INTRODUCING OF COMPUTER NETWORK

NETWORK A network is a connection between computer, terminals and networking device and other components which maintain or allows the transmission of data between one system to another system. OR A network is define as when two or more computer, components terminals are connected to each other for the purpose of sharing of files. OR When two or more computers are able to send and receive any data through the transmission media (wired or wireless) then it is said to be network. OR When communication occurred between two or more computer by means of environment is said to network.

SOURCE COMPUTER The computer which is able to send any information or data is called source computer. The computer where data is generated from is said to be source computer. DESTINATION COMPUTER The computer which is able to receive any information is called destination computer. Where the data is received is called destination computer.

NODE:The computer which is connected for the purpose of communication is called NODE. All the computers which are attached in to the network and help to make proper communication are term as NODE

SENDER:The computer which can send data is sender.

RECEIVER:The computer which can receive data is receiver. FIGURE

Se nd e r

Re c e ive r

NETWORKING

Networking is the ability to share information efficiently for the purpose of sharing or transferring any information. OR Networking is the process by which network can be established to make them (computer) as a node. NETWORKING ARCHITECTURE 1. Peer to peer based networking 2. Client server based networking PEER TO PEER BASED NETWORKING In peer to peer based type of architecture all the computer is attached in simple manner. All of them are said to be as a NODE We can attach max.15 devices.

Advantage:1. 2. 3. 4. No use of centralized administrator. Every computer on peer to peer network function both as server& a client. It is inexpensive. It can be easily established Disadvantage:-

1. User performs as administrator for their own computer. 2. No security. 3. Additional load of computer for resources sharing. CLIENT SERVEER BASED NETWORKING In this type of computer networking architecture all the computers are controlled by the single computer (server) which is also called centralized administrator. It consists of many clients and one or more server to provide better security.

Advantage:1. Central file stored which allows all users to work from the single location. 2. Easy to take back up of critical data. Disadvantage:1. It is expensive to implement because more hardware and software are required. 2. Network administrator is required.

CLIENT COMPUTER:The computer which is used to access resources in the network is called client computer.

SERVER COMPUTER:Computer that provide shared resources such as storage and printers and network server such as e-mail and internet access.

TYPES OF NETWORKING 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. LAN (Local area network) WAN (Wide area network) MAN (Metropolitan area network ) PAN (Personal area network) SAN (storage area network) VPN (virtual private network) LAN:When network is established in a limited area for the purpose of communication occurred locally, them it is said to LAN. Generally LAN is established is small offices, Originations etc. WAN When communication occurs from one single location to another location either it belong from the same networks, then it is said to WAN. Group of LAN is called a WAN which communicates globally. MAN When communication occurs among different cities or specific location, then it is said to MAN.

PAN In this type of network communication are established for the purpose of involving different location. MODE OF COMMUNICATION Mode of communication defines the way of communication which is applied when any communication occurs between the devices. It is the pattern which resembles that which type of communication occurs. Basically they are three types; 1. Simplex mode 2. Half duplex mode 3. Full duplex mode SIMPLEX MODE:In this mode of communication there are only one device is in active state, means is that only one way communication established. Communication is occurs due to the broad casting. Example: - Television, Radio etc. HALF DUPLEX MODE:In this communication any device can communicate to another device but at the time. It means when first device communicate then another device can not communicate, it is in dumb position. Example: - Walky-talky. FULL DUPLEX MODE:In full duplex mode communication occurs in both ways that all the devices can communicate to each other at the same time. Example: - Internet, telephone etc.

TOPOLOGY

It is define the layout or fashion that in which manner computer are connected. Topology represents the standard of network and also provides the information about the following things. Limitation of networks Device which are used Path of communication Transmission of media How to troubleshoot OR A network topology is the basic design of a computer network. It is very much like a map of a road. It details how key network components such as nodes and links are interconnected.

TYPE OF TOPOLOGY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bus topology Star topology Ring topology Mesh topology Hybrid topology BUS TOPOLOGY In bus topology all the computer are attached with the single backbone. In this topology computer are connected in peer to peer manner, backbone uses coaxial cable. Bus topology is terminated in both sides. Computer is attached to the backbone with the UTP cable.

Advantages:1. It is the cheapest topology because it does not use any additional device. 2. All the workgroup computer are connected in a simple manner, it mean layout is simple. 3. The entire computer communicates easily without any interference/restrictions. 4. Easy to implement new node. 5. Good for smaller networks not requiring higher speeds. Disadvantages:1. 2. 3. 4. It is not secure connection. If backbone cable break then communication is not possible. If destination is not available, data is loss. Limited in size and speed. Star Topology:In this topology all the computers are attached with central located device called HUB. HUB makes communication possible because it has many ports to attached computer. HUB can transmit data from one port to another port directly.

In a star topology, each network device has a home run of cabling back to a network hub, giving each device a separate connection to the network. So, there can be multiple connections in parallel. This topology generally used UTP or STP cable. It is cheap reliable topology.

Advantages:1. If one workgroup computer is failed another workgroup computer is not affected. 2. Easy to implement new workgroup computer. 3. Communication is quite secure due to the use of HUB. 4. More suited for larger networks. Disadvantages:1. It is an expensive topology in comparison to bus topology due to the use of HUB. 2. If central located device failed then communication become not possible. 3. It uses the greatest table length. 4. Installation costs are high because each node needs to be connected to the central switch.

Ring Topology:In ring topology all computer are connected in the form of ring. Ring topology uses a special device MAU (multi station access unit) logically. MAU makes communication possible in the form of ring. Ring topology also uses UTP & STP cable. In a ring topology, the network signal is passed through each network card of each device and passed on to the next device. Each device processes and retransmits the signal, so it is capable of supporting many devices in a somewhat slow but very orderly fashion. There is a very nice feature that everybody gets a chance to send a packet and it is guaranteed that every node gets to send a packet in a finite amount of time.

Advantages 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. It uses token ring mechanism. Reliable and offers best speed. No collision. Handle large value of traffic. Disadvantages:More cabling is require in comparison BUS topology. One fault device affects the entire network. Not easy to implement new node. Error detection and network administration becomes difficult.

MESH topology:In mesh topology all the computer are connected with each computer end to end. So for that connection become much more reliable and data travels at very higher speed. It is special used in WAN link king through router (device).

TYPE OF MESH TOPOLOGY:1. FULL MESH: - In full mesh topology all devices are connected with each and every end for exchanging/transferring of data at higher band width (speed).

2. PARTIAL MESH: - In partial mesh topology some devices are connected to only those devices with which they exchange most of data.

Advantages:1. 2. 3. 4. Improve fault tolerance. Failure of one link dose not effect on entire network. Centralize management is not required. Data transmit at very higher bandwidth due to the multiple path ways.

Disadvantages:1. Difficult to implement, manage add new node. 2. Each link attached with one device to another device, so requires individual NIC. 3. It is much expensive.

Hybrid topology Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more different physical topology commonly star, bus, and ring. It is special topology which is generally

used in corporate world. It is used to connected different topology in a single topology. It is used in both LAN &WAN.

Advantages:Used for creating larger network handle large volume of traffic fault detection is easy. Disadvantages:Installation, configuration is difficult more expensive than other topology because more cabling is required.

