Balance Laws Jan 2013

Balance Laws
Conservation of Mass, Momentum & Energy
Conservation Laws
Balance of Mass
The principle of mass conservation
Balance of Momentum & Angular Momentum

A reformulation of Newtons second law of motion Emphasis on continuously distributed matter. Symmetry
Balance of Energy and the Work Principle.

Conjugate Stress Analysis Consistency in the scalar quantities Work and Energy.
Inbalance of Entropy
Statement of the second law of thermodynamics. The principle of energy availability; Implications on Processes & Efficiency
Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos 2 oafak@unilag.edu.ng 12/30/2012
Balance of Mass
The mass of a continuously distributed body is defined in basic physics as the total amount of substance or material contained in the body. The basic idea behind the conservation law is that the mass of an identified quantity is not subject to change during motion. Here, we are obviously restricting ourselves to non-relativisitic mechanics. It is appropriate to reiterate certain basic definitions at this point: System: A particular collection of matter in space that is of interest. The complement of this is the rest of matter essentially, the rest of the universe. The boundary of the system is the surface that separates them. The kind of system depends on the nature of this surface especially what are allowed to pass through.
Open & Closed System

A system is open if matter or mass can pass through the boundary. Otherwise the system is closed. In a closed system therefore, we are dealing with the same quantity of matter throughout the motion as no new mass comes in and old matter are trapped inside. In addition to this, a system may also be closed to energy transfer. Such a system is said to be isolated. A thermally isolated system, closed to the transfer of heat energy across the boundary is said to be insulated. A system may also be only mechanically isolated. An intensive or bulk property is a scale-invariant physical property of a system. By contrast, an extensive property of a system is directly proportional to the system size or the amount of material in the system.
Leibniz-Reynolds Transport Theorem
The rate of change of an extensive property , for the system is equal to the time rate of change of within the volume and the net rate of flux of the property through the surface , or (, ) = +
Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos
oafak@unilag.edu.ng 12/30/2012
Proof
The fact that the volume is variable with time that is, = () means that the derivative does not commute with the integral in spatial coordinates. A transformation to material coordinates simplifies the situation. Use the fact that in material coordinates, a derivative under the integral sign is the same as the derivative of the integral itself. If = , then = , = , 0 = , = , + , 0 0 = , + , 0 =
, + div ,
We now use of the fact that, for any spatial function,(, ), the , , , material time derivative, = + . Consequently,

= =
, =
, + ,
, + ,
, + div ,
, = + grad , + div , = , = + div which after applying the divergence theorem of Gauss, we find to be, , + div = + as required.
Conservation of Mass
Based upon the above theorem, we can express the balance of mass compactly, considering the fact that, , =
0
The right hand of the above equation is independent of time t. Hence a time derivative, , = = 0 0 Invoking the Leibniz-Reynolds theorem, we conclude that, + div = + = 0
Conservation of Mass
The mass generation inside the system plus the net mass transport across the boundary sum up to zero. + = 0 Equivalently, in differential form, The time rate of change of spatial density plus the divergence of mass flow rate equals zero. + div = 0 Or equivalently, + div = 0
Implications for Scalar Fields

For a scalar field (, ), using the continuity equation, we can write, = + = div = div + grad = div + = div from which we can conclude that, = + div .
Mass Measure
Furthermore, in spatial coordinates, using Leibniz theorem, = + div = + + div ) = a relationship we can also arrive at by treating the mass measure as a constant under spatial volume integration [Gurtin et al. pg 130].
Vector Fields
Such a process remains valid for any spatial vector or tensor , , the above expression remains valid, for,
, , = + div , , = + , + div , =
Again, bringing the derivative under the integral sign with the mass measure treated as a constant under the integral on account of continuity.
Vector & Tensor Fields

For a vector field , , we can also write, , = + = div = div + [See Ex 3.1 28 ] = div from which we can conclude that, = + div
Vector & Tensor Fields
Furthermore for a tensor field, the arguments are exactly the same and the result is in objects of one degree higher: = + div In particular, for the velocity field, we can see clearly that, = + div
Mass Balance on Control Volume

A control volume is a fixed region of space entirely encompassed by the deformed configuration. It is therefore permissible for material to pass through its boundary while the boundary itself is taken as being fixed in time. First consider the scalar function (, ) which depends on both the spatial location and time. = = + = + = + =
Mass Balance on Control Volume

For a vector field , , applying the conservation of mass as before, we can write,
, =
= + = + = =
so that,
, +
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Cauchys Laws of Motion

The momentum balance principles in this section are generalizations of Newtons second law of motion in the context of a continuously distributed body instead of a particle. These principles lead to the Cauchys Laws of motion. We begin this section with the linear momentum balance. Continuing from the last section, we can express the linear momentum of a body in the spatial frame as, () = , , =
0
0 ,
where is the spatial configuration volume and 0 the reference configuration.

