GURUNG

R.NAKKEERAR 1. INTRODUCTION
1.0. LANGUAGE AFFILIATION

Gurung belongs to Himalayan group of speeches, which are spoken along the tracts to the south of Himalayas from Himachal Pradesh in the west to the western borders of Bhutan in the east. It is affiliated to the Himalayan group of Tibeto-Burman sub family and it is primarily spoken in Sikkim.
1.1 SPEAKERS STRENGTH

In the Census of 1901 altogether 7,481 people speaking Gurung language lived in India that came down to 82 in 1961 census. The last published speakers strength of Gurung in census, appeared in 1961 and presented in the table. After 1961 census, there is no final data for Gurung language since as the decision of Govt. of India, the language spoken less than 10,000 speakers at national level do not qualify to appear publish census data. India/State India Sikkim
1.2 BILINGUALISM

Total 82 65

Male 62 51

Female 20 14

Many ethnic communities (including tribals) are available in Sikkim. The majority of the people are from Nepalese stock (people speaking Nepali as their first language as well as second language). The Bhutias and the Lepchas occupy the second rank so far languages are concerned. So, Nepali, Bhutia and Lepcha are the three main languages of the state. In addition according to 2001 Census, Hindi, Sherpa, Tamang, Rai, Bengali, Urdu, Tibetan, Punjabi, Malayalam, Assamese, Maithili, Marathi, Oriya English, Tamil, Telugu, Manipuri have been recorded as Languages / Mother tongues in Sikkim. Nepali is spoken by the majority of the population and is the lingua franca of Sikkim. English and Nepali are the medium of instruction in educational institutions. Hindi is becoming popular for communication between different communities. So, it is our experience that the Gurungs are equally bilinguals in Nepali, Hindi etc. Since Nepali is the lingua franca and English is the medium of instruction, Gurungs are bilingual in Nepali and English.

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1.3 SOCIOLINGUISTIC SETTINGS

The Gurungs are known as fighting community. Earlier the word Gorkhali was used to indicate the Gurungs who are reported to be scattered in all the districts of Sikkim. The Gurung are the people who formed the backbone of Gurkha regiments in British army along with Magar people. As reported the Gurungs are mainly divided into two groups Chaar Jaat (four clans) and Solo Jaat(sixteen clans). These two groups are distinctly two endogamous units. Gurungs prefer and practice cross-cousin marriages. In the marriage rule it is endogamy at the community level and exogamy at the sub-clan level. The Gurung language has many dialects. Most of the Gurungs are bilinguals in Nepali. They use Tibetan script for writing. Among themselves they communicate each other in Gurung only while with others they use either Nepali or Hindi. Gurungs are generally Hindu by religion. But a few of them have adopted Buddhism. Gurungs are concentrated mainly in south and west districts. The Gurungs have their own oral tradition folklore and folk tales. Both men and women participate in folk songs. The present population of Sikkim comprises of Nepali, Bhutia, Lepcha and plainsmen those who have come from other states of Indian Union. The Gurungs are one of the best fighting tribes of Nepal. Their old home is a tract of country between the Bheri and Marsyandi rivers. In modern times they have spreaded all over Nepal and also to Darjeeling district in West Bengal and in Sikkim. Speakers of Gurung have also been recorded from Assam (Grierson,1901). The Gurung people had developed a good relation with the Limbus and they jointly have extended trade relation with the Lepchas. Finally they settled down in West Sikkim along with the Limbus. All tribes have their own culture, language and religion. Gurungs are also no exceptions to this. The Gurungs called themselves, Tamu in their language and the language is called Tamu kye. Gurungs have their own culture, religion, custom and rituals from birth to death. Gantu, a variety of dance is one of the most divine dances. Gurungs are Hindu by religion. Gurungs migrated Sikkim, who last their connection with reference Grungs, are slowly learning their custom, tradition, culture and language by generation. Indian census also shows some picture of Gurung language. Gurung is declared as an official language of Sikkim in the year 1995. December 30 th is Gurung New Year. The present Government of Sikkim has undertaken a project for the development of Gurung language along with Lepcha, Bhutia, Limbu etc. In the process, Government is appointing translators for translation works in their language in order to improve and develop their language. Sikkim Regional Language Development committee has been formed drawing members from different linguistic communities for promoting and development of languages with the objectives: (1) to celebrate Regional Language Day every year (2) to bring integrity and common harmony among the various regional languages of Sikkim. (3) to make efforts for pioneering and advocating regional languages in every institution and 457

(4) to maintain amicable relationship among all the communities living within the state of Sikkim and approach for help to all the communities / associations / organization, if it is necessary. There is a Gurung Language Association, a private cultural organization, promoting their language by introducing Gurung language in different private schools. The Government of Sikkim from 2002 onwards has introduced this language in the Government schools as first language up to 6th standard in 10 schools. They are also giving an effort in the translation work (from and into Gurung language). There is no programme in All India Radio as well as Television as such in Sikkim. But sometimes, the cultural programme is organized and telecasted by the local television.
1.4 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Grierson (1909: 1967 reprinted) collected a version of the parable of the prodigal son as a text and a list of standard words and phrases from Nepal Darbar in Gurung language. On the basis of these, Grierson has prepared a grammatical sketch of Gurung language. After that Yogendra Yadava and Warren W Glover (1999) have compiled some articles on Nepalese Linguistics. One such article has been presented by Warren Glover that is how we observe Dasain: a procedural discourse in Gurung and that is based on Nepal based Gurung language. No other work is available in Gurung language. Below is the grammatical description of the Gurung language based on the data collected from Informants during 1998 and 2008. The informants are Shri Megraj Gurung, Shri Pradeep Gurung and Smt Padma Gurung.

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2. PHONOLOGY
2.1 PHONOMIC INVENTORY

Gurung phonemic inventory consists of Segmental and Suprasegmental phonemes.

2.1.1 SEGMENTAL PHONEMES

Gurung has 5 vowels and 30 consonants Vowels Front High Mid Low Consonants
1. S U P Stop R A asp. S Fricative E Nasal G asp. M Lateral E N asp. Trill T A Semivowel

Back u o a

i e

Bilabial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal vl p ph vd b vl vd vl t d th dh s n vd vl T Th vd vl vd D c j Dh ch

Velar

Glottal

m mh

vl vd vl vd k g kh gh h M M

l lh r w y

2.1.2. SUPRASEGMENTAL PHONEMES

In Gurung, length is not available in the language. Nasalisation is phonemic. kba khya sy gy s r bitter when river road mouth horn

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2.2 PHONEMIC DESCRIPTION AND DISTRIBUTION

Vowels in Gurung can be classified and described from three dimensions namely 1) Height of the tongue 2) Tongue position and 3) Lip position. The three-way classifications of vowels given following types of vowels in Gurung at phonemic level. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High front unrounded vowel [i] High back rounded vowel [u] Mid high front unrounded vowel [e] Mid high back rounded vowel [o] Low back unrounded vowel [a]

Contrasting pairs of vowels are given below. Contrasts of vowels are given on the basis of 1. Height of the tongue 2. Tongue position 3. Lip position Contrasting pairs (Vowels) /i/ and /e/ / mhi/ / me / / riMyo / /redoba/ /u/ and /o/ /nuba/ /nowar/ /mhu/ /mho/ / a / and / e / / krase / / kre/ / kla gaDi / / khebadh/ head back bullock cart school tall cat sky brother-in- law person cow long get up

Contrasting pairs (Consonants) /p ~ph/ /pa/ /phya/ liquor feather 460

/pa/ /pho/ /p~b/ /piba/ /biba/ /k ~ kh/ /kors/ /khebadh/ /keba/ /khoba/ /g ~ gh/ /gi/ /ghri/ /m ~M / /mie/ /Ma/ /M ~ M/ /Ma/ /Me/ /T ~ D/ /cukuTi/ /chioDe/
2.3 MAJOR ALLOPHONIC DISTRIBUTION

liquor belly

give say

chilly school purchase come

seven one

eye five

five breast

some vice

A phonetic description of these vowel phonemes with their allophones are presented below / i/ is the high front unrounded vowel has two allophones /I /and /i/ [I] lower high front unrounded vowel occurs in the final position followed by a lateral consonant [klI] /kli/ snow [phalI] /phali/ foot [kyu kh:lI] /kyu kh:li/ well water [bantui golI] /bantui goli/ bullet [i] occurs elsewhere initially

/iyo/

hand

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medially

/mih/ /mitc/ /thih/ /nagi/ /kri/ /mri/ /alli/ /palli/ /Talilli/

fire nephew sun dog crab wife younger brother leg lily

finally

after doubling

/ e / is the mid high front unrounded vowels. It has two allophones [E] and [e] [E] mid low front unrounded vowel occurs after lateral consonant. [lE] [lEi] [e] occurs elsewhere medially finally /mey/ /kaheba/ /aghe/ /kre/ tail late elder brother back /le/ /lei/ tongue moon

/ a / is the low back unrounded vowel, has two allophones [A] and [a] [A] unrounded higher mid central vowel occurs between the consonants of first syllable [pAMra] [lAba] [prAba] [a] occurs elsewhere /paMra/ /laba/ /praba/ wheel do walk

/bla/ mango /Thapari/ garden /o/ is the mid high back rounded vowel. This is not having allophones /reMyo/ /kroba/ /os / /choba/ long wean first fat

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/ u / is the high back rounded vowel. This is not having allophones. /mhu/ /yum/ /dhuba/ /nuba/ /thu/
2.4 DESCRIPTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CONSONANTS

sky stone lean tall friend

Contrast of consonant phonemes are shown on the basis of opposition for (a) aspiration (b) voicing and (c) voicelessness. Consonants in Gurung are distributed initially, medially and finally. Aspiration is phonemic with stops, nasals and laterals. / p / is the voiceless bilabial stop occurring initially and medially. initially /pali/ /pa/ /piu/ /lpu/ /liprat/ /Thapari/ leg liquor husband ant tortoise garden

medially

/ph/ is aspirated voiceless bilabial stop occurring initially and medially. initially /phali/ /phya /naphei/ foot feather ear

medially

/ b / is the voiced bilabial stop occurring initially and medially. initially /bilwat/ /benDah/ guava brinjal

/pieba/ send /pleba/ slip / t / is the voiceless dental stop occurring in all the three places. initially /ta/ /t/ /nato/ /bilwat/ horse loom cock guava

medially

medially

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finally

/liprat/ /suwat/

tortoise taste

/th/ is the aspirated voiceless dental stop occurring initially and medially. initially /thimhi/ /thu/ /thuba/ /Tethba/ /sutheba/ monkey friend spit to put shout

medially

/ d / is the voiced dental stop occurring initially and medially. initially /daur/ /deiba/ /kohdar/ /Taldi/ fly run bamboo gum

medially

/dh/ is the aspirated voiced dental stop occurring initially and medially. initially /dhal/ /dhuba/ /dh/ stone ban house

medially

/bha:r bandhiyu mhi/ potter /sdhu/ tree /khebadh/ school

/ T / is the voiceless retroflex stop occurring in all the three places. initially /Taldi/ /Tah/ /maTi/ gum flower lip

medially finally

/skhaT/ bed /morT/ moustache /koT/ hill /Th/ is the aspirated voiceless retroflex stop occurring only initially. initially /Thikan/ /Th/ /Thonba/ smooth heart stab

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/D/ is the voiced retroflex stop occurring initially and medially. initially medially /Dupdiba/ /benDah/ /narDiba/ /kla gaDi/ sink brinjal tired bullock cart

/k/ is the voiceless velar stop occurring initially and medially. initially /koe/ /ku:/ /kre/ /key/ cloth chest waist work

medially

/nuku/ nose /khebakolamai/student /kikiba/ sweat

/kh/ is the aspirated voiceless velar stop occurring initially and medially. initially /kharji/ /kholo/ /khabal/ /ekhu/ /skhaT/ /phokhre/ neck baby whose grease bed hungry

medially

/g/ is the voiced velar stop occurring initially and medially. initially /gy/ /gi/ /thga/ /nagi/ road liver fish dog

medially

/gh/ is the aspirated voiced velar stop occurring initially and medially. initially /ghri/ /ghumdi/ /hiughin/ /nagha/ one swing earth morning

medially

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/h/ is voiceless glottal fricative occurring in all the three places. initially /hohyai/ /huiba/ /Thaha/ /TahaTaho/ /koh/ break call flower vegetable blood

medially

finally

/c/ is the voiceless palatal stop occurring in all the three places. initially /cami/ /coba/ /laicam/ /ric/ /miTc/ daughter fat eclipse niece nephew

medially finally

/ch/ is the aspirated voiceless palatal stop occurring initially and medially. initially /choba/ /chepiba/ graze money lender

medially

/pachai kiba/ old man /macha:/ banana

/j/ is the voiced palatal stop occurring initially and medially. initially /jiu/ /jama/ /caja/ /kharji/ body frock salt neck

medially

/jh/ is aspirated voiced palatal stop occurring initially and medially. initially /jhaM/ /jhya/ /jhaba/ creeper window answer

/s/ is the voiceless alveolar fricative occurring initially and medially. initially /sdhu/ /soba/ tree chilly

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medially

/namsyo/ /namsio/ /ys/

fog cloud claw

/m/ is the bilabial nasal occurring in all the three places. initially /mih/ /mri/ /ma:la/ /namsio/ /came/ /jama/ /laicam/ /nam/ fire wife garland cloud daughter frock eclipse guts

medially

finally

/mh/ is the aspirated bilabial nasal occurring initially and medially. initially /mhu/ /mhi/ /mheya/ /thimhi/ /hiyubamhi/ sky man milk monkey theft

medially

/M/ is the palatal nasal occurring initially and medially. initially /Ma/ /Miuba/ /Me/ milk cold breast

/M/ is the velar nasal occurring in all three places. initially /Ma/ /Myoi/ /Mi/ /Myuba/ /aMi/ /reMo/ /pluM/ /choM/ five saw we cold not far wean (a child) south

medially

finally

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/n/ is the dental nasal occurring in all the three places. initially /nis/ /namsio/ /na/ /ponar/ /kaina/ /khain/ /Thin/ second cloud rain prest storm air heart

medially

finally

/l/ is the alveolar lateral occurring in all the three places. initially /lai/ /lba/ /lei/ /kli/ /alli/ /panlo/ /dhal/ /jhyal/ leaf tasty moon snow younger brother forest stone window

medially

finally

/lh/ is the aspirated alveolar lateral intially /lho/ /lhba/ /lhochar/ pash games festival

/r/ is alveolar trill initially /ri/ /ric/ /ra/ /krase/ /kri/ /taur/ /sar/ /Thr/ woman niece goat head crab fly star mountain

medially

finally

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/w/ is the bilabial semi vowel initially /wale/ /wiba/ from show

medially

/bilwat/ guava /thewa moTar/ bus

/y/ is the palatal semi vowel initially /yosi/ /yori/ /iyo/ /piya/ claw finger hand wing

medially

2.5 CLUSTERS

Vowels

Gurung has cluster of vowels like -ai-,-au-,-ia-,-iu-,-ui-,-oe ao, -ie, -ei, -oi. These clusters of sequences generally occur in the medial and final position. medially -ai-au-ia-i-iu-uifinally -ie -ei -oi -oe
Consonants

/mais/ /taur/ /miamru/ /pila/ /siur/ /kuisar/

darkness fly blind bridegroom sea wealth

/mie/ /lei/ /kri/ /koe/

eye moon crab cloth

A sequence of two identical or non-identical sound is called cluster. Gurung has clusters of two consonants, which occur both in the initial and medial position but the occurrences of three consonant clusters are very limited cluster occur in disyllabic and polysyllabic words. Initial two consonant clusters kl/kli/ 469 snow

krsyprmrblmlbrpl-

/kri/ /sy/ /prisyo/ /mri/ /bla/ /mla/ /bruba/ /pl/

crab river bride wife mango paddy touch worm

Medial two consonant clusters -ms-nb-sy-ll-mr-pr-rj-nD-rs-lw-ld-nb-rb-My-rg-rt-mb-pd-mn-rd-rD-nl-nn-rp2. 6. SYLLABLE

/na:msio/ /dhanbade/ /prisyo/ /alli/ /miamru/ /liprat/ /kharji/ /benDah/ /korsan/ /bilwati/ /Taldi/ /kanba/ /charba/ /piMya/ /urgya/ /partava/ /romba/ /Dupdi/ /simnoi/ /urdi/ /narDi/ /minla/ /khannir/ /tarpan/

cloud Island bride younger brother blind tortoise neck brinjal chilly guava gum bitter bright green yellow divorce swell sink split (wood) fly tired joke where mirror

A word in Gurung consists of one or more syllables upto four syllabic words are realised. The syllable classification of words in Gurung is as follows Monosyllabic Disyllabic Trisyllabic Tetrasyllabic Among the above types, disyllabic words have more frequency of occurrence than the other types. 470

Mono Syllabic Words

CV

sa na lho mhi mih siM ric key

soil, tooth rain pash person fire wood niece work

CVC

Disyllabic Words

In disyllabic words, Gurung has the (C) VC- (C) VC structure. V-CV a-ghe a-ma i-yo o-s a-chab al-li as-y nam-sio lip-rat ben-Dah Tha-ha l-ba p-bi elder brother mother hand first bad younger brother maternal uncle cloud tortoise brinjal flower tasty blue

V-CVC VC-CV CVC-CVC

CV-CV

Trisyllabic Words

CV-C V-CV cu-ra-Ta li-wa-ri tha-pa-ri CV-CVC-CV yu-kur-na CVC-CVC bil-wat mim-rob CVC-CV-CV dhar-ba-ni Tetra syllabic Words

smoke spine garden always guava light mirror

CCV-CV-CVC-CVV khe-ba-kol-mai

student

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3. MORPHOPHONEMICS Most of the morphophonemic rules refer to addition of a sound or deletion of a sound. Plural marker is deleted when number is added to the noun. 1. Loss of plural marker Plural marker /-mai/ > , when it is preceded by numerals. Mila two mhimai cow+pl. -> Mila mhi two cow+ two cows

2. Plural marker /-mai/ mai k m > + + -ye mai mai

> /-ye/ when it is preceded by a nasalized vowel. / > > nasalizationkye mye clothes kisses

3. Loss of /i/ The phoneme /i/ is deleted when it is preceeded by the nasalized vowel. dh house + ir loc. > dhr in house

4. Loss second syllable in the first word tiya+ naga today+ morning pana + naga tomorrow+ morning > tinaga

>

panaga

5. Loss of last m in a word while adding negative marker a- before the word a- + cham a- + yam > > acha aya do not eat do not go

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4. MORPHOLOGY
4.1 NOUN MORPHOLOGY

The following is the details of the Noun Morphology of Gurung language.

4.1.1 WORD FORMATION

A word may consist of one morpheme, that is, base or root. Some words may consist of more than one morpheme in which it is either a base and one or more suffixes or it may be a combination of two /more words, that is, a compound word. Examples of some nominal bases are: /lho/ pash /panar/ forest /siur/ sea /namsio/ cloud Word classes in Gurung, which are established on morphological and syntactic criteria are: Noun, Verb, Noun Attributes, Adverbs, Connectors and Particles. Noun and verb may be established purely on morphological criteria while the rest of the word classes such as Attributes, Connectors and Particles etc. are established on syntactic criteria. Pronoun forms a sub class of nouns because it takes substantives case markers. It may be followed by Substantives and Pronouns behave syntactically as subject, direct object, indirect object etc. Ma I /Malai/ + + to me they lai acc.case mark.

Adjectives precede the noun they qualify. Numerals precede the noun qualify. chyoba small sla three Mi two kolo child nagi dog achyaba adjective nasa noun the small child

three dogs

two bad villages

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4.1.2

NOUN

Nouns are those, which are taking case suffixes or number suffixes. dh dh + mai noun + pl. dhmai dh + ir noun+dat. dhr
Number

house houses

to home

Gurung language has two numbers that is, singular and plural. Singular denotes one which is unmarked. /nawar/ /dh/ /me/ cat house cow

Plural is marked with mai and ye many and jaga/-chau all. If plural is denoted by numerals it will not take any plural marker. dh - mai aba mai nagi jaga k - ye nabu-chau Mala me sla nagi
Gender

houses fathers dogs clothes eggs two cows three dogs

Gurung language is having natural gender. Genders become distinctive by the use of suffixes. For example, for male gender /-bokya/, /-dho/, /-darhya/ and for female /-mama/, /-me/, /-murli/ are the suffixes used after the noun . Masculine mayum cha ra + bokya pho+ darkya

man son he goat male deer 474

Feminine mri rimai ra + mama pho + murli jha + me

wife lady she goat female deer daughter

Inanimate nouns are coming under common gender. There is no gender marker. It is semantically predictable. /dh/ /theb/ /klanuba/ chal tapar her(gen) basket chal her chamai their Case Cases are a category of suffixes which establish syntactic relationship between nouns and verbs. In Gurung, there are six distinctive case suffixes denoting nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative and ablative. Nominative Case All noun stems whether singular or plural occurring freely without an overt case suffix are said to be nominative. If it is a human ti is added to the subject. nagi + mai chyoam Dog + pl. barks ramati deba ki Ram book bought kiti go kwi pri you a song sing mihi eyes house book cart

her basket

her eyes

dh house their house

Dogs bark Ram bought book

You sing a song

The noun nagimai has occurred without any case suffix. It functions as the subject or as an agent to the verb chyoam. It is in the nominative case relation.

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Accusative Case Accusative case suffix denotes the direct object of the verb. It has only one suffix lai. the+mai you+pl. Dative Case The dative case denotes the receipient of the object of the verb and gives the meaning to or for. The case marker is r. par + -r kho field + dat. come Genitive Case The genitive case denotes possession of whatever the following noun denotes. l is the genitive case marker. cha-l tapar she+gen. basket
Locative Case

Malai Moi me (acc.) see

You(pl.) see me

Come to field

Her basket

Locative case is formed by the addition of the locative case marker /-ir/ with noun Mala chami my daughter kiyola chamai your son(pl)
Ablative Case

Thaphar +ir mu garden + loc. is dhr house+loc mu is

My daughter is in the garden

Your sons are in the house

The ablative case denotes the place from which an action starts. The case suffixes are /wale/ and /li/ lpomai leaves sdhu wale tree from Tie fall down The leaves fall from the tree

Ma nasai li pana khal tum I village from tomorrow come+shall I shall come from the village tomorrow

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4.1.3

PRONOUN

A pronoun is a word, which substitutes the noun and it can take a number marker and case marker like the nouns. But gender marker is not used. Pronoun can be inflected for all persons while a noun is always inflected in the third person. Gurung has the following pronouns: a) b) c) d) e)
Personal Pronoun

Personal pronoun Demonstrative pronoun Interrogative pronoun Reflexive pronoun Indefinite pronoun

The personal pronouns in Gurung are distinguished for three persons and two numbers. Gender distinction in pronoun is absent. Person First Person Second Person Singular Ma I the ki kyo Third Person cha you you(elder) you(hon.) he, she, it Plural Mi we themai you kimai you(pl)(elder) kyomai you(pl.) (hon.) chamai they

Demonstrative Pronoun

The demonstrative pronominal forms in Gurung are that indicates proximate and remoteness respectively. chu this cha that me cow Mai my ya is theb ya book is

/chu/ this and

/cha/

This is cow

That is my book

If the number marker occurs with the demonstrative pronouns, it is added to both the attribute and the noun themai they (pl) chamai son + pl

Their sons

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Interrogative Pronoun

Interrogative pronouns of Gurung are /to/ what /khabai/ whose ki to you what cha that khabai whose chaimo eat toh horse ya? is What do you eat

Whose horse is that?

Reflexive Pronoun

The pronouns are formed by adding -ti with the nominal base chu this Ma+ti my+self lai make+pl. I made it myself

Indefinite Pronoun

Following are the few examples of indefinite pronoun. These pronouns do not refer to any definite person or thing but to person or thing in general. t everyone/everything char yai there go+pas.ten mro yai seen any/anything Is there anything? Everyone went there

t everything t everything toi -

Everything see

char toi mu? Is there anything? khabade anybody khai can

chu ke khabade laba this work anybody do

Anybody could do this work

4.1.4

ADJECTIVE

An adjective is a word which qualifies a noun and precedes a noun in the construction.

