BUDDING his article is about the form of asexual reproduction. For other uses, see Budding (disambiguation).

Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from an outgrowth or bud on another one. The new organism remains attached as it grows, separating from the parent organism only when it is mature.Since the reproduction is asexual, the newly created organism is a clone and is genetically identical to the parent organism. Organisms such as hydra use regenerative cells for reproduction in the process of budding. In hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site. These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent body and become new independent individuals. his article is about the form of asexual reproduction. For other uses, see Budding (disambiguation). Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from an outgrowth or bud on another one. The new organism remains attached as it grows, separating from the parent organism only when it is mature.Since the reproduction is asexual, the newly created organism is a clone and is genetically identical to the parent organism. Organisms such as hydra use regenerative cells for reproduction in the process of budding. In hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site. These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent body and become new independent individuals. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction by which offspring arise from a single parent, and inherit the genes of that parent only; it is reproduction which does not involve meiosis, ploidy reduction, or fertilization. The offspring will be exact genetic copies of the parent. A more stringent definition is agamogenesis which is reproduction without the fusion of gametes. Asexual reproduction is the primary form of reproduction for single-celled organisms such as the archaea, bacteria, and protists. Many plants and fungi reproduce asexually as well. While all prokaryotes reproduce asexually (without the formation and fusion of gametes), mechanisms for lateral gene transfer such as conjugation,

transformation and transduction are sometimes likened to sexual reproduction.[1] A complete lack of sexual reproduction is relatively rare among multicellular organisms, particularly animals. It is not entirely understood why the ability to reproduce sexually is so common among them. Current hypotheses [2] suggest that asexual reproduction may have short term benefits when rapid population growth is important or in stable environments, while sexual reproduction offers a net advantage by allowing more rapid generation of genetic diversity, allowing adaptation to changing environments. their life-cycles. Another constraint on switching from sexual to asexual reproduction would be the concomitant

ADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION Advantages of Vegetative Propagation are : (i) Plant which do not produce seeds, are propagated by the method e.g., sugar-cane, banana, potato, rose, orange, seedless grapes, jasmines, chrysanthemum, etc. (ii) Vegetative propagation is a cheaper, easier and more rapid method of propagation in plants than growing plants from their seeds; for example, many lilies grow very slowly and take 4 to 7 years to developed flowers, when grown their seeds, but flowers are produced only after a year or two when grown vegitatively. (iii) The trait (character) of a plant is preserved by vegetative reproduction. (iv) Thus, the plants generated from vegetative means requires less time to grow and to have the advantages of being more uniform and genetically similar to the parent stock. Another advantage is that in propagation by this methods, the plants skip the risky seedling stage in which a number of plants die under adverse conditions. Many seedless verities of grapes, banana and oranges are produced by this method. However, there are some disadvantages associated with this mode of reproduction. Plants grown by this method lose vigour and become prone to diseases.

FERTILIZATION Fertilisation (also known as conception, fecundation and syngamy) is the fusion of gametes to produce a new organism. In animals, the process involves the fusion of an ovum with a sperm, which eventually leads to the development of an embryo. Depending on the animal species, the process can occur within the body of the female in internal fertilisation, or outside (external fertilisation). The entire process of development of new individuals is called reproduction

fragmentationFragmentation or clonal fragmentation in multicellular or colonial organisms is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning where an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones of the original organism. The splitting may or may not be "intentional"- it may occur due to man-made or natural damage by the environment or predators. This kind of organism may develop specific organs or zones that may be shed or easily broken off. If the splitting occurs without the prior preparation of the organism, both fragments must be able to regenerate the complete organism for it to function as reproduction. Fragmentation as a method of reproduction is seen in many organisms such as filamentous cyanobacteria, molds, lichens, many plants, and animals like sponges, acoel flatworms, some annelid worms, and sea stars.

Fragmentation in various organisms Molds, yeast, and mushrooms, all of which are part of the Fungi kingdom, produce tiny filaments called hyphae. These hyphae obtain food and nutrients from the body of other organisms to grow and fertilize. Then a piece of hyphae breaks off and grows into a new individual and the cycle continues.

Many lichens produce specialised structures that can easily break away and disperse. These structures contain both the hyphae of the mycobiont and the algae(phycobiont) (see soredia and isidia. Larger fragments of the thallus may break away when the lichen dries or due to mechanical disturbances(see the section on reproduction in lichens).

Fruit and seed

seed and fruit, respectively, the characteristic reproductive body of both angiosperms (flowering plants) and gymnosperms (conifers, cycads, and ginkgos) and the ovary that encloses it. Essentially, a seed consists of a miniature undeveloped plant (the embryo), which, alone or in the company of stored food for its early development after germination, is surrounded by a protective coat (the testa). Frequently small in size and making negligible demands upon their environment, seeds are eminently suited to perform a wide variety of functions the relationships of which are not always obvious: multiplication, perennation (surviving seasons of stress such as winter), dormancy (a state of arrested development), and dispersal. Pollination and the seed habit are considered the most important factors responsible for the overwhelming evolutionary success of the flowering plants, which number more than 300,000 species. .The superiority of dispersal by means of seeds over the more primitive method involving single-celled spores, lies mainly in two factors: the stored reserve of nutrient material that gives the new generation an excellent growing start and the seeds multicellular structure. The latter factor provides ample opportunity for the development of adaptations for dispersal, such as plumes for wind dispersal, barbs, and others

introduction Reproduction may be described as the process by which an offspring (new organism) is produced. Plants may reproduce asexually and sexually. Some plants may utilize both means of reproduction depending on the circumstances. In asexual reproduction, there are usually no gametes involved and one plant will produce an offspring on its own. Asexual methods of reproduction include: -Mitosis -Binary fission -Vegetative propagation On the contrary, sexual reproduction involves gametes which must be fertilized. In many instances, there is also pollination before fertilization occurs. Sexual reproduction may involve one or two plants. However, it is important to note that cross breeding is not a very natural occurrence although it may be performed in laboratories. This means that it is very unlikely for different species to fertilize each other.