Linear Momentum
The balance of linear momentum, according to the second law of Newton is that, () = () where () is the resultant force on the system. Hence by the conservation of linear momentum, we may write,
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Cauchy Law
= = , ,
0
0 , = ()
We now look at the forces acting on the body from the categorization of surface and body forces. The surface forces are measured by the tractions or force intensities per unit area of the surface while the body forces are in terms of the specific body force per unit volume. Clearly, =
Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos 19
, +
Cauchy law of Motion
By Cauchys stress law, = . Consequently, we may write, = , + , =
(grad + )
20
Cauchys Law
The law of conservation of mass allows us to take the above substantial derivative under the integral, we are allowed to treat the mass measure as a constant, hence we can write that, = , =
(grad + )
We can write the above equation in differential form as, , grad + = when we remember the definition of the derivative with respect to the position vector.
Formal Statement
Euler-Cauchy First Law of Motion: The divergence of the stress tensor plus the body force per unit volume equals material time rate of change of linear momentum. D grad + = D
22
Cauchy Second Law of Motion

The rate of change of angular momentum about a point, () is equal to the sum of the external moments about that point. In a continuously distributed medium, the Cauchy Stress Tensor field is a symmetric tensor (, ) = (, ) We do not offer a proof here of this important theorem except to say that it is a consequence of the balance of angular momentum. The full proof is in the accompanying notes to the slides.
Cauchy Second Law
In concluding this section, observe that the natural tensor characterizations of strain such as deformation gradient, displacement gradient are not symmetric. Various strain tensors are defined. These were done essentially to separate the rigid body displacements from actual deformations. The symmetry of Lagrangian and Eulerian strains are definitions. On the other hand, the Cauchy true stress is symmetric as a natural principle.
Work and Energy Balance
We are now in a position to compute such quantities as work rate and energy. Beginning with Euler-Cauchy first law of motion, div + = = if we assume density is constant. A scalar product of this equation with velocity gives, div + =

Integrating over the spatial volume, div + =

div +
= +

div div
tr +
where is the velocity gradient and it is obvious that , = , + , or div = div +
26

Applying the divergence theorem, we have +
tr =

and because the stress tensor is symmetric, we can write the trace in the above equation as = + = on account of the symmetry of and the antisymmetry of where is the deformation (or stretch) rate tensor and is the spin rate. Hence the mechanical energy balance of the body becomes 1 + = + 2
Power Balance
The quantity, is the kinetic energy density of the 1 body, and is the rate of change of the 2 kinetic energy. , the stress power is the rate of working of the stresses on the body. As the above derivation shows, the spin tensor does no work. In obtaining the stress power for the body, Cauchy stress tensor and the stretch rate appear in the integral. Because of this, Cauchy stress is said to be the stress measure conjugate to the stretch rate.
Conjugate Pairs
The stress power expression can be written in terms of other conjugate pairs as follows: =
0
=
0
=
0
which shows that the Kirchhoff, First Piola-Kirchhoff and the second Piola Kirchhoff stresses are conjugate to the stretch rate, rate of deformation gradient and the Lagrangian strain rates respectively. While the Cauchy stress expresses the stress power in terms of spatial coordinates, the other conjugate pairs are in material or reference coordinates.
Stress Power Law
The results above can be summarized in the Power Balance Law: In the absence of thermal effects, the conventional power expended by the body and surface forces on a body is balanced by the sum of the internal stress power and the rate of change of the kinetic energy.
30
Kirchhoff Stress
Kirchhoff Stress. It is straightforward to show that, = 0
=
0
=
0
31
First Piola-Kichhoff Tensor