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chba kolo small child targya white sla three to horse nagi dogs

The small child

The white horse

Three dogs

A numeral when added in the adjectival phrase it precedes the adjective Mi two Mi two achawa bad chawa good nasa village nasa village

Two bad villages

Two good villages

Further a demonstrative pronoun when added to the qualified adjectival construction, it occurs in the beginning of the construction. chumayum kolomai Mi i these child+pl two or These two or three children
Classification of Adjective

s three

There are two types of adjectives - qualitative and quantitative

Qualitative

Adjectives which attribute quality to the noun are called qualitative adjective. chawa good piMya green
Quantitative

may+mai boy+pl lapo leaf

The good boys

Green leaf

The adjectives which refer to the quantity of the nouns to which they are attributed, are quantitative adjectives. toi mui some money Some money Mi two achab bad nasa village 479

Two bad villages

4.1.5 NUMERAL

Numerals are a sub class of nouns. Numerals are of two types namely cardinal numerals and ordinal numerals
Cardinal Numbers

/ghri/ /Mi/ /s/ /pli/ /Ma/ /Tu/ /gi/ /pre/ /ku/ /chiu/

one two three four five six seven eight nine ten

From eleven onwards, the numerals are formed by compounding in which the first number would be the numeral expressing ten and the second number would be any one of the cardinal numerals between 1 to 9. The numeral for ten is chiu. The compound numerals are from eleven to nineteen and these are as follows. chiu + ghri 10 + 1 chiu + Mi 10 + 2 chiu + s 10 + 3 = = = = = = eleven 11 twelve 12 thirteen 13

Higher numerals are counted in tens pli 4 Tu 6 gi 7

Ordinal Numbers

+ + +

chiu 10 chiu 10 chiu 10

= = =

forty 40 sixty 60 seventy 70

Ordinal numbers are formed by the addition of the ordinal marker to the base of the cardinal numerals, ordinal marker is /s/ /ghris/ first 480

/nhis/ /ss/

second third

Generally, the ordinal marker is the same for both animate and inanimate nouns. Though the numerals are available in their language, the Hindi numerals are used frequently by the Gurung speakers.
4.1.6 CLASSIFIER

In Gurung /-la/ is the classifier. It occurs with the cardinal numerals. The /-la/ functions as the indefinite article also. Mila two +classfier sla three+classifier
4.2. VERB MORPHOLOGY

nagi dog nagi dog

Two dogs

Three dogs

Verb is a class of words inflected for the categories of tense, aspect and / or mood. Verb stems may either be simple or complex. A simple verb stem consists of only a root. A complex stem has a root followed by one or more derivational formative elements. kheba Tba theba swieba read hit keep swell khe+ -ba T + -ba the + -ba swie+-ba to read /reading to hit/ hitting to keep/ keeping to smell/ smelling

Herein the simple stems /khe/ , /T/ , /the/, /terato/ transforms to complex stems with addition of /-ba/ to
4.2.1 VERB

A verb in Gurung may be defined as a word that can be followed by tense aspect-mood markers. The conjugation of verbs is relatively simple. There is no change for person or number. Verb has affirmative and negative forms, and also verb includes finite and non-finite forms.
4.2.1.1. FINITE VERB

Gurung has three moods- Indicative, Imperative and Suppositional. Finite forms are marked for tense aspect person which help formation of independent sentences.

481

Tense

Three tenses are available i.e.,Present , Past and Future

Present Tense

The base alone is used as the present tense. In the following sentences the substantive verb is /-ya/. The suffix /-mu/, /-mo/and /m/ is the present habitual marker. chu this Ma I kolo child ka rice nagi dog ya is This is a dog

cha+mu eat+pre.ten kilai you Myom see

I eat rice

The child sees you

cha ranas ya+mo he market go+pre.ten. Past tense

He goes to Market

In the following sentences the past tense is indicated by the inflections of the substantive verb /-i/ and /-/ cha he ki you kandhar the hill+up khanirai nowhere ya+i go+ past ay find+past

He went up the hill

You found nowhere

Future tense In the following sentences suffixes of the future tanse are /tum/ and /syo/. But generally the Gurungs do not make distinction between present tense and future tense in the formation. Hence Gurung language may be treated as having two tier tense system that is, past and non- past. ki: you(sg.) yal go tum shall

You(sg) shall go

cha khoibo ya+syo he mandir+to go+future. Mi we pana yal tum tomorrow go shall 482

He will go to temple

We shall go tomorrow

Aspect

The category of aspect has three- way opposition depending on the state of action in terms of its occurrence over a period of time.
Habitual Aspect

The habitual aspect is marked by /m/ suffixed to the verb base. niu bird meti cows orthi-m fly Mai pi-m milk give

The birds fly

The cows give milk

Durative or Progressive Aspect

It indicates action, which is limited in duration and is in progress and is marked by mo for present progressive. /mu /, /-Dila/ for the past progressive . me cow rerina mu graze+progress

The cow is grazing

kolo chara kuina mo child these sit progress Mi we Ma I ki you

Mood

The child is sitting there

Tapri pri mu note write+progress t dinar all the days roya mu sleep +past prog.

We are writing a note

I was sleeping all the days

khe Dila-mula read +past prog.

You(sg) were reading

Mood expresses the attitude of the speaker in terms of the obligatory, necessity, desirability etc. The Modals generally co-occur with the tense auxiliary.
Mood of Obligation

Mood of obligation is expressed by the auxiliary /tum/. It follows the verb base in the construction. kiti you chu this bil tum say should

You should say this

483

Ma I

khal tum come + should

I should come

Necessity / Desiderative Mood

Necessity /Desiderative marker is /mu/ which follows the verb modal base. Ma I Ma I toi mui some money khata come+to maimu want maimu want

I want some money

I want to come

Dubitative Mood

It expresses doubt or uncertainly on the part of the speaker and is marked by the use of /-kham/ chamaiti they chu It Muil kham ask+mood tal kham happen + mood

They may ask

It may happen

Imperative Mood The mood expresses command of the speaker in the imperative mood. Mai my Mai my yumar stone dh+ir house+to theba churi bouth book here bring phirvaith on step yath go

Go to my house

Bring my book here

Step on the stone

Permissive Mood

The mood of the speaker expressing permission or wish is permissive mood. chamai them taM khal+pin all come + per.mood

Let them all come

484

Indicative Mood The sentences, which express statements, have the indicative mood. It is unmarked. cha Mai am ya she my mother is She is my mother Ma nasar I village+in
Interrogative Mood

Tim live

I live in a village

The sentences expressing question are the interrogative mood. kiti chu lal kham you it can do chamai dhr they home+at
Conditional Mood

Can you do it mu are

Are they at home

Conditional mood is expressed by prefixing / yadhi/ yadhi ki bilan khaiye Mi chu chanj lam if you in time come we examine this If you come in item we will examine this
4.2.1.2 CAUSATIVE VERB

When the agent performs an action through another agent the verb is causative one. The second agent is realized as the object. Adding /-i/ to the intransitive or the transitive verb forms the causative verb. chati Malai khabalai mui pin bi mu she someone me rupees give make + caus. She is making someone to give money chamai toh dheiba bandie their horse run +to is made Ma thalai I horse+pl dhei+ba run + to Their horse is made to run

bandie I am making the horse run is making

485

4.2.1.3 NEGATIVE VERB

The form a- is prefixed to the verb which indicates negation conveying the meaning of no / not. It is inflected for all persons and Negation is also expressed by the use of word /aMi/ charkholi loudly Ma keylala I work+to Ma I cha that chu this tiMi today aMi not de but a-bido negation+speak a-tu negation+have a-kh negation +coming chu this

Dont to speak loudly

I do not have to work

I am not coming today

Not that one but this

chabasai aMi eatable negation

This is not eatable

4.2.1.4. Auxiliary Verb

The auxiliary verbs in Gurung are used in combination with other verbs and in the expression of state and the time of action the verbs. chari snla nagi ya these three dog are cha yal tum she go will chati niu seail kham he bird kill may
4.2.1.5. Compound Verb

There are three dogs

She will go

He may kill the bird

The compound verbs include the first element is the nominal base and the second element is the verb base. sugar laba ponba neba theba pba clean quarrel shout

486

4.2. 2 ADVERB

Adverbs are the classes of words, which are used to modify the meaning of the verb. These occur before the verbs and indeclinable. Semantically, Adverbs are categorized as Adverb of Place, Adverb of Time and Adverb of Manner.
Adverb of Place

churi chari khanir mai chuli

Adverb of Time

here there where below after when today tomorrow yesterday evening who helplessly bravely happily

khoyo tiy pana tel maisar khau Adverb of Manner alohbati toyoli saintosi
4.2.3. NON-FINITE VERBS

The nonfinite verbs in Gurung comprises of infinitive, verbal noun, gerund and participle. Infinitive The infinitive is expressed by adding -ba suffix to the root. t kuprat plica rosa khlo yat tu
Verbal Noun

+ + + + + + +

ba ba ba ba ba ba ba

= = = = = = =

to fall to float to flow to lean to play to shut to spit

Adding the suffix /ba/ to the root base, forms a verbal noun sai-ba dancing cho-ba grazing

487

4.2.4. CLITICS

Clitics are the bound morphemes, which do not take suffixes for tenses or cases, but are capable of taking another clitic. The clitics are of two kinds that is, free clitics and bound clitics. Free clitics are independent of context in their occurrences whereas bound clitics are context specific that is, these occur only with the demonstrative pronouns. chu cha chumai chamai this that these those

Here /u/ is the clitics which indicates proximate and /a/ represents the remote demonstratives.
4.2.5 PARTICLES

Particles have a functional meaning and these modify the nouns or the verbs. The particles may be defined as words or morphemes capable of occurring independently. Particles may be broadly classified into Interrogative Particles, Negative Particles, Affirmative Particles and the particles of particularization. Interrogative particles and negative particles have been dealt in the earlier sections. Both have functional meanings Affirmative Particle is yes Yes, she is my daughter

cha Mai chami ya yes, she my daughter is

Particles of Particularization

The substantive verbs mo, mu and ya are the particles specifying particularizations. chu this nagi ya dog is

This is a dog

churi Mi nawar mo here two cat are churi nawar mu here cat is

Here are two cats

Here is a cat

488

Voice In the passive construction of Gurung, the suffix /-mu/ is added to the verb base Active voice: cha dewa khem he book read He reads a book Passive: cu dewa chati kheina+mu a book he read + passive

A book is read by him

489

5. SYNTAX Gurung is a subject object verb language. It consists of noun phrase and verb phrase. Noun phrase functions as the subject. There can be no sentence without a predicate. Sometimes predicate itself may stand for a sentence. Sentences can be classified into different types according to their function and structure. There are different types of sentences according to the functions Declarative Interrogative Imperative Negative Causative Co-ordination
5.1 DESCRIPTION OF TYPES OF SENTENCES

There are six types of Sentences realised in Gurung. They are the following Declarative Sentences

It is a simple sentence, which has one subject and one predicate. nagi+mai dog + pl chyoam bark ya are

Dogs bark

chumai Mai dh+mai these my house+pl

Interrogative Sentences

These are my houses

In Gurung language, there are two types of interrogative sentences. One is yes/no questions and wh type question sentence.Examples are given below:
Non-Wh Question Type

This type of interrogative sentence is indicated by changing the intonation of the sentence ca kila chami wa? she your daughter Is she your daughter? kila dhe you house a+ rei wa? not get+pl.

Have you got no house?

490

Wh Question Type

This type of sentence is formed by addition of the interrogative particles in the sentence. It generally precedes the verb. kila kolo mai khanir mu your child+pl where are ki khanir you where ki you to what Tim live lam do

Where are your children?

Where do you live?

What do you do?

Imperative Sentence Imperative sentence involves only the second person where the subject or the doer can occur optionally. The verb alone may indicate the imperative mood. Mai klanu+r yath my cart+to to go Go to my cart chu it anuwath break kath hold chu it

Hold it

Break it

Negative Sentence

Gurung verbs being added with the negative marker /a-/ help formation of the negative sentences. chati lal a-kha he it not do charkholi loudly chati kye he work a-pon not + speak alal atu not +shall do

He can not do it

Do not speak loudly

He should not do the work

Causative Sentences

Action pertaining to the subject and the indirect object is expressed through the causative sentences. The causative verb in their sentence constitutes the verb phrase.

491

Ma I

kilai khabaiti mui pin ki beinamu someone money give you making I am making someone give you money bandi: is made

chemaiti ton dheiba their horse run +lo Their horse is made to run Co-ordination Sentences

Co-ordination is a symmetrical relationship between the clauses and is independent one in meaning. The co-ordinating connectives are /ni/ and and /i/ or for conjunction and disjunction respectively. These bring about a co-ordinating relationship among two or more noun phrases or two or more independent clauses. Mai agmai ni aghainmai dh+r mu my brothers and sisters house-in are My brothers and sisters are in the house churi ghri nawar ni nagi mu here one cat and dog are Here is a cat and a dog char kheba kolomai Mi yai s dhr yam there school boys two or three home + to go These two or three boys go home

5.2 DESCRIPTION OF PATTERN OF SENTENCES

In Gurung, the sentences are classified into the following groups according to their respective patterns. Simple Sentence Complex Sentence Compound Sentence Simple Sentence A simple sentence has only one subject and a predicate. In Gurung language sentences are of subject object - verb pattern. chu nagi ya this dog is cha he khebadhr yam school + to goes 492

and

This is a dog

He goes to school

kolo chal child him

Complex Sentence

Myom see

Child sees him

Complex sentence consists of a simple sentence which constitutes the principle or the main clause of the sentence and one or more subordinate clauses. cha roynamu khoy Ma chalai Myot yai he sleep+p.cont when I him see + to go+ pas.ten He was sleeping when I went to see him cha satyai os Ma kiyolo phrem he might have gone before I them reach He might have gone before I reach them Compound Sentence Two or more simple sentences constitute a compound sentence. Each part of a compound sentence contains a subject and a predicate and thus constituting a separate clause. The two simple sentences in a compound sentence may be juxtaposed. In Gurung, these are connected with /ni/ and which may remain understood as well. The process of conjoining may take place both in the nominal and verbal phrases or the co-coordinated sentences. Mai pali pleyerabi ne Ma kuruyau ya my foot slip + pas.ten and I fall down My foot is slipped and I fell down khab char ya khab syoka ya some new are some old are Some are new, some are old

493

BIBLIOGRAPHY Block, Bernard and G. L Trager 1942 Outline of Linguistics Analysis, Linguistic Society of America, Baltimon, Md,

Census of India

1991

District Census Hand Book, North, South East and West Districts, Series 22, Sikkim Part XII A & B. Published by Directorate of Census Operations, Sikkim Languages Tables, Part II c(ii), India, Vol. 1, The manager of Publications, Civil Lines, Delhi, 1964. Linguistics Survey of India, Himalayan Dialect and North Assam group, Vol III, Part I, Motilal Banarashi Das.(reprinted. 1967) A course in Modern Linguistics, New Delhi, Oxford & IBH publishing Co. Language Handbook as mother tongues in Census, Census of India 1971 , Office of the Registrar General, India. Sikkim,(People of India Volume XXXIX) Anthropological Survey of India, Calcutta and Sea Gull book,Calcutta An Introductory Text book of Linguistics and Phonetics, students store, Bareilly Topics in Nepalese Linguistics, Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu, Nepal

Census of India

1961

Grierson, G. A

1909

Hockett C. F. G U R Nigam, R. C. U N G Singh, K.S. T E X Varshney, R. L. T Yadav Y.P and W.W.Glover(eds)

1970

1972

1993

1995

1999

494

GURUNG TEXT

khaili yom how hen

kaga

siya-di

ghri one

mlogya black

phuri snake

crow kill-p.t

chonbai sprea ni and

sdhur-bai Tahl-bai banyan tree-of branches-of

chuwo nest

ghri kaga one crow cha the cha+mae sewa their parents ghri one mlogya phuri black snake

chal phresyo, ghri kaga yom Ti+ la. his wife one crow hen live+pas.ten pli fous cuba mall ph khabele eggs great care+with khun hallow-of.

chuwo+ n nest-in

la+ba cha guard +pas.ten that khabele. greatly kaga yom crow hen

sdhu -r tree-in

Kaga+mae crow+pl. ph eggs

bele Miba yukurna greatly fear+pas.ten very time phuri chuwo+ r snake nest+to

pi-ba. cha lay + pas.ten the chaba+mula eat +pas.ten phuri Mai snake my ph eggs

khai ba ni crawl+pas.ten and yade mlogya if black ni and Ma I chu this chuwo nest

cha this

chu time

bela eats up

sdhur+bai tree+of bandi+syo build+must

Ma a-Ti-ba Mi anylonger refused +to live we mrisyolai mayulai mother bird husband Ma I bie said Mai my

khantoi somewhere Mi we

syombai a long time

churi Tiba+mula. here live+pas.ten

495

dh home

sunya desert+to

bandi bear chamai they

a+kha not + can

chali khanta and elsewhere

Tiba aya kagati bie. to live go crow say+pas.ten chade while ghri a

khoyan ponba+mu, talk +pre.ten. cont key thie sound just

theba+ponba+mu hiss+pr.cont.

Thikan chamai Mai. chamai hear+pas.ten them below they chamai they kosis laba. try+p.cont. chuwo+n nest +to new+mai bird+pl phuri snake chamai the parents alohbati helplessly chu the cheTo closer nepa laba strike+to ghri one alouli slowly se by kuba sit+pas.ten

rai to kye ja know+p.t what sound meant chamai their chwo+r ph nest+ in egg Tai higher tebaponba loud sound thin protect ni and ni with

mlogya phuri krai black snake creep+pas.ten krai. creep+it khabal hetried ghri one chuwo+n nest+to chaliso then rego+ r terror+in

ordi. mlogya flow+p.t black

laidi ph lohoi keep +pas.ten eggs swallow+pas.ten khai, chamai come+pas.ten they yoltum worry find chuwo+n nest+in

khohtei yoi. empty find+would chu their achyab murderous

kagati bei Ma ghri crow say+pas.ten I a phuri+lai snake+accu. nepa ever saiba to destroy

ki khaili you how achab so deadly Mai bayan, my dear, mu is ki you

chane balo nepa? chal him fight, his phresyo wife atitie despair+in

sun string bei say +pas.ten

chal his

nu aladh Made ghri not worry I one

thun yoi friend get+pas.ten

496

khau who cha he shela jackal khaili how ph eggs

phuri le snake enough

batho musaiba lagir kagati cunning to destroy crow ordi+yai khanir flow off+pas.ten which

bei ni say+pas.ten and chal thumai his friend

Misyo sdhu another tree+under ti+mula live +pas.ten phuri snake chaba+mula selati eatup+pas.ten jackal

yukurna always thei khoya hear+pas.ten when ya he Ma I upai plan chati bei he say+pas.ten yukurna always

Mai thu khaua chyaba ni lu my friend who cruel and greedy achyaba bad ni and balo with toltum meet+to

mihi no fear yoi mu think is

Mati jalan chalai saiba ghri I already him destroy +to a aei oh chu it to what ja that selati jackal saibag+ir destroy+to ni and

Malai beidh kagaiti me say+pas.ten crow kratharlei overheard to what chal his khugukhubulai, chal whispered his

bei, chaliso say+pas.ten then thumailai friend kaga khi crow his phurilai snake

laba do+should phresyolai wife chutan plane

chuwo+n li yai nest+in. back to

bei chule tell+pas.ten risky Ma Mai I my yomti mother chaliso so

ghajin key kagati bei Mi saicheu laltum rather crow say +pas.ten we careful have + will ph eggs kaga crow

thenlaba lagir toi nikye lal kham save+to anything do +will bei toilli say + pas.ten bravely mrudhin kings palace lagir ordi yai towards flow+pas.ten

chamai they

mrudhin off the palace

497

rego for

arela. no

chamai they

mrudhin pai palace+ in

tahpar ir golden+in

ghri a

theba. big

raha mula khanir pond approach+pas.ten where marron, hira ase chain pearl necklaus thei+mula. lay +pas.ten kie with cha she chal her kaga yom crow hen

mruchahmhi madimula chamai Moi the royal ladies bath their golden ghana jewellary rahai chor pond edge

ne agu and other

mai ordi, ghri bala down flow + pas.ten a chain ordi Tonlai khonir flying start+pas.ten where bade. khoyo towards when lilidei chased mrudhin palace

shur ni beak and Tiba+mula live+pas.ten sdhu tree

keylabamhiti mroi kaga guard + pl. see+pas.ten crow kaga+maili khunir crow+pl. hollow-in chu the yomu get+to mroi ghri see+pas.ten a chai his liba club chamaite mroi. they see+pas.ten cha he chura chain ghri one

maraichura chamai golden chain the Tiwai drop+pas.ten in

keylaba+mai sindhu-r krei chuna guards tree+to climb+pas.ten chain nor hole jhoi in chura chain chu these yomu cha get+to he balo one phuri snake bhobaparei hard stick

chal yo his hand

mlogya black sewai ni kill+pas.ten and

phuri preriba+mula snake crawl+pas.ten cha that mlogya black

siyai die+pas.ten kaga ni crow and kaga yom crow hen cha that ni and sdhur tree in lo chyoba chaja phei many little baby have+pas.ten

saitoribi Tie chaliso happilylive+pas.ten afterwards

------------------------------------------------------X---------------------------------------------------

498

NEWARI
S.GANESH BASKARAN 1. INTRODUCTION

The present study gives out the grammatical sketch of Newari language spoken in Sikkim state based on the data collected at the time of field investigation during November 1999 to January 2000.
1.1 FAMILY AFFILIATION

According to Grierson (1909: Vol. III) Newari Language belongs to the NonPronominalized Himalayan group of Tibeto-Burman sub family. As per the subsequent classification by Paul Benedict the Newari (in Sikkim) belongs to the Bahing-Vayu branch of Tibeto-Burman sub family and Newari shares similarities to both Bahing and Khambu under the mentioned branch. [Benedict: 1972]
1.2. LOCATION

According to Grierson (1909, p-221) The Newars were the ruling race in Nepal before invasion of the Gurkhas and still they constitute the largest section of the inhabitants. The inhabitants of Katmandu are to a great extent Gorkhas. In Patan, Bhatgaon and most of the smaller towns of Nepal the Newars form the bulk of the popuation. The number of Newars outside the valley is small and most of them returned from Darjeeling and Sikkim.
1.3. SPEAKERS STRENGTH

So far as Indian Census is concerned the Newari is majorly concentrated in sikkim. According to 1961 Census of India Vol.-I part. II (ii) language Tables p-169 the Newari language speakers are distributed in the following states. Since Newari is returned by less than 10000 speakers it could not qualify to appear in the language list in the last four Censuses from 1971 to 2001. Total 284 20 6 111 4 143 Male 188 1 70 4 113 Female 96 20 5 41 30

India Bihar Maharastra West Bengal North East Agency Sikkim

[The bilingualism data is not available in Vol. I part II-c(ii) Language Tables of 1961 Census.]

499

1.4 SOCIOLINGUISTIC SETTING

Newars are a trading community. From their history and tradition it is believed that the present Newars originated from a number of ethnic groups, namely, the Abhiras, the Kirates, the Lichhawis, the Vaishya Thakuris, the Karnatakas etc. The Newars have migrated to Sikkim from eastern part of Nepal. In their original homeland the Newars had six-tiers of occupational groups. But this six-tier group system has been abolished among the Newars after their immigration into Sikkim. And all the Newars call themselves Pradhans only. The primary occupation of the Newar community is trade along with agriculture. The subsidiary occupations are weaving, carpentary etc. at present. Though Newar people are having their own language known as Newari but they use Nepali also for the purpose of communication both at home and outside home. The co-existence of Buddhism and Hinduism forms the base of religion in Newar community and the predominant trait in Newar religion is animism. At present the Newars are concentrated in all the districts of Sikkim. The sociolinguistic setting of Newari can be explained on the extent of its use as mother tongue and the extent of use as other tongue in the different levels. Newari as mother tongue is used in different levels like home, kin and community. The use of mother tongue is related in three ways in descending order of generation, that is, parent ego children in the home and extra kin situation. Thus in the domain of locality the mother tongue is also in use. In the parent-ego-children relationship the parents invariably interact in the mother tongue with the children and also with the aged people. Since the children of these days are exposed to other languages through education most often their speech is mixed with Nepali and with English. The use of mother tongue is more between the aged people and among the middle aged whereas among the young the extent of use of mother tongue is comparatively less. Among the women the use of mother tongue is more in comparison to the men folk. In the formal domains of Education, Administration, Judiciary and Mass media the role of Newari as mother tongue is evident in the oral communication level. In the domain of the Education in the rural areas the verbal interaction between the teacher and student and among the students in and outside the classroom in Newari only. The Newari people use Prachalipi and Ranjalipi scripts. The Newari language is taught upto VIIth standard in the rural and semi urban areas in Sikkim. In the Administration although all written correspondences are through Nepali and English. Newari is used as the medium of the verbal interaction between staffs and the public in the rural and urban areas. The state Government imparts training to the officials in Newari language for smooth running of Administration and building up of a cordial relation with the Newari people. In the level of Judiciary also Newari language is used in informal oral communication in the lower courts during the cross examination of the convicts by the Lawyers and the Judge. The social workers of the registered organisations interact with 500

both the parties of litigation in the lower courts in Newari and helped them to come to a possible settlement and to convince them. In the domain of Mass media, Doordarshan and private television channels telecast folk musics and dramas in Newari language. The Government of Sikkim encourages Newari people to continue their cultural programme in Newari on festive occasions. The local magazines are publishing the poems and stories. The Sikkim Government patronises preparation of dictionary and glossaries in Newari language and extends necessary financial aids to the welfare association of Newari for the purpose. Thus, it is evident that though the Nepali and Hindi being the super imposed variety; control the formal domains of Newari as a mother tongue. Which also has a very important role in the sociolinguistic scenario of Sikkim state as a whole.

