PROSPECTS OF WATER JET MACHININING IN MARBLE INDUSTRY OF PAKISTAN

Submitted To: Assistant Professor Dr Imran Akhtar Submitted By: NS Umair Khalid NS Sufyan Tariq NS Talal Jameel NS Zulkeefal Dar NS Usama Waheed NS Muhammad Taha NS Muhammad Saqib Anwar NS Muhammad Nouman NS Abdul Samad Nasir NS Hamza Ahmed NS Mudassar Hussain GC Farooq Azam DE-32 (MECAHANICAL ENGINEERING) SYNDICATE: B DATE: DECEMBER 26TH, 2011

Dedicated to All those people in our country who work with unbounded devotion but remain unsung.

CONTENTS
Introduction and the Classification of Stones History of the Stones Introduction to Marbles History Of Marbles Geo-economical perspective of the Marble Industry Pakistans geological potential and untapped marble reservoirs Outlook of Water jet machining process Minutiae of Pressurized Water Jet Cutter Future trends in Water jet Technology

INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF STONES

Introduction

From the early dawn of human kind stones have played a significant role in the development of human civilization and surely will continue to play an equally important role in the future. Rock material which is used in the construction of buildings or structures shaped to mens needs is called stone. Gemstones for bracelets and necklaces are not included. Mankind has been using the stone since time immemorial.

For many centuries stone has been generating the construction materials and non-compromised form of art for the human being by its strength, durability, elegance, color and sophisticated structure. Many civilizations such as Hittites, Ancient Egyptians, Phrygians, Mesopotamians, Persians, Lydian, Ancient Greeks, Greco Romans, Romans, Seljukians, and Ottomans had used stone for their statures and in architecture which enlighten their own time and survived until today. Stones are classified into three groups based on their origin of formation; metamorphic, sedimentary, and igneous rocks. However, in industry and commerce, stones are classified into six groups: marble, limestone, travertine, onyx, granite and sandstone. Currently, these geological and industrial classifications of stone are becoming more and more insufficient. Therefore, there is a significant need for a more comprehensive classification of stones as a building material especially for the use of architects and civil engineers. In this study, natural stones are being classified in a different manner. For classification purposes, we assess their geological, chemical and mechanical properties which affect their ease of cutting and processing, hygiene, aesthetics, structural safety and decay.

Global Stone Production

Raw material

Growth rate: 260% (1986-2009) Value: 20 billion for 2009 Finished products

Growth rate: 61% (1996-2009) Value: 35 billion for 2009

The world stone production and the volume of global stone market is expected to experience a five times increase till 2025.

Stone Production chain

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

Classification according to their geological origin is one of the most common methods of classification of rocks. According to their origin, rocks are classified as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Igneous or magmatic rocks are primarily crystallized from a fiery fluid silicate melt, taking place either deep below the earths surface or at the surface. Granite and basalt are the most common members of this group igneous rocks have been classified with respect to their textures, structures, content of silica and color by a number of scientists. The most commonly accepted classification and nomenclature are made by Streckeisen. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the concentration of inorganic or organic debris of variable size and shape, deposited by mechanical means or by chemical precipitation. These sedimentary rocks have been classified according to their type of sedimentation, grain shape, cement type, CaCO3, clay and silica content and layer thickness. In classification of sedimentary rocks, mostly the studies of Folk, Dunham and Pettijohn et al. are being accepted.

In addition to those mentioned, Fookes and Higginbttom have classified sedimentary rocks with respect to their calcite and dolomite contents .Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks recrystallized by the effect of temperature and pressure .Yardley classified that group as contact, regional, dynamic, hydrothermal and impact metamorphism rocks . Grain size is also often used for classification of metamorphic rocks. Another methodology which is often utilized for rock classification is separation rocks with respect to their physical and mechanical properties. Rocks are classified by their uniaxial, bending, point load strengths and porosity . They are also being classified as hard or soft depending on their ability to crack geologist hammer. All known rock classifications can only be used in engineering geology, geotechnical and mining industries but not in building industry.