Recall the fact that = . The First Piola Kirchhoff tensor is obtained by a Piola transformation of Cauchy stress = . Now, tr = tr = tr It therefore follows that = = in the reference configuration. Using this in the stress power integral provides the necessary Jacobian in the volume ratio so that, = = 0
Second Piola-Kirchhoff Tensor

The Lagrange strain tensor is given by = T 2 1 = T + T 2 1 1 = + T = + 2 2 = =
1
tr =
o
= =
where is the Second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor. This Work Conjugate of the Lagrange strain is symmetrical.
Thermodynamical Balances
Thus far we have considered mechanical work and energy in the absence of thermal effects. In this section, the thermodynamic effects including heat transfer and entropy generation will be considered.
34
First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy. It expresses the fact that energy can be transformed, i.e. changed from one form to another, but can neither be created nor destroyed. It is usually formulated by stating that the change in the internal energy of a system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the system, minus the amount of work performed by the system on its surroundings.
First Law of Thermodynamics
We state here a version of the first law of thermodynamics due to HLF von Helmholtz: The heat supply () and the power of external forces () lead to a change of the kinetic energy () in an inertial frame and of the internal energy () of the body. In the deformed configuration, we can write, + = + ()
First Law
Furthermore, the supply of heat into the body is assumed to come from two sources: Heat generation inside the body and heat energy crossing the boundary. If we assume that the rate of heat generation (eg by radiation) per unit volume is the scalar field , then the heat generation rate is . The vector flux per unit area is denoted by so that the heat flux into the system along the boundary is
By the Fourier-Stokes Heat Flow theorem.

Energy Balance
With these, we can write the energy balance equation as, 1 + 2 = 2 = +
. +

1 = 2
1 2
. +

since =
=
1 2
and =
38
Energy Balance
We can write the above in terms of the specific internal energy as, = . + + and as a result of the continuity of mass, the constancy of the mass measure ( )allows us to bring the derivative under the integral sign and apply it only to the internal energy so that,
grad +
after application of the divergence theorem. This is the same as, + grad = 0
which gives a local energy balance, + grad = 0.

Spatial Energy Balance

Recall that for any scalar field , as a consequence of the balance of mass, = + .

Applying this to specific internal energy, = + grad Using this, the local energy equation now becomes, = + grad + where the derivative with respect to time here is the spatial time derivative and heat flux term now has the convective addition which is a result of heat transfer due to motion.
Material Energy Balance

We can also express the first law of thermodynamics in the material description. We begin with heat flow into the system. The radiative and other mass heat generation = = 0 0
=
0
0 0 = Div0
And for the heat flux through the boundary, a Piola Transformation yields . =
0
1 =
0
Hence, the energy balance in terms of referential (material) frame, becomes,