1.4. REVIEW OF EARLIER LITERATURE

According to LSI Vol. III page No: 214-221 the Newari language was used for literary purposes at early period. The oldest Newari manuscript as yet known was in the 14 th century, but our knowledge about Newari literature is very limited. Grierson reports that the script used for Newari is an Indian one (Devnagari). It has been developed from the old Brahui alphabet. The standard words and phrases have been received from Nepal. The Pronounciation, Article, Noun, Gender, Number, Case, Post position, Adjectives, Numerals, Pronouns, Verbs, Verb substantives, Tense, Verbal Noun, Passive voice, Causative, Negative and order of words have been discussed. The book Topics in Nepalese Linguistics edited by Yogendra P.Yadava and Warren W. Glower, Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu, Nepal in 1999, includes two research papers On the Senses of the Newar conjunctive participle /-a/ written by E. Austin Hale and Kedar P Shrestha in pp 297-336 and the other is Verb Agreement in Classical Newar and Modern Newar Dialects written by Tej R. Kansakar in p. 421- 443.

501

2. PHONOLOGY
2.1 PHONEMIC INVENTORY

There are Language.

2.1.1

5 vowels and 33 consonants identified as phonemes in Newari

THE SEGMENTAL PHONEMES

Vowels Front High Mid Low i e a* Low u o

*The italised /a/ actually represents the low front unrounded vowel /a/
Consonants Bilabial Labio Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal vl. vd. dental vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. p b t d T D c j k g ph bh th dh Th Dh ch kh gh f m s z n l r w R y S M h

Stops Aspirants Ficatives Nasals Laterals Trill/Flap Semi vowel

Contrasting Pairs

(vowel) imuca ela ant liquor setting board lid

/ i~e /

/ i~ u /

pira pusa

502

/ o~ a /

kot har

coat necklace umbrella box animal lid

/ u~ a /

kusa snu

/ o ~u /

posu pusa

Contrasting Pairs

(Consonants ) p be guests ground friend air lake heat

/ p ~b/

/p ~ f/

psa fy tal de

/ t~ d /

/ T~ D /

Ta D cakh ja ra

lock bull bird diahoria wife goitre mango blind sand old man utensils

/ c~ j /

/ k~ g /

kala gala

/~k/

a k
phi bhuRa

/ ph~ bh /

/ th~ dh /

tha la

503

dh / Th~ Dh / ThuTi ra Dhi cucM cha k / kh ~gh / khu s gha / s~ z / mosem miz sutha Sya k ha / m~ n / mi ni ima kuMa lh ri kapi / D~R / kaiDi paR da / w~ y / wh yahma

jackal stair case carpet flour sparrow brook a kind of utensils used for keeping water climate male down pain blind steam man two eagle chimney stone plate prisoner curtain teeth dear

/ c~ ch /

/s ~ S/

/ k~ h /

/m ~ M/

/ l ~r/

2.1.2

SUPRASEGMENTAL PHONEMES

In Newari, there are two supra segmental features identified such as Tone and Nasalization.

504

Tone Meaning distinction can be made by distinguishing the tone in a syllable. Generally the tone is marked on the vowel of the syllable. In Newari , there are three different Tones identified that is , rising , falling and level. Tone is phonemic in Newari. wa wa wa si si si nou nu nu
Nasalizaton

rain grains teeth louse fruit wood star ash who cuts the nails

Nasalization is phonemic in Newari. The vowels get colour of the nasal is called nasalization. Nasalized vowels are not identified in the initial position in Newari language. /i/ s buy cha /e/ sup dmi /a/ p naikya l nhep sya /u/ ky gfa wood grass hoper cloud snail relatives coconut cloth ear ache dark ness jungle pig

/o/

505

2.2 PHONEMIC DESCRIPTION AND DISTRIBUTION

The Newari phonemes are described as per the manner and the point of articulation along with its distribution.
Vowels

/ i / high front unrounded short vowel occurs in all three positions imuca phij mi ant foam man

/e/ mid high front unrounded short vowel occurs in all three positions ela cheMu bhoye aja pasa misa liquor leather fist grand father friend female

/a/ low front unrounded short vowel occurs in all three positions

/o/ mid high back rounded short vowel occurs in all three positions onenu poTTu mco lets go parrot flame

/u/ high back rounded short vowel occurs in the medial as final positions. kusa sanu
Consonants

umbrella box

/ p/ voiceless bilabial stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions. pij foam sup cloud

506

/b/ voiceed bilabial stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions. b labsa /t/ ground lightening

voiceless alveolar stop occurs in all three positions. timi la ta ta hat pat moon elder sister rape

/d/ voiced alveolar stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions. dami baR dali earth worm verandah

/T/ voiceless Retroflex stop occurs in all three positions. Tu T kwTi biskuT leg pulses soup biscuit

/D/ voiced Retroflex stop occurs in all three positions. D TaDika gamanD bull tall pride

/c/ voiceless palatal stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions. cakca kica bird dog

/j/ voiced palatal stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions. jaki kharbuja rice water melon

/k/ voiceless velar stop occurs in all three positions. kipal shade

507

makah manik

monkey ruby

/g/ voiced velar stop occurs in all three positions. goMa bongu jag cock reading foundation

// voiced glottal stop occurs in the initial postition

i a

saliva mango

/ ph/ aspirated voiceless bilabial stop occurs in the initial positions. phi sand

/ bh/ aspirated voiced bilabial stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions. bha lu nibhh bear sunshine

/th/ aspirated voiceless alveolar stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions. th sutha rice bear dawn

/dh/ aspirated voiced alveolar stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions dhyoh bidhawa god widower

/Th/ aspirated voiceless retroflex stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions Thuk co mustard

508

khaThi

stick

/Dh/ aspirated voiced retroflex stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions Dh raDhi bed bug carpet

/ch/ aspirated voiceless palatal stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions chakca mancha sparrow chin

/kh/ aspirated voiceless velar stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions khw bakhunca deaf mute pigeon

/gh/ aspirated voiced velar stop occurs in the initial position ghu gh /f/ mountain grass

voiceless labiodental fricative occurs in the initial and the medial positions fy gwafey air cyclone

/s/ voiceless alveolar fricative occurs in the initial and the medial positions sutha mis down female

/ z/ voiced alveolar fricative occurs in the medial position kazu cashew nut

/S/ voiceless palatal fricative occurs in the initial and the medial positions. Sya jyoS i pain astrologer

/h/ voiceless glottal fricative occurs in all three positions. hal turmeric powder

509

mahute tupah

elephant driver cannon

/m/ bilabial nasal occurs in the initial and the medial positions. mico tarima fiame fathers brothers wife

/ n/ alveolar nasal occurs in all three positions. nau gnki sabun ashes eclipse soap

/M/ velar nasal occurs in the medial and the final positions. khuMi kuM lame wax candle

/ l/ alveolar lateral occurs in all three positions. l palpasa pal road lighterning tent

/r/ alveolar trill occurs in all three positions. raDhi sergah swor carpet sky fever

/R/ retroflex flap occurs in the medial positions. paRda screen

/w/ bilabial semivowel occurs in the initial and the medial positions. wa kwafeye paddy summer loo wind

/y/ palatal semivowel occurs in all three positions. 510

yako s ke yegu mey

hair in arm pit pea tongue

2.3 MAJOR ALLOPHONIC DISTRIBUTION

The occurrence of vowel phonemes are generally conditioned and get colour of the following and preceding phonemes in Newari. There is no exception for consonants also but it is very less number so far the allophone of consonant is concerned. Vowels / i/ high front unrounded vowel has two allophones [I] and [i] [I] lower high front unrounded short vowel occurs between consonants in the first syllable. [ pIja ] [ mIza ] [i] / e/ /pija/ /miza/ foam male

high front unrounded vowel occurs else where.

mid high front unrounded short vowel has allophones [E], [A] and [e] [E] mid low front unrounded short vowel occurs after the aspirated consonants [ khE ] [ch E ] [ mhE ] [A] /khe/ /che/ /mhe/ son grand daughter garland

mid central unrounded short vowel occurs after fricative sounds [ fAye] [sArgah] / foye/ /sergah/ air sky

[e] / a/

mid high front unrounded vowel occurs elsewhere

low front unrounded short vowel has two allophones [a] and [a]

511

[a]

low back unrounded short vowel occurs between consonants [ jeTab ] [ cakh ] [a] / jeTab/ / cakh/ fathers brother sparrow

low front short vowel occurs elsewhere

/ o/

mid high back rounded short vowel has two allophones [ O] and [ o ] [O] mid low back rounded short vowel occurs after the bilabial and nasal consonants in the first syllable [ pO su ] [mOlezu ] [o] / posu/ / molezu/ animal mothers brothers wife

mid high back rounded short vowel occurs elsewhere.

/u/

high back rounded short vowel has two allophones [ U ] and [ u ] [U ] lower high back rounded short vowel occurs between consonants. [ lU ti ] [ sUtha ] [u ] / luti/ /sutha/ ear lobe dawn

low back rounded short vowel occurs else where.

Consonants

/n/

The alveolar nasal has two allophones [ M ] [ M ]

and [ n ]

palatel nasal occurs before the palatal stop consonant. [ baMja ] [ gaM ji ] /ban jah/ /gan ji/ hawker banyan

[n]

the alveolar nasal occurs elsewhere.

2.4 CLUSTERS

There are two types of clusters like vowels and consonant. 512

Vowels

There are five vowel clusters identified in Newari language. such as / ou , ae , ui, ai and -ua /. Vowel clusters generally occur in final position. These are exemplified below. nou kae Thui dhai bua
Consonants

star son cook elder brother father

There are two types of consonant clusters realised in Newari language . Such as initial two consonant clusters and medial two consonant clusters.
Initial Two Consonantal Clusters

The semivowels/w/and/y /generally join with the consonants as a second member in the initial position and occasionally it occurs in the medial positions to make clusters. gwtwkhykwsygwafe twa kyo kwata syacu cyclone bat butter bed room apple

Medial Two Consonantal Clusters

- nk - rn - lp - ny - md - ml - lp - rp -mp -sp - gw -

ganki purnima palpasa nonyasa samdi jumliya sulpya sarpa bampuRkhi aspatah mikhag wo

eclipse full moon night lightening thunder in laws twin leach snake dwarf hospital retina

513

- nt - kt - rch - rb - tl - nj - pl - lt - rs - sm - rw - rd - lt - Rd- hkh - rm - nT - rp - mt - ml - lk - nkh - ty - km - st - kk 2.5 SYLLABLE

banta suk ti bar cha sarbat ketli ganji Topli khalti parsi chasma surwah parda balti baR dali pahkha barman bhanTa khor pani ramtoriya gamla halka sankha nayepitya tak m jasta yekko

vomit dried fish bowl fruit juice kettle banyan cap pocket sari spectacles trousers veil bucket veranda wall banyan tree brinjal berry ladys finger pot for plants light doubt hungry medal zinc much

Mono Syllabic (open)

CV CVV

b nau

ground ashes

514

Mono Syllabic (close)

CVC CCVC CCVC Disyllabic (open) V-CV CV-CV CV-CV CCV-CV CCV-CV
Disyllabic (close)

keb gway nhey

garden moustache nose

aja khus sup gwa fe dhyaca

grand father brook cloud cyclone mud

CV-CVC CV-CVC CVC-CVC V-CVC

Tri Syllabic (open)

moloh goman biskuT acar

lightening cobra biscuit chutney

CVC-CV-CV purnima CV-CVC-CV de palha CV-CV-CV molzu

Tri Syllabic (close)

full moon night left handed mothers brothers Wife easy chair

V-CV-CVC

a ra men

Tetra Syllabic (open)

CV-CV-CV-CV CV-CV-CVC-CV CV-CV-CVV-CV

Tetra Syllabic (close)

kisiya wa jara banta tuyupueda

tusk cholera hail stone

CV-CV-CV-CVC

tutipatim

toe

515

3. MORPHOPHONEMICS The alternant of morphemes when they occur with various suffixes, phonological variations take place within the morpheme which is called morphophonemics. Deletion 1) The main verb gets change when tense marker added with it; the last phone of the main verb and the first phone of the future tense marker are eliminated. Thus /soya/ + /-ne/ > soye will see soye see -ne Future tense marker 2) When two nouns are happen to join some portion of the main noun is dropped. That is when /jyo / astrology and /Si/ doer joining together to make another meaning astrologer the phone /-y- / of the main verb is dropped. Jyo Si means means astrology doer

When these two words join together it may be /JyoSi / listed it is /JoSi / for astrologer.
Alternation 1) When morphemes or group of morphemes occur to indicate the sense of plurality the following change has taken place in base morpheme. w > when sw three + -mha (classifier) + manu human being > smha manu three man.

2) The main form of the noun /macha/ child while adding with the plural suffix /-ta/ an alternation is taking place with the base noun. ch > s / macha-/ child + -ta (plural suffix) > masta /-ta/ the plural suffix 3) The noun form is dropped when an adjectives /dokk/ all join with the prefix mha is used for human nouns . The adjective /dokk / all when joins to denote all men the prefix used for human nouns /mha/ is added with the base noun /manu/ meant man. On that

516

occassion the first syllable of the base noun /manu/ man is dropped. To denote all men instead to /dokk mha manu / it is realised that /dokk mha nu/ for all men.

4. MORPHOLOGY
4.1.1 WORD FORMATION

Definition of Word

A simple word is defined as one, which is a free form and is capable of taking inflectional or derivational affixes. In Newari, a stem by itself can be a word for example /kicha/ dog is a stem as well as a word, form like / kicha ta/ dogs consisted of a stem and suffix / kicha/ dog and / -ta/ plural suffix. Word Classes Word classes are established on the basis of morphological or syntactical grounds. Stem classes in Newari can be divided into different groups on the basis of the inflectional endings. Accordingly Newari words are divided into Nouns Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Conjunctions, Particles and Post positions.
4.1.2 NOUNS

There are two types of nouns realised namely Animate and Inanimate . The animate nouns are realised by suffixing / -mha/ with the respective forms where as the Inanimate nouns are realised without the suffix / -mha/.
Animate Nouns

mha manu alive man bhi mha manu good+alive+man Tuyu mha white alive chamha one +alive
Inanimate Nouns

man (alive) good man

sala white horse horse manu man one man

517

nau surdyo timila khasu phi nya feye dh

star sun moon fog sand five air dust

Nouns are further classified into two categories such as Simple and Derived.
Simple Nouns

A noun which is not derived from another or anyother word class are called simple noun. It is further can be divided into two categories as Mass nouns and Count nouns. Mass Nouns feye sup dh khasu chwpu wah phi mi malah twepuda
Count Nouns

air cloud dust fog ice rain sand fire thunder hail stone

timila nau surdyo macha kaye goMah ?imuca

Derived Nouns

moon star sun child son cock ant

These nouns are derived either from the Nouns or from the verbs

518

Nouns from Nouns

kala art

+ +

kar doer Si doer g doer mi man

kalakar

artist

jyo + astrology+ fwo + begging+ kah + carpentry+ mhari + sweet + sar shoe khu pot gwa pan + + + + + +

joSi

astrologer

fwog

beggar

kahmi

carpenter

banja = seller ki = maker mha man =

mah i banja

sweet maker

sarki

shoe maker

kumha

potter

ban ja = seller mi man =

gwaban ja

panseller

jya + work +

jyami

labourer

Nouns from Verbs

fwo + begging + kaye + brokery + sikar + hunting+

g doer kali doer ri doer

fwog

begger

kayekali

broker

sikari

hunter

519

jya + work + chya + sweeping+ dho + wash +

Number

mi man mi man bi doer

jyami

labourer

chyami

sweeper

dhobi

washer man

The plurality is realised by suffixing pronouns. The singular number is unmarked. Singular sah ch kae jamindar cow house son land lord

both / -p / or /- ta/ with the noun and

Plural sahta ch ta kaep jamindarta cows houses sons land lords

ana nimha sata du there two+alive cow +pl vb There are two cows available

wap jigu sata kha those my cows are Those are my cows

thoup jigu chta kha those my house+pl. are These are my houses

chaMu kae p a na du your son+pl. there are Your sons are there 520

jigu swa mha kae ta I have three+alive sons I have three sons

du are

jhi p tran sleTorta kha we translator are We are translators

ip jamindar-ta kha they land-lords are They are land-lords

tho cho mha khicha kha this one+alive dog is This is a dog chaMu kae a na du your son here is Your son is here

Gender

Gender in Newari is natural. Male mi aja man grandfather ma aji buRi miSa mahzu samdhini Female mother grand mother old woman girl mother in law son in laws mother

buRa old man miz boy bahju gentleman

samdhi son in laws father

Natural

Male

Female

521

kae goMah D bha tha Case

son cock bull husband

mhyae kha sa kha la

daughter hen cow wife

There are 9 cases in Newari. They are Nominative, Accusative, Instrumental, Dative, Genitive, Locative, Ablative, Sociative and Benifactive case. Nomonative Case The nominative case is Unmarked kicha dog w he jigu my bau bau yata bark pr.t. kae son kha is Dog barks

He is my son

Accusative Case

The accusative case is realised by the suffix/ -yata/, which occurs after the noun. w chakca he bird He hits the bird yata case keku hits

woh bishale sarp yata that poisonous snake-acc.case That poisonous snake has to be killed

sya yefu kill to

Instrumantal Case This case is realised by using the suffixes / -l/ and /-p / w chupp s cha he knife+with wood cut He cut the wood with knife ji chosa l cho sa

522

I pen+with write I write with the pen

Dative Case This case is realised by the syffixes / -in/ and /-re/ jhipp mandi re won e we(pl) temple+to go+to We must go to temple he ma must

jhipp charch-re won e ma stewa we +pl church+ to go +to want We need to go to the church sarkar garib in ta dhewa Govt. poor+ to +pl gives Govt. gives money to the poor Genitive Case There are two different suffixes used to denote this case that is for first and second person pronoun the suffix / -gu/ is used and the suffix / -ya/ is used for the third person pronoun tho this jigu ch kha I+case house is ch h house go ch kha house+pl This is my house byu money

chagu you +case waya he + case Locative Case

Go to your house

His houses

Generally Locative case is unmarked. It is decided on the basis of the emphasis given on the location. Sometimes /- / is used to denote location jigu my mhy daughter bari garden+ in du available

523

My daughter is in the garden cha k sima bird tree+on Bird sits on the tree Ablative Case This case is realised by the suffix/ -y/ sima ha simay kutu tree+leaf tree+from down Leaves fall down from the tree Sociative Case This case is realised by the suffix / -nap/ wa wya bhau nap cho she her father +with live She lives with her father wa jinap jhyaya she me with working She is working with me ji w nap bajar I him+with market I shall go to market with him wo ne go+will woh come ch sits

Benefactive Case This case is realised by the suffix /-yata/ and / -yo lag i/ . ji jimi khe yata bakh choya I my child+for story wrote I wrote a story for my child sa yata gh h cow +for grass bring

524

Bring grass for the cow khe yo lag i kami j cha son for shirt stich Stich a shirt for child Post - position The post positions are the words which occur always after the noun or noun phrase. tho khaber ji Telepho nonyne the massage telephone+with The massage I got through telephone wya khep ch dune du his sons house inside+ available His sons are available inside the house w sima koye dene he tree + under sleeps He sleeps under the tree jigu gaRi pakhe hu my cart+near go Go near to my cart
4.1.3 PRONOUN

yai gu work-done

There are five types of pronouns identified in Newari Language namely Personal pronoun, Demonstrative pronoun, Indefinite pronoun, Interrogative pronoun and Reflexive pronoun.
Personal Pronouns

The personal pronouns are three that is, first personal, second personal and third personal. The first personal pronoun refers to the speaker, the second personal pronoun refers to the hearer and third personal pronoun refers to the person or object.

Person Ist person

Singular ji I

Plural jhi we

525

IInd person IIIrd.person

cha w tho

you he/ she it

chip ip

you(pl.) they

ji jigu ch dune du I my house inside am I am in my house jhi me hale we song sing We sing a song chagu khe thana du your+case son there is Your son is there chip chip sa me you(pl) yourself song You yourself sing a song w tha dhamma kha he tall is He is tall w sim koye dy she tree under sleeps She sleeps under the tree tho cham this one+animal This is a dog ip khicha ta they dog+ pl. These are dogs
Demonstrative Pronouns

hali sing

khicha kha dog is

kha are

There are two types of Demonstrative pronoun that is, Remote and Proximate.
Proximate Demonstrative Pronouns

526

tho chamha this one+alive This is a dog

khicha dog

kha is

thop nimha kicha these two+alive dog+pl. These are two dogs
Remote Demonstrative Pronouns

kha are

wah cho mha kicha kha that one+alive dog is That is a dog wap jigu sata kha those my cow+pl. are Those are my cows
Reflexive Pronouns

The Reflexiveness is realised by two forms such as /tha mha/ myself for the first person singular and the suffix/ -s/ self is used to denote the Reflexiveness as first person plural, the second person singular and plural, the third person singular and plural. The suffix /s/ is added with the respective pronominal form, which occurs after the particular pronoun. ji tha mha me chopu hale I myself song are sing I myself sing a song jhi jhis me chopu hale we ourself song one sing We ourselves sing a song cha chas me chopu hali you yourself song one sing You yourself sing a song chip chip s me chopu hali you(pl.) yourself song one sing You yourselves sing a song

527

wa wyes me chopu hali he himself song one sing He himself sing a song wa wyes me chopu hali she herself song one sing She herself sing a song sa thos pukui kuttuwolla cow itself pond fell+down Cow itself fell down in the pond ip ip s pukli kuttuwolla they themselves pond fell down They themselves fell down in the pond Indefinite Pronoun Indefinite pronouns are of two types Countable and Uncountable. These forms occur either before or after the noun or pronoun.
Uncountable

jike bhaticha jakha I+have a little rice I have a little rice dokk mhanu chanhu ci all man one+day die All man must die one day hema must

yekka miza masta seno krikeT yeku most male child growned cricket like Most of the young boys like cricket

Countable

kam bhauch yeMula yeku a few cats cold +water like A few cats like cold water sakal thogu jaye masta du

528

everyone their job busy is Every one is busy for their work

Interrogative Pronouns

In Newari , the question is made by separate forms which generally occurs after the noun or pronoun . In some cases it occurs before verb. ji chu noye I what eat+pr.t. What shall I eat ? w su kha he who is Who is he ? cha gawa le waye you what+time come pr.t. When will you come ? gatheyana wya baRe chu how him about what How did you know about him ? w guli barsa data he how old is How old is he? cha nyabal ofis wayeta you regularly office come+to Why are you late to the office? chaye libaigu why late

sila know+did

cha miga gana wana you yesterday where go+p.t. Where did you go yesterday? cha gugu safu ma ni you which book need Which book do you want? 529

4.1.4 ADJECTIVES

There are two types of adjectives are identified in Newari laguage Qualitative and Quantitative adjectives. The adjectives preceeds the noun sometime it follows also specially in the predicative usage.
Qualitative Adjectives

hakugu supay dark cloud Dark cloud tu tuyumma the white+alive The white horse sala horse

tho takha daMu ch kha It large house is It is a large house tho mhanu ka kha this man blind is This man is blind w bhi mha miz ma cha kha he good+alive male+child is He is a good boy

tho ballagu g kha It beautiful village is It is a beautiful village w miz mcha khay he male+child deaf The male child is deaf wa bla mha misa she beautiful woman She is a beautiful woman kha is

kha is

530

Quantitaive Adjectives

thana nimha here two+alive Here are two cats

baucha cat

du are

thup jigu nya kha these my 5+vb These are my five houses

chta kha house+pl are

Numeral

Two types of numeral systems are identified. These are cardinals and ordinals. The basic cardinal numerals from one to ten are monomorphemic. Eleven onwards are derived by compounding the basic cardinal numerals.
Cardinal Numerals

chi ni sw py nya khu nhe chya g jhi

one two three four five six seven eight nine ten

For eleven, the number ten + one+ /-gu/ a unit form will be compounded, like wise other numerals are formed jhi ca g 10 +one +classifier. jhi 10+ +ni + g 2 + class. / jhicagu / eleven

/ jhi ni g/

twelve

jhi + sw + g 10 + 3 + classifier jhi + khu +g

/ jhi swugu /

thirteen

/ jhikhug/

sixteen

531

10

+ 6

+ classifier / jhig gu/ nineteen

jhi + g + gu 10 + 9 + classifier ni + gu 2 + classifier ni + ca gu 2 + one + classifier swi + g 3 + classifier. swi + ca + g 3 + 1 + classifier.

/ ni gu/ / nicagu /

twenty twenty one

/swigu /

thirty

/swi cagu /

thirty one

To form the numerals thirty, forty, fifty, and etc the morphophonemes of three, four, five like swi-, pi-, ne-, respectively are added with the suffix /gu/ pi + gu 4 + 10 ne + gu 5 + 10 chya + gu 8 + 10 g + gu 9 + 10 forty fifty eighty ninety

The Newari Language has its own numerals upto 100 , above hundred they use the numerals of Indo Aryan origin.
Ordinals

The use of ordinal is influnced by Hindi Language pahe la dasra tesra

Fractions

first second third

There are three fractional numbers identified in Newari.

532

cha kanchi ba chi cha man tya

Classifier

quarter half one and a half

The classifier / -gu/ is suffixed with the cardinal stem for counting eleven, twelve and etc. as well as each unit of ten. ni two swa three jhi ten jhi ca gu 10 + one + classifier jhi ni gu 10 + 2 + classifier ni + gu two classifier eleven

twelve

twenty

And for the numerals like twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty etc. the classifier /-gu/ is used to denote the numeral ten for example , the cardinal number / ni/ two is prefixed with the classifier /-gu/ to denote twenty. Like wise other numerals are formed.