BUILDING STONES

The common rock classifications summarized above are not sufficient for classification of stones used in building industry. Classification is totally different in natural stone industry and trade. In these sectors, more practical and common nomenclatures are being used. In natural stone industry and commerce, carbonate rocks that can yield commercially viable blocks, can be dimensioned and polished, and be used in buildings are all called marble. The term granite is used for any strong or hard igneous rocks and even for some metamorphic rocks. Commercially, granite includes basic igneous rocks, which do not contain quartz, such as basalt, dolerite. Gabbros often called black granite and the metamorphic rock, gneiss. However, true granite is an igneous rock largely composed of an interlocking mass of crystalline grains of three minerals; quartz, feldspar, and mica. Travertine is a general term given to lacustrine and shallow lacustrine younger limestones that is a sedimentary rock. Travertine is highly porous rock, often banded structure. True travertine is a freshwater limestone formed on land from hot springs. Onyx is a massif or banded sedimentary rock contains calcite or aragonite formed by hot and cold water that are rich in mineral. True onyx is a chalcedony. Slate is used for any rock that exfoliates into thin slabs or roof tiles. True slate are metamorphic rocks composed originally of fine-grained particles (silt, clay) tightly compressed

together and hardened. In this context, Winkler summarized the major common rock types used in stone industry. Smith classified the rocks according to their mass structure and hardness which in fact effect extraction and processing performance. Rocks are very hard and have high strength. Mohs Scale of Hardness was introduced by Friedrich Mohs German Mineralogi 17731839. Mohs Scale of Relative Hardness Published in 1822.

Stone Classifications

For architects, civil engineers and final users, stones color, aesthetics, hygiene, its ability to be customized and decay are important. Most of the time, designers, owners and applicators in a project are under the influence of their past experiences, habits and other reference projects. This causes errors in production, false applications and other problems as well. In stone industry, all procurement, timing and quality aspects are equally important. These might yield problems between producers, traders, architects and final users. One should not ignore geological parameters and physico-mechanic properties of the stone and only concentrate on aesthetics. Therefore, there is a need for a new classification where both material characteristics and industrial and architectural properties of the stone are taken into account. In Table 1, natural building stones have been classified as marble, limestone, travertine, onyx, hard stone and decorative stone.

Marble

Limestone

Travertine

Onyx

Hard Stone

Decorative Stone very high porous 10% <porosity

very compact porosity< 0.5%

compact 0.5% <porosity< 1% moderate treatable 2% <SiO2< 5%

porous 1% <porosity< 5%

high porous 5% <porosity< 10%

treatable SiO2< 2%

hard treatable 5% <SiO2< 25%

very hard treatable 25% <SiO2< 60%

super hard treatable 60% <SiO2

Table 1: Classification of natural building stones Porosity and SiO2 is important for all building stones. Stones are classified as very compact, compact, porous, high porous and very high porous .When porosity increases, durability of stone decrease and the effect of thawing freezing, biological and environmental attacks increase as decay accelerate. Increase of porosity also affects the hygiene and aesthetics of the stone negatively. On the other hand, polishing quality of porous stones is lower. Filling materials can be used in stones that are porous like travertine, and sealers can be used in sealer can change the aspect of the stone and may cause some fabrication and application problems. Therefore, costs increase with increasing porosity. Stones are classified as treatable, moderate treatable, hard treatable, very hard treatable and super hard treatable according to their SiO2 content (Table 1). SiO2 is an important parameter that increases extraction and processing costs of the stone. There is need for sophisticated machinery for extraction and processing of stones with SiO2 content other than treatable, moderate treatable stones. Existence of SiO2 in marble and limestones is a rare event and it jeopardizes quality in some processes like polishing and chamfering. On the other hand, SiO2 increases the stones durability and improves their strength. According to their MgO content (Table 2) marbles are classified as calcitic, low magnesian and dolomitic. MgO content is also important in projects. The allurement of MgO ions is greater than other components. In places that will be exposed to liquids like water, rain, coffee or dust, stones with lower MgO content should be used. Fluids and dust affects the stone and changes the color to a darker tone and yields a patchy look. In colder places, dolomitic stones are affected from frost more easily. However, MgO increases the hardness and strength of the stone.
Calcitic Low Magnesian 4% <MgO< 10% fine crystalline 150 mm <grain< 800 mm medium crystalline 800 mm <grain< 2 mm coarse crystalline 2 mm <grain< 5 mm Dolomitic 10% <MgO very coarse crystalline 5 mm <