PATH OF COMMUNICATION:It define the path (medium) by which the communication is established; there are two type of path communication. 1. BASEBAND: - In base band type of communication computer can carry one signal at a time and all of the system takes turn to using. To make a base band communication the data transmitted by each system is spitted in to separate path called packet. It mean that computer transmit each packet at a time.

2. BROADBAND: - Broadband is the opposite of base band because it can carry multiple channels at the same time. It has higher band width and most effective.

IP ADDRESS:An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label that is assigned to devices participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes. An IP address serves two principal functions in networking: host identification and location addressing. The role of the IP address has also been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there.

MAC address:In computer networking a Media Access Control address (MAC address) is a unique identifier assigned to most network adapters or network interface cards (NICs) by the manufacturer for identification, and used in the Media Access Control protocol sub layer. If assigned by the manufacturer, a MAC address usually encodes the manufacturer's registered identification number. It may also be known as an Ethernet Hardware Address (EHA), hardware address, adapter address, or physical address.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA:The medium (cable, devices etc) through which data can be transmitted from one point to another is called transmission media. Commonly they are two types. 1. Cables 2. Networking device

CABLE:Cable is the physical transmission medium which carries data in form of signal. It has the central conductor of wire surrounded by the plastic jacket.

Cable are divided into three types according to their speed, cost, need etc. 1. Twisted pair cable 2. Co-axial cable 3. Fiber optic cable

1. TWISTED PAIR CABLE:A twisted pair wire consist of two bunches of thin copper wire and enclosed separately in a plastic insulator with conductor. One the wire is used to carry the signal to the receiver and the other is used as ground reference. The connectors used for this cables are called RJ45 (registered jack). It is more flexible and easy to bend, cheaper than other cable and easy to install. They are of two types. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) Shielded twisted pair (STP)

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) It content 8 separate copper conductor and they are arranged in 4 pair. The 4 pairs are then encased in a single sheath.

Category of UTP Cable:CAT-1 CAT-2 CAT-3 CAT-4 CAT -5 CAT-5(e) CAT-6 traditional telephone line carries voice but not data for data transmission up to 4Mbps for data transmission up to 10Mbps for data transmission up to 16Mbps for data transmission up to 100Mbps for data transmission up to 100to1000Mbps for data transmission up to 1Gbps

Advantages:1. 2. 3. 4. In expensive media. Easy to install. Easy to bend. Support up to 1Gbps. Disadvantages:1. Not suitable for long distance. 2. Signal can travel only 100 meter. 3. Easy gets affected by EMI (electro-magnetic interference). UTP Cable description:Max. Cable length..100 meter. Band width.100 Mbps. Connector .RJ 45 Bend radius 360. / fit. Resistance.. 100 Ohms. Signal transmission mode.Base band.

STP Cable:It is similar in construction UTP but it has additional foil (layer) or mesh shielding around each pair. The additional shielding in STP cable makes it preferable to UTP in installation where EMI is problem. STP is most expensive than UTP, resistance of this cable is 150 ohm.

2. COAXIAL CABLE It consists of a central copper wire surrounded by a PVC insulation over which a sleeve is again shielded by an outer shield of thick PVC (plastic) material. The signal is transmitted by the inner copper wire. Coaxial cable offer much higher band width than twisted pair cable could carry digital up to 600 Mbps.

Advantages:Shielded allows signal to travel 500 meter. Unrepeated. Relative inexpensive. Medium difficult to install. Disadvantages:Limited to 10 Mbps. Relative unreliable. Only usable in BUS topology Not the easy to install. Not the least expensive medium.

Type of co-axial cable:Co-axial cable is found in to types. 1. Thin net (RG 8):- It is about 0.25 inches in diameter making it flexible. It can carry a signal about 185 meters. It uses N connectors. This network runs at 10 Mbps and uses base band transmission. So for that it is also called 10 Base 2. The 2 implies 200 meters and 10 imply its speed. We can connect 30 hosts per segment. Its minimum distance between the hosts is 0.5 meter.

2. Thick net (RG-58):- It is about 0.38 inches in diameter making it a better conductor. It can carry a signal of about 500 meters. It uses BNC connector. Feature of 10 base 5 (thick net):1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Base band communication. 10Mbps transfer rate. Max. Distance of 500 maters/network segment. 100host per segment. 2.5meters min. distance between hosts.

Description of Cables Name 10 Base T 10 Base 2 10 Base 5 100 Base T Description Common thin net thick net Common Type UTP co-axial co-axial UTP Segment 5 to 100 m 185 m 500 m 5 to 100 m Speed 10Mbps 10Mbps 10Mbps 100Mbps

3. Fiber optic cable A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form light because light travels much faster than electricity, physically. A fiber optic cable consists of three concentric layers, the inner core, a cladding around it and the outer protective coating. It provides a reliable, secure and very high band width transmission media.

Type of fiber optic cable:1. Single mode fiber optic cable: - it has core diameter of 8.3 micron and the thickness of the core and cladding together is 125 micron. It referred as 8.3/125 single mode fiber optic. It uses a single wave length laser as a light source and carry signal for extremely long distance.

2. Multi mode fiber optic cable: - it is rated as 62.5/125 Multi mode. It uses a LED as a light source and carries multiple wave length. Both uses subscriber connector and straight tip connectors.

CABLE VARIATION
Designation 10Base5 10Base2 10Base-T Fiber Optic Inter-Repeater Link (FOIRL) 10Base-FL 10Base-FB 10Base-FP 100Base-TX 100Base-T4 100Base-FX 1000Base-LX 1000Base-LX 1000Base-SX 1000Base-SX 1000Base-SX 1000Base-SX 1000Base-LH 1000Base-ZX 1000Base-CX 1000Base-T Cable Type RG-8 coaxial RG-58 coaxial Category 3 UTP 62.5/125 multimode fiber optic 62.5/125 multimode fiber optic 62.5/125 multimode fiber optic 62.5/125 multimode fiber optic Category 5 UTP Category 3 UTP 62.5/125 multimode fiber optic 9/125 single mode fiber optic 50/125 or 62.5/125 multimode fiber optic 50/125 multimode fiber optic (400 MHz) 50/125 multimode fiber optic (500 MHz) 62.5/125 multimode fiber optic (160 MHz) 62.5/125 multimode fiber optic (200 MHz) 9/125 single mode fiber optic 9/125 single mode fiber optic 150-ohm shielded copper cable Category 5 (or 5E) UTP Topology Speed Bus Bus Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Maximum Segment Length 10 Mbps 500 meters 10 Mbps 185 meters 10 Mbps 100 meters 10 Mbps 1000 meters 10 Mbps 2000 meters 10 Mbps 2000 meters 10 Mbps 500 meters 100 Mbps 100 Mbps 100 Mbps 1000 Mbps 1000 Mbps 1000 Mbps 1000 Mbps 1000 Mbps 1000 Mbps 1000 Mbps 1000 Mbps 1000 Mbps 1000 Mbps 100 meters 100 meters 412 meters 5000 meters 550 meters 500 meters 550 meters 220 meters 275 meters 10 km 100 km 25 meters 100 meters

Cable Problems Attenuation: -Attenuation is signal deterioration, and noise which is signal interference can cause problems in networks because the data send may be interpreted incorrectly or not recognized at all after it has been received. Noise: - Noise is any electric energy on the transmission cable that makes it difficult for a receiver to interpret the data sent from the transmitter. Cross talk: - Cross talk involves the transmission of signal from wire to a nearby wire, when voltage change on a wire electromagnetic energy is generated. This energy radiates outward from the wire like a radio signal from a transmitter adjacent wire in the cable as like antennas and receives the transmitted energy which interferes with data on that wire.