Mode of reproduction A mode of reproduction determine the genetic constitution of crop plant and provides the basis for understanding the mechanism of heredity, which are required for handling the desired characters during breeding work. This is the inherent property of the living organism to continue or maintain their races by the mechanism of reproduction. It is the process by which living being propagate or duplicates their own kinds. The

modes of reproduction in crop plants are broadly grouped into asexual and sexual.

POLLINATION Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred in the reproduction of plants, thereby enabling fertilization and sexual reproduction. In spite of a common perception that pollen grains are gametes, like the sperm cells of animals, this is incorrect; pollination is a phase in the alternation of generations: each pollen grain is a male haploid plant, a gametophyte, adapted to being transported to the female gametophyte, where it can achieve fertilization by producing the male gamete (or gametes, in the process of double fertilization). As such the Angiosperm successful pollen grain (gametophyte) containing the male gametes (sperm) gets transported to the stigma, where it germinates and its pollen tube grows down the style to the ovary. Its two gametes travel down the tube to where the gametophyte(s) containing the female gametes are held within the carpel. One nucleus fuses with the polar bodies to produce the endosperm tissues, and the other with the ovum to produce the embryo[1][2] Hence the term: "double fertilization". SEED DIASPESAL BY WIND WATER The seeds of flowering plants vary in size. Some are as small as grains of salt (e.g Foxglove), while others may be almost the size of golfballs (e.g. Horse Chestnut conkers). The difference in size reflects differences in the amount of food reserves stored in the seed for the benefit of the embryo plant inside. Usually, the larger the seed, the more food reserves it contains. This allows the germinating seed and young seedling more time to grow. It can then become well established before it must begin manufacturing its own food. The longer a seedling has before it must become self sufficient, the greater chance it has of becoming successfully established.

However, there is a down-side to having large seeds. The larger and heavier the seed, the more difficult it becomes to disperse it effectively by wind, or explosive techniques. All of these require light seeds. Seeds such as Foxglove are minute and are easily blown about by the wind. Larger wind-dispersed seeds are generally heavier and therefore require features such as parachutes or wings to help keep them aloft. For example, Dandelion seeds have developed very light and fluffy parachute-like structures. These help the seeds to float in the wind and delays their fall to the ground. This delay allows the seeds to be carried further. The largest and heaviest wind-dispersed seeds, such as Sycamore cannot rely on hair-like parachutes to keep them airborne. They would have to be enormous to be effective. Instead they have developed a wing which causes them to spin through the air like mini helicopters. This again delays their fall. The biggest seeds of all cannot possibly be dispersed by the wind. Large seeds such as nuts, are a valuable food for some animals. They are therefore often dispersed by animals which collect them to eat. Rarely are all such seeds eaten. Some will usually be overlooked, leaving them to germinate wherever they have SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Sexual reproduction is a process that creates a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms; it occurs both in eukaryotes[1][2] and in prokaryotes.[3] A key similarity between bacterial sex and eukaryotic sex is that DNA originating from two different individuals (parents) join up so that homologous sequences are aligned with each other, and this is followed by exchange of genetic information (a process called genetic recombination). After the new recombinant chromosome is formed it is passed on to progeny). On the other hand, bacterial conjugation, a type of transfer of DNA between two bacteria, is often mistakenly confused with sexual reproduction,[4] because the mechanics are similar. However, bacterial conjugation is controlled by plasmid genes that are adapted for spreading copies of the plasmid between bacteria. The infrequent integration of a plasmid into a host bacterial chromosome, and the subsequent transfer of a part of the host chromosome to another cell do not appear to be bacterial adaptations.[3][5]

In contrast, bacterial transformation can be regarded as a form of sex in bacteria.[3][6] Bacterial transformation is a complex process encoded by numerous bacterial genes, and is clearly a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer. This process occurs naturally in at least 40 bacterial species.[7] For a bacterium to bind, take up, and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must enter a special physiological state referred to as competence (see Natural competence). Sexual reproduction in early singlecelled eukaryotes may have evolved from bacterial transformation.[8] SPORE FORMATION Sporogenesis is the production of spores in biology. The term is also used to refer to the process of reproduction via spores. Reproductive spores are formed in many eukaryotic organisms, such as plants, algae and fungi, during their normal reproductive life cycle. Dormant spores are formed, for example by certain fungi and algae, primarily in response to unfavorable growing conditions. Most eukaryotic spores are haploid and form through cell division, though some types are diploid or dikaryons and form through cell fusion.

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION egetative reproduction (vegetative propagation, vegetative multiplication, vegetative cloning) is a form of asexual reproduction in plants. It is a process by which new individuals arise without production of seeds or spores. It can occur naturally or be induced by horticulturists. Although most plants normally reproduce sexually, many have the ability for vegetative propagation, or can be vegetatively propagated if small pieces are subjected to chemical (hormonal) treatments. This is because meristematic cells capable of cellular differentiation are present in many plant tissues.

Horticulturalists are interested in understanding how meristematic cells can be induced to reproduce an entire plant. Success rates and difficulty of propagation vary greatly. For example willow and coleus can be propagated merely by inserting a stem in water or moist soil. On the other hand, monocotyledons, unlike dicotyledons, typically lack a vascular cambium and therefore are harder to propagate.