very fine crystalline < 150 mm

Table 2: Summary of the marbles used in the building Size of crystals is important for marbles. In industry and commerce, marble are also called crystal or crystallized marble. By increasing of crystal size, toughness, attraction and polish taking decreases and porosity, water absorption, processing costs increases, aging of the stone accelerates. Bitumen is important for marble, limestone and travertine. Stone that contain bitumen are of black, grey-black color. One can smell bitumen during extraction and processing of stone but it doesnt smell after installation. Bituminous stones are affected from sun, their black color fade

gradually. Breccia and conglomerate adds marble, limestone and sandstones extra movement and attraction. On the other hand, breccia and conglomerate content causes important problems during processing. They reduce chamfering quality and increases costs. Breccia and conglomerate stones should be used in custom size rather than cut-to-size in projects. This stones are also affected more from atmosphere. Banded texture is related with stone initial deposition. Banded structure is observed most in travertines and onyxes and least in igneous stones. Colour differences in, between, and out of bands adds attraction and aesthetics to the stone. Symmetric structures like vein-cut and openbook are more valuable than cross-cut. Bands in stone add depth and movement to the project. On the other hand, differences in and between bands reduces stone productivity and processing quality. Strength of bonds between the bands and pores along the edges along the bands affect the resistance of onyx and travertine. Layer formations are observed at the stones other than the igneous ones. Structural and textural differences between layers affect projects negatively. Marble and similar metamorphic decorative stones are used by separating them in their natural borders of laminates. Slate is the most commonly know example of this type of a usage. Lamination decreases productivity significantly; however brushing yields better results and improves attraction in laminated stones. If not enough attention is paid, lineation also increases the costs of production. Very few producer, trader, architect and civil engineer recognize the lineation and pay enough attention to it. Lined stones, especially lined sandstone add depth to the project work. Stones being cut parallel and perpendicular to the lineation, if laid together create a wave movement effect. Limestones are the second most widely used stones after hard stones around the globe (Table 3). Limestones are classified as recrystallized, micritic, fossils and marl. Toughness of recrystallized limestone is higher and their porosities are lower generally. Characteristic of micritic limestone are variable and fissures are often observed. Containing fossils are one of the general characteristics of limestones. On the other hand, some particular limestones contain more fossils than the others. Size of the fossils and their homogeneity are also important. Larger size (1 cm) fossils might yield decorative looks but their reserves of fossil accumulations are generally pretty little. Fossils cause problems in chamfering and polishing.

Recrytallized Pure Dark

Micritic low magnesian 4% <MgO< 10%

Fossils

Marl dolomitic 10% <MgO Light

Breccias layered banded bituminous

Table 3: Summary of the limestones used in the building Travertines are classified as massive and layered in Table 4. Massive travertine is tougher and their porosities are usually lower than layered travertine. Massive travertines are also more homogenic. The most important issue with layered travertines is the strength bond between layers. Sand and clay accumulated between layer boundaries decreases efficiency a lot and cause surface and polish problems. Sandy travertine which has sand content in the mass should not be polished and should never be laid on the floor with polished finish. Sand particles separate from the surface during polishing operation and scratch the surface in place.

Plant fossils and shells are observed abundantly in travertines. Plant fossiled travertines are usually dark coloured, they are not homogeneous and they have higher porosities. Some shells may contain SiO2. Generally, shells also do cause problems during polishing and chamfering. Shells with homogeneous distribution and uniform size yield a decorative look on the stone. Travertines with plant fossils and shells have lower deposit reserves.
Massive Sandy banded plant fossils dark Bituminous shells light Layered