NETWORKING DEVICES
The device which is used to connect network with cable by which connection is established and communication become much easier, reliable and fast is called networking devices. It can be used to extend networks. The main device which is used in networking is:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. HUB Repeater Bridge Switch Router HUB A HUB or concentrator is a device used to connect all of computer on a star or ring network. Ethernet HUB is also called a multiport Repeater. When data enter the Hub through any of its ports, the hub amplifies the signal and transmits it out through all of the other ports, this enable a star network to share a single medium even though each computer has its own separate cable. The HUB relies every packet transmitted by any computer on the network to all of the other computer while amplifies signal.

Repeater or HUB work at OSI physical layer to regenerate the network signal and resend them to other segment. It is physical layer device.

Types of HUB:Passive HUB: - Passive hub is used to receive data from one port of the hub and send it out to the other ports. A passive Hub has no power source or electric component, there is no signal processing and there is no regenerating of the signal to ensure that it is readable to the destination. A passive hub simply attached to the ports internally and enables communication to flow through the network. Active HUB: - An active hub provides the same functionality as a passive hub with an additional feature. Active hub rebuilds the data before sending it to all of the destination port of the hub. Due to this we can increase the length of network because although the signal weakens with distance. An active hub has a power source and built in repeater to boost the signal. Hybrid hub:- Hybrid hub is a hub that can use many different types of cable in additional to UTP cabling. A hybrid hub usually is cabled using thin net

or thick net along with popular cable type such as twisted pair cabling because it has many ports.

REPEATER Repeater is also physical layer device which is used to boost (regenerate) the signal. The signal are weakens which are coming from long distance so repeater can be use to solve this problems. Repeater can connect one segment to other segment. It work with amplified the signal.

Network interface card (NIC) This device/card install on the system that is responsible for sending and receiving data on to the network. It is also responsible for preparing the data from the system to be transparent on the wire by converting the outbound data to electric signal. This card should be install in expansion slot on the motherboard. Today in modern computer has build-in LAN card in form of chip it is also called LAN adapter card or Ethernet card.

A NIC makes networking possible because it carries a unique code called MAC address is 48 bit in length and express in 12 hexadecimal digits. MAC address are some time referred to as burned in address (BIA) because they are burned in to ROM and are copied in to RAM when the NIC initialized. It is a data link layer (layer 2) device. BRIDGE Bridge is a data link layer device (layer to device). Bridge convert network transmission data formats as well as perform basic data transmission management. Bridge as name implies, provide connection between LANs, not only do connect LANs but they also perform a check on the data to determine whether it should cross the bridge or not, this makes each part to the network more efficient. Bridge can analyze incoming data packet to determine if the bridge is able to send the given packet to another segment of the network.

Bridge learn MAC address of the system by which it creates a table of source MAC address and destination address called bridging table. Bridging broadcast their massage only to different segment. It can never broadcast their massages to its own segment from where source data is generated. This mechanism is possible by the entry of MAC address in bridge table. It reuses network traffic. Bridge has only two ports either it connect the segment or it break the segment. Bridge use two method to resolve the network segment that MAC address belong to; Transparent bridge: - This method uses a forwarding data base to send frame across network segment. The forwarding data base is initially empty and entries in the database are built as the bridge receives frames. It an address entry is not found in the forwarding database, the frame rebroadcast to all port of the bridge forwarding the frame to all segment except the source address. Source route bridging:- With source route bridging two frame type are used in order to find the route to the destination network segment single route (SR) frame makes up most of the network traffic and have set destinations while all-route (AR) frame are used to find routes. SWITCH:A network switch is a computer networking device that connects network segment. The term commonly refers to a network bridge that processes and routes data at data link layer (layer2) of the OSI model. Switches that additionally process data at the network layer (layer 3 and above) are often referred to as a layer 3 switches or multilayer switches. The term network switch does not generally encompass unintelligent or passive network device such as HUB & repeaters. Switches resemble bridges and can be considered as multiple bridges by having multiport can better use limited band width and prove more cost effective than bridge. Switch can transmit its frame to the next port only.

It is possible because switch also maintain switching table called CAM (common addressable memory) of both source and destination MAC address. It is widely used in LAN. It come in various speed, 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps &1 Gbps. There are four forwarding method of switches. STORE &FORWARD:- The switch buffer and typically perform a checksum 0n each frame before forwarding them. CUT THROUGH:- The switch read only up to t he frames hardware address before starting to forward it. There is no error checking with the method. FRAGMENT FREE:-A method that attempt to retain the benefit to both store & forward and cut throw fragment free check the first 64 bytes of the frame where addressing information is stored. ADAPTING SWITCHING:- A method of automatically switching between the other three mode. SWITCH CONFIGURATION:Unmanaged switch:- These switch have no configuration interface or option, they are plug and play. They are typically the least expansive switches found in home SOHO or small business they can be desktop or rack mounted. Managed switch:- These switches have one or more method to modify the operation of the switch. Common management method include; a serial console or command line interface accessed via tenant or secure shell an embedded simple network management station or a web interface for management from a web browser. Sub classes of managed switch are:-

Smart (or intelligent) switches:- These are managed switch with a limited set of managed feature. Enterprise managed (or fully managed) switch:- These have a full set of management features including command line interface SNMP agent and web interface. They may have additional feature to manipulate configuration such as the ability to display, modify, back up and restore configurations. Advantages of switch: Switches divide a network into several isolated channels (or collision domains). Reduce the possibility of collision Collision only occurs when two devices try to get access to one channel. Can be solved by buffering one of them for later occurs. Each channel has its own network capacity Suitable for real time applications e.g. video configuration. Since isolated, hence secure Data will only go to the destination but not other.

NETWORK ROUTER:Network Router is a layer 3 device (network layer). A network connects two dissimilar network together forming an internetwork when computer on a LAN wants to transmit data to a computer on other LAN. The system sends its packets to a router on the local network and the router forward them to the destination network. A router will have multiple networks interfaces with each network interface connecting to a network or a WAN environment. Router typically is used to connect LAN to a WAN or WAN to a WAN. Router learns logical address (IP address) for routing. Router has the following features, Router work on IP address. Router select best and shortest path. Router perform packet filtering, it connect two different networks (LAN). Typically used in WAN. Keep the information of connected router.

HOW ROUTER WORK A router forward a packet based on a destination address in the network layer protocol header, which specify the packets ultimate destination and not the hardware address used at the data link layer. A router uses internal table (called routing table) that contain information about the network around it and this table helps to determine where to send each packet if the packet destination for system one of the network to which the router is connected. The router transmits the packet directly to the system.

Router has multiple broadcast domains and reduces collision domain. There are two type of routing Static and Dynamic routing. STATIC ROUTING:- Static routing is a process of creating routing table inters manually. This is because of network administrator decide what the router should do when it receive the packets. DYNAMIC ROUTING:- In dynamic routing router automatically decide what to do with packet by the help of routing table.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORKING DEVICE:HUB:Advantage: Hub can connect many devices than other devices. Hub can transmit data in greater speed. Communication is quite secure due to hub use. Disadvantages: It is an expensive device. It uses the greatest cable length. If centrally located device failed then communication become not possible. REPEATER:Advantage: It boost the lose signal. Repeater can connect one segment to other segment. It is suitable for long distance network. Disadvantages: It only regenerates the signals. It is not only suitable for long distance network. BRIDGE:Advantage: Bridge can connect two segments. Bridge can transfer data in greater speed. It reduces the network traffic. Disadvantages:-

 Bridge can transfer data to one segment to another segment. Bridge can not transfer data in own port. Bridge has only two ports either it connect the segment or it divide the segment.

