. Electrophotographic imaging also includes electrofaxic systems and laser scanning xerography. The Electrofax"', a direct electrostatic process employing zinc oxide coated paper, has been commercially superseded by xerographic processes. For more information, see M. E. Scharfe, D. M. Pai, and R. J. Gruber, "Electrophotography," in Imaging Processes and Materials: Neblette's Eighth Edition, ed. John Sturge, Vivian Walworth, and Allan Shepp (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989), 135-80. 18 Jef Benedetti, "Just the FAX, Ma'am," Systems/3X World (October 1987): 62, 64. 19 A pigment pen (Pigma Micron by Sakura Color Products Corporation, Japan) is available that as of this writing contains a black, non-acidic, nonbleeding, nonfading ink (see Preservation Supplies, Appendix E). It may be suitable in some applications for writing on folders and similar enclosures, but not on record materials. The colored pigment pens are not recommended. 20 Laser printing, a form of non-impact printing based on xerography, employs toner rather than ink. Some systems use replaceable cartridges that contain a photoreceptor, toner, and charging devices. 21 This technology is changing rapidly. Stability of images created by non-impact printing relates to paper quality, stability of the image-forming material (ink or toner), and adhesion of the image to the paper. For additional information, see Werner E. Haas, "Non-Impact Printing Technologies," in Imaging Processes and Materials, 375-405; and Michael Andreottola, "Inks and Papers for Ink Jet Printing," in The Fourth International Congress on Advances in Non-Impact Printing Technologies, SPSE Proceedings (Springfield, Va.: Society for Imaging Science and Technology, 1989), 332-34. 22 The results of research carried out for the British Library to determine ways of halting the deterioration of bookbinding leathers have indicated that retannage of vegetable tanned leathers with aluminum triformate is an effective means of stabilizing even very deteriorated leathers. The aluminum triformate retan solution can be applied to bound volumes. It was also found that the application of potassium lactate solution destroyed the buffering effect of the aluminum triformate. The most durable materials for rebinding or covering new books were found to be chrome tanned or alum tawed skins, sumac tanned leather, or vegetable tanned leather that had been retanned with aluminum triformate. See Betty Haines, "Bookbinding Leather Conservation," in Recent Advances in Leather Conservation, Proceedings of a Refresher Course Sponsored by FAIC, June 1984 (Washington, D.C.: American Institute for Conservation, 1985). 29-35. 23 Constance McCabe, "Glass Plate Negatives: The Importance of Relative Humidity in Storage," in Sallvegarde et Conservation des Photographies, Dessins, Imprint/is et Manuscrits (Association pour la Recherche Scientifique sur les Arts Graphiques, Paris, 1991). 24 David G. Horvath, The Acetate Negative Survey: Final Report (Louisville, Ky.: University of Louisville, 1987). 25 James M. Reilly, Peter Z. Adelstein, and Douglas W. Nishimura, Preservation of Safety Film, final report to the Office of Preservation, National Endowment for the Humanities, Grant no. PS20159-88 (Rochester, N.Y.: Image Permanence Institute, Rochester Institute of Technology, 1991). 26 There is an extensive body of literature on the history, technology, and preservation of photographic materials. While a number of titles are cited in the bibliography, the following works provide a good overview: Klaus B. Hendriks, "The Stability and Preservation of Recorded Images," in Imaging Processes and Materials, 637-84; James M. Reilly with Constance McCabe, Care and Identification of 19th-Century Photographic Prints (Rochester, N.Y.: Eastman Kodak Company, 1986); and Mary Lynn Ritzenthaler, Gerald J. Munoff, and Margery S. Long, Administration of Photographic Collections (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1984).
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Thermoplastic adhesives are "capable of being repeatedly softened by heat and hardened by cooling" and thus remain fusible and soluble, while thermosetting adhesives are those "having the property of undergoing a chemical reaction by the action of heat, catalysts, ultraviolet light, etc., leading to a relatively infusible state." Irving Skeist, ed., Handbook of Adhesives, 2d ed. (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1977), xvii. This is the standard source of information on the use, manufacture, history, and commercial applications of adhesives. A more basic resource on the physical and chemical properties of adhesives is Adhesives and Coatings, Science for Conservators Book 3, Crafts Council Conservation Science Teaching Series (London: Crafts Council, 1983).

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Ritzenthaler, Mary Lynn, Nature of Archival Materials, Preserving Archives and Manuscripts, Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1993,

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