4.2 VERB MORPHOLOGY 4.2.1.1 FINITE VERB

Finite verb is a complete verb and shows the complete action done which are realised through the use of tense,person, gender and number markers. ji nhinhi za I daily rice I eat rice daily naya eat+ pr t.

sa nhinhi duru byu cow daily milk gives Cow gives milk everyday cak ta boh

533

bird+pl fly Birds fly

ca k simay ch bird tree+on sits Bird sits on the tree tho s cha this wood hard This wood is hard
Tense

du is

Verbs in Newari are marked morphologically for tense. The Newari verb shows three way opposition for tense. 1. Present 2. Past and 3. Future. The tense markers occur at the end of the verb. The substantive verb also function as present tense. There are two forms used as substantive verbs that is / kha/ and / du/. These occur after the verb tho cha mha this one + alive This is a dog kicha kha dog is

thana ni ha bau cha here two+alive cat Here are two cats thop i ni ha ki cha these two+alive dogs These are two dogs

du are

kha are

ji jigu ch dune du I my house inside is I am inside my house jigu ch chika my house small My house is small du is

534

tho jigu ch kha this my house is This is my house tho nikha ch ta this two+vb house+ pl. These are two houses
Present Tense

kha vb.

The present time is realised by using the suffix / -ya/ with the verb and also realised by the zero morpheme. khicha bau bauya dog to bark Dog barks ji nini za I daily rice I eat rice daily naya eat+pr.t.

sa nini duru byu cow daily milk gives Cow gives milk every day surdyo suthe byo sun morning rises Sun rises in the morning w sim koye he free under He sleeps under the tree ji tho I today I come to day
Past Tense

dyo sleeps

woya come

The past time is realised by two suffixes / -na/ and /-la/ which occur with the main verb.

535

w nala he mango eat+ p.t. He ate mango kicha ji gu lyune dog me besides The dog come besides me wala come+p.t.

sah nya na maka dha na sound hear+p.t child wake +p.t. hearing the sound the child woke up ji won e magu kha tara ji ma wo na I go had but I not go + p.t. I had to go but I did not go w bhutuli pih wna he kitchen+from out come+p.t. he went out from the kitchen
Future Tense

The future time is realised by the suffix/ -ne/ and / -ye/ which occur with the verb. ji afis tak ka won e I office upto go+f.t. I shall go upto the office chu ji ana shall I there Shall I go there won e go+f.t.

jipi samudaraye wone we sea +to go+f.t. We will go to the sea kan he ji pikchor soye tomorrow I picture see+ f. t. I will see the picture tomorrow
Aspect Progressive Aspect

536

In progressive Aspect there are three times identified namely present progressive, present perfect and past perfect progressive.
Present progressive

The present progressive time is realised by the suffix/ -cho na/, which is either prefixed or suffixed to the verb to denote the duration of the present progressiveness. sa buyi jaye chonakyo cow field in grazing Cow is grazing in the field ji safu choya chona I write writing I am writing macha chona choMu child sitting Child is sitting
Present Prefect Continuous Tense

du is

ji safu choya chona I writing been I have been writing

gudu have

Past Prefect Continuous Tense ji I safu write choya chonagu ju la been had

I had been writing

Present perfect Tense

This aspect is realised by the suffix / -gudu/ ji I ji I pikcor picture safu write soya gudu see + have choya gudu have I have seen the picture

I have written the book

537

Mood

There are four moods have been identified in Newari Lnaguage that is, Indicative, Imperative, Interrogative and Probability mood.
Indicative Mood

The indicative mood is realised as follows tho chamha this one+alive This is a dog wah chamha that one+alive That is a dog kicha dog kha is

kicha kha dog is

ana nimha there two+alive There are two dogs

tha na ni mha here two + alive Here is a cat

kicha ta dog +pl

du are

baucha du cat is

Imperative Mood

The command is realised through intonation. ana h there go thana wa here come phe tu sit d stand go there

come here

sit down

stand up

538

toho stick

thu break

break the stick

to chya pot break break the pot sim kwo thu tree cut cut the tree khapa tyu door close close the door
Interrogative mood

The Interrogation is generally made by seperate forms like/ chu/ means what, /S/ anyone and / gugu/ `which chu ji ?ana won e what I there go +f.t. shall I go there ? S skulaye dula anyone school+in available any body is available in the school ? chanta gugu safu ma you+pl. which book want which book do you want ?

Probability Mood

The mood of probability is expressed by suffixes like /-fu , -yi/ which occur after the verb. ip so nyane fu they ask may They may ask ji I thana thou wa think today rain wayi come+ may 539

I think today rain may come

4.2.1.2 NON FINITE VERB

Infinite

The non-finite verb is not conditioned by person and number of its subject. The infinitive marker is / -ta/ in Newari Language. khane jip nya layeta samundraye tomorrow we fish catch+to sea+case tomorrow we will go to sea to catch fish woh sarp yata syayeta duna gudu that snake acc.case kill to plan have I have a plan to kill the snake wo mah yata kayeta wwo na that chain acc.case. take +to hewent he went to take the chain
Gerund A verb functions as a nouns. In Newari the gerund is formed by suffixing / - gu/

won e go+will

with the verb. sutha bonegu jya b la morning reading habit better reading in the morning is good sala pakh bwa waneguya early morning running exercisework practicing exercise is good for health in early morning kayegu sik biyigu b la reciving than giving better receiving is better than giving
Participle

A word which functions as an attribute to the words may be called Participle. In Newari the suffix / -a, -na / functions as a participle, which occurs with the verb.

540

loy nyase wana chbala wa chamo simha goman khana road walk while noticed he one dead cobra saw walking along the road, he noticed a dead cobra sah nya na macha dhana sound hearing child woke up hearing the noise the boys woke up
4.2.1.3 CAUSATIVE VERB

The action of cause is expressed by the suffix/ -ye/ in Newari Language which occurs with the main verb. ji wita mi haye ke I her song sing+cause I will make her sing a song ji wita wsa I her medicine I made her eat the medicine tene do+will

nakaye eat+ made

choya did

4.2.1.4 NEGATIVE VERB

The negation is realised by the form / -ma/ which is prefixed with the verb substantive. The negative verb is also occur with the main verb. ji thoM wo ye I today come I do not come today makhu not +vb. sub.

ji ke chunha madu I have anything not +sub. vb. I have nothing with me imita mayasa tho da they not if it me If they do not like give it to me chano maSigu maku ji na you not+know not me Neither you know nor I byu give

masi gu not know

maku not

541

ji chanta nhapa I you + before I have never seen you before tho jya lage it work+use It is of no use tho naye it eat This is not eatable maju not+able

gyuble time

makha na not+see

maju not+able

tho la tone maju this water drink not+able This water is not drinkable
4.2.1.5 AUXILIARY VERB

The Auxiliary verbs are used to make distinction on the tense, mood, voice and etc. In Newari separate forms are used to denote the auxiliaries. The suffix/ -ye/ can , / hema/ must' and / yaye/ should. cha tho jyaye you it do+can You can do it dokh mha nu chanhu ci all men oneday die All man must die one day w jya yaye mo tyo he work should not do He should not work hard
4.2.1.6 PASSIVE FORMATION

he ma must

The passive voice is realised by the word / pakh/ in Newari Language. The passive marker/ pakh/ occurs after the noun or pronoun. new bakh maiju kalpana pakh hileja yaha gudu

542

newari story Mrs. kalpana by work The Newari story was translated by Mrs. Kalpana

done

mari ji pakh bread I + by The bread was eaten by me

nayala eat+ p.t.

Degrees of Comparison

Two degrees of comparison have been identified that is the comparative and superlative degree. The word / sik/ is used to denote than. Comparative Degree keyegu sik biyigu receiving than giving Giving is better than receiving bala better

Mr. Baskaran sik Mr. Anand Baskaran than Anand Mr. Anand is wiser than Mr. Baskaran jigu saher siliguri my city siliguri My city is bigger than siliguri
Superlative Degree

buddhiman wiser

sik than

tadaMu bigger

The superlative degree is realised by using the indefinite adjective with the comparative marker. jigu jyethaye edward dakw sik taDi ka my office+in Mr. Edward all than tall Mr. Edward is tallest in my office

4.2.1.7 TRANSITIVITY

Transitive verb requires an object (expressed or implied) to complete its meaning. The effect of the action denoted by the verb falls on the subject. Transitive Verb

543

nayi byu ko
Intransitive Verb

eat give hit

A verb which dose not take direct object is an intransitive verb. dy bwa kalha sleep run speak

Syu know d Sland w dy he sleeps He sleeps chaku birds + Birds fly ta pl. boh fly

ji bar ha ch goya I fence jump over I jump over fence cha ku cho bird sits Bird sits

4.2.2 ADVERB

Adverbs are classified into three groups in Newari such as Adverb of place, Adverb of manner and Adverb of time.
Adverb of Place

To denote Adverb of place the form occurs independently before the verb that is either substantive or main verb. These are / pih/ out side and / tapakh/ far wa bhutuli pih he kitchen outside He went outside kitchen sim l ya ukhe pakh du wona go +p.t.

544

tree road upper side is The tree is on that side of the road

ji gno tapakh I village far I am far from the village jigu sargah coye du us sky above is The sky is above us
Adverb of Manner

du is

The adverb of manner is expressed by different suffixes. tasak safa yana chi sa kh b lak tas k kh lha loud +ly speak Speak loudly safa yana ch neat + ly write Write neatly chi sa kh nyase h slow+ ly walk +do Walk slowly chaMu s b la k you haie neat +ly Comb your hair neatly
Adverb of Time

loudly neatly slowly neatly

chyo comb

The adverb of time occurs either before or after the noun or pronoun . kanhe thy tomorrow today 545

miga

yesterday

kanhe ji pikchor Soye tomorrow I picture see +pr.t. I will see the picture tomorrow ji jhoM woye I today come I do not come today w miga wo la he yesterday come p.t. he came yesterday ji guble chanta nhapa I ever you(pl) before I have never seen you before makhana not+ seen makhu not vb.

4.2.3 PARTICLE

There are three particles realised in this language namely, Connective particle, Correlative and Compulsive particle.

Connective Particle

/wah/ and and

/tara/

but dola fall+p.t.

jigu tuti chul hula wah ji my foot slipped and I My foot is slipped and I fall down ji won e maku kha tara ji I go f.t. had to but I I had to go but I did not go Correlative Particle The correlative particle occurs after the main verb. cha gulli bila ullihe ji

mowona not+go+ p.t.

kaye

546

you howmuch give that much I can take howmuch you give
Compulsive Particle

take + will

The compulsive particle occurs after the main verb. w jya yaye maju he work should not+do He should not do this work ji won e I go I had to go maku kha had to

cha jigu ch waye hema you my house in come must You must come to my house
4.2.4 ECHO FORMATION

A compound whose second member repeats the first with an initial consonant or syllable altered with the general meaning and the like. In Newari, the phoneme / -s / occurs as a second component and it gives out the meaning of etc jakhi tarkari mhanu macha jabj khradhl sakhi sarkari sanu sacha babj sna sl rice etc vegetable etc man etc child etc curry etc., food etc., pulses etc.,

547

4.

SYNTAX

Newari is a subject + object + verb SOV language . Newari sentence consists of a noun phrase which functions as the subject and a predicate phrase . There can be no sentence without a predicate sometimes predicate itself may stand for a sentence phe tu d sit down stand up

5.1 ORDER OF WORDS IN SENTENCES

The order of words in Newari is subject + object + verb w he sa cow w he s cha wood cuts gha y grass nah eats He cuts the wood

Cow eats the grass

chak yata keku bird +case hits

He hits the bird

5.2 DESCRIPTION OF TYPES OF SENTENCES

There are six types of sentences realized namely Affirmative, Imperative, Interrogative, Negative, Causative and Co-ordinate sentences.
Affirmative Sentences

sur dhiyo sun ji I

suthe bo morning rises naya eat

Sun rises in the morning

nini za daily rice

I eat rice daily

Imperative Sentences

The command is realised by rising tone of the verb.

ana h there go Go there

548

thana wa here come come here

Interrogative Sentences

The Interrogative is generally made by separate forms like/ chu/ means what sometimes the intonation of the sentence is also used to denote the question chu ji ana won e what I there go+f.t. Shall I go there? S Sulaye dula anyone school+in available Any body is available in the school
Negative Sentences

The negation is realised by the form / -ma/ which is prefixed with the verb substantive . The negative verb is also used with the main verb. ji thoM woye makhugu I today come not+vb. I do not come today

Causative Sentences The action of cause is expressed by the suffix/ -ye/ in Newari which occurs with the main verb. Ji wita me haye ke tene I her song sing+cause do+will I will make her sing a song ji wita wa sa nakaye choya I her medicine eat+made did I made her eat the medicine Coordinative Sentences The coordination is a process to form a full sentence. The particles conjunctions are used to form a coordinate sentence.

549

jigu tuti chul hula wa h ji kuttuwolla my foot slipped and I fell down My foot is slipped and felldown ch hu wah lih wo home go and back come Go home and come back wah nya maku tara that fish not but Not that fish but this fish nonya this fish

5.3 DESCRIPTION OF PATTERNS OF THE SENTENCES

There are three patterns of the Newari sentences, Simple, Compound and Complex.

Simple Sentence

A sentence which has one subject and one predicate form is called simple sentence. sur dhiyo suthe bo sun morning rises Sun rises in the morning ji nini za I daily rice I eat rice daily cakh ta boh birds fly Birds are flying tho mhanu k kha this man blind is This man is blind naya eat

550

ana hu there go Go there

d Stand up dona di Sa stand please Stand up please w ana madu he where not + available He is not available chu ji wayeSa what I come+ may May I come there ? chu cha tho Mayaifu can you this do+can Can you do this work?

Compound Sentence

Two main clause sentences are joined to denote a single sentence with the help of the particles are called compound sentences.

che h wah lih house go and back Go home and come back

wo come

ji won e magukhe tara I go+f.t. had but I had to go but I did not go

ji I

mowona not +go+p.t.

551

Complex Sentence

One main clause and one or more than one subordinate clauses jointly make a single sentence called complex sentence. l ye nyase wana kh bale w chamo simh goman khana road walk while noticed he one dead cobra saw Walking along the road, he noticed a dead cobra w wola yadi jip dabli won e phai makhu he come if we threat go f.t. can Even if he comes, we can not go w wogu kanDaye ji kh lha ye he comes in case I talk + will In case if he comes I will talk to him

not

nithoM bh lagu khana ji today fine seems I Weather being fine I went out

pih out

wona went

sah nyana macha dhana sound heared child waked up Hearing the sound, the child woke up

552

BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES

Acharya K.P. Benedict, Paul K. B.Bernard and G.L. Trager Giridhar. P.P. Grierson,George Abraham. Jones, Daniel, Mahapatra, B.P. & et.al

1983 Lotha Grammar, C.I.I.L. Grammar Series No.10 1972 Sino-Tibetan: A conspectus. J.A.Matisoff(Ed.) 1972 Outline of Linguistic Analysis, New Delhi Oriental Books, Reprint Corporation.

1980 Angami Grammar, Mysore, CIIL Grammar Series No.1 1967 Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. III Part I Tibeto-Burman Family, Himalayuan Dialects, North Assam Groups, Delhi, Motilal Banarasidas. 1960 An Outline of English Phonetics, Cambridge, England w. Heffner and Sons Ltd. 1989 The Written Languages of the World: A Survey of the Degree and Modes of Use. Government of India, New Delhi and Laval University Press, Canada. 1999 Tonal contrasts in Sherpa in Topics in Nepalese Linguistics, Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu. 1961 Language Tables, Vol.I part II-C(ii), Governemnt of India, Delhi 1981 Population by language/mother tongue, C-7 Tables, Part IV B(I), Government of India, Delhi 1991 Language Tables, Vol.I part II-C(ii), Governemnt of India, Delhi 1991 Bilingualism and Trilingualism, Table C-8 Part IV B (i) (b), Governemnt of India, Delhi

Y.P.Yadav and W.W.Glower Census of India Census of India Census of India Census of India

553

NEWARI TEXT

gate yana kwo wokh haku mha sarp yata syata how crow-hen by black snake+case kill+p.t. faile jugu chagu spreading a barmaya banyan tree kacha ye branch cha mha one kwo wo crow and

woya kala cholach gu jula his live p.t. Among the spreading branches of a banyan tree lived a crow and his wife.
imi there

swahye pyaMa chichidaMu kh la nest four little eggs

guRiyata wo ya mabau which there parents

n that

tasak katakah pal b iya chona . great care guarded p.t. In the nest were four little eggs which were guarded with great care. woh simakhaya chagu hotaye that tree-trunk one hole chamha sarp s khana kwohta one snake who see crow

tasakan gyanachona choMu jula greatly feared live p.t. In a hollow of that tree trunk lived a black snake whom the crows feared greatly. misa kwo n she crow kh tho patik sarp egg-laideach tree snake suluwo ya slowly swahye nest

duhgu nayachoMu jula reside eat live p.t. Every time the crow hen laid her eggs the snake crawled up to the nest and ate them up

554

yedi hana If again

thathe yana little this

sarp kh snake egg

nala dha sa jitho simay eat it I + this tree+on

chone he makhuta now live wont live If the black snake eats up my eggs this time also, I will refuse to live in this tree any longer. jhi s jhi gu swah megutha saye hedayeke we our nest another tree make mali misa should she kwo n crow her

tha batha yata dhala her husband told We must build our nest somewhere else, said the mother bird to her husband. jhip thana chona chonagu yek ko we have been living long daye dhun kala j wakuchiya since already I bear

jigu ch yata totah neitha saye chone wo ne mafu kwo n dhala my house+to desert elsewhere live go donot crow that said I cant bear to desert my home and go to live elsewhere said the crow ip kha thana choMu takay imi koye s sarp ya fwa sah tala they while talking sometime their beneath snakes hiss sound heard While they were talking they heard a hissing sound just below them. imi s silaki wo sah chukhah dhaka they knew that sound what was They knew what the sound meant. ip lachar juya thahgu khy teyeta pahbiya swab chona they helplessly being their eggs protect They sat helplessly in their nest trying to protect their eggs. hakugumha black pakh toward sarp snake choye high up sul swahya slowly nest wa and nap wola al near came

555

fwa sa pikana w jangra tayeta juk ke swala hissing sound with he birds strike Tried Then with a loud hiss he tried to strike the birds who flew away in terror. jhaMata gyana bwoya wo na chagah chagah yana birds feared they went away one one by hakumha sarp khta ghutina black snake eggs swallowed One by one the black snake swallowed the eggs. ma bau parents dhunkala be ah now won they khali empty bn laka leaving jui nest siya knew

juidhaka rightly

dukhi man swahy lyah wola sorrow heart nest back came The parents came back sadly to their nest knowing well that they would find it empty. kwo n crow the dha la ji said I tho this gyanapumha scarred sarp snake

yata jhwayayegu chapu l male he mah to kill+ to one way have to find The crow said, I must find a way to destroy this murderous snake. chao you gathe yana how woh that nap hwai fight he wa wa nyaigu gathe his bitting how

gyanapu kala n atecha ya dhata deadly black snake dispearsed said How can you ever fight him? His sting is so deadly, said his wife in despair. chaye why jigu my atechaye mau worry not chamha one jigu my chalakh mha clever priye dear pasa du friend is w who

556

woh that dhaya saying

bishale poisionous won that

sarp snake

yata sya yefu to kill sim tree pakhe toward

athe by bwo la flew

meMu another

Do not worry, my dear, I have got a friend who is cunning enough to destroy the most poisonous of snakes, said the crow, and off he flew. gukilya which koye under j I woye his woyata him to dhunagu planned yahmha best syayegu killed pasa Dhcha friend Jackal chagu one gwosa plan

jula gyaye mate lived worry not mati thought taye already

To a friend, Jackal, which lived under a tree .When the Jackal heard he said, I have already thought of a plan to destroy him. oh dah we tell dh n na jackal dhale won that what chu kha kwo matter crow the n said dhala ale then chusah whispered

sun taye dhaka anyone heard might syayeta something

gyagy by fearing chuyaye mha should

n sarp yata snake to kill

Then the Jackal fearing he might be over heard whispered to his friend what he should do to destroy the snake. dhak her pasa mesta friend to dhala told kwo crow bwoya flew

thah kala thaya lih wola wo gwosaya his wife place back come and plan The crow flew back to his wife and tolod her about the plan.

557

bare about gya napu risky

woyata to her kwo n crow the

dhala tho told it dh la said

tasak why jhip me tasa k very

hoSiyar jui ma cheerful should be It is rather risky, said the crow. We will have to be very careful. Ji I ji gu my kh tayeta egg+ to rachya protect

yayeta yaye ma kwo n ma gyas dhala what ever to do mother crow bravely said I will do any thing to save my eggs said the mother bird bravely. ale so ip they dheya country juju ya layeku pakh king palace fowards layku palace

bwoya wona ip flew they

choMu sim wo lived free that

yek ko tapagu majula too far away not So off they flew towards the palce of the King of the country. ip they pukhuti pond laye kuya palace thyena reached kya baya garden gana where chagu one tadhaMu big

layaku ya mista royal ladies

mohluya imis khana bathing they saw They approached a big pond in the palace where they saw the royal ladies having a bath. imis thagu they their lya matah gold chain motiya pearls manta necklaces wo a

558

memegu other

tisata jewellers

pukhu pond

sithe edge

toTa laid

They laid their golden chains and pearl necklaces and other jewellary on the edge of the pond. ma jhaMaboya mother flying mah jona bul gold chain+carry slowly kta woya mhu tuch la l ya came-down mouth beak the tah choMu sim pakha bwobgu where live tree towards flew

The mother bird came down and picked the golden chain in her beak and started flying toewards the tree where she lived. jaba layekuya pah lah na kwana when palace guard crow gold khana ip so thahgu bhalata saw they their sword When the palce guards saw the crow carrying glod chain took up their swords and chased it. jwona holding kwo n crow kha na saw sima tree likayeta to take out wo that simay tree wo ma h that chain choye up thahgu his kwoya crow+to chagu one kayeta to take gala climbed lhadune hand picha yata followed hotaye hole cha mha one gathe w when he chola put imis wo they that kurkugu dropped pahlah guard mah chain mah male luy mah kaya bwogu chain carry flew

They saw the bird dropping the chain in the hole , and one guard climbed by the tree to get the chain. As he put his hand inside the hole

559

w he choMu reside kayeku strike auta end

naku mha black kha na saw balaye while wola came

Sarp snake

cha mha one w chath he once woh that haku mha black

kuli china curl bhal club sarp ya snakes

He saw a black snake curled up there . With one hard stroke of his club he killed it and that was the end of the black snake. woh dhunka afterwards kwo crow simay in tree dayeka had sukh happily imis they yek ko many kwo wo crow and chona lived masta little woya his kala wife wo that

The crow and the crow hen lived in that tree happily after wards and had many little baby crows.

------------------------------------------------------X---------------------------------------------------

560

MANGARI
S. GANESH BASKARAN 1. INTRODUCTION The present study gives out the grammatical sketch of Mangari language spoken in Sikkim state based on the data collected at the time of field investigation during March 2000.
1.1 FAMILY AFFILIATION

According to Grierson (1909: Vol. III) Mangari Language belongs to the NonPronominalized Himalayan group of Tibeto-Burman sub family. As per the subsequent classification by Paul Benedict Mangari (in Sikkim) belongs to the Himalayan group of Tibetan Kanauri (a.k.a. Bodish-Himalayish) branch of Tibeto Burman sub-family. [Benedict: 1972]
1.2 LOCATION

The name of the tribe sometimes spelt Magar and sometimes Mangari. The Mangari form is used commonly in Darjeeling (West Bengal). The Mangars are one of the fighting tribes of Nepal like the Gurungs, Sunwars and Khas, they belong to the group known as mukhya that is chief. The old home of the Mangars are the central and lower in the western part of Nepal. They are now found over most parts of Nepal and in India they are scattered in Darjeeling and other districts of West Bengal, Sikkim and also in Assam especially in Naga Hills.
1.3 SPEAKERS STRENGTH

According to the last appeared Census data on Mangari (i.e. 1961) speaker strength is given below

India / State/U.T. India Assam Maharastra West Bengal Andaman and Nocobar Island North East Frontier Agency Sikkim

Total 1136 495 1 557 1 22 60

Male 616 267 306 1 21 21

Female 520 228 1 251 1 39

[The bilingualism data is not available in Vol. I part II-c(ii) Language Tables of 1961 Census.] 561

1.4

SOCIO LINGUISTIC SETTINGS

Magar is popularly known as Mangaris in Sikkim. The Mangaris were one of the three dominant and militant communities of Nepal along with Chettries and Gurungs. Like Gurungs they also formed the backbone of Gurkha regiments in British Army. Their original homeland was in Western Nepal from where they had migrated to Eastern Nepal and finally came to Sikkim. The Mangari community is divided into a number of exogamous and patrilineal groups, like Pulami, Ala, Kepchake, Guranga etc. The main function of the groups is to regulate marriage alliances. Each of these groups is having one or more Gotras. Community endogamy and Gotras exogamy are in practice among the Mangaris who accepts cross cousin marriage. Adult marriage is the rule. Marriage is of two types viz. (i) mangni biha (marriage by negotiation) and (ii) chori biha (marriage by elopment). Monogamy is common but polygamy is also allowed. Land is the main resource of the Mangari community and they practice terrace cultivation. Hunting and gathering are also among their traditional occupations. Though agriculture is their main occupation. They are ready to accept any kind of occupation. The Mangaris speak in their own Mangari mother tongue at home but outside their group they communicate in Nepali mostly. The script is used by them for writing the language. In Sikkim they are mainly concentrated in south and east districts. The Mangaris have a rich tradition of folk songs, folklore and folk tales. As a mother tongue Mangari is used both in home and extra home domains. In home and extra kin situation the use of mother tongue is related in three ways in descending order of generation, that is, parent ego children. Since the children of these days are exposed to other languages through education most often their speech is mixed with Nepali and with English. That is why the use of mother tongue is more among the aged and the middle aged people. Whereas among the young extent of use of mother tongue is comparatively less. Among the women the use of mother tongue is more comparison to the men folk. In the domain of Education the role of Mangari is evident in the oral communication level. So, far as the verbal interaction between the Mangari teacher and students inside and outside the classroom is concerned. Mangari is taught upto the Primary level in the schools, were Mangari is taught as a subject, there Mangari is found both in oral and written extend. Mangari people use the script called akhaRa In the Administration although all written correspondences are through Nepali and English. Mangari is used as the medium of the verbal interaction between the Mangari officers and staffs. The state Government imparts training to the officials in Mangari language for smooth running of Administration and building up of a cordial relation with the Mangari people. In the level of Judiciary also the use of Mangari language is restricted among the community people in the informal oral communication.