SWITCH:Advantage: It also connects two segments like bridge. It has a multiple port. Switch also transfers data to one port to another.

Disadvantages: Switches can not transfer data in own ports. It is widely use in LAN. The term network switch dose not generally encompass unintelligent or passive network device such as HUB and repeater.

GATEWAY:A gateway is responsible for translating information from one format to another format. In other word gateway is used as internet device to convert the data and packet of the sender in that format that could be easily identify by the receivable end. The gateway is used in any layer on the OSI reference model depending on what information gateway translate.

MODEM:A modem is a physical layer device that converts digital data originating from a computer to analog signal. It convert the digital signal into analog signal & Analog signal to Digital signal suitable for transmission over a telephone line it

convert the pulse tone (audio tone) into digital tone. Modem is used to communicate with the system across the PSTN (public switch telephone network).

FIREWALL:Firewall is networking component responsible for protecting the network from outside introduce. The firewall design to block the particular type of traffic by alloying shortens information to pass through them. The firewall administrator chooses which traffic can and can not be passed through the firewall. It is specially used for security purpose. Measuring bandwidth:-

Units of bandwidth Bits per second kilobits per second Megabits per second Gigabits per second Terabits per second

Abbreviation Equipment Bps Kbps Mbps Gbps Tbps fundamental unit of bandwidth 1 Kbps=103 bps 1Mbps=106bps 1Gbps=109bps 1Tbps=1012bps

PROTOCOL: A written specification that defines how product should perform a certain task typically in network. In other word, a protocol is a set of rules which is used by computer to communicate with each other a cross a network. It is a standard that control or enable the correction, communication and data transfer between computing end point. Protocol may be implementing by H/W, S/W or both. Properties of protocol:Detection of under lying physical connection. Hand shaking. Negotiation of various connections corrects tactic. How to start and a massage. Processor on formatting a massage. Error correction. How to detect unexpected loss of the connection. Termination of the session or connection. Protocols:NCP- network core protocol. SAP- Service advertising protocol. IPX- Internetwork packet exchange. RIP- Routing information protocol. ADSP - AppleTalk data stream protocol. AEP - Apple Talk echo protocol. AFP - AppleTalk filling protocol. ASP - AppleTalk session protocol. ATP - AppleTalk transaction protocol. DDP - Datagram delivery protocol. LAP - Link access protocol. NBP - Name-binding protocol. PAP - Printer access protocol. RTMP - Routing table maintenance protocol. ZIP - Zone information protocol. SLIP - Serial line internet protocol.

CSLIP- Compressed Serial line internet protocol. PPP - Point to point protocol. ARP - Address resolution protocol. IP - Internet protocol. RARP - Reverse address resolution protocol. TCP - Transport layer protocol. ICMP Internet control message protocol. IGMP- Internet group management protocol. FTP File transfer protocol.

OSI REFRENCE MODEL:OSI was developed in 1984 by the standardization (ISO) a global federation of representing approximately 130 countries. OSI define a standard a set of rules that allow communicate easily international organization for national standard organization (open system inter connection) the networking component to

The core of this standard is the OSI reference model, a set of 7 layer that define the different stages data must go through to travel from one device to another device over a network. OSI is a system open for communication with other system. The OSI model has 7 layers the principles were applied to achieve at the 7 layer as follows, A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed. Each layer should perform a well defined function. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye to word defining internationally standardization protocol. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information follow across the interface.

The number of layer should be large enough that distinct function need not be through together in the same layer out of necessity, and small enough that the architecture dose not becomes unwieldy.

Figure:-

THE PHYSICAL LAYER:The main task of the physical layer is to transmit raw bits over a communication channel. It defines the electrical & physical specification for device. It also defines the relationship between a device and a physical medium. It include layout of pins cable specifications, HUB, Repeater, Network adaptor and more. The major function and service perform by the physical layer are:1. Establishment and termination of a connection to a communication medium. 2. Modulation or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signal transmitted over communication channels. These all signal operating over the physical cabling or over a radio link. 3. It converts the frame into multiple bits and then again converts these bits in the form of electrical signal to transmit data over a medium (cable). DATA LINK LAYER:The data link layer provides the functional and procedural mean to transfer data between network and entities and to detect and possible correct errors that may occur in the physical layer. The main task of this layer is to take a raw transmission facility and transfer it into a line that appears free of undetected transmission error to the network layer. To accomplish this, the sender breaks the input data into multiple data frame (typically of few 100 or 1000 bytes) transmit the frame sequentially and process the acknowledgement frame sent back by the receiver. The issues that the layer has to solve:To create and to recognize frame boundaries typically by attached special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame. To solve the problem caused by damaged, lost or duplicate frame (the data link layer may offer several different services classes to the network layer, each with different quality and price).

To keep a fast transmitter from drawing a slow receiver in data. If the line is bi-directional, the acknowledgement frame complete for the use of the line with data frame. Broadcast network have an additional issue in the data link layer, how to control access to the shared channel. A special sub layer of the data link layer (medium access sub layer) deals with the problems. The user of the data link layer may be sure that his data were delivered without errors to the neighbor node. However, the layer is able to deliver the data just to the neighbor node. SUBLAYER OF DATA LINK LAYER:The data link layer has two sub layers. Logical link control sub layer:- the upper most sub layer is logical link control (LLC). This sub layer multiplexes protocols running atop the data link layer, and optionally provides flow control, acknowledgment, and error notification. The LLC provides addressing and control of the data link. It specifies which mechanism is to be used for addressing stations over the transmission medium and for controlling the data exchanged between the originator and recipient machines. Media access control sub layer: - The sub layer below it is MAC. There are generally two forms of media access control distributed and centralized both of these may be compared to communication between people. The media access control sub layer also determines where one frames of data ends and the next one starts frames synchronization. There are four means of frames synchronization time based, character counting byte stuffing and bit stuffing. Some time this refers to the sub layer that determine who is allowed to access the media at any time usually (CSMA/CD) other times it refers to a frames structure with MAC address inside. NETWORK LAYER:-

The network layer is layer 3 of the seven layer OSI model of computer networking. The network layer is responsible for end to end (source to destination) packet delivery including routing through intermediate hosts whereas the data link layer is responsible for node to node (hop to hop) frame delivery on the same link. The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a destination host via one or more networks while maintaining the quality of service and error control functions. FUNCTION OF NETWORK LAYER:Connection model It is the main function of the network layer which includes two types of communication. Connection oriented: - Connection oriented is a data transmission attribute that describes a facility in which the devices at the end point uses a protocol to established an end to end connection before any data is sent. Connection oriented transmission is highly reliable. Connection less: - Connection less mode transmission is a transmission in which each packet is pretend with a header containing a destination address sufficient to permit the independent delivery of the packet without the aid of additional instructions. Congestion control:A router can be connected to 4-5 networks. If the entire network sends packet at the same time with maximum rate possible them the router may not be able to handle all the packets and may drop some/all packet. In this context the dropping of the packets should be congestion is also a function of the network layer. Internetworking:Internetworking are multiple network that are connected in such a way that they act one large network, connecting multiple office or department networks.