0
0 =
0 +
0 +
from which we can now obtain the local material energy balance, 0 = 0 0 +
Second Law
An expression of the observed tendency that over time, differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential will equilibrate in an isolated physical system. The second law is an additional restriction on the first law that forbids certain processes which on their own might have been compatible with the first law but are known by observation never to occur. That natural processes are preferred choices out of many that are energy preserving. It consequently defines the concept of thermodynamic entropy, dissipation and available or free energy (more accurately, Helmholtz and Gibbs functions). In this section, we shall also see that specific entropy is an invariant over linear transformations from a fixed origin. The second law predicts that the entropy of an isolated body must never decrease.
Importance of the Second Law
"The law that entropy always increases holds, I think, the supreme position among the laws of Nature. If someone points out to you that your pet theory of the universe is in disagreement with Maxwell's equations then so much the worse for Maxwell's equations. If it is found to be contradicted by observation well, these experimentalists do bungle things sometimes. But if your theory is found to be against the second law of thermodynamics I can give you no hope; there is nothing for it but to collapse in deepest humiliation.
Arthur Stanley Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World (1927):
Entropy . . .
is defined as the measure of entropy per unit mass so that total entropy =
A consequence of the second law is that, unlike energy, entropy may be produced (generated) in a system that is isolated. As a result, the net entropy can be greater than zero after accounting for the entropy crossing the system boundaries. We state here the second law in form of the Claussius-Duhem inequality + meaning that the net entropy is at least as much as the entropy inflow through the boundary and the entropy generation by other sources into the system. (, ) is the scalar temperature field.
Entropy
div + We apply the law of conservation of mass, observe the constancy of the mass measure in the flow, so that + div 0 or div + . Applying the law of continuity to the material derivative of specific entropy, we have, = + div which we now substitute to obtain, + div + where the partial derivative denotes the spatial time derivative.
Entropy
Again with the convective term added to the heat flux vector resulting from the motion from point to point. Now, it is easily shown that, 1 div = div + 2 Using this, we can write, 1 div + = div + 2 grad + 1 = div + + grad 1 = + grad using the local spatial expression of the first law. Bringing everything to the RHS, we have, + grad 0.
Free Energy
The Gibbs free energy, originally called available energy, was developed in the 1870s by the American mathematician Josiah Willard Gibbs. In 1873, Gibbs described this available energy as the greatest amount of mechanical work which can be obtained from a given quantity of a certain substance in a given initial state, without increasing its total volume or allowing heat to pass to or from external bodies, except such as at the close of the processes are left in their initial condition. [11] The initial state of the body, according to Gibbs, is supposed to be such that "the body can be made to pass from it to states of dissipated energy by reversible processes." The specific free energy (Gibbs Function) is defined as = . Consequently, then we can write, + + = 0
Free Energy
Recalling the conventional energy expression that 1 + = + 2 we can integrate the above inequality and obtain, 1 = + + 2
+ grad 0
That is, =
Energy Dissipation
The second law therefore assures there is always a dissipation of energy. It is desirable to minimize such dissipation in order to increase the amount of available energy. Once again, the constancy of the mass measure as a result of the law of conservation of mass is implicit in the above derivation. This inequality must be satisfied for all admissible processes the material can undergo. They are therefore restrictions on material behavior. Constitutive equations must conform to these stipulations in order to be valid and admissible in physical processes. Notice also that the quantities, specific internal energy, specific entropy and specific free energy appear in these inequalities via their time derivatives.
Energy Dissipation
Introducing base values 0 , 0 such that 0 = 0, 0 = 0, = + 0 and = + 0 . This implies invariance with respect to translations + 0 , + 0 by these values. It can also be shown (Ex. 22) that for a vector a the heat flux is invariant under the transformation + grad for any scalar provided grad = 0. In this particular instance, the scalar is the temperature field.
Entropy Rate, Isolated Body

A body can be considered isolated in the sense that boundary heat fluxes are nil ( = ), boundary surface tractions are either zero = or no work is done by any applied boundary forces = . The first law then becomes, 1 + 2 = + 2 If in addition to these, there are no body forces and the radiative or other bulk heat generation vanishes, then, 1 + 2 = 0 2 And the second law, div + becomes, 0 which shows that the rate of change of entropy in such a situation is always positive.
Second Law of Thermodynamics in Material Frame

Similar to the internal energy and internal heat source, we can express the net entropy in terms of material coordinates, = = 0 0 =
0
0 0 0
And proceed to write, 0 0
where, as before, 0 1 the Piola transformation of the heat flux.

0 Div + 0
Examples
1. Given that is the resultant stress vector on a surface whose outward unit normal is , Find an expression for the normal stress and show that the shear stress on that surface is given by . Express this shear in tensor component form. 2. Obtain an expression for the mass center of a region of a body B and () obtain the first and second material time derivatives of the expression. 3. A material velocity field is given by its Piola Transformation = 1 . Using the Piola identity that 1 = 0, Show that =
4. The components of Cauchy stress in Cartesian coordinates are 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 0 0 2 2 2 0 1 + 2 Find the body forces in the system to keep the system in equilibrium. 5. The components of Cauchy stress in Cartesian coordinates are 0 0 0 2 + 3 2 , 3 (a) Find 2 , 3 so that the equilibrium 0 2 , 3 2 + 3 equations are satisfied assuming body forces are zero. (b) Use the value of 2 , 3 found in (a) to compute the Cauchy Traction vector on the plane = 1 + 2 + 3 . 6. A material vector field is given by its Piola transformation = 1 . Use the Piola identity to show that = 7. Given the Cauchy stress components,
+ Find the body forced that keeps the body in equilibrium.