562

In the domain of Mass media, the folk music, riddles and stories in Mangari language are telecast in Gangtok by doordarshan and private television chanals time to time as a part of promoting their culture. The Government of Sikkim encourages Mangari people to continue their cultural programme in Mangari in respective festive occasions. The local magazines like Sikkim Herald publishing the poems and stories in Mangari language along with translated works. The Sikkim Government patronises preparation of dictionary and glossaries in Mangari language and extends necessary financial aids to the welfare association of Mangari for the purpose of promoting the language. In the Assembly also the legislative members with the Mangari background are allowed to express their view through Mangari language and versions simultaneously get translated into Nepali language to make it legible for non- Mangari speakers. Thus, it is evident that though the Nepali, being the superimposed variety controls the formal domains, but as a mother tongue Mangari also has a very important role in the sociolinguistic settings of the Sikkim state as a whole.

1.5 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

So far the earlier literature on Mangari language is concerned mention may be made about the following. Under the heading MGARI a sketchy grammar of Mangari language has been given by Sir George Abraham Grierson in Linguistic Survey of India Vol. III Part. I (1909: pp. 206-211), where pronunciation, Article, Noun, Gender, Number, Case, Post Positions, Adjective, Particles, Numerals, Pronouns, Verb substantives, Tense, Verbal noun, Participles, Causative and Negative verbs have been discussed along with the order of words in Mangari. A research paper on MORPHOPHONOLOGICAL RULES IN MANGAR is given by Mr. Subhadra Subba Dahal in the book Topics in Nepalese linguistics edited by Y.P. Yadava and W. W. Glover , Royal Nepal Academy in 1999.

563

2. PHONOLOGY
2.1 PHONEMIC INVENTORY

As per the filed data the Mangari language has got 33 phonemes. Of which 5 are vowels and 28 are consonants. These phonemes can be classified into two types according to its sonority that is Segmental and Supra segmental phonemes
2.1.1 SEGMENTAL PHONEMES

Vowels Front High Mid Low i e a* Back u o

*The italised /a/ actually represents the low front unrounded vowel /a/ Consonants Bilabial Labio dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. Stops p Aspirants ph Ficatives Nasals Laterals/Asp . Flap/Tap Semi vowel b bh f m s z n l r w T Th D c ch S j k jh kh g gh h M

R y

2.1.2

Nasalisation is the only suprasegmental feature realized in mangari language.

In Mangari all the vowels get nasalised and nasalisation is phonemic. // s kochi mig ja death scissors gum

564

//

ghrua bla jwi mijn Tm migtho minhwaM g dum MigRa M ki

spider dish sisters husband hip wheat ankle nostrill island knee sit

//

//

//

Contrasting Pairs (vowels) / i~e / im en en ar house law law canopy

/ e~ a /

/ o ~ a/

sokki garTi Thor Tuga

sweet answer ox star

/ o~ u /

Contrasting Pairs (consonants) / p~b / piraDi barap Takor meTok Dainelak cer ja konya gur current ashes spitoon right side diahorea clay bachelor dust

/ T~D /

/ c~ j /

/ k ~g /

565

/ p~ ph /

piraDi pherkhi baRop bhalya Tuga Thor cer chumpak ja jhirluM konya khon gur ghichin pherkhi fer sisam miza sisam bo Sya konya hajiklam melap nini ma Ma maklak jhirluM piraDi ciRa

current sun shine ashes cock star ox diahorea darkness clay hailstone bachelor daughter in law dust bat sun shine ray seasame child seasame apple bachelor road flame son in laws mother not I slope hailstone current brook

/ b ~bh /

/ T~ Th /

/ c~ ch /

/ j~ jh /

/ k~ kh /

/ g~ gh /

/ ph~ f /

/ s~ z /

/ s~ S /

/ k~ h /

/m~ n /

/m ~ M /

/l~r /

/ D~ R /

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/ w~ y /

warmi yambu

person rain bow

2.2 PHONEMIC DESCRIPTION AND DISTRIBUTION

Vowels The Mangari language has five vowels.The description and distribution of the same is shown below. / i / high front unrounded short vowel occurs in all three positions. im piraDi juki / e/ house current defeat

mid high front unrounded short vowel occurs in all three positions. en fer gaMce law ray tall

/ a / low front unrounded short vowel occurs in all three positions. ar ragu u sa canopy lion medicine

/ o / mid high back rounded vowel occurs in all three positions. osoki mochoR masTo itch mosquito women

/ u / high back rounded vowel occurs in all three positions. u sa luM tunchu
Consonants

medicine rock seventy

The description and distribution of the consonants shown below.

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/ p / voiceless bilabial stop occurs in all three positions. piraDi current rapoT ground berap ashes / b / voiced bilabial stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions. boluM Dbu lime stone fog

/ T / voiceless retroflex stop occurs in all three positions. Tuga baTis MeT /D/ star nephew cow

voiced retroflex stop occurs in all three positions. Di jaDi thapoD water swamp state

/c/

voiceless palatal stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions. cerk f i calah diarrhea green colour leaf

/ j / voiced palatal stop occurs in all three positions. ja mija deraj clay baby cup board

/ k / voiceless velar stop occurs in all three positions. konya wurki kirik bachelor fly parrot

/ g / voiced velar stop occurs in all three positions. gur Digua

Tag

dust duck
hill

568

/ ph / aspirated voiceless bilabial stop occurs in the initial position. phicha / bh / green

aspirated voiced bilabial stop occurs in the medial positions. bha lya cock

/ Th / aspirated voiceless retroflex stop occurs in the initial positions. Thor ox

/ ch/ aspirated voiceless palatal stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions. chanja marchuli bride groom ant hill

/jh / aspirated voiced palatal stop occurs in the initial positions. jhirliM hail stone

/ kh / aspirated voiceless velar stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions. khon namkhan / gh / daughter in law sun

aspirated voiced velar stop occurs in the initial positions. ghichin bat

/f/

voiceless labio dental fricative occurs in the initial and the medial positions. fer misasferki ray breath

/s/

voiceless alveolar fricative occurs in all three positions. sim namsu namas wood air river

569

/z/

voiced alveolar fricative occurs in the medial positions. miza child

/ S / voiceless palatal fricative occurs in the initial and the medial positions. Sali boSya daughter in law apple

/ h / voiceless glottal fricative occurs in all three positions. haTche gyo hoT miTah /m/ boil moon face

bilabial nasal occurs in all three positions miT a h namsu nam face cyclone forest

/n/

alveolar nasal occurs in all three positions. nini menket migin son in laws mother ear liver

/M /

velar nasal occurs in all three positions. Met luMDal boluM cow cave lime stone

/l/

alveolar lateral occurs in all three positions. luM maklak sarel rock slope panther

/r/

alveolar trill occurs in all three positions. rapoT pira Di gur ground current dust

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/R/

retroflex flap occurs in the medial and the final positions. ciRa mochoR brook mosquito

/w/

bilabial semi vowel occurs in all three positions. wokya miwuT chiw bed bug hand dog

/y/

palatal semi vowel occurs in the initial and the medial positions. yabu hya rain bow farm land

2.3 MAJOR ALLOPHONIC DISTRIBUTION

The five vowels and two consonants have the allophonic variations Vowels / i / The high front unrounded short vowel has two allophones [ I ] and [ i ]

[I] The lower high front unrounded short vowel occurs between consonants [ cIRa ] [ sIM ] [i] /ciRa/ / siM / brook wood

high front unrounded vowel occur elsewhere

/ e / The mid high front unrounded short vowel has two allophones [ A ] and [ e ]

[A ] The mid central unrounded short vowel occurs between consonants [ fAr] [e] it occurs elsewhere / fer/ ray

571

/ a / The low front unrounded short vowel has two allophones [ a ] and [ a ]

[a ] The low back unrounded short vowel occurs between the consonants [ namsu ] [ ahat ] [ a ] it occurs elsewhere /o/ The mid high back rounded short vowel has two allophones [ O ] and [ o ] /namsu/ / ahat/ cyclone respect

[ O ] mid low back rounded short vowel occurs between consonants [wOrche ] [ dIlyOu ] [ o ] occurs elsewhere /worche/ /dilyou / bed bug moss

/u/

The high back rounded short vowel has two allophones [ U ] and [ u ] [U] lower high back rounded short vowel occurs between consonants [ miTDUM ] [ abU rUk ] [ u ] occurs elsewhere /miTD uM/ / aburuk/ cliff ornaments

Consonants Two consonants have got allophones that is /n / and /l / /n/ The alveolar nasal has two allophones [ M ] and [ n ]

[ M ] The palatal nasal occurs before the palatal stop and semi vowels [ gaMji ] [ guMyu ] [n] occurs elsewhere /ganji / /gunyu/ bannian apron

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/l/

The alveolar lateral consonant has two allophones [ L ] [L] The retroflex lateral occurs between vowels [ muLLa ] [l] occurs elsewhere / mulla/

and [ l ]

raddish

2.4 CLUSTERS

Two or more phonomes pronounced jointly called cluster. In Mangari both the vowel and consonant clusters are identified Vowel Clusters There are five vowel clusters indentified that is / ui , ua, oi, ai and au/ Dibui gharua boigan daine aule Consonant Clusters There are two types of clusters identified in Magar language. The two member consonant clusters are realized in the initial and medial position. Among these, the medial two consonant clusters are frequent Initial Two Consonant Clusters jwgw by cy my Dy jy Syjy hy gy sy sp jwi gwajako byu cyal myarkin Dyabu jya Than Sy jyama hyami gyacha sya ki spat sisters husband(y) birds mouse vulture finger nail thumb rice bear flesh meal farmer red dancer steel fog spider brinjal arm maleria

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Medial Two Consonant Clusters - ms- MD - TD - mch - rl - nch - rb - kl - ry - rb - rm - ny - nj - sT - rD - mk - ly - Ml - mr - Tl - Mb - sy - my - sD - rk - rl - rj - rbh - rkh - ps - nT - br - nkh - rk - rch - kch - ks - nh - ml - kk - lD -pr - rk namsu luMDal miTDuM chumchak jhirluM kancha chirba maklak charcharya chirb barmiy kony lenja masTo mija goborDu namki gwabhalya saMli namrah paT laMi laMburcha Disy jimy gsDi miyer kin sarl forjache lirbha loterkhe Dapsiya jonTomiza debr punkhi Misasferki jhercha lik che mifokso minhep sumlu bik ki DolDu lapro sarkoT air cave cliff darkness hail stone heat lightening slope stream swamp mankind bachelor boy daughter dung bug smell cock cock roach deer earth worm elephant fish fly honey nail leopard monkey rhinoceros squirrel bug animal ( young) left birth breath health lazy lung mucus ( of nose ) muscle pain ring worm scap shoulder

574

- TT-pch - kD - sy -Tk -jy-mj -mph - kch - rch - rp - tl - rk - mch - Ml - ny - nT - km - lm - hr - sm - rch - tr - Tb - MT - rbh - Rd - rz - pr - rp - kch - TT -Tk - rr - tm - Tb - kr - My - kl - ks - Mr - rT - km - Mch - Mc - nk -

MipiTTa jepche MimikDi misyak usajyaTki usajyaTki namja bamphok chokche Disya merche churpi kitli birko gyemche naMle gunyu ganTi chakma bilma muhroli osma archa majetro kaTba rin siMTaMma arbha paRda marza Dipri tirpal lakcheja iTTa SyaTaTki sarroboigi kyutma geT boT bokra chaMyasar Dakla TiksiM kaMra ba rTol rikma TeMche chuMce sonka

bile sweet tears tooth treatment treatment bag blade dried fish butter cheese kettle lid pitcher winnowing basket apron bell belt dress flute mirror needle shawl bed sheet bench courtyard curtain hut lantern tent threshing floor wall farming gardening equipments bamboo barks marigold straw teak tree basket hammer printer bright dim doubt

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- Mm - ml - Rch - rg - Tk - Mj - Ts -

maraM mo mamla muhaRche swarga soTki boluMja kaT sora

happiness case innocent heaven rise lime firm

2.5 SYLLABLE

Up to four syllable words are identified in Magar language. Generally the two syllabic words are more frequent Monosyllabic (open) CV CCV CCV Monosyllabic (close) VC CVC CVC Disyllabic (open) CV - CV CVC - CV CV - CVV ciRa nams Di bui brook cyclone fog os noM nam dew sky forest Di mhe byu water fire mouse

Disyllabic (Close) CV- CVC CV - CVC CCV - CVC CCV- CVC Trisyllabic (open) CV-CV-CV CV-CV-CVV CVC-CV-CV piraDi Diliyou saMliya current moss grand son miDuM janok gyohaT gwaMan clilf earth moon hen

576

Trisyllabic (close) CVCC-CV-CVC CV-CV-CVC Tetrasyllabic (open) CV-CV-CV-CV CVC-CV-CV-CV Tetrasyllabic (close) CV-CV-CVC-CVC CV-CV-CVC-CVC baRajilum bamachukaT snow fifty one doMsnabik maja luM new moon night pebble

memeTuka masTomija

comet daughter

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3.MORPHOPHONEMICS The alternants of morphemes when they occur with the various kinds of suffixes, phonological variations which take place within a morpheme called morphophonemics. In Magar, most of the morphophonemic rules refer to deletion, alternation and metathesis. Deletion 1. When the negation is prefixed to the verb stem the initial vowel of the verb stem is deleted ma + ale ma ale > male not available ma not ale available Instead of / maale / for not available it is realised as / male /

rah come ale present tense marker rah + ale rah ale > rahle come Instead of / rahale / come it is realised as / rahle /

2. When a noun is formed of two components with the suffixing of the noun with another noun the final syllable of the former noun component is deleted gwaja + jhol gwaja jhol chicken soup gwajajhol > gwajol chicken soup

Instead of / gwajajhol / for chicken soup it is realised as /gwajol /

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4.MORPHOLOGY Morphology deals with the internal structure of words. It deals with the derivational and inflectional aspects of words. In Magar language, a simple word can be defined as one, which is pronounced with a potential pause before and after it. A word must contain at least one stem, which is a free form. In Magar, a stem can be defined as one, which is a free form and is capable of taking inflectional and derivational affixes Stem classes in Magar; can be divided into different groups on the basis of the inflectional endings. The forms, which show identical inflectional behavior, can be called as form class. Accordingly the form classes divided into Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Conjunction and Postpositions.
4.1 NOUN

Nouns are of two types Animate and Inanimate. The Animate nouns are divided into Simple and Derived nouns. The simple nouns are further divided into mass and countable nouns Noun | /\ Simple derived Simple Noun A noun, which cannot be further divided that is a free form, is called Simple noun. It can be divided into two categories such as Mass noun and Countable noun. Mass Noun namsu Dibu ja os Count Noun naMkhan mija Tuga moi gwaMen Derived Noun Some nouns are derived from the noun and the verb abha + kasche art doer N + suffix 579 abha kasche artist sun baby star mother hen air cloud clay dew

DuM + che+mi DuMchemi gold + prepare+man N + vb + N jumakasche

gold smith

juma+ kas + che sweet+prepare+do noun + suffix

sweet maker

bore+ ya hunt+ do vb + suffix hya + mi work +man vb + doer Me che beg + doer vb + suffix Dasak + kas+cho shoe + maker +vb siT+ che+ barmi clean+do+ man vb + vb + N

boreya

hunter

hyami

labourer

Meche

begger

Dasak kascho

shoe maker

siTchebarmi

sweeper

Number The plural for non-human noun is marked by the suffix / - ko/ where as the /kurik / is the form added with the nominal and pronominal forms to denote plurality. Singular im chiw Met mhar house dog cow ant Plural im ko chiw ko Met ko mhar ko houses dogs cows ants

580

Ma letaM nis I have two I have two small houses hokurik chiwko ale those dog + pl Those are dogs ise nis baRako these two big These are two big houses

maja small

imklio house+pl

imko house+

ale are

Gender Gender formation in Mangari is not grammatical. There are two different forms for masculine and feminine. Male ThoR bull len ja husband chanja bride groom niba son in laws father Female neT cow mahaja wife bouja bride nini son in laws mother

Sometimes / masTo/, / len ja / , / Man / are prefixed or suffixed with noun to distinguish between masculine and feminine nouns. masTo mija lenja mija chiw chiw Man lenja masTo female child male child dog, male bitch boy girl

Case There are nine cases identified in the Mangari language they are Accusative, Dative, Instrumental, Genitive, Locative, Ablative, Associative and Benefactive case. The Nominative case is unmarked

581

Accusative Case This case is realized by the suffix/ -ki/ mizoi child naku ki you+case Child sees you DaMle see+pr.t.

Ma naku ki DaMle I you+case see+pr.t. I see you

Instrumental Case This case is realized by the suffix / -ai / Ma siM+ara+ai chiya I tree+saw+with cut I cut the tree with the saw

Mai MeTki DaMa+ai DuMa I cow+case stick+with beat+pr.t. I beat the cow with the stick Mai siM raM ai chiya. I tree sickle with cut I cut the tree with the sickle

Dative Case This case is realised by the suffix / -aM / ase kanun imaM she our house+case She comes to our house Ma hiyaM nuMle I field + to go+pr.t. I go to the field ase askuM lenja khaTa bariyaM she husband with garden+to She had gone to the garden with her husband nuw /num niya had gone rahale come+pr.t.

582

Sometimes dative case is expressed without any marker hokarik sipya khana They study centre They go to school nuMle go+pr.t.

Genitive Case This case is realised by the suffix - / kuM /. Ma Mau has askuM nokarikuM Mo my askuM her lenja mija boy mikuTta/mihi leg I my he his/her their My son

Her leg

hokarikuM moi ko Their mothers their mother +pl

Locative Case This case is realised by the suffix / -eM / Ma Mo imeMle I my house+in I am in my house Ma siMoM pahiMaMle I tree branch+in I am on the branch of the tree M eT hiyeM chas na Mume cow field+in grass +ing Cow is grazing in the field

583

Ablative Case This case is realised by the suffix / -lekiM /, it occurs with the noun arTum tree lha arTumlekiM jhala leave tree+from fall The leaves of the tree fall from the tree

ase jyoMa im lekiM nuMniya he kitchen room from had gone He had gone from the kitchen namas namlekiM rain sky+from Rain fall from the sky Sociative Case This case is realised by the suffix / -khaTa / Ma Mouboi khaTa Mule I father with to live I live with my father ase askuM lenja-khaTa bariyaM she her husband with to garden She went to the garden with her husband nuw go+p.t. rahle falls+pr.t.

Benefactive Case This case is realised by the suffix / kenaM / Mai Mouboyo kenaM naMrihi rika I father sake novel wrote I wrote the novel for the shake of my father Mai I Moulaphou kenaM krikeT gesle friends sake cricket to play I play cricket for the sake of my friend

584

Post Position The postpositions are differentiated from the case markers because they occur independently after noun/pronoun whereas the case suffixes cannot. The following are some of the post position listed below along with usage. miTak kherep numlek maklak chewoM miDDum Denam khaTwa above near behind under beside top above together etc.

ase arTum maklak misle he tree under sleeps He sleeps under the tree gwaja arTuM miTak bird tree above Bird sits on the tree Mule sits

4.1.3

PRONOUN

There are five types of pronouns identified in Mangari language such as Personal Pronoun, Demonstrative Pronoun, Interrogative Pronoun ,Indefinite Pronoun and Reflexive Pronoun Personal Pronoun The personal pronouns are three that is First personal, Second personal and Third personal. The first personal pronoun refers to the speaker, the second personal pronoun refers to the hearer and the third personal pronoun refers to the person or object other than the speaker and hearer Person Ist person IInd person IIIrd person Singular Ma I naku you(sl) ase he has she ise it Plural kan/kankuri we nakurik you (pl)

hokarik

they

585

Ma nakuki DaMle I you+case see I see you kanai nakuki we you+case We see you DaMle see

nakoi Maki DaMle you me see You (sg) see me nakurik kai DaMle you(pl) me see You (pl) see me ase MaleTaM he to me near He comes to me ra hale come+pr.t

ase kanuM imaM she our house She comes to our house ise khajus malak it work not+do can It is of no use Demonstrative Pronoun

ra hle comes

Disle

The Demonstrative Pronoun is explained in Two-ways that is Proximate and Remote. The Proximate explains the situation of the object is in the visible Distance where as the Demonstrative Pronoun of Remote is explaining the remoteness of the object. Proximate is jyache kura mahale this thing eatable not +is This is not eatable ise nis baRako imko this+pl big house+pl These are two big houses a le are

586

Remote hose lenja a le that boy is That is a boy hose Disya ma that fish not That is not fish ha le is

hokori chiw those dog Those are dogs Interrogative Pronoun

a le are

The question is marked by separate markers in Mangari language NakuM myer min hale your name what is What is your name hose bharmiko sua le that man who are Who are the men

ise kuse chayam ale this which season is Which season is this ? Indefinite Pronoun The indefinite pronoun is expressed by suffixing / - suro / with the pronoun in Mangari

Nakurik suro nuMni Da Di rakni you anyone go and water fetch Anyone of you go and fetch water Reflexive Pronoun The reflexiveness is expressed by suffixing /- nai / in Mangari Ma Malhanai liM liMle

587

I myself song sing I myself sing a song kan kalhanai liM liM le we ourselves song sing We ourselves sing a song naku nakainai liM liM le you yourself song sing You yourself sing a song nakurik nakai nai liM liM le you+pl yourself song sing You(pl) yourself sing a song ase asai nai liM liM le he himself song sing He himself sings a song asei she She asai nai lhiM liM le herself song sing herself sing a song

Met laha nai Digo Mam kurhuwa cow itself well fall down The cow itself fall down in the well

4.1.4. ADJECTIVES

Adjective is an attribute to the noun. In Mangari the adjectives reflects both before and after the noun. secha good masTo lazy lenja boy likcha girl

good boy

lazy girl fat man .

Descha le barmi fat+pr.t man ise

im baRa kole this house large pl.pr.t. This is a large house

588

4.1.5 NUMERALS

Both the cardinal and ordinal numerals are identified in Mangari language. The cardinal numerals are called primary numerals. The ordinals are called secondary. The Mangari has decimal numeral system. Basic cardinal numerals from one to ten . The other numerals are derived from compounding the basic cardinal numerals. Cardinals kaT nis sum buli baMa Tu Tun ke ku chu one two three four five six seven eight nine ten

The first syllable of the numeral ten follows the cardinal numbers respectively upto nineteen. To count the cardinals twenty, thirty etc., the second syllable part of the cardinal number ten follows. chukaT chunis chusuM chubuli chubarMa chuTu chuTun chu ke chu ku nischu nis chu kaT nischu nis nis chu sum sum chu sum chu kaT sum chu nis buli chu buli chu kaT buli chu nis baMa chu baMa chu kaT Tuchu Tu chu kaT 589 eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen twenty twenty one twenty two twenty three thirty thirty one thirty two forty forty one forty two fifty fifty one sixty sixty one

Tu chu nis Tunchu kechu kuchu bhoM bhoM kaT waM DaM waM liwaM kiwaM

sixty two seventy eighty ninety hundred hundred one one thousand ten thousand one lakh crore

Ordinals The ordinal numerals are expressed by the suffix /-era / or / -sera / added with the cardinal numerals of the variants ogera nisera sumera bu li sera first second third fourth

Fractions The basic numerals that is; cardinal numerals are also suffixed to denote the fractions. Fractional numerals are mostly borrowed from Indo-Aryan sources, may be from Nepali. kat pauwa adha ser sum pauwa kaT kaT ser one +suffix quarter half one third one one and a quarter

kaT pauwa one +quarter

kaT ser adha one+ suffix

one and a half

590

4.2 VERB- MORPHOLOGY 4.2.1.1. FINITE VERB

It is a complete verb and shows the complete action done which is realised through the use of tense, person , gender and number markers with the stem Mai aski I him I see him DaMle see+pr.t.