Internetwork is connected by networking hardware such as router, switch and bridges. Internetworking is a solution born of three networking problems, isolated LANs, duplication of resources, and the lack of a centralized network management system.

TRANSPORT LAYER:The transport layer is responsible for delivering data to the appropriate application process on the host computers. This involve statistical multiplying of data from different application processes; i.e. forming data packets, and adding source and destination port number in the header of each transport layer data packet together with the source and destination IP address the port numbers constitutes a network socket, i.e. an a identification address of the process to process communication. A byte stream is delivered while hiding the packet mode communication for the application process. This involves the connection establishment, dividing at the data stream into packet called segment numbering and reordering of out of order data. TRANSPORT LAYER SERVICE:-

Connection oriented Same order delivery Order delivery Flow control Congestion avoidance Byte orientation Port (Part of the Transport Layer in the TCP/IP model but of the Session Layer in the OSI model) Ports are essentially ways to address multiple entities in the same location. For example, the first line of a postal address is a kind of port, and distinguishes between different occupants of the same house. Computer applications will each listen for information on their own ports, which is why you can use more than one network-based application at the same time.

SESSION LAYER:The Session Layer provides the mechanism for opening, closing and managing a session between end-user application processes, i.e. a semi-permanent dialogue. Communication sessions consist of requests and responses that occur between applications. Session Layer services are commonly used in application environments that make use of remote procedure calls (RPCs). In case of a connection loss this protocol may try to recover the connection. If a connection is not used for a long period, the Session Layer Protocol may close it and re-open it. It provides for either full duplex or half-duplex operation and provides synchronization points in the stream of exchanged messages. Within the service layering semantics of the OSI network architecture, the session layer respond to service requests from the presentation layer and issues service to the transport layer. SESSION LAYER SERVICE:Authentication Permissions

Session restoration (checkpoint & recovery) PRESENTATION LAYER:Presentation layer is responsible for the delivery and formatting of the information to the application layer for further processing or display. It relieves the application layer of concern regarding syntactical difference in data representation in within the end user systems. An example of a presentation service would be the conversion of an EBCDcoded text file to an ASCII-coded file. The application layer is the lowest layer at which application programmers consider data structure and presentation, instead of simply sending data in form of datagrams or packet between hosts. E3ncryptionand compression should be presentation layer functions, although they are frequently provide on other layers.

SUBLAYER:The presentation layer is composed of two sub layers; 1. CASE(common application service element) 2. SASE(specific application service element) CASE:The CASE sub layer provides services for the application layer and request service from the presentation layer. It provides support for common application services such as; ASCE (association control services element) ROSE (remote operation service element) CCR (commitment concurrency and recovery) RISE (reliable transfer service element)

SASE:The SASE sub layer provides application specific services (protocol) such as; FTAM (file transfer access and manager) VT (virtual terminal) MOTIS (massage oriented text interchange) APPLICATION LAYER:The application layer contains all the protocol and method that fall into the realm of process to process communication via an internet protocol (IP) network using the transport layer protocols to establish underlying host to host connection. The common application layer service provides semantic conversion between associated application processes. This layer handles issues like network transparency, resource allocation and problem partitioning. The application layer is censured with the users view of network (e.g. formatting electronic mail massages). The presentation layer provides the application layer with a familiar local representation of data independent of the format used on the network. The application layer provides the interface to the communication environment which is used by the application process. It is responsible for communicating application process parameters.

The host layer also provide for accurate delivery of data between computers in the network.

TCP/IP
TCP/IP MODEL:-

PROTOCOLUSED IN DIFFERENT LYER:-

1. ETHERNET:Ethernet is the most popular LAN protocol operating at the data link layer. It was developed in 1970. Todays Ethernet can run at speed of 10, 100 & 1000Mbps (1Gbps). Ethernet was first developed by digital equipment corporation, Intel and Xerox, which came to be known as DIX Ethernet. DIX Ethernet was first published in 1980 &defined a network running at 10 Mbps using RG 8 co-axial cables in a bus topology. This standard is known as thick net, thin net Ethernet or 10base5 Ethernet. The DIX Ethernet II is standard, published in 1982, and is called as thin Ethernet, cheaper net or 10base2 Ethernet. After further development DIX Ethernet added a specification for an UTP cable options known as 10baseT Ethernet. Ethernet standard consist of the following 3 basic component:1. Physical layer specification 2. Frame formats 3. CSMA/CD(carrier sance multiple access with collision detection) Physical layer specification: - it describe the cable used in a network, it defines the topologies and also cable segment or length. Frame format:- Ethernet protocol is used to in capsulate the data it receive from the network layer protocol in a frame, in presentation for its transmission across the network. Frame consist of a header and a footer that are divided into field containing specific information needed to get each packet to its destination regular, fast and gigabits Ethernet all used the same frame. The frame format an Ethernet is below.

802.3 MAC Frame

Start-ofPayload MAC MAC Interface Preamble FrameEthernet/Length (Data and CRC32 destination source gap Delimiter padding)

7 octets of 1 octet of 10101010 10101011

6 octets

6 octets

2 octets

461500 octets

4 octets 12 octets

641518 octets

721526 octets

Preamble (7 bytes). This field contains 7 bytes of alternating 0s and 1s, which the communicating systems use to synchronize their clock signals. Start Of Frame Delimiter (1 byte). This field contains 6 bits of alternating 0s and 1s, followed by two consecutive 1s, which is a signal to the receiver that the transmission of the actual frame is about to begin. Destination Address (6 bytes). This field contains the 6-byte hexadecimal address of the network interface adapter on the local network to which the packet will be transmitted. Source Address (6 bytes). This field contains the 6-byte hexadecimal address of the network interface adapter in the system generating the packet. Ethernet/Length (2 bytes). In the DIX Ethernet frame, this field contains a code identifying the network layer protocol for which the data in the packet is intended. In the IEEE 802.3 frame, this field specifies the length of the data field (excluding the pad). Data and Pad (46 to 1500 bytes). This field contains the data received from the network layer protocol on the transmitting system, which is sent to the same protocol on the destination system. Ethernet frames (including the header and footer, except for the Preamble and Start Of Frame Delimiter) must be at least 64 bytes long; so if the data received from the network layer

protocol is less than 46 bytes, the system adds padding bytes to bring it up to its minimum length. Frame Check Sequence (4 bytes). The frame's footer is a single field that comes after the network layer protocol data and contains a 4-byte checksum value for the entire packet. The sending computer computes this value and places it into the field. The receiving system performs the same computation and compares it to the field to verify that the packet was transmitted without error.

CSMA/CD:- carrier sance multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD), in computer networking is a network access method in which; A carrier sensing scheme is used. A transmitting data station that detects another signal while transmitting a frame, stops transmitting that frame, transmits a jam signal, and then wait for a random time interval (known as back off delay and determined using the truncated binary exponential back off algorithm) before trying to send that frame again. CSMA/CD is a modification of pure carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) collision detection is used to improve CSMA performance by terminating as soon as a collision is detected and reducing the probability of a second collision on retry. Method for collision detection are media dependent, but on a electrical bus such as Ethernet, collision can be detected by comparing transmitted data with received data if they differ another transmitter is overlying the first transmitters signal (a collision) and transmission terminates immediately. A jam signal is sent which will cause all transmitters to back of by random intervals, reducing the probability of collision when the first retry is attempted CSMA/CD is layer 2 access method not a protocol OSI model.