8. Given the Cauchy stress components, + ( , ) ( , ) + () Find the values of and to satisfy the equations of equilibrium assuming zero body forces. () Find the Cauchy traction vector on the plane = + + . 9. If only mechanical energy is considered show that the energy equation can be obtained directly from the Cauchys first law of motion. 10. A hydrostatic state of stress at a certain point is given by the Cauchy stress tensor in the form, = , where is the identity tensor. Show that the stress power per unit referential volume is given by = : = : = = = 11. A rigid body is rotating about a fixed point with angular velocity show 1 that the kinetic energy may be expressed as 2 , where = , the moment of inertia tensor. 12. Let be a region of 3 bounded by and outward normal . Let be the Cauchy stress field and a vector field both of class Prove that = +
Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos 55
13. Let be a region of 3 bounded by and outward normal . Let be a vector field of class . Show that = 14. By evaluating the divergence operation on a tensor show that the equilibrium equations can be expressed in Cylindrical Polar coordinates as,
+ + = 0 2 1 + + + + = 0 1 + + + + = 0 15. By evaluating the divergence operation on a tensor show that the equilibrium equations can be expressed in Spherical Polar coordinates as, 1 1 cot + + + + 2 + = 0 sin 1 1 cot + + 3 + + + = 0 sin 1 1 + + 3 + 2 cot + + = 0 sin
56
16. The law of conservation of mass is expressed in the vector form, + = 0. Express this law in tensor components and find the equivalent in physical components for Cartesian, Cylindrical polar and Spherical polar coordinate systems. 17. Cylindrical Coordinates: 18. The moment of inertia of a continuum with volume is given by,

2 =
where the scalar density () is a function of the position vector , the identity tensor and the volume element. Show that the components of the integrands = in Cartesian coordinates. Why is this not correct in Spherical or Cylindrical polar coordinates? 19. Show that the material heat flux rate is the Piola Transformation of the spatial heat flux rate and that the local material energy balance requirements are satisfied if, 0 = 0 + 0 + 20. For a vector field = and a scalar field , show that
2
57
21. For an arbitrary vector and scalar , such that = 0 show that the integral is invariant under the transformation + . 22. For an arbitrary vector and scalar , such that = 0 show that the integral is invariant under the transformation + . 23. If the heat generation field = 0 and there are no body forces, Show that the first law of thermodynamics becomes,
+ 2
. , and the second law 24. Define terms isolated body. Show that the net energy in an isolated body does not change and that its entropy can never decrease. 25. Show that for a spatial control volume , the first law of thermodynamics becomes,
R
+ 2 R
R
+
R
. +
+ 2 R
R R
=
R
and the second law, +
26. Obtain the local dissipation inequality, 0
becomes,
+ R
58

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Balance Laws

Conservation of Mass, Momentum & Energy

Balance of Momentum & Angular Momentum

Balance of Energy and the Work Principle.

Open & Closed System

Leibniz-Reynolds Transport Theorem

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos 6 oafak@unilag.edu.ng 12/30/2012

Implications for Scalar Fields

Vector & Tensor Fields

Vector & Tensor Fields

Mass Balance on Control Volume

Mass Balance on Control Volume

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Cauchys Laws of Motion

where is the spatial configuration volume and 0 the reference configuration.

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos 19

Cauchy law of Motion

By Cauchys stress law, = . Consequently, we may write, = , + , =

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Cauchy Second Law of Motion

Cauchy Second Law

Work and Energy Balance

Work and Energy Balance

where is the velocity gradient and it is obvious that , = , + , or div = div +

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Work and Energy Balance

Stress Power Law

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Kirchhoff Stress. It is straightforward to show that, = 0

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

First Piola-Kichhoff Tensor

Second Piola-Kirchhoff Tensor

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

First Law of Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics

By the Fourier-Stokes Heat Flow theorem.

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

which gives a local energy balance, + grad = 0.

Spatial Energy Balance

Material Energy Balance

Hence, the energy balance in terms of referential (material) frame, becomes,

Importance of the Second Law

Entropy Rate, Isolated Body

Second Law of Thermodynamics in Material Frame

And proceed to write, 0 0

where, as before, 0 1 the Piola transformation of the heat flux.

+ Find the body forced that keeps the body in equilibrium.

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

and the second law, +

26. Obtain the local dissipation inequality, 0

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

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