Ma hola nuM le I there go+pr.t. I go there Ma ila rahle I here come+pr.t. I come here Tense Structurally there are two tenses realized in Mangari language. The Past and Non-Past. The Non-Past covers both the present and future tense. Past Tense The past time is realized by the suffix / -wa and -nya / asai mchak Mo Mu wa he patience+much show+p.t. He showed much patience asai gwaja saT a he bird kill +p.t. He killed the bird poTTo hilche ban na nya whole money spend +p.t. The whole money was spent jaburu kai jaT naM imko kuruh wa earthquake due to house collapse p.t. Due to earth quake houses were collapsed asai im au miDDum lekiM forju wa he house top from jump p.t. He jumped from the top of the house 591

Non Past Tense Non-Past includes present and the Future Tense. The simple present time, habitual action, universal truth and the future time are realized by the markers / -le /. The distinction between present and the Future is not marked. The context determines the actual time Mai naku ki I you +case I see you DaMle see+pr.t.

Ma hola nuM le I there go+pr.t. I go there MeTayi yakai DuT yah le cow daily milk give+pr.t. Cow gives milk every day naMkhan gorak fer le sun morning rise+pr.t. The sun rises in the morning nam kanuM Dhenam le sky us above+pr.t. The sky is above us Ma kajus majaTle I work not do pr.t. I dont do the work MoM imaM nuMne my house+to go pr.t. Go to my house Ma aski liMche khasle I her song made pr.t. I will make her sing a song asai sTak jiya le he mango eat +f.t. He will eat mango

592

Aspect There are two aspects realized namely Present continuous and Past perfect Tense Present Continuous The form / man / is suffixed with the main verb to denote the present continuous time Met hyeMsyasna Mu mane cow field +in graze +ing Cow is grazing in the field mija Tebl miTak Mumo Mu mane child table on sit+ing Child is sitting on the table asai maiDanaM kuruMo Mu mane he ground+ on lye +ing He is lying on the ground Ma siluk ma I story not I am not reading Past perfect The past perfect tense is realized by the suffix -liya and -niya Ma baza raM nuMna niya I market +to go + p.t. I had gone to the market ase laMaM nuMna niya he village go + had He had gone to the village paDis na Mu mane read +ing

Mood Five moods are realized in Mangari namely Indicative, Imperative, Interrogative, Probability and Optative

593

Indicative Mood Simple declarative sentence indicates this mood kal kaTTa baRa ko goMche ale kolkata large city+suffix Kolkata is a large city ase kaT imandar barmi ale he one honest man+suffix He is a honest man Imperative Mood The command is realised by the suffix / -ni / Muni ToMni ghoni sit down stand up hold it argani call+suffix

nakun masTo mija your daughter call your daughter Interrogative Mood

The question is made by separate markers to denote the Interrogative mood. The question is realised before the verb or before the noun/pronoun. naku Tise min kula liya you yesterday where+ were Where were you yesterday ? hijai Mou ogerlak ToMche why me infront stand Why do you stand infront of me ? Probability Mood It expresses the probability of the action denoted by the verb. The probability to the action is realised by the auxiliary verb / hyuk- / means, may, can etc. Ma rakhi hyukle I come may+ f.t. I may come

594

naku ise jaTki you it do Can you do it? Optative Mood

hyuk le can +f.t.

The mood which expresses the desire , is called optative mood. The suffix / -lu / is realized which is generally occurs beginning of a sentence lu ise awa kha siM let this art work do Let us do this art work

lu sarbari yeM let park to Let us go to the park

nuiM go

4.2.1.2. NON FINITE VERB

Infinitive The infinitive marker is / cha/ Ma asko ki usa jyacha khas le I her medicine eat+to make+f.t. I shall make her to eat the medicine Ma asko ki lhiM cha khas le I her sing+to make+f.t. I will make her to sing a song

Verbal Noun The verb function as a noun is called verbal noun The verbal noun is realised by the suffix / - ki / in Mangari language asko krikeT geski jakle he cricket playing like+pr.t. He is fond of playing cricket asai paDaisara yem biTa Diki jakle he read + by time spending likes He likes to pass his time by reading

595

Gerund The gerund is realized by two different suffixes / -ki / and / -nona / in Mangari language. cah geski Daso now playing stop Stop playing now Ma rilhiM paDiski jaknesele I poem reading like+pr.t. I like reading poem gorak paDiski sechale morning reading better Reading in the morning is better luk lekiM khernona liya horse byrunning done The running was done by the horse Participle The verb which partakes of the nature of both a verb and of an adjective called participle. In Mangari language suffix / -ra / is realised as a participle which occurs with the verb krikeT gesa raasai jyera cricket playing he health gained By playing cricket he gained good health halla sye ra lenja suwa noise hearing boy woke-up Hearing the noise boys woke up
4.2.1.3 CAUSATIVE VERB

The action of cause is realized in Mangari language by the suffix / -khas / which occurs with the main verb Ma askoki usa jya cha khas le I her medicine eat+to make+f.t I shall make her eat the medicine

596

Ma aski lhiM lhiMcha khas le I her sing+to make+ f.t I will make her sing a song

4.2.1.4 AUXILIARY VERB

The auxiliary verb of can, may, should, are realised by separate words like / hy / may, can / paDle / should,must Ma rakhi hy kle I come may I may come naku ise jaTki hy kle you it do can Can you do it? kan kurik chaDai miski parle we early sleep+to should We should sleep early kan kurik ju ru maM Muki parle we meeting attend should We should attend the meeting

4.2.1.5 NEGATIVE VERB

The negation is expressed in the following ways by the use of /ma/, /Mahale/, /nata/ in Mangari language Ma ma nu wa I not go +p.t. I did not go Ma ma hrale I not + come pr.t. I am not coming Ma na kuki senra ma DaM niya I you before not+ see+ time I have never seen you before ise khajus ma log Disle it work not + use do It is of no use 597

hose Disya Mahale ManiyeM ise Disya ale. that fish not but this fish Not that fish but this fish

Transitive Verb The verb which is used with a direct object called transitive verb. DaMle DuMle saTle yale see beat kill give

Mai nakuki DaMle I you+case see I see you hasei chuwki DuMle he dog+ case beat+pr.t. He beats the dog

Intransitive Verbs The verb which dose not take the direct object called ToMki phorjoki bhuki kherki geski Muki stand jump fly run play sit

Ma barmiTak phor juwa I fence+ over jump +p.t. I jumped over the fence g waja bhurle bird fly The birds fly

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4.2.2

ADVERB

Adverb is classified into three types Adverb of place, Adverb of manner and Adverb of time Adverb of Place The adverb of place is realised by separate forms or words in Mangari language Ma ila rahle I here come I come here Ma hola nuM le I there go I go there arTum ajiklaMo alak paTTik laMo tree that that side road Tree is on that side of the road Mau im Mau asiMo kherep le My house my office near is My house is near my office Ma laMa lekhiM losle I village from far +pr.t. I am far from the village hijai Mom agharlak ToM che why me infront stand Why do you stand in front of me? chiw Mom minhulak raha dog me behind came The dog came behind me ase Ma Moki kajus jaT le he I under work do +pr.t. He works under me rama sitau nuMlak Rama Sita after Rama came after sita raha came

599

naku hola bahira chankhi you there outside should You should be there outside Adverb of Time

parle wait +pr.t.

Ma peyorak sarbariyeM nuMle I to morrow garden +to go +f.t. I shall go to the garden tomorrow Ma aprim asim nuM le I day after tomorrow office go+f.t. I will go to the office day after tomorrow Ma kaTniM nuMla fou imaMliya I day before friends house+had I had been to my friends house day before yesterday Ma chiniM imaM nuM le I today house go +will I will go home today Adverb of Manner The adverb of manner is realised by the suffix /-ho / sarho chekni loudly speak Speak loudly semho rikoni neat +ly write Write neatly semjao michem koreT ni nicely hair comb +request Comb your hair niecely
4.2.3 PARTICLE

The particles of Mangari is shown below Ma nuMki poRnon ya I go had +to I had to go

600

asai kajus jaTki Ma poRnonya he work do + not should He should not do the work

imaM nuMni Da iesna rah ni home goand back come Go home and come back

hose Disya that fish Not that fish

mahale monhyeM ise not but this but this fish

Disya ale fish

4.2.4 ECHO FORMATION

Some of the Echo formation in Mangari are the following churu Di im juche chamal suru si sim suche samal rice etc water etc house etc sweet etc rice etc

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5.
5.1 ORDER OF WORDS

SYNTAX

The order of words in Mangari language is subject + object+ verb (SOV). ase chuwki DuMle he dog+case beat+pr.t. He beats the dog namas nam lekin rahle rain sky+from falls +pr.t. The rain falls from the sky ase bazaraM nuw he marker+to gone He has gone to the market

ase gwa jaki saT a he bird +case kill+ed He killed the bird

5.2 DESCRIPTION OF TYPES OF SENTENCES

There are five types of sentences are realized in Mangari language namely, Interrogative, Imperative, Negative, Causative and Co-ordinative Interrogative Sentences ise kuse Mum sa ale this which season Which season is this? naku sen rah le you when come When will you come? naku ise jaT ki you it do Can you do it? hyu kle can

602

Imperative Sentences The command is realised by the suffix / -ni / which is suffixed with the verb Muni ToMni ghoni sit down stand up hold it

nakun masTo Mija argani your daughter call+suffix Call your daughter Negative Sentences The / -ma / and / -naTa / are the negative forms realised in Mangari language Ma manu wa I not go I did not go Ma ciniM ma hrale I today not +come +pr.t. I am not coming Ma na kuki senra ma DaM niya I you before not+ see+ time I have never seen you before ise kajus Mahale malag Disle it work not + use do It is of no use hose Disya mahale MohyaM ise Disya ale that fish not but this fish Not that fish but this fish naTa nakuwai jaTle naTa neither you do+pr.t. nor I Neither you do nor I Mai

Causative Sentences The action of cause is realised in Mangari language by the suffix / -khas / which occurs in between the main verb stem and finite form.

603

Mai haski usa jya che I her medicine eat+to I shall make her eat the medicine Mai haski lhiMche khas le I her sing+to make+pr.t. I will make her sing a song

khas le make+pr.t.

hasei goRaki kyer maM kyerche khas le he horse race run +to made He made the horse to run Co-ordinate Sentences A conjunctive particle which coordinates to make a complete sentence is called coordinate sentence Ki rikMa ki siM rikMa jyaT le Either pen or pencil do +will Either pen or pencil will do

5.3

DESCRIPTION OF PATTERNS OF SENTENCES

There are three patterns of sentences in Mangari langauges. They are Simple, Compound and Complex. Simple Sentences A sentence, which has one subject and one predicate called simple sentence. An Affirmative, Interrogative, Imperative and Negative sentences come under the simple sentence pattern

kan ila Thuna we here stop We stop here semho rikni neat +ly write+Imp.marker Write neatly Ma manuwa I not go +p.t. I did not go

604

Ma goki hyuk le I catch may May I catch ? Compound Sentences Two main clauses joined with the help of a particle like / Da / but called compound sentence hose Disya hoina Da ise that fish not but this Not that fish but this fish Disya fish

imaM nuMni Da lesna rahni to home go+Imp and back come +Imp.marker Go home and come back Complex Sentences When one main clause and two or more subordinate clauses joined to make a complete sentence is called complex sentence Ma askoki nepal i lhiM liMchei jache DaMa I he +case nepali song sing+ing when saw I saw him when he was singing a Nepali song yeDi rel aber chana DenaM kaMhoki hyo kle train if late +time we+ catch can If the train is late, we may catch it

jabaMa askoki DaMa ase maiDanaM kuru MoMu manya when I he +case saw he ground on lay +ing He was lying on the ground when I saw him Mai Mau jalmaDinha Da Ma ciniM manuwa I my net not+found so I today not go I could not find my net so I did not go today

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BIBLIOGRAPHY MANGARI Acharya K.P. Benedict, Paul K. B.Bernard and G.L. Trager Giridhar. P.P. Grierson,George Abraham. Jones, Daniel, Mahapatra, B.P. & et.al 1983 Lotha Grammar, C.I.I.L. Grammar Series No.10 1972 Sino-Tibetan: A conspectus. J.A.Matisoff(Ed.) 1972 Outline of Linguistic Analysis, New Delhi Oriental Books, Reprint Corporation. 1980 Angami Grammar, Mysore, CIIL Grammar Series No.1 1967 Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. III Part I Tibeto-Burman Family, Himalayuan Dialects, North Assam Groups, Delhi, Motilal Banarasidas. 1960 An Outline of English Phonetics, Cambridge, England w. Heffner and Sons Ltd. 1989 The Written Languages of the World: A Survey of the Degree and Modes of Use. Government of India, New Delhi and Laval University Press, Canada. 1999 Tonal contrasts in Sherpa in Topics in Nepalese Linguistics, Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu. 1999 Topics in Nepalese Linguistics, Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu 1981 Population by language/mother tongue, C-7 Tables, Part IV B(i), Government of India, Delhi 1961 Language Tables, Vol.I part II-C(ii), Governemnt of India, Delhi 1991 Language Tables, Vol.I part II-C(ii), Governemnt of India, Delhi 1991 Bilingualism and Trilingualism, Table C-8 Part IV B (i) (b), Governemnt of India, Delhi

Stephen A.Watters. Y.P.Yadav and W.W.Glower Census of India Census of India Census of India Census of India

606

MANGARI TEXT

goman kagai chicha bulki kuTTo jaTno hen crow black snake how How crow hen killed the black snake

saTa killed

breTche spread

arTuM tree

migyeM lenja masTo umanya among husband wife lived

Among the spreading branches of a banyan tree lived a crow and his wife..

gwajomhimaM bird + nest

buli oTa maja miru boilmoi Se chekhaTa Mosnanya four little-egg parents great care guarded

In the nest were four little eggs, which were guarded with great care.

hose that bulkTa snake+with

arTum tree

dh ndroM trunk

kaT one

chicha bulMumiya black snake lived

hose that

kag DaliM birhi manya crow very feared

In the hollow of that tree lived a black snake whom the crows feared greatly.

saDai every

beleM time

goman kagai mirhu crow + hen-egg jyamoyahaa crowled

rumanya Da bulai hose laid and snake that

mihii mkiberdi yara nest

ate

Every time the crow hen laid her eggs the snake crawled up to the nest and ate them up.

607

yaDi if dinaM if

iDigbela this time na I ise this

chech bulai Mau mirhu jyamo yaha black snake my egg eat give arTumaM tree senra maMo le never not live

If this black snake eats up my eggs this time also, I will refuse to live in this tree any longer.

kan kurik kanu we gwajoumoi bird- mother

mihim aruTa waM our nest lenjaki husband Diyara said

khaski parle Diyara another place built

said

We must build our nest somewhere else,said the mother to her husband. kankurik ila we Dalim have yaM agyer lekiM Muche long time lived

We have lived here a long time. Ma I ise mihim this house Daski desert mahyu kle Da not can and arko mihi maM uMki nest house live

mahyukle not + can

kagai Diya crow said

I cant bear to desert my home and go to live elsewhere, said the crow. Jaba When mkha below horkurik they Maknana niya horikbela talking while siya heard horkai they bulau sr snake hissing

While they were talking they heard a hissing sound just below them.

horkaiTtaha Dina they knew

hyew what

sorko ale sound meant

They knew what the sound meant.

608

hokurik they mirhuk egg

b sara helplessly

chanaraloho their jaTa trying

imaM house

Muwa ra sat and

aTchu ki laMan protect

They sat helplessly in their nest trying to protect their eggs.

chi chabul Denam black snake higher

kalha Da crept and

imletaM kherep ltaM Taha house to closer reached

The black snake crept higher and closer to the nest.

oni there

baRako sorkhaTa gwajaki loud his sound bird

gok pagwa ja try +to at +bird

birhara feared

burha flew

Then with a loud hiss he tried to strike the birds who flew away in terror

kaT kaT jaTara chichabulai one by one blake snake

poTTa mirhu mele ka all egg swallowed

One by one the black snake swallowed the eggs moiboi gwajako parents hokarikai they well warah know mamaraM sadly loho mihimoM there nest morleM empty lesa back

horkoM mihim they house

The parents came back sadly to the nest knowing fully that the house will be empty. Di yara kagai Diya Ma ise mas che bul saTcha lam pale seen crow said I this murderous snake destroy+to way find I should find a way to kill this murderous snake. kuTTa jaTna how + can naku you hose KaTa that +with pun le hochen mas che kata fight his deadly

609

Dkokche misyak hasew sting

mahajai his

birihyara wife

Diya disappeared

said

How can you ever fight with him? His sting is so deadly, said his wife in deapair. srta majaTo worry not +do MoM my pyaro lafa Mou kaT dear my friend my Diya said warcha one cunning Da and

lafale yanchyo bisalu bulki saTcha kagai friend this type poisonous snake destroy crow

bura ra arko arTum nuw hola hochew flew another tree reached where his pyaro lafa loving friend sila jackal uman ya lived

Do not worry my dear, Ive got a friend who is cunning enough to destroy the most poisinous of snakes, said the crow, and off he flew to another tree under which lived his dear friend, Jackal.

jaba cruel mirhu jamanya, egg

silai jackal

siyaki kuTTo jaTno bulai saDhai heard how +the snake always

hochai Diya ate up he + said

when the Jackal heard how the snake always ate up the eggs, he said

MoMlafa my friend Ma I

sukonirdai Da mascha cruel and bad hoski saT che him destroy

khaTaisile habya with will die greedy

My friend, those who are cruel and greedy always meet with a bad end.

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aTai oh! tell

dewna isehi ale kagai Diya. hoTai sila behiya it what is crow said then jacked feared

swera sya Dema ijaT na silai overheard whispered sounds Oh, do tell me what it is, said the crow. Then the jackal fearing he might be overheard, whispered to his friend.

lafa ki Diya friend said

kuTu what

jhaTara bulki saTki. kag that cruel snake destroy crow horkoM there

bhurara hosew flew his

maja letaM nawh wife + from back

kura baren Diya. ise breMche char le kagai plan about said this rather risky crow

The crow flew back to his wife and tole her about the plan. It is rather risky, said the crow.

Diya said Ma MoM mirhu I my friend

kankuri ekda mai chanka chank parle we very care full do bacha De khi hipani jaT ki hyokle moigwa jai Diya children do care can mother bird said

We will have to be very careful. Ill do any thing to save my eggs said the mother bird.

Da hokrik liso muruM Mau im paTTik burara nuw and they country living palace towards flew

muruM im palace

hoskurik M che they lived

arTum-lekiM tree from

lsmaliya far+not

So off flew towards the palace of the king of the country. The palce was not far from the tree where they lived.

611

hosku rik muruM imoM sar bari yo DigomaM Taha horkoi they palace garden pond approach

muruMi royal lady

naischai jaThe DaMa, bath +ing do pr.t.

They approached a big pond in the palce garden where they saw the royal ladies having a bath.

horkoi horkuM geyaw jhul they their g chain Digo mache waM pond its Damanya laid

moTi pearl

yohar Da aru abruk necklace and other jewelry

They had laid their golden chains, pearl necklaces and other jewellary on the edge of the pond.

moigwaja mother bird

bura mhaka nuwa, flew down

gewjhul meMeram goldenchain mouth

umara picked

The mother bird flew down and picked up a golden chain in its mouth.

bistari slowly

hokorik nche arTuM lak they tree

burki fly

Slowly flying towards the tree in which it lived.

Thala start

muruM many

mau people

pahardari guards

DaMa gwaja gew jhul burchei clubs, bird gold chain flying

nuMchei ohorikai loho haTiyar lara going they their club taking

gwaja khe DDi ki Tala bird chased

When the palace guards saw the bird flying off with the golden chain, they took up their clubs and started chasing the bird

612

kaT one

paherdar guard

arTuMamkhalha jhul Donki jhul Donki Tree climed chain to get chain to get kaneM bul DaMa ase put snake saw he bulki sichei jaTno snake hand spoke

arTuMo waMn mihuT tree hole had

DuMa Da hit and

bulki saTa snake killed

ijaTnana chicha bulki this way black snake

Dum lost end

liya was

One of the guards climbed up the tree to get the chain. As he put his hand in side the hole to get the chain, he saw a black snake curled up there and with one hard stroke of his club he killed it and that was the end of the black snake.

kag da goMan Crow and hen aThai and

kagmaraM chai children got

hosai arTuman mukhi Thala tree started like hora grown up

horkuM Dalim jaja there Many children

kagko crow

The crow and the crow hen lived in that tree happily afterwards and had many little baby crows.

------------------------------------------------------X---------------------------------------------------

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SUNWAR
S. GANESH BASKARAN

1.INTRODUCTION The present study gives out the grammatical sketch of Sunwar language spoken in Sikkim state based on the data collected during the field investigation from November 1999 to January 2000.
1.1 FAMILY AFFILIATION

According to the classification given by Grierson in Linguistic Survey of India Vol.III pt-I pp. 177 181, 198 203, Sunwar is a non- pronominalised dialect of Himalayan Languages of Tibeto-Burman sub family of Tibeto-Chinese family. As per the subsequent classification by Paul Benedict the Sunwar (in Sikkim) belongs to the Bahing-Vayu group of Bahing branch of Tibeto Burman sub-family.
1.2 LOCATION

According to Grierson 1909 pp. 198- 204 , the Sunwars are a cultivating tribe of Nepal . Like the mangars, Gurungs and Khas are considered as belonging to the class called Mukhya or chief. Sunwars say that they are from the Western Nepal of Simurgah near Bara chatri. On their wandering lastly they came to Chuplu on the Aikhukola river took possession of it Makwari raja Western rular of Eastern Nepal Likhu khola and Khuntikhola are now the main settlement of the tribe in Nepal. Though primarily Sunwars are inhabitants of Nepal but their existence is extended upto Sikkim , West Bengal ( particularly Darjeeling District ) beyond Assam etc. i.e. the territory of Nepal. The speakers strength of Sunwar as per Griersons LSI is as follows:

Assam Jalpaiguri Darjeeling Sikkim

259 36 4,425 545 _____ 5,265

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1.3 SPEARKERS STRENGTH

According to the latest available Census data on Sunwar that is 1961 Census Vol. 2 pt .II c(ii) Language Table page no. 178 ,The Sunwar spearkers strength is given below Total India Assam West Bengal North East Frontier Agency 297 19 277 1 Male 155 19 136 Female 142 141 1

So far the information regarding Sunwar in the state of Sikkim is concerned a number of 644 speakers was recorded in 1951 Census. In 1961 Census no speakers strength was recorded from Sikkim state. However 1971 onwards because of restriction ( linguistic community having less than 10000 speakers at all India level is not appearing separately in the language list) the speakers strength of Sunwar is not available. Since the Sunwar language is not appearing in Census following the above restriction so Bilingualism data in respect of Sunwar could not be available.
1.4 SOCIOLINGUISTIC SETTING

The Sunwars, also known as Mukhiyas, are a cultivating community in Sikkim. The Sunwars have three sub-groups viz. (i) Barathares, (ii) Dasthares and (iii) Jirels in hierarchic order. The community migrated to Sikkim from Simulgarh in western Nepal and Chaplu in east Nepal. The Sunwars follow exogamy at the clan level and endogamy at the community level. Monogamy is the usual practice, but polygamy is allowed especially in case of barrenness. Though in earlier days the Sunwars had been a hunting community but at present the land is the main economic source of the Sunwars. Agriculture and working as agricultural labourers constitute their primary occupations. As a subsidiary mode they work as labourers in road construction. In earlier times the Sunwars had a dialect as well as script known as Koicha which was once used by all Kirat communities. But recently the Sunwars use the Nepali language in their daily life among themselves and out side. Sunwars use the script called kitspres. The Sunwars follow Hindu rituals along with practicing their traditional religious practices. Formal education is encouraged for Sunwar boys and girls. . In Sikkim Sunwars are mainly concentrated in the West district and few are scattered in the east and south districts too. The Sunwars have their tradition of their own folklore and folk tales. The sociolinguistic setting of Sunwar can be explained on the extent of its use as mother tongue and the extent of use as other tongue. The developmental activities taken

615

up for promoting the Sunwar language by the Government of Sikkim and through private enterprises may be considered for delineating the sociolinguistic situation around the Sunwars. As a mother tongue Sunwar is used in home and community. The use of mother tongue is related in parent ego children in the home and extra kin situation. Thus in the domain of locality the mother tongue is also in use. In the parent-ego-children relationship, the parents invariably interact in the mother tongue with the children and also with the aged people. Since the children of these days are exposed to other languages through education most often their speech is mixed with Nepali and English. The use of mother tongue is more between the aged people and among the middle aged whereas among the young and between the young the extent of use of mother tongue is comparatively less. Among the women the use of mother tongue is more in comparison to the men folk. In the formal domains of Education, Administration, Judiciary and Mass media the role of Sunwar is also realised in the oral communication level. In the domain of the Education in the rural areas the verbal interaction between the teacher and student and among the students in and outside the classroom is done in Sunwar only. The Sunwar language is taught up to 3rd standard in the village Primary Schools. In the Administration although all written correspondences are done through Nepali and English, Sunwar is also used as the medium of the verbal interaction between staffs and the public in the rural areas. The state Government imparts training to the officials in Sunwar language for smooth running of Administration and building up of a cordial relation with the Sunwar people. In the level of Judiciary also Sunwar language is used in informal oral communication. In the lower courts during the cross examination of the convicts by the Lawyers and sometimes the Judge, if he is a local person, also interacts with the local people in their respective language. The social workers of the registered organisations interact with both the parties of litigation in the lower courts in Sunwar and helped them to come to a possible settlement and to convince them. In the domain of Mass media, Doordarshan and a private television channel telecast folk music in Sunwar language on festive occassions. The Government of Sikkim encourages Sunwar people to continue their cultural programme in Sunwar in respective festive occasions. The local magazines like Sikkim Herald publishing the poems and stories. The Sikkim Government patronises preparation of dictionary and glossaries in Sunwar language and extends necessary financial aids to the welfare association of Sunwar for the purpose.
1.5 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Sunwar sounds and its Grammatical structures have been described by Sir Grierson in his Linguistic Survey of India.