2. TOKEN RING:IBM originally design token ring but was standardized in IEEE 802.5 document. Token ring network were originally designed to run at 4 mbps & 16 mbps. It uses a special three byte frame called a token ring frame travel completely around the loop. Token ring network experience no collision link Ethernet. Token ring network use ring topology, which is implemented logically inside the MAU, the token ring equivalent a Hub. When a system receives a frame from the MAU, it reads the destination address from the token ring header to determine it should pass or not. Token ring uses UTP & STP cable. Generally UTP Category 5 with standard RJ-45 is used. MAU device is also used to make token ring networking possible.

Figure

Start Delimiter (1 byte). This field contains a bit pattern that signals the beginning of the frame to the receiving system. Access Control (1 byte). This field contains bits that can be used to prioritize Token Ring transmissions, enabling certain systems to have priority access to the token frame and the network. Frame Control (1 byte). This field contains bits that specify whether the frame is a data or a command frame. Destination Address (6 bytes). This field contains the 6-byte hexadecimal address of the network interface adapter on the local network to which the packet will be transmitted. Source Address (6 bytes). This field contains the 6-byte hexadecimal address of the network interface adapter in the system generating the packet. Information (up to 4500 bytes). This field contains the data generated by the network layer protocol, including a standard LLC header, as defined in IEEE 802.2. Frame Check Sequence (4 bytes). This field contains a 4-byte checksum value for the packet (excluding the Start Delimiter, End Delimiter, and Frame Status fields) that the receiving system uses to verify that the packet was transmitted without error. End Delimiter (1 byte). This field contains a bit pattern that signals the end of the frame, including a bit that specifies if there are further packets in the sequence yet to be transmitted and a bit that indicates that the packet has failed the error check. Frame Status (1 byte). This field contains bits that indicate whether the destination system has received the frame and copied it into its buffers.

The following major vector IDs indicate some of the most common control functions performed by these packets: 0010Beacon. Beaconing is a process by which systems on a Token Ring network indicate that they are not receiving data from their nearest active upstream neighbor, presumably because a network error has occurred. Beaconing enables a network administrator to more easily locate the malfunctioning computer on the network. 0011Claim Token. This vector ID is used by the active monitor system to generate a new token frame on the ring.

0100Ring Purge. This vector ID is used by the active monitor system in the event of an error to clear the ring of unstrapped data and to return all of the systems to repeat mode.

TOKEN PASSING:Each station receive data through a connection from its nearest upstream neighbor, and transmit data through a connection to its nearest downstream neighbor. Data transmitted by a station travel sequentially, bit by bit, through each station. Each station repeats the data, while checking it for errors. The addressed destination station (s) copy the information as it passes. When the data returns to the originating station, it is stripped, or removed from the ring. A station gains the right to transmit data, or frames, onto the medium when it detects a token passing on the medium. The token consist of a unique signaling sequence that circulates on the medium following each frame transfer. Any station, upon detecting a valid token, my capture the token by modifying it to start of frame sequence and appending appropriate control and status fields, address field, check sum and the ending frame sequence. After completion of the frame transfer, the station transmits anew token allowing other station the opportunity to gain access to the ring. 3. FDDI(Fiber distributed data interface):FDDI provide a standard for data transmission in a local area network that can extend in range up to 200 kilometers (124 miles) although FDDI topology is a token ring network. It does not use the IEEE 802.5 token ring protocol as its basis; instead, its protocol is dividing from the IEEE802.5 token bus timed token protocol. In addition to covering large geographical areas FDDI local area networks can support thousands of users. HOW FDDI WORKS:The computers are actually cabled together in a ring. To provide fault tolerance in the event of a cable break, the network is a double ring that consists of two independent rings, a primary and a secondary, with traffic following in opposite direction. A computer that is connected to both rings is called a dual attachment station (DAS) and when one of the ring is broken by a cable fault, the

computer switch to other ring, providing continued full access to the entire network. A double ring FDDI network in this condition is called a wrapped ring. The DAC (dual attachment concentrator) creates a signal logical ring like a token ring MAU. A computer connected to the DAS is called a SAS (single attachment station). The DAS server have full advantage of the double rings fault tolerance, whereas the SAS computer attached to the DAC are connected to the primary ring only. If DAC fails the DAC can remove it from the ring without disturbing communication to expend the network further, we can connected additional DAC to port in existing DACs without limit. Figure

CSMA/CA:Carrier sense multiple access collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is a probabilistic media access control (MAC) protocol in which a node verifies the absence of other traffic before transmission on a shared transmission medium such as an electrical bus, or a brand of the electromagnetic spectrum. Carrier sense describes the fact that a transmitter listens for a carrier wave before trying to send. That is, it tries to detect the presence of an encoded signal from another station before attempting to transmit. If a carrier is sensed, the station waits for the transmission in progress to finish before initiating its own transmission. Multiple access describe the fact that multiple station send and receive on the medium transmission by one node are generally received by all other station using the medium. CSMA/CA is a network control protocol in which; (a) A carrier sensing scheme is used (b) A data station that intends to transmit sends a jam signal (c) After waiting a sufficient time for all station to receive the jam signal, the data station transmits a frame and (d) While transmitting, if the data station detects a jam signal from another station, it stops transmitting for a random time and then tries again. IEEE 802 STANDARDS:-

IEEE 802

LAN/MAN

IEEE 802.1

Standards for LAN/MAN bridging and management and remote media access control (MAC) bridging.

IEEE 802.2

Standards for Logical Link Control (LLC) standards for connectivity.

IEEE 802.3

Ethernet Standards for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).

IEEE 802.4

Standards for token passing bus access.

IEEE 802.5

Standards for token ring access and for communications between LANs and MANs

IEEE 802.6

Standards for information exchange between systems.

IEEE 802.7

Standards for broadband LAN cabling.

IEEE 802.8

Fiber optic connection.

IEEE 802.9

Standards for integrated services, like voice and data.

IEEE 802.10 Standards for LAN/MAN security implementations.

IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networking "Wi-Fi".

IEEE 802.12 Standards for demand priority access method.

IEEE 802.14 Standards for cable television broadband communications.

IEEE 802.15.1

Bluetooth

IEEE 802.15.4

Wireless Sensor/Control Networks "ZigBee"

IEEE 802.16 Wireless Networking "WiMAX"

Wireless networking:Wireless networking allow user mobility, means is that it allow connection to LAN without having to be physically connected by cable, wireless uses radio frequency as a transmission media. The technology to transmit and receive data over air for which user can access shared resources without looking for a place to plucked in cable, providing that their terminal are mobile and with in the designated network area, it uses variation on CSMA/CD & CSMA/CA mechanism. The IEEE802.11 working group was convent in 1990 for the purpose of developing the global wireless network with a transmission rate of 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48& 54 Mbps operate at the frequency range of 5.275 to 5.875 GHz. The standard has come to be known as IEEE802.11a. the later IEEE 802.11b standard provide transmission speed of 5.5 Mbps &11 Mbps on June 2003,new standard was released that is 802.11g at the data rate of 54 Mbps and recently in Oct2008, 802.11n was released at the data transmission speed of 74 Mbps. IPERATING MODES:-

IEEE 802.11 defines the following operating modes:

Infrastructure mode Ad hoc mode

In both operating modes, a Service Set Identifier (SSID), also known as the wireless network name, identifies the wireless network. The SSID is a name configured on the wireless AP (for infrastructure mode) or an initial wireless client (for ad hoc mode) that identifies the wireless network. The SSID is periodically advertised by the wireless AP or the initial wireless client using a special 802.11 MAC management frame known as a beacon frame.