Table 4: Summary of the travertines used in the building The most important characteristics of onyxes that differs them from other stones is their semitransparency. Some marbles also are semi-transparent. However, transparency of onyx is significantly higher. Onyxes are classified as calcite, aragonite and alabaster (Table 5). Their hardness is alabaster, calcite and aragonite, respectively. Alabaster is gypsum and should not be used outdoors. Banded onyxes add depth to the project where watered onyxes add motion.
Calcite massive Aragonite watered Layered Alabaster banded

Table 5: Summary of the onyxes used in the building Hard stones are classified as sandstone, igneous stones, gneiss and migmatite in Table 6. Hard stones are the first stone that is known that have been used by humanity and they are the most abundant type of stone with the biggest reserves. Any form of surface and edge finish like flaming can be used on hard stones. More sophisticated machinery and equipment are being used during extraction and processing of hard stones which contain hard minerals like quartz and feldspar. Because of their durability, hard stones are both used as masonry block and kerb as well as panel. Hard stones have high permeability. Imbibition of water and rain into the material increases the affect of biological and environmental factors on these stones. As with other type of stones, the grain size decrease so does porosity and durability increases. By the increase of grain size, processing of stones becomes more difficult and processing costs increase.

Sandstone Clay carbonate massive layered

granite

syenite

Igneous Stone labradorite diabase gabbro

Gneiss andesite basalt

Migmatite layered

breccia fossils very fine grain < 0.1 mm fine grain 0.1 mm <grain< 1 mm medium grain 1 mm <grain< 4 mm coarse grain 4 mm <

Table 6: Summary of the hard stones used in the building Decorative stones except serpentine and pebble are used as sawn masonry blocks or by splitting from their lamination borders (Table 7). Technological advancement and search for new and different stones and finishes enabled those stones to be used in strip and slab forms. Serpentine are used polished. Talk and fissure content in serpentine obstructs outdoor use. In addition to that, serpentine are affected from sunlight and loses their color shortly. Pebble and other stones in chip form are usually used at garden decoration. Recently, pebbles are being used outdoors being fixed on concrete.
Schist Calc-schist Slate Phyllite Hornfels Laminated Lined banded Layered Tuff Serpentine Pebble

Table 7: Summary of the decorative stones used in the building

Deductions

Classification of building stones in Table 1 and Table 2-6 are being prepared to enable usage of building stones accurately, correctly and precisely by trader, architect, civil engineer and end user. This classification of stones that have been done will reduce problems in the chain of trader-supplier-investor-architect-civil engineer-end user. The classification is important by means of increasing usage of natural stones and decreasing of related costs and building an internationally accepted nomenclature. Classification of building stones will prevent confusion of terminology at industry and commerce. The classification will also help projects to be functional, aesthetic, hygienic and economical.

HISTORY OF STONES
Stone is a natural solid formation of one or many minerals. There are thousands of types of stone that have been quarried through the centuries. Quarries are located all around the world. A majority of natural stone comes from Italy, Spain, Turkey, United States, Mexico, China, Taiwan, India, Greece, Canada, France, and Brazil. The minerals in stone came from the same liquid and gas minerals that formed the earth. The Earth developed as a massive body of gas and liquid minerals that slowly cooled and condensed to a solid core. Through pressure, the Earth's crust began to form and heavy minerals were forced down to the core of the Earth where they were trapped. As the crust got thicker, it squeezed around the inner core which created intense pressure and heat from within the Earth. Crystals and other solid forms began to grow from the mineral vapors that were being released. As the Earth's crust began to expand and erode, heat and pressure pushed the solid minerals up to the Earth's surface which formed colossal rock beds. It took up to one-hundred million years to form some of these beds. Many of the beds are now used as quarries where the stone is mined. Most of these minerals can be identified by their color, hardness, and crystal formation. Crystals come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The wide array of these minerals are often difficult to identify. Many stones look very similar to each other; however, they are all very different. It is imperative to know the exact type of stone that is to be maintained. Stone is natural and may have adverse reactions to certain cleaning chemicals and procedures. Most stones are also natural alkalis and so are dirt and soil; therefore, stone and dirt are attracted to each other which often makes cleaning very difficult. This makes the proper selection of cleaning procedures and chemicals for stone very complex.
Stones used in the construction of Taj Mahal and Pyramids of Egypt