616

2. PHONOLOGY
2.1 PHONEMIC INVENTORY

There are 33 phonemes in Sunwar language of which 28 are consonants and 5 are vowels. The suprasegmental phonemes are Tone and Nasalisation .
2.1.1 SEGMENTAL PHONEMES

Vowels high mid low i e a* u o

* The italised /a/ actually represents the low front unrounded vowel /a/

Consonants Bilabial Labio Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal vl. vd. dental vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. vl. vd. p b t d T c j k g f m th s Th z n l r ch S kh h M R y

Stops

Aspirants ph Ficatives Nasals Laterals Flap/Taps Semi vowel

Contrasting pairs / i~e / riw rew ni ne / e~a / rew daw kwa chu be

(Vowels) husbands brother rain two nose rain like pond sting bug 617

/ a~o / mama goma nakma re lmo /o~u / goma phuma khitho phuiklu

uncle mistress new moon night hill mistress full moon night shade sock

Contrasting pairs /p~b/ pulu busu /p~ph/ pulu phasi /t~d/ t R du j /t~th/ temu themi /t~T/ tiche TTom /c~ j/ cila jera /c~ch/ caimi charmi /k~g/ kyi gasu

(consonants)

ashes owl

ashes air

beak chilly

ear wax daughter

touch beaks

lightening arm

daughter-in-law young woman

intestine fog

618

/k~kh/ kola khitu /k~ / ka a one he brook darkness

/f~y/ fra yae faka amaf /s~z/ misal wizal female child male child wing leach half parents

/s~S/ si Sor saiM Syer /k~h/ kola huwis /m~n / mi niSi /m~M / mi Ma kamso kaMta /l~r/ l rew path rain fire fish lean crab fire two brook blood wool star sky decendents

619

/r~ R/ Sor tR /w~y/ wais yafe he leech star beak

2.1.2 SUPRASEGMENTAL PHONEMES

Nasalisation All the vowels get nasalized in the medial position except the high back rounded vowel /u/ gl gsa brik gengen hss hga wsal wfo cloud district bank of the river giving heat branch baboon egg

2.2 PHONEMIC DESCRIPTION AND DISTRIBUTION

The phonemic description and distribution of the vowels and consonants are shown below Vowels /i/ high front unrounded short vowel occurs in all three positions. imim sariM ni /e/ small sky two

mid high front unrounded short vowel occurs in all three positions. eiya themi yafe nine daughter leech

620

/a/

low front unrounded short vowel occurs in all three positions. amat MasMa bhagyu parents plan brotherswife(elder)

/o /

mid high back rounded short vowel occurs in all three positions. ohas pokhe hopo dung bug earth quake king

/u /

high back rounded short vowel occurs in all three positions. uRus duj pulu dung bug chilly ashes

Consonants / p / voiceless bilabial stop occurs in all three positions. pulu kyerpiy chaip ashes police bird young

/b / voiced bilabial stop occurs in all three positions. berm chebi khab cat bird earth

/ ph/ voiceless bilabial stop occurs in the initial positions. phasi phecha air wear

/ t / voiceless bilabial stop occurs in all three positions. tuda Swatel kot thirst rhinoceros leather

621

/ d /voiced alveolar stop occurs in all three positions duj bedra kad / th / chilly dead body crow

aspirated voiceless stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions thasla khi tho moon shade

/T/

voiceless retroflex stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions. TTom KaMTa beaks crab

/ Th / aspirated voiceless retroflex stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions Thicha kiTho touch shade

/ c / voiceless palatal stop occurs in all three positions cila sci chc lightening moustache grand son

/ ch / aspirated voiceless palatal stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions charmi ncha young woman bright

/ j / voiced palatal stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions jiz kujil sweet rickshaw

/ k / voiceless velar stop occurs in all three positions kot ge ki hoprek leather page nib

622

/ kh/ aspirated voiceless stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions khoso pkhe bitter cave

/g / voiced velar stop occurs in the initial and the medial positions gil sigre cloud hawk

/ / glottal stop occurs in the initial and the medial positio a he ba bo available

/ f / voiceless labiodental friction occurs in all three positions fya pufuil amaf half limestone parents

/ s/ voiceless alveolar fricative occurs in all three positions sariM ksmal kagaus sky dust eleven

/ z / voiced alveolar fricative occurs only in the medial positions hzum phazbi black bee powder

/S / voiceless palatal fricative occurs inthe medial and the final positions moSomb luS darkness dawn

/h / voiceless glottal fricative occurs in all three positions has phoha malah weather motor car need

623

/ m / bilabial nasal occurs in all three positions mus bermoka kuchum floor cat dog

/ n / alveolar nasal occurs in all three positions ne manep khan nose deaf mushroom

/ M / velar nasal occurs in all three positions Maistik koMla SuM anus beetle boat

/ l / alveolar lateral occurs in all three positions l kwili jilil tongue leg oil

/r / alveolar trill occurs in all three positions ra bermoka mor body cat monkey

/R / retroflex tap occurs in the medial and final positions uRus tR dung bug beak

/w / bilabial semi vowel occurs in all three positions wais Swatel aw he rhinoceros brother

/ y / palatal semi vowel occurs in initial and medial positions yigaus piya nineteen head

624

2.3 MAJOR ALLOPHONIC DISTRIBUTIONS

The vowel phonemes of the Sunwar generally get lowered in the inter consonantal positions. Vowels /i/ The high front unrounded short vowel has two allophones [ I ] and [ i ] [I] The higher front unrounded short vowel occurs interconsonantally. [cIla] [gIl] [huwIs] [i] /e/ /cila/ /gil/ /huwis/ lightening cloud blood

The high front unrounded short vowel occurs elsewhere.

The mid high front unrounded short vowel has three allophones. [ E ] , [A ] and [ e ] . [E] The mid low front unrounded short vowel occurs between consonants [ rEw ] [ bErm ] / rew/ / berm/ rain cat

[A ] mid central unrounded vowel occurs after the labio dental voiceless fricative. [afAm] [e] /a/ /afem / parents

The mid high front unrounded short vowel occurs elsewhere.

Low Front unrounded short vowel has two allophones[] and [ a ] . [] Low back unrounded short vowel occurs between cosonants. [ kUw ] [ kh b ] [a] / kuwa / / khab / pond earth

Low front unrounded short vowel occurs else where.

625

/o/

mid high back rounded short vowel has two allophones. [ O ] and [ o ] . [ O] mid low back rounded short vowel occurs after the alveolar fricative consonant and after the labiodental semivowel. [ sr ] [ wOsal] / sr / / wosal / star boy

[ o ] mid high back rounded short vowel occurs elsewhere. /u/ high back rounded short vowel has two allophones. [ U] and [ u ] . [U ] Lower high back rounded short vowel occur between consonants. [ chUbe ] [ lUsbu] [u] / chube / / lusbu / sting bug worms

high back rounded short vowel occurs elsewhere.

2.4

CLUSTERS

Vowel Clusters There are 6 vowel clusters found in Sunwar language ( ui, oi, ei, ia, ai and au ). All clusters found in the medial and the final position .

phuklu buRoi yia sum eichu khai tau Consonant Clusters

rock alive nineteen rat boiled vegetable son

There are three types of consonant clusters are possible in the Sunwar language, namely initial, medial and final two consonant cluster and final two consonant cluster . Initial two consonant clusters: jyjygrjyurfa jyo gra lemon cold eclipse

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SykygRklS wfrgybRpyprkRkrMy-

S yatuk kyas gR klato Swatel fr gyen bRepcho py prek kRoi krmj Myak

foam goat horn hip rhinoceros wing diet finger head tears tooth black gram maize

Medial two consonant cluster -ss-sf-sm-fs-km-lm-sl-kl-lkh-lS-lf-rm-lp-sth-MT-rb-wk-gr-kp-mj-dr-stgissari fasfari kasmal mfsep nakma relmo thasla phuiklu phuilkhab alSyal chelfu chaharmi khalpi psthum kaMTa berbo rawkirip sgre waikpo pumja bedr pustum comet cyclone dust hailstone new moon light hill moon rock sand childhood fatherssister maid old woman short(man) crab feather grass hopper hawk jungle pig mane dead body dwarf

627

-pch-ll-bl-ml-ks-rw-bj-sb-ln-sw-ps-Rw-rk-st-sl-pr-km-fr-rf-rb-bt-mb-mM-mt-re-pr-kr-nl-ft-tn-sg-ts-

bRepcho dello tabla dmla kakso sorwak kabjilil phasbi belna oswtk kpsur maRwali barko nistik neslo sapr rukmep khfru jyurfa burbo tubtil chembo MmMac mimtp syorlo hoprek toukra thanlga taftil witnil Mosgaus Motsum

finger buttock palm sole butter liquor kerosene powder rolling pin tea apro`n crutch shawl bed sheet story flower former garden lemon paddy plant black smith goldsmith grief respect telegram king dom prince temple music third fifteen fifty

628

Final two consonant clusters -mb -ps -rb -nc -rb -lb -mz -kz -rs -kj -nj -sc kyerSomb gups sorb lanc sihorb ratulb jrmz rekz jurs suikj suhanj kasc darkness lion lung meal carpenter boatman acidity sound sour blame doubt pain

2.5 SYLLABLE

In Sunuwar four categories of syllablic words have been found out among which disyllabic words are very common. Mono syllable (open)

CV CCV CVV

mi jyu wau

five cold bear

Monosyllabic (close) VC CVC CVC CVC CCVC CVCC CVVC CCVC aw gil khk al Syer wrS mais kyas brothers wife cloud ancestors baby decendents friend buffalo goat

629

Disyllabic (open) CV-CV CVC-CV CV-CV CVVC-CV V-CV CCVC-CV Di syllaabic (close) CCVC-CVCC CVC-CVC CV-CVC VC-CCVC CV-CVVC Tri syllabic (open) CVC- CV- CV CV- CV- CV V- CV- CV CV- CVC- CV Tri syllabic (close) CV- CV- CVC CCV- CVC-CVCC CVC- CVVC- CVC CVC- CVVC- CVVC bulukap kRusul phelb taskip mis taskip wis bank of river shoe maker actress actor gissari naboro amoru chharmi comet sunshine family maid kyers omb mufsep sariM alSyal mopaus darkness hailstone sky child hood cause phasi thasla rila phuiklu awa syorlo air moon rainbow rock husbands brother telegram

Tetra syllabic (open) CV- CVC- CV- CV VV- CV- CV- CV CVVC- CVC- CV-CV minuSyaru abakacha buis rak machi desert fathers brother white ant

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3. MORPHOPHONEMICS

The morphomes when they occur with various kinds of suffixes, phonological variations take place within the morpheme . The morphophonemics is concerned with those phonological variations. In Sunwar , the deletion of the vowel and consonants are found common in the form class of words.

1) The main verb /ni/ live when join with the auxilary verb /ba bo/ available a part of the auxiliary verb is dropped to denote a thing which is alive. ni ba bo live available

To denote some thing alive, instead of /nibabo/ it is realised as /niba/ which means part of the auxilary verb / bo/ is dropped.

2) A noun form /kh / house when join with a locative case marker /min/ inside a part of the case marker is deleted kh min house in side

to denote inside the house instead of / kh min/ it is realised the /khm/ therefore a part of the locative case marker / -in / is dropped to denote inside the house.

3) A noun which joins with the case suffix, a part of the case suffix is dropped. The morpheme /rawa/ tree when joins with the locative case suffix /hatayar/ on a part of the location case marker /hata/ is dropped to denote on the tree therefore it is realised as /rawayar/ to denote on the tree.

4) A verb when happend to join with the past tense suffix a part of the past tense marker is dropped alongwith aspiration. The verb /tawa/ see when happens to join with the past tense marker /-tho/ a part of the verb is dropped. tawa tho see past tense marker

Instead of /tawatho/ to denote saw it is realised as /tawat/ which means the aspiration of the /t/ sound and the low front vowel /a/ is also dropped.

631

5) Part of the cardinal numerals are dropped when it happens to form the higher numerals above Ten. In Sunwar the base cardinal numeral Ten is realised as /gausum/ when it happens to form for the higher numeral Twelve it is realised as /nigaus/. The form /ni/ meant two and the part of the base numeral Ten is /gaus/. But originally / niS / means two . Therefore for the formation of twelve it may be / nisgausum/ instead it is realised as /nigaus/ the second syllable of the base numeral two /S / and the part of the second syllable for the base numeral Ten is dropped to form the higher numeral Twelve 6) When the / gausum/ Ten is added as an unit with the cardinal numeral to form higher numeral / gausum / is gets shortend as /gaus / and the prefixing numeral like / chanisun / seventy looses the original vowel / - i / . Thus chani + gausum > / changaus/ to denote seventy

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4. MORPHOLOGY
4.1.1 WORD FORMATION

A simple word is defined as one which is a free form and is capable of taking inflectional or derivational affixes. In Sunwar,a stem by itself can be a word .For example, form like /kh / house is a stem as well as a word . Form like /kh puik/ houses is also a word in Sunwar consisted of a stem and suffix. Accordingly Sunwar words are categorized both morphological nad syntactical grounds. For example, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions and post positions.These word classes are also broadly grouped in to two categories on the basis whether they are declinable and are indeclinables.
4.1.2 NOUN

Definition of a noun A noun in Sunwar is defined on the morphological and syntactical grounds as follows. a stem can take a number marker kys kyspuik goat goats

a stem can take a gender marker chach chach am grandson grand daughter

a stem can take a case marker or the post positions. paki re village+ from khore + haiktave fence + over from the village

over the fence

a stem can be preeceded or followed by the attributes such as adjectives and numerals. rimSo + wisal good + boy Tep + kh+ ka large+ house+ one. good boy

a large house

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kuchum+ niSi dog + pl (two)

two dogs

In Sunwar language there are two types of nouns such as simple and derived noun. Simple nouns The noun which are not derived from another or anyother word class are called simple nouns. It is further divided into two categories that is mass nouns and count nouns.The simple nouns are countable whereas the mass nouns are not. Mass Nouns gil kasmal mi phuwa rew puil khab wk phaS phasi pulu Syatuk jyur cloud dust fire ice rain sand water wind air ashes foam current

Simple noun (countable) Sor phuilu rakmachi chebi kyas star stone ant bird goat

Derived Noun In Sunwar, the nouns can be derived also from the verb or from another noun. The suffixes are used to form the derived noun in two ways such as i) ii) verb + suffix = noun noun + suffix=noun

and these derived nouns are given below. Verb + suffix = noun.

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wa + pherb cloth+ stitch ge + paip work + doer

wapherb

tailor

gepaip

worker / labourer

raka + jyelp hunt + doer sihor +leb carpentry + doer

rakajyelp

hunter

sihorleb

carpenter

Noun + suffix = Noun khufem + bo garden + doer chem + bo gold + maker buis + kurp milk + sellor ternak + muit colour + paint kRusul + pheleb shoe + maker khufembo gardener

chembo

gold smith

buiskurp

milk man

ternakmuit

painter

kRusulpheleb shoe maker

Number In Sunwar, the plural number is realised by the suffix / - puik / which occurs with the noun. The numbers are realised by the numerals one, two , three , and four respectively . Which are suffixed with the respective nouns. kuchum puik dog + pl dogsbark
an

hoktem bark + pr .t.

kh puik their house+pl their houses

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mekere kuchumka babo there dog+ one is There is a dog kuchum kanu bermka inas dog one+and cat + one available There is a cat and a dog mekere kh Misi bam these house two are These are two houses

mekere kuchum s bam there dog three are There are three dogs The masculine nouns are formed with / w- / and feminine nouns with / m- /

Masculine wi s w os?al wise chaiwa male boy husband sisters husband / son in law

Feminine mehas miSal mise chaimi female girl wife daughter in law

Besides these there are list genders. Masculine a fo siuw hazum father father in law daughter in laws father crow grand son amo Smi maM Feminine mother mother in law daughter in laws mother

kad chach

kad poti chacham

hen crow grand daughter

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Gender Nouns in Sunwar can broadly be divided into two groups such as, Animate and Inanimate .The animate nouns can be divided into human and non-human nouns. These nouns can further be divided into masculine and feminine. Generally, the feminine gender is realised by the phoneme / m / . Masculine wismur wise afo wuwa bhalay boy husband father cock Feminine Tomi mise amo potim daughter wife mother hen

Case There are nine cases realised in Sunwar language . They are Nominative , Accusetive, Instrumental, Dative, Genitive, Locative, Ablative, Benafactive,and Sociative case. The dative case is realised by the context where as other cases are realised by the suffix / prefix. Nominative case The nominative case is realised by the suffix / -am / followed by a transitive verb whereas in case of Intransitive verbs no nominative marker is realised . go am I I see him woisnu him tawata see+ pr.t

goi khali alam tawibo you+acc.case child +noun case see +pr.t The child sees you Nominative case ( Intransitive verb )
a

cib bo he fall + pr.t. He falls rawa tim-bo tree fall-pr.t. tree falls

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ch-wo bird+pl. birds fly

bretnim fly+ pr.t.

Accusative case The accusative case has been realised by the suffixes / -nu / and /khali / chib kali a bird + case he he hits the bird apbo hit+pr.t

bermo nu khucum cat+ acc.case dog cat barks at the dog go ei taw inuM I you see + pr.t. I see you
a

hoba bark+ pr.t.

syra khali ruwem hatre naht he horse+acc.case field everyday he takes horse to the field every day Ma puikim ei khali they you + acc they see you Instrumental case tawinum see + pr. t.

yowobo nam take +pr.t.

The instrumental case has been realised by the suffixes/ -re , and / < em / gowim jel-re waisnu tawoto I wondow+ through him see + p.t. I saw him through window go puik bikali kowkem tuphik we cow stick + with beet + prt. We beat the cow with the stick

638

Dative case Dative case in Sunwar is unmarked . go am dal lawe naM I marke go pr. t I go to the market go am bazar lawnuM kaudit lainum I changulake seeing sight see+ to go + p.t. I want to go to the changu lake for sight seing Genitive case The genitive case is realised by the suffix / a- / for animate nouns. Where as the suffix / -re / for the inanimate nouns. akh eker my house here here is my house ba? bo is/ available.

a af eker niba my father have live + pr.t. my father lives here

Locative case The locative case is realised by the suffix / -min / and / -em / go khmin I house + in I am in my house chu available

go phhamin I my cart + in I am in my cart

chu available

suka muru iskulem ba bo anybody school+in available Any body is there in the school mekere juMem chibka there nest+ in bird There is a bird in the nest ba bo available

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Ablative case The ablative case is realised by the suffix / -re / raware sopro doknim tree+from leaves fall leaves fall from the tree go pakire hayu ei I village+from away am I am away from the village sariM re rew bo sky+from rain falls rain falls from the sky

Benefactive Case The benefactive case is realised by the suffix / -kali / bikali gs cow+for grass bring grass for the cow pit bring

alokali bi buSe gewo child+for cow milk give give milk for the child Sociative / Associative Case The sociative case is realised by the suffix / -kat / and /-nu / occurs either before or after the pronoun. msnu katmis silpamtas he with+her dance + p.t. he danced with her

4.1.3 PRONOUN

There are five types of pronouns realised in Sunwar language namely, Personal pronoun, Demonstrative pronoun, Indefinite pronoun, Interrogative pronoun and Reflexive pronouns.

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Personal Pronoun The personal pronouns are three, that is, First Personal,Second Personal and Third Personal. The first personal pronoun refers to the speaker, the second personal pronoun refers to the hearer, and third personal pronoun refers to the person or object other than the speaker and the hearer. Person Ist.person IInd. person IIIrd.person Singular go/gowim ge/goi I you (sl) he she it Plural go puik ei/goino puik me puik we you (pl ) they

a /wis miniS Me
painuM sing +pr.t.

go kmsoka I song+ one I sing a song go puik kmsoka we song+one we sing a song

painik sing +pr.t.

goi tekho juk puine you which book want which book do you want ? ei murkali go you(pl) people I I see you people am gurchi mango he he eats mango mepuik gurchi they mango they eat mango tawinum see + pr.t.

waibo eat

wai nim eat+do

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Demonstrative Pronoun The Demonstrative pronouns either of proximate or remote types are realised in two numbers that is singular and plural. Singular mekho mekher this that ba bo is Plural meke these

mekho kuchumka this dog +one this is a dog

meke kuchuumpuik nam these dog+ pl. are these are dogs mekher kuchum ka ba bo that dog + one is That is a dog

Indefinite Pronoun The Indefinite pronouns are are expressed in the following forms . kalkatta-re ghumure murka ja so baht calcutta+from office some one come+has. Some one has come from the calcutta office iskulem suka muru ba bo school in any person available Anybody is there in the school? Interrogative Pronoun

The interrogative pronouns are either adjectival or adverbial in nature in Sunuwar language. su woisal who he who is he? num is

642

Reflexive Pronoun The Reflexiveness is realised by the marker / a man / self go aman kumsoka I myself song+ one I myself sing a song painuM sing +pr.t.

go puik aman kumsoka we ourselves song + one we ourselves sing a song wais aman kumsoka he himself song+one he himself sings a song painik sing+ pr.t.

painis sing+ pr.t.

4.1.4 ADJECTIVES

There are two types of adjectives, they are qualitative and quantitatives in Sunwar. Generally adjectives precede and follow in Sunwar language . Qualitative Adjective gik sofe green leaf buiS syara white horse rimSo was good boy green leaf

white horse

good boy

Of course,in the predicative usage the adjective generally follows and precedes the noun, mekhomur domuSo bahat this+ man fat is this man is fat meko darSo puwki ka bahat this village beautiful+one is this is a beautiful village rimSo waisal baba he good boy is he is a good boy
a

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Quantitative Adjective In quantitative adjective the number follow the noun, that is adjectives follows the noun. meker kuchum MiSi nas there dog two are there are two dogs available akoit Tep- khka bahat it large+house+one is It is a large house

Post-Position The post position is realised by different forms. The forms occur after the noun. chiw rawahatayer nahistem bird tree+on available bird sits on the tree
a

rawaMa dim he tree+case under he sleeps under the tree

ibbo sleep+pr.t.

go khare pherem praknun I fence over jump I jump over the fence go bazarga netham I market near I am near the market chu stay

4.1.5 NUMERAL

There are two types of numerals used in Sunwar language . These are cardinal and ordinals. The cardinal numerals are the primary numerals and the ordinals are the secondary numerals. The Sunwar has decimal numeral system. The basic cardinal numerals from one to ten. The other numerals are derived from compounding the basic cardinal numerals.

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Cardinal Numerals ka nis s le Mo raku chani sasi hiy gausum one two three four five six seven eight nine ten

The first syllable of the numeral ten follows the cardinal numbers respectively from seventeen to nineteen. kagaus ni gaus sgaus le gaus Mosgaus ragaus changaus sasgaus hiy gaus eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen

To count the cardinals twenty , thirty etc the second syllable part of the cardinal number ten follows. nisum 2 + 10 s sum 3 10 lesum Mot sum raksum chani sum sa sum hiy sum gau sumka twenty thirty forty fifty sixty seventy eighty ninety hundred

To count one hundred the cardinal number one is suffixed with the cardinal number ten.

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Ordinals The ordinal numerals are monomorphemic in nature.The ordinal numbers are used in Sunwar like the following the wit is suffixed before the allomorphs for one , two, three etc. witra first witnolay second witnolayganolay third Fractions The formation of fractional numerals are like the following . payfa laya faka quarter half

4.2

VERB MORPHOLOGY

4.2.1.1 FINITE VERB

Finite verb is a complete verb and shows the completion of an action which is realised through the use of Tense , Person,Gender and Number markers added in the verb root . In Sunwar the formation of the finite verb is made up of the stem + the tense marker only. go ei I you I see you go ako I it I see it kowinuM see

kohnuM see

rawa dimbo tree + fall + pr.t the tree falls chibkali a bird he he hits the bird chiwo pik bird birds fly abbo hit

bretnim fly

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Tense Sunwar verb shows three way opposition for tense. That is present , past and future. The tense markers occur at the end of the verb. The substantive verbs also function as present tense marker.