802.11 Infrastructure Mode:In infrastructure mode, there is at least one wireless AP and one wireless client. The wireless client uses the wireless AP to access the resources of a traditional wired network. The wired network can be an organization intranet or the Internet, depending on the placement of the wireless AP. An extended service set (ESS) is shown in the following figure. 802.11 Infrastructure Mode

802.11 Ad Hoc Mode:In ad hoc mode, wireless clients communicate directly with each other without the use of a wireless AP, as shown in the following figure. 802.11 Wireless Clients in Ad Hoc Mode

Ad hoc mode is also called peer-to-peer mode. Wireless clients in ad hoc mode form an independent basic service set (IBSS). One of the wireless clients, the first wireless client in the IBSS, takes over some of the responsibilities of the wireless AP.

PROTOCOL & TOPOLOGIES:The 802.11-related protocols and technologies are discussed in detail in the following section: 802.11. The IEEE 802.11 wireless standard defines the specifications for the physical layer and the media access control (MAC) layer. 802.1X. The IEEE 802.1X standard defines port-based, network access control used to provide authenticated network access for Ethernet networks. Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) over LAN (EAPOL). EAP is a Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)-based authentication mechanism that was adapted for use on point-to-point local area network (LAN) segments. Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP). WEP provides data confidentiality services by encrypting the data sent between wireless nodes. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). WPA is an interim standard until the IEEE 802.11i standard is ratified. These standards, intended to be a replacement for the WEP standard, offer more robust methods of data encryption and network authentication. Wireless Auto Configuration. The Wireless Auto Configuration feature of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 dynamically selects the wireless network to which a connection is attempted, based either on configured preferences or default settings.

INFRARED (IrDA):Infrared radiation is electromagnetic radiation with a wave length between 0.7 & 300 micrometer. It wave length is longer than that of visible light but the wave length is shorter than that of radiation microwaves infrared connectivity is an

old wireless technology to connect two electronic devices. It uses a beam of infrared light to transmit information and so0 requires direct line of sight and operates only at close range. Infrared communication uses high frequency (infrared beam) to send data transmission between devices. IrDA (infrared data association) is a standard for transmitting data using an infrared port. Transfer speed is roughly the same as traditional parallel port. IrDA is the industry groups that create the IrDA technical standard. FEATURE OF INFRARED:1. It provides speed up to 16 Mbps. 2. It provide vary limited range approximately 3 feet and typically7 uses in PANJ, it uses less power. 3. It is a secure mechanism because it travel short range between devices 4. Infrared was superseded by Bluetooth which has drainage of operating at long distance (around 30 feet).

BLUETOOTYH:Bluetooth is an open wireless protocol for exchanging data over short distances from fixed a mobile device, creating PAN. It can connect several device over coming problem synchronization. Bluetooth is essentially a networking standard that works at two levels; It provide agreement at the physically level Bluetooth is radio frequency standard. It provides agreement at the protocol level where product have to agree on when bit are sent, how the parties in conversation can be sure that the massage sent. The older Bluetooth 1.0 standard has a maximum transfer speed of 1 megabits/second, while Bluetooth 2.0 can manage up to 3 Mbps. Bluetooth 2.0 is a backward compatible with 1.0 device its frequency is about 2.4 GHz. It was initially conceive by Ericsson.

IP ADDRESS:-

SUBNETTING:Steps of sub netting:1. How many subnets? No of subnet=2n where n is the no. of masked bits (1s). 2. How many hosts per subnets? No. of host per network =2n -2 where n is the no. of unmasked bits (os). 3. What are the valid subnets? 256-subnet mask= block size. 4. What is the network address for each subnet? 5. What is the range of each subnet? (Valid host). 6. What is the broadcast address of each subnet?.

SUBNET MASK:A subnet mask allows us to identify which part of an IP address is reserved for the network, and which part is available for host use. If we look at the IP address alone specially with CIDR (class less inter domain) , we cant tell which part of address is which. Subnet mask gives all the information to calculate network & host portion of the address for example:IP address:-156.154.126.45 Subnet mask:- 255.255.255.240 Subnet mask are critical to communication on an IP network. Network devices use the IP address target and defined net mask to determine if the network the host on is a local subnet, or a remote network. SU8BNET:A subnet is a logical origination of network address ranges used to separate host and network devices from each other to serve as physical or geographical separation. BROAD CAST ADDRESS:A b/a address is an IP address that we can use the target all system on a specific subnet instead of single hosts. The broad cast address of any IP address can be calculated by taking the bit compliment of the subnet mask , sometimes referred to as the reverse mask , and then applying it with a bit wise or calculation to the IP address in question.

ISDN (integrated service digital network) ISDN is a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data and other network service over the traditional circuit of PSTN (Public switch telephone network).

The key feature of ISDN is that it integrated speech and data on the same lines. There are several kinds of access interfaces to ISDN defined as BRI (basic rate interface), PRI (primary rate interface) and broadband ISDN. ISDN is a circuit switch telephone network system which also provides access to packet switch network, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data. ISDN is designed to provide access to voice and data service simultaneously. BRI (basic rate interface):- consist of two B Chanel (64 Kbps) and one D channel for transmitting control information. PRI (primary rte interface):- consist of 23 B channels and one D channel. B for barer channel D for delta channel

PSTN (public switch telephone network) PSTN is the global collection of interconnect originally designed to support circuit voice telephone. The PSTN provides the traditional POTS (plane old telephone service) to residences and many other establishments parts of the PSTN are also utilized for DSL (digital subscriber loop), VOIP (voice over I P) and other internet based network technology. The basic PSTN network link support 64 kbps band width. Traditional dial up modem utilized nearly 56 kbps of this band width when connected to a phone line. DATA ENCAPSULATION:The sending and receiving of data from a source device to the destination device is possible with the help of networking protocols by using data encapsulation. The data is encapsulated with protocol information at each layer of the OSI reference model. When a host transmits data to another device across a network, each layer communicates with its neighbor layer on the destination, each layer uses protocol data units (PDUs) to communicate and exchange information.

IMAGE:

PDU (PROTOCOL DATA UNIT):The PDU contains the control information attached ton the data at each layer. The information is attached to the header of the data field but can also be in end of the data field or trailer. PDUs are encapsulating by attached them to the data attached layer of the OSI reference model. DE-ENCAPSULATION:On destination side, the receiving device will synchronize on the digital signal and extract the 1s and 0s from the digital. At this point the devices build the frame, run a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) , and then check their output against the output in the frame check sequence (FCS) field of the data frame, if the information matches then the packet is pulled from the frame, and the frame is discarded. This process is known as de-encapsulation.