Construction of Taj Mahal began around 1632 and was completed around 1653. In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In the construction of the Taj Mahal three types of stones have been used : Semi-precious stones like Aqiq (agate), Yemeni, Firoza (turquoise), Lajwad (Lapislazuli); moonga (coral), Sulaimani (onyx), Lahsunia (cat's eye), Yasheb (jade) and Pitunia (blood stone). These were mainly used for inlaying work. Rare and scarce stones such as Tilai (goldstone), Zahar-mohra, Ajuba, Abri, Khathu, Nakhod and Maknatis (magnet stone) were used for bold inlay and mosaic work chiefly on floors, exterior dados and turrets.

Common stones: sang-i-Gwaliari (grey and yellow sandstone) sang-i-Surkh (red sandstone), sang-i-moosa (black slate) and sang-i-Rukhan (sang-i-marmar; white marble) were used in foundations, masonry and for giving finishing touch to the external surfaces. Red stone was brought from the neighboring towns like Fatehpur Sikri, Karauli-Hindaun, Tantpur and Paharpur whereas white marble was brought from Makrana mines (Rajasthan). Semi precious and rare stones were occasionally brought from as distant places such as Upper Tibet, Kumaon, Jaisalmer, Cambay and Ceylon.

Gold stone

Magnet Stone

Agate

Turquoise

Lapis- lazuli

Coral

Onyx

cat's eye

Jade

Yellow Sand Stone

Grey Sand Stone

Red Sand Stone

Black Slate

White Marble

The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million limestone blocks with most believed to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the "King's" chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 500 miles away. Traditionally, ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering wooden wedges into the stone which were then soaked with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid. It is estimated that 5.5 million tons of limestone, 8,000 tons of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tons of mortar were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid.

Granite

Lime stone

FROM STONES TO MARBLES

Natural stones are rock formations formed by nature. These stones are formed naturally by enormous pressure under the earth. Natural stones were used in decorating and sculpturing right from the moment civilization was born. These natural stones are time tested for their natural beauty. Ancient buildings and monuments made of natural stones during early civilizations still stand erect narrating the beauty and durability of natural stones. Modern people want to make their home stand out of the rest and they used natural stones for their floors and walls to bring about eternal beauty. Granite and marble are two main natural stones widely used in the stone industry. These stones are used in constructions as well as in monumental sculpture. Commercially, these stones are mined for use as architectural stones for flooring, cladding, curbing, counter tops and much more to be used at home.

Pure white marble is a metamorphic rock of very pure limestone. Marble is found extensively in various countries like Belgium, France, Great Britain, Greece, India, Spain and Italy. From classical times, pure white marble was considered as the best of its kind. In the beginning, only white marble was considered worthy and colored marble was considered impure. However, this belief was just short-lived because very soon, ancient civilizations appreciated colored marbles too and used colored marbles in various monuments and sculptures even though pure white marble is always regarded high. Freshly quarried marble is easy to sculpture and the stone hardens as it ages. Ancient Greeks were very much advanced in civilization and they were really fascinated about marble. Finest architecture and sculpting are specialties of Greek architecture and marble has been used in various Greek buildings. Exquisite statues with detailed carvings were made out of marble. Buildings built using Marble lasted for several ages. The Parthenon which was built in 441-437 BC is considered as a symbol of ancient Greek civilization and this scintillating building was built using Pentelicon marble. The Greek empire extensively used marbles in their constructions. Temple of Artemis is one of the ancient wonders of the world and it consists of 127 marble columns each of which is 5 stories tall. It was the first grand structure made using marble. The magnificent construction was destroyed by various civilizations that took over Greece, but you can still find foundation and a few columns of the wondrous marbles. When natural stones were widely used in constructing monuments and temples, it was the Greek empire that brought marble to personal use. References to baths and pools lined with marble can be seen in ancient literature. Thassos marble was widely used in bathrooms and this type of marble is still quarried today for commercial uses. Building constructions using marble was popular in India too and the Taj Mahal, one of the Seven Wonders of the World was constructed using pure white marble stones. After the Egyptian and Greek civilizations made some wonders with natural stones of granite and marble, the Roman Empire decided to try its hands on both granite and marble. Many of the roads of the Roman Empire were built using granite. Public baths became popular in Rome and these baths were made of granite. Pantheon in Rome used granite stones for columns and you can see these columns standing tall even today. Romans loved granite and marble for different reasons. They used granite extensively for constructions because the stone is highly durable and strong. Marble was mainly used for aesthetic reasons because Romans believed marble to be the most beautiful stone. Construction pattern of Egyptians and Greek was different from Romans. While the former civilizations used massive granite and marble stones to build constructions, Romans used bricks and mortar for buildings and then, lined them with marble and granite slabs. It is because of this reason that Romans were able to build marble cities in a short duration. The renaissance period is a golden period for all types of artwork. Artists and sculptors were interested in using natural stones for their artwork. Quarrying methods were improved by the time and technical use was invented. Innovative and novel users of natural stones increased

during the renaissance period. Famous Michelangelo made several beautiful sculptures out of marble. Ornate decorations made using marble and granite were used in decorating churches, temples and other buildings of magnificent nature. Meanwhile, natural stones were carved into decorative pieces for use at home. It was only during modern times that natural stones were brought close to mankind. Quarrying techniques were improved greatly and there was no need for men to die in quarries dealing with dynamites. Innovative technologies were used in mining natural stones. Also, the world started thinking about eco friendly materials to be used to construct homes. Architects and designers were overly enthusiastic about natural stones that were used in building monuments. In the last decade, people preferred to use more durable, yet stylish materials for constructing homes. Marble and granite are available in various patterns and colors and it was not easy to find the same pattern of stones. This uniqueness of natural stones made people want for more use of natural stones. In the ancient periods, marble and granite were used for lining and decoration. People trusted durable stones and lay flooring using granite and marble. Apart from their baths, living room, bed room and other rooms in the home had natural stone flooring. Even though natural stones add exquisite beauty to the home, they are highly porous in nature. Harsh substances can easily damage these natural stones. However, thanks to latest technologies, that it is possible to add more strength to the stones and seal the porous nature so that these stones can be used extensively at homes. It was only during the last few years that countertops made of marble and granite became popular. In this report we shall be focusing on marble, its production and trends and discuss the fluid mechanics involved in water jet cutting technology for cutting marbles.

MARBLE
The word dimensional stones refer to the durable stones which can be cut to sizes, polished and used for construction purposes, i.e. marble, granite, slates etc. These stones belong to a same family resulted from the combinations of different minerals such as calcium compounds (calcareous) for marbles, Silica compounds (siliceous) for granite and Shale clay for slate and it is the mineral base in these stones which distinguishes them from each other. Marble is a crystalline, compact variety of metamorphosed limestone, consisting primarily of calcite (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMg (CO3)2 or a combination of both minerals. The formation of marble takes place from the contact metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks such as limestone, dolomite or metamorphism of older marble, thus it is a metamorphic rock. This chemical formation results in to an interlocking mosaic of calcite, aragonite and/or dolomite crystals from the recrystallization of the original rock. The fossils and sedimentary textures present in the original rock get destroyed due to the temperatures and pressures. The metamorphism of very pure limestone results in to a pure white marble, whereas clay, silt, sand, iron oxides, or chert present as a layers or grains in the limestone result in varieties of colored marble. Mineral impurities add color in multicolored patterns, though pure calcite is white. Wide deposits of marble lie in various countries like Italy, India, Pakistan, Spain, Greece, Brazil, China,

Afghanistan, Turkey, and Great Britain and in the United States. If taken in a commercial term, marble refers to the composition of any rock with calcium carbonate including limestone that takes polish. If we extend the term further, it includes other stones too, such as alabaster, serpentine and other soft rocks. The thickness of marble in terms of gravity varies between 2.68 to 2.72. Marble is quite sensitive towards moist or acidic environment and disintegrated easily under such environment. Thus, it must be protected from such environment and rain as it is a durable product under a dry atmosphere. Statuary marble is the purest white form of marble with visible crystalline structure. The unique shine of