Substantive verb There are two different forms used to denote the substantive verb. the suffix starts with / n- / and gets different colour according to the base verb and the numeral . that is, /naM,nis, nik, and nim/ mean is. chibo bret nim bird fly + pr.t. bird flies

gopuik ei konnik we you see we see you go kumsoka I song+ one I sing a song painuM sing+ pr.t.

mekho kuchumka this dog + one this is a dog go niSi kumsoka we (two) song+one we two sing a song

ba bo is

painis sing+pr.t.

mek kuchum niSi nas there dog two available there are two dogs available go ke phohamin I my cart + in I am in my cart nuM available

mekek kh niSi bahmtem these house +two available these are two houses

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Present Tense The present tense is realised generally by the suffix /-ta/ on rare occassion the siffix /-ya/ is also used to mean the same.

go miskali I she
a

kohta /tawata see +pr.t

I see her

he go I go I

uyu lawibo away go+ pr.t. mis her kohta see+ pr.t.

he goes away

I see her

tal tuh nuM water drink+pr.t. tawi see+pr.t

I drink water

ekal ei me you Past Tense

You see me

The simple past tense is realised by the suffix / -tho / and / -ti / a batike khm lahto he native place go+ p.t. he went to the native place gowim jelre a kali tahto I window he-case see + p.t. I saw him through window
akal a

tahto me he see + p.t. he saw me sinat go pauki lati yesterday I my village go +p.t. I went to my native village yesterday Future Tense The future tense is realised by the suffixes / -bo / and / -nuM / which after the main verb. occur

648

ekal a tuhbo me he beat +will he will beat me akal a me he he will beat go bazar I market I will go to tuhbo beat +will me lahinuM go will the market

go wim bazar lahinuM We market go will We will go to the market

Aspect There are two aspects such as perfect and present durative is realised in Sunwar language . The present perfect tense is realised by the suffix/-So/.
a

bazar he market he has gone to the market

gaSo gone

khab hikSa kh puik nelle prowltemSo due to earthquake house+pl. collapse + p.t. Due to earth quake the houses have collapsed goinu woitu gowem you+case. before myself I have never seen you before
a

genawi never

matauSo not+see+p.t.

sinat khuSo he yesterday come + p.t. he has come yesterday

Present Tense The present duration / continuous of action is realised by the base verb it self that is , the base verb which is reduplicated.

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ola meker ban ban bahat/ba bo the child there sitting is the child is sitting there syar yon yon bahat/ba bo the horse grazing is the horse is grazing

kuchum hon hon dog barking the dog is barking

bahat/ba bo is

Mood Mood expresses the speakers point of view about the occurence of the event. It is the mode or manner which is used to express a statement, a command ,a question or doubt in a sentence. There are six moodals identified in Sunwar language . such as, Indicative, Imperative, Interrogative, Subjunctive, Probability and Optative mood. Indicative Mood The indicative mood is realised in the declarative sentences. mekho kuchum ka this dog + one this is a dog eker bermoka have cat +one here is a cat
a

bahat/ba bo is

bahat/ba bo available.

gurchi he mango he eats mango Imperative Mood

waibo eat + pr.t.

In order to make request the suffix / -ya / is used with the verb stem and to express the command sometimes /- yu / is added with the verb stem or sometimes the verb root itself denotes command .

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ek have mek there ek here

piyu come lauya go pineyu come+please

come here

go there

please come here

mek there bako bakiney chul boke roko lepeho

launeyu go+please bakenyo bakyoa bokoyu neyu rakeyur rokeneyo

please go there

sit down sit down please stand up please stand up open the door please open the door

Interrogative Mood The Interrogative mood expresses the question. In Sunwar the Interrogativeness is realised by a separate morpheme go aga ohaeha chab nuM I inside enter+to may+ pr.t. may I come inside ? goi akal warch paine you me help do+can can you help me? goi sinakpti telauwe you yesterday where go where did you go yesterday ?
a su

he who is he ?

bamey who is

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ge marde gRumum noley dume you why office late why are you late to the office ?
a

doso mud he how old how old is he ?

jadit going+on

ge gena kuwe you when come+pt. when did you come ? goi tekho juk boine you which book want which book do you want ?

Conditional Mood The conditional mood is realised by the suffix / hona/

a

rimsop paReptho hona a he well study+p.t. if he If he studied well, he could have passed

gRabo pass+will

dikse geh paw hona a maik he hardwork do if he would if he works hard he would have passed Probability Mood

gRabothyo pass+f.t.

The action of probability is realised by the suffix / dum- / dmcha bbo nagra gem eko may +do Nagaland it may the Nagaland win in cricket krikeT cricket gRa bo win may

dumchabbo yintin breyekbo may +do Indian service may he may do the Indian service

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Optative Mood The optative mood expresses the desire, permission or request. The desire is expressed by the suffix / mul / mul kmsoka pawya let us song+one sing +pr.t. let us sing a song mul parkam lau ya let us park+to go+pr.t. let us go to the park
4.2.1.2 NON FINITE VERB

Infinitive Verb The verb which dose not express the completion or finiteness of an action is an infinite verb. The infinitive marker is realised in Sunwar by the suffix / -cha/ added to the verb. go laucha sonem bakbo go malaM I go +to had but I not+do I had to go but I did not go puik samumdrem Ma we sea fish we go to sea to catch fish geischa catch +to disa lawinik tomorrow go+to

ge mar jawocha puinei you what eat+ to like+pr.t. what do you want to eat ? Verbal Noun The verb function as noun is called verbal noun. The verbal noun in Sunwar is realised by the suffix / -cha / suni dembRecha yawenura morning read +ing health +for reading in the morning is good for health purob dorcha suni hoihoi gawenura to jog +doing morning often health+for jogging in the morning is good for health ribbo good +pr.t.

ribbo good+pr.t.

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Gerund The Gerund is realised by the suffix / -nu / in Sunwar language. lamin gayenu a goman busu road walk+ing he cobra dead walking along the road , he noticed a dead cobra taptho to notice+p.t.

Participle / -yom / is the suffix to denote past participle which occurs with the main verb. lapchonya rokyom kuchum door crack+ ing dog cracking the door, awaken the dog bokt awake +p.t.

yom lMa lapch om re pthoyoM a Mk cha gate knock + ing loudly he enter+ to lost +p.t. loudly knocking the gate , he lost his entry

machob

4.2.1.3 CAUSATIVE VERB

The action of cause is realised by the suffix / swiklo-/ in Sunwar. goin misnu kumsoka her I song+one I make her sing a song pande sing+ to swiklo mati make + do

syerpuiknu dortibem dorcha a swiklo horse +pl+case race run to he make+ to + do he makes the horses to run in the race

4.2.1.4 AUXILIARY VERB

The auxiliary verbs of can , and should are realised by the suffixes / cab/ and /si / respectively in Sunwar.

tau ga ca b bo my son walk can + do my son can walk

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go jo i saikcap I tiger kill + can I can kill the tiger

a

naM pr.t.

misey gyube paucha malbo she marriage need + pt. she needed marriage

gopuik phiep malbthyo simik we early sleep should we should sleep early
4.2.1.5 NEGATIVE VERB

The negation is realised by the form /ma- / which is prefixed to the verb
a

teyi maba m he where not + is he is nowhere

a

ge ma pai si nik he work not do should he should not do this work muna t go ma kui naM today I not come pr.t. today I am not coming gowim malso ako Ma bahbo mako I not that fish is. this not that fish but this fish I need gowim malso ako Ma bakbo makomanam I not that fish available nothing I have nothing with me to tell The suffix / -nu / is used for correlated negatives. goi tuiSa n nu you know nor neither you nor I know gewum myself

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Transitive Verb The verb which is used with a direct object called transitive verb. Transitive verb is a verb which requires an object (expressed or implied ) to complete its meaning the effect of the action denoted by the verb follows the subject. wis kumsoka pa ibo he song +one sing +pr.t. he sings a song

gowim mar jawcha parnei I what eat shall what shall I eat ? go mis a I her I see her tawata see + pr.t.

go wa k tuhnuM I water drink + pr.t. I drink water

Intransitive Verb A verb which requires no object to express the feeling that is a verb which does not take direct object. In Sunwar the intransitive verb occurs with the tense marker ib cha dohcha bokcha bretcha ohcha sleep fell rise fly enter

go ohti I enter + p.t. I entered go tuchi MoSim bohoti I exactly 5 Oclock getup I get up 5 oclock

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go eipnuM I sleep +pr.t. I sleep Suni nah dabbo sun morning rise The Sun rises in the morning cheib brebbo bird fly The birds fly

4.2.1.6 COMPOUND VERB

When actions are expressed by combinations of verb+verb , verb + noun etc. are realised as compund verbs. hi cha fear + do vb + vb wakSo keep vb + khos like vb + lka plan N koSya to fear

bamtem doing vb p do vb

keep on doing

to look

khRe yunu have + do + vb + vb

to plan

4.2.2

ADVERB

Adverbs are the classes of words which are used to modify the meanings of verbs. Adverbs are divided into three groups such as 1) Adverbs of place 2) Adverbs of time and 3) Adverbs of manner. Adverb of place is realised by a set of free morphemes which occur either before noun or verb.

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Mandirgna langam ei bahcha temple outside you must you should stay outside the Temple go koincha agetham I Sunwar beside I sat beside Mr. Sunwar go phukofa noiti dok I garden in front of I stand in front of the garden

malsothyo stay

bahati thyo sit+p.t.

rafnuM stand +pr.t.

Adverb of Manner The Adverb of Manner is realised by a seperate suffix / -pa / which occurs with the adjective and is used before the verb. hohsa loud +ly dech speak speak loudly

rimpa neat +ly rekpa loud + ly darba nice +ly

precha write rischa laugh prep cha comb

neatly write

laugh loudly

nicely comb

Adverb of Time The adverbs of time are a set of free morphemes which occur either before or after the nouns / pronouns. yesam sui makum sofar anyone not +come so far no one has come munat go dopa go today I go Today I must go lawinuM must + pr.t.

658

sinatre a tas jyersya bahso yesterday+since he cards game playing he has been playing cards since yesterday gopuikim sin amdore puja we since might prayer we have been praying since night namdo nah dabbo evening sun sets sun sets in the evening

cha do

panpanaki doing

suni nah bohbo morning sun rises sun rises in the morning disa go phukofa lawcha tomorrow I garden+to go +f.t. I shall go to the garden tomorrow

4.2.3

PARTICLE

Particles generally connect two sentences as connectiver. In Sunwar there are four types of particles realised namely connectiver, compulsive , negative, correlative and emphatic particle. Connective Particle go a gyaili sa mtaM omin munat I my net(fishing) missing because today I missed my net therefore I couldnt go today goipuik suika wk lawnei we +one go +let and water fetch let some of you go and fetch water amisa mekmin bakbo thyo she there but soon she was there but soon went Emphatic Particle gowim noiti ekali genai I before myself never I have never seen you before matoM not+see+pt. marderib tawmey go +p.t.

go malaM I not + go

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Compulsive Particle A particle which is used to denote the compulsion like should ,might etc. In Sunwar the compulsive particle occurs after the main verb. waiska gaida malch hawcha boy +a job find +to a boy should go to find a job go lawcha I go + to I had to go Correlative Particle A Particle which helps to correlate two or more sentences called Correlative Particle which occurs in between two verbs ei dohso geyney moso thahnum you how much give as much as take + shall I shall take as much as you give thyo had malsothyo go should

Negative Particle A Particle which helps to denote negation is called negative particle . The negative particle in Sunwar is realised by the suffix / -ma / go eko mapai nam I this not can do I can not do this
4.2.4 ECHO WORD

A compoud whose second member repeats the first with an initial consonant or syllable altered with the general meaning and the like. In Sunwar this echoing of second componant begins with the phoneme /-s / and this gives out the meaning of etc. phasi > sasi khab > sab lab > sab air etc earth etc road etc rock etc snow etc 660

phuklu > saiklu puha > saha

5. SYNTAX Sunwar is a Subject + Object + Verb language .

5.1 ORDER OF WORDS IN SENTENCES

The order of words in Sunwar is subject + object + verb. kucham bermotawsa dog cat+ case+see dog barks at the cat
a

hobo bark + pr.t

rawaMa fedim he tree+case under he sleeps under the tree

ib bo

sleeps

go khore aiktare pRok naM I fence over jump +pr. t. I jump over the fence bikal gs pith cow+for grass bring Bring grass for the cow

5.2 DESCRIPTION OF TYPES OF SENTENCES

There are five types of sentences realised Imperative, Interrogative, Causative and Coordinate sentences. Imperative sentence

Negative,

In order to make request the suffix / -ya / is used with the verb stem and to express the command sometimes /- yu / is added with the verb stem or sometimes the verb root itself denotes command . ek here mek there ek here piu come lawo go piney come+please come here

go there

please come here

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mek there bakinei baken boke nei boker lapcho rokene roken

lawnei go+please

please go there

sit down sit down please stand up please stand up open the door please open the door

Interrogative Sentence The interrogation is realised by a separate morpheme like / s / who /gena / when etc. go aga ohcha I inside enter+to may I come inside ? ge you can
akal warch me help you help me?

puinuM may+ pr.t.

paine do+can

ei sinah tlauwe you yesterday where go where did you go yesterday ? wos s he who who is he ? nam is

ge grumum merde nalay jahdiwi you why office late why are you late to the office ?
a

dis jahdit his age howmuch how old is he ?

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ei gena kuwe you when come+pt. when did you come ? ei teko juk puinei you which book want which book do you want ?

Negative Sentence The negation is realised by the form /mo- / which is prefixed to the verb
a

tehi moba m he where not + is he is nowhere

a

ako gaida pawcha momalbthyo he that work do not should he should not do this work

munaht go mokuinuM today I not come today I am not coming

pr.t.

meko Ma momoi bakbo Mala gowim malah that fish not need fish I need not that fish but this fish I need

goare mroi dehcha mobah I with nothing say not have I have nothing with me to tell The suffix / -nu / is used for correlated negatives. gowim johso hana I + myself nor know neither you nor I know eim you

663

Causative Sentence The action of cause is realised by the suffix / moitta / and / lawisto/ in Sunwar gowim miskal kumso ka pai de moitta I her song+one sing+ to make + do I make her sing a song Sarean dertikem a dorcha horse +pl+case race he run to he makes the horses to run in the race dawajai gowim misnu de moitta medicine I her eat make + do I make her eat the medicine lawisto make+ to + do

Co-ordinate Sentences The co-ordination is taken place by using the conjunctive particles. go lawchihyo marena go melam I go + to but I not +do I had to go but I did not go ei twiso honna gowim twiso you know nor I know neither you know nor I gopuik kyar menu khomay we rice and mutton we ate rice and mutton lawo menu lessa kuwo go and come back go and come back pen hanayo pencilomyo pen or pencil by either pencil or pen will do pawya (paibo) do will owitok ate

664

5.3

DESCRIPTION OF PATTERNS OF SENTENCES

The sentences in Sunwar may be divided into Simple, Complex and Compound. Simple Sentences ako kuchum ka this dog one This is a dog eker bermka here cat + one here is a cat kuchum howoba dog bark +pr.t dog barks go a phoham nuM I my cart + in available I am in my cart mis akhim grumbo she her +house available Is she available in her house ge akal warch paine you me help can can you help me? wos su nam he who is who is he ? bok bak stand up sit down bah is

ba bo available

eko prowl you +break+pr.t. break it eko thek/gyak it hold + pr.t. hold it

665

Complex Sentence The complex sentences of Sunwar is framed by joining the subordinate clauses with the main clause . go puikim balkafu kurso miskal gRumtok we basket met girl carried we met a girl who carried a basket full of flowers reke nehsa waiskal pukbohtem noise hear boy wake +p.t hearing the noise boy woke up go jahdis Motti a lawney thumso bah ko I reach reach he go already night he might have gone before I reached Compound Sentence Two or more main clause sentences are joined by the particles to make a compound sentence. ichka Mopuik rimmat minu ichka some fishes fresh and some some fishes fresh and some are rotton lao minu lessa go and come go and come back kuwo back Mopuik rahmmat fishes rotton

meko Momomoi merde ako Ma melu that fish not but this fish need not that fish but I want this fish

666

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Acharya K.P. Benedict, Paul K. Giridhar. P.P. Grierson,George Abraham. Gurubasave Gowda Hockett, C.F. Mahapatra, B.P. & et.al

1983 Lotha Grammar, C.I.I.L. Grammar Series No.10 1972 Sino-Tibetan: A conspectus. J.A.Matisoff(Ed.) 1981 Angami Grammar, Mysore, CIIL Grammar Series No.1 1909 Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. III Part I Tibeto-Burman Family, Himalayuan Dialects, North Assam Groups, Delhi, Motilal Banarasidas.(Reprint 1967) 1975 Ao Grammar. Central Institute of Indian Languges, Mysore. 1970 A Course in Modern Linguistics, Oxford & IBH, New Delhi. 1989 The Written Languages of the World: A Survey of the Degree and Modes of Use. Government of India, New Delhi and Laval University Press, Canada. 1966 Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 1), Wiesbaden:Otto Harrassowitz. 1967 Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 2), Wiesbaden:Otto Harrassowitz. 1968 Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 3), Wiesbaden:Otto Harrassowitz. and 1999 Topics in Nepalese Linguistics, Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu

Shafer, Robert Shafer, Robert Shafer, Robert Y.P.Yadav W.W.Glower Census of India

1961 Language Tables, Vol.I part II-C(ii), Governemnt of India, Delhi

667

TEXT SUNWAR kyerbus kali khadha potim dop saiskto How crow hen killed the black snake

er here a poti crow one

ot Susun there large basat crow hen

hoga paiSyo branch spread bammat lived meam hen-crow

barka banyan

rewem tree

a fem mother and father

Among the spreading branches of a banyan tree lived a crow and his wife, the crow hen. dasgyram their nest leko four im ims small wafofiknu rimp kauSa basat eggs great care guard did

In the nest were four little eggs which the parents guarded with great care. reweMa `trees tharim above kyer buska snake aikchen very bah mat lived meSum because

me khad ni kSi crows these two

hiyu kSahiyu sot. feared

In a hollow of that tree trunk lived a black snake whom the crows feared greatly. katpotim gine hana yo hen-crow every time au gasresa crawled a that

wofo her-egg

gevamat basaba ate mebois giving stayed that snake

gyom jagdisa mekho jaibamaba nest togo that ate up

Every time the crow-hen laid her eggs the snake crawled up to the nest and ate them up. mekho that katpotim crow hen
a

her

waskat nu dta eko muwom husband said this time

668

yo also

wafo mekho

my egg

that

kher busum wayeptu black snake ate

If the black snake eats up my eggs this time also, I will refuse to live in this tree any longer. hana yekho rawam go if this tree I genayo neighbour mawa nun tekho pithiyo goe selbso beside where any our build

We must build our nest some where else, said the bird. sitre long time gopuik we eker have bahaSyo lived

We have lived here for a long time. tikyo lauSya kh eksewhere my machanis difficult dSya saying puRoyi cha house to live wiS he kadom crow d tu said

I cant bear to desert my home and go to live else where said the crow. mefi k laufan fan they together talking puM reSo hissing awaSka sound mesum that time nehetas heard me an their iktch aidi m very just

While they were talking, they heard a hissing sound just below them.

suka awaS which sound

deSa meni Sim tuistas as owa funu thought together know that eggs koiSo like dumSya stayed

datem paun warch motaiSo protect + ing help lessly

They sat helplessly in their nest trying to protect their eggs.

as gyom bahtas mekho kyer bus gyoMa thir nest sat that snake nest + in The black snake crawled closer to the nest.

netham near

kasresa jadit tho crawl reached

669

min hu Tebyan and big

awas p hissing sound saischa paikstonu killed try to winpa khyer fear lot

mekom meniSi chibnu that they together bird tu minu away

bret ast kyerbu som mekho fled snake that

owofik ka kap waikto eggs one one by ate

Then with a loud hiss he tried to strike at the bird who flew away in terror . One by one the snake ate up all the eggs.

as

wofunel their egg all

wasa eating as their

mawab tuSa not use knew gyomleto returned go I mekho that lka plan

me the

amaf parents

kad Mam jauSa crow sad + very busnu snake dSa khad said + crow

sai kicha pimp murderous kRe yunu have

saischakali kill + to wosm husband

The parents came back sadly to their nest knowing well that they would find it empty. The crow said, I must find a way to destroy this murderous snake. d to a bechaMa said that deadly kRaibo sting

dop jinini dSa akhad potim beSo khoSop dto how fight said crow parents despair like said How can you ever fight with him. His sting is so deadly, said his wife in despair.

my

da dear

Mam worry

majau cha not + do warska friend minhu and tha fly

kyerbu snake thuiSonum have rawem tree

aikch kRaipnu that poisonous dSa said khad crow

saikscha kali go wom kill + to I have woiSom husband dtho said

bRetSaw tekom flying in that

670

Siwarka jackal

maikSo name

DaMa warS theclose friend is

babo mekho buiSim that snake

Dont worry, my dear, I ve got a friend who is cunning enough to destroy the most poisionous of snakes, said the crow, and off he flew to another tree under which lived his dear friend Jackal. nat khoi khoi wofonel woibo dsa daily small egg + s swallow that gena neto when heard supuik ch which one mekhum that marimSo cruel
a

his th greedy

warskhali friend paikSo those

dto said

my

warS friend

ba?bo nole mekom are leter that

marimSo l thibo mahum cha had end will do not fear sche ne thought thu mSonaM al ready

mekhonu saikschakali gom Moska far that to kill I plan

When the Jackal heard how the snake always ate up the eggs, he said, My friend those are cruel and greedy always meet with a bad end. I have already thought of a plan to destroy him. mekhone plan
ala oh

nehsa hearing mekho that Siwarem somuch nehebo over heared

khadem crow marnam what hch fear mekho that

dtho said
khali

to tell koiSya daily buskali snake

dyun do dto said

nole there mekom he

Oh, do tell me what it is, said the crow. Then the Jackal, fearing he moght be overheard, whispered to his friend what he should do to destroy the snake.

dop how nefem whispering

sahikskha kill

malso should

d say

warSkali friend

muikto khad potinu appeared crow hen

bretSa fly

671

lekto return

minu mekho MasMa nehpaikto and that plan told dSa tools

eko da akch katra babo it rather deadly available kha dom crow hen ba aSi cha have to a am the mother wafokali my eggs dto said

go puik kaup we will mal psip do it

chibhim bird

yomSa breavely

d tho said painuM do + will

bR waikscha kali saving + to

marai yo anything

The crow flew back to his wife and about the plan. It is rather risky, said the crow. We will have to tbe very careful. I will do any thing to save my eggs said the mother bird bravely. Mo p that so hapo/gyuro king rikh ch palace babo available talom pond puikhi pl. nole me because rikhipith palace mepuiki they meas they jaditas approched chisa bathing aspuik they ragiMa country mekho that nethan near Thepka big misan queens

bredhthakS. flew + towards babo are rikhiMa palace tekor their

raware tree + from puMa garden rakSiMa royal

So off they flew towards the palce of the King of the country. The palace was not far from the tree in which they lived. They approached a big pond in the palce garden where they saw royal ladies having a bath.

672

ba aSo doing thamthas saw nektam near puiki jwells bredSa flew tila-ka chain + one bred fly Mol -ly

me they me an they
an

nikSim two mekho that tila chin kuwaMa pond +case S pu pearl chib bird mar mar other

their

awuMa gold

waikSo kept dohoto down phiguipkSaw picked

aam the mother

her minhu and

tT Tom beaks bre dna start Mola slow tila kuriSa chain carry

her lahatas fly-ed

babgowa living

khoin khoin towards

awuMa gold

The mother bird flew down, picked up a gold chain her beak and started flying slowly towards the tree in which she lived. rikhiMa palace mepuikhim they chiwnu bird wispiyan guard
an

puikhim pl. gadha khurSya club carrying the paiktsa just +put chiwim bird

tam teme saw me

their khera towards

rawoMa live

When the palce guards saw the bird flying off with a gold chain, they took up their clubs and chased their bird. pirsili kham hole mekho that tamtem saw it tila chain mekho that do paikptas put tila chain

mean puikim they guard

They saw the bird drop the chain into the hollow of the tree. 673

malchakali find

wispika guard + one

poRoiSa among

rawem tree

moiktSaw claimed
a

megho tila that

taucha kali pir sili chain take+to hole MolSonu put mekom that kyer blake tapto saw buskha snake

his

aga hand

gui there
tahsa found

gruelsa curled

One of the guards climbed up the tree to get the chain. As he geput his hand inside the hole, he saw a snake curled up there. gui kham hand one saiskto killed kyer bus black snake kowkey club minhu and beheto died tupSya hit Mofa this meko that meko way

With one hard stroke of his clu he killed it and that was the end of the black snake. meknolay later im imch children as their rawem live minhu and khadh crow SuSom large chai puikhi child

khathnu khadh poti gyer Sa bamtas. crow parents happily lived

The crow and the crow hen lived in that tree happily after wards and had many little baby crows.

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