IMAGE:-

HOW TO MAKE A NETWORK CABLE:1. Unroll the required length of network cable and add a little extra wire, just in case. 2. Carefully remove the outer jacket of cable. 3. Inspect the newly revealed wires for any cuts or scraps that expose the copper wire inside. 4. Untwist the pair so they will lay flat between your fingers. 5. Arrange the wires based on the wiring specification you are following:there are two method set by the TIA, 568A and 568B. Which we used will depend on what is being connected. A straight through cable is used to connect two different layer devices (hub & a pc). Two like devices normally require a cross over cable. The difference between the two is that a straight through cable has both ends wired identically with 568A, while a cross over cable has one end wire 568A and the other end wired 568B for our5 demonstration in the following steps. We will use 568B but the instructions can easily be adapted to 568A. 568A:- put the wire in the following order, from left to right.

White orange Orange White green Blue White blue green White brown Brown 568B:- from left to right; white green, green, white orange, blue, white blue, orange, white brown, brown. We can also use the mnemonic 1-2-3-6/3-6-1-2 to remember which wire is switched.

white green green white orange Blue white blue Orange white brown Brown

6. Press all the wires flat and parallel between our thumb and fore finger. 7. Keep the wire flat and in order as you push them into the rj-45 plug with the flat surface of the plug on top

ROLL OVEER CABLE:A rollover cable is used with each pin on one end of cable connected to the reverse pin on the other end. So the cable on pin 1 on one end of the cable connects to pins at the other end, etc. rollover cable are used to connect the serial port of a network switch so that you can configure the network switch. These cables are not used for network connectivity.

SWITCHING TECHNIQUES:Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across the networks. 3 types of switching techniques are there, circuit switching, message switching, packet switching. CIRCUIT SWITCHING:Circuit switching physical connection between the two computers is established and then data is transmitted from source to destination computer. When a computer places a telephone call, the switching equipment within the telephone system seeks out a physical copper path from senders to receivers telephone. It sets up end to end connection between computers before any data can be sent. MASSEGE SWITCHING:Massage switching the source computer sends the data to the switching office first which store the data in its buffer. It then looks for a free link to another switching office and then sends the data to this office. Process is continued till the data is delivered to the destination computer. It is also known as store and forward technique. PACKET SWITCHING:Packet switching there is a tight upper limit on the block size. In massage switching there was no upper limit. A fixed size of packet is specified. All the packets are stored in main memory in switching office. In massage switching packets are stored on disk. This increases the performance as access time is reduced.

NETWORK MANAGEMENT:Network management is the process of controlling a complex data network to maximize its efficiency and productivity. The overall goal of network management is to help with the complexity of a data network and to ensure that data can go across it with maximum efficiency and transparency to the users. The international organization for standardization (ISO) network management forum divided network management into five functional areas; Fault management Configuration management Security management Performance management Accounting management

FAULT MANAGEMENT: It is the process of locating problems or faults, on the data network. It involves the following steps; Discover the problem Isolate the problem Fix the problem (if possible)

CONFIGURATION MANAGEMENT: The configuration of certain network deices controls the behavior of the data network. Configuration management is the process of finding and setting up (configuring) these critical devices.

SECURITY MANAGEMENT: It is the process of controlling access to information on the data network. Provides a way to monitor access points and records information on a periodic basic provides audit trails and sounds alarms for security breaches.

PERFORMNCE MANAGEMENT: Involves measuring the performance of the network hardware, software and media. Example of measured activities are; Overall throughput. Percentage utilization. Error rates. Response time.

ACCOUNTING MNAGEMENT: Involves tracking individuals utilization and grouping of network resources to ensure that users have sufficient resources. Involves granting or rumoring permission for access to the network.

NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM:A network operating system (NOS) is a peace of software that controls a network and its message, traffic and queues, control access by multiple user to network resources such as files and provide for certain administrative function including security. It is use in both LAN & WAN. NEEDS OF NOS:It provides basic operating system feature such as support for processor protocol, automatic hardware detection.

Security feature such as authentication, authorization logon restriction and access control. Provide name & directory services. Provide file, print web services etc. Highly fault tolerant and highly capable.

NOVELL Netware Internet were

UNIX HP-UX sun Solaris BSD SCO AIX

WINDOWS NT 2000 server Net server server 2003 Server 2008

LINUX Red hat Caldera Sues Devins Slack ware

NOS CONSIDERATIONS:security robustness performance scalability management Encryption balanced workload consistency overstrain ready for growth system administration user authentication redundancy

WINDOW OS:window NT work station Server Professional Server advantage server Net corporate users department server corporate uses or small intent or remote access server department server enterprise server enterprise server enterprise internet server

window 2000

NETWORK MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL:A simple protocol defines common data formats and parameters and allows for easy retrieval of information. A complex protocol adds some change capability and security. An advanced protocol remotely executes network management task is independents of the network layer. The most common protocols are; SNMP(simple network management protocol) SNMP v2(SNMP version 2) CMIS/CMIP(common management information services/common management information protocol) SNMP is beyond the simple protocol with adequate monitoring capabilities and some change capabilities. SNMP v2 greatly enhances the SNMP feature set. CMIP/CMIS approaches the advantage tool but implementation issues have limited its use.

SNMP:At the end of the 80s a solution was chosen called the internet standard network management framework. This was a set of three documents defining. A set of rules for describing management information. An initial set of managed objects. A protocol used to exchange management information.

DNS (domain name system):The domain name system (DNS) is a hierarchical naming system for computer, services or any resource connected to the internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participants. Most importantly, it translated domain names meaningful to humans into the numerical (binary) identifiers associated with networking equipment for the purpose of locating and addressing these devices worldwide. No often used analogy to explain the domain name system is that it serves as the phone book for the internet by translating human friendly computer hostnames into IP address for example; www.example.com translates to 208.77.188.166.

NET BIOS:Network basic input output system is a program that allows applications on different computer to communicate with in a local area network. It was created by IBM for its early PC network, was adapted by Microsoft. Net BIOS is use in Ethernet and token ring networks and included as part of (net BEUI), in resent Microsoft windows operating system. Net BIOS provides the session and transport services described in the OSI model. It does not provide a standard frame or data format for transmission. A standard frame format is provided by net BEUI. NETWORK TROUBLESHOOTING COMMAND:Computer network can have different kinds of problems such as it can be infected with virus, attached by hackers, accessed by unauthorized users and may face connectivity failure issues due to the faulty network devices or configuration. Using following trouble shooting command can help him diagnosing and resolving the issues with our computer network. PING: - ping is the most important trouble shooting command for checking the connectivity with the other computer. Ping<IP address>

IPCONFIG: - it shows the IP address of the computer and also it shows the DNS, DHCP, Gateway addresses of the network & subnet mask. IPCONFIG /ALL: - it shows the details information of whole network parameter like IP, MAC, Subnet mask, LAN connectivity. NSLOOKUP: - Nslookup is a TCP/IP based command and it checks domain name aliases, DNS record, operating system information. This command is specially used to resolve the errors with the DNS of our network server. HOST NAME: - host name command shows our computer name. NETSTAT: - this utility shows the protocol statics and the current established TCP/IP connection in the computer. NBTSTAT: - it helps to troubleshoot the NetBIOS name resolution problem. ARP: - ARP displays and modifies IP to physical address translation table that is used by ARP protocol. TRACERT: - it is used to determine the path of the remote system. It also provides the no. of hopes and the IP address of each hope. Tracert <web address> TRACEROUTE: - trace route is the network debugging command and it is used in locating the server that is slowing down the transmission on the internet and it also shows the route between the two system or two hopes. Trace route <web address> ROUTE: - route command allows us to make manual entrees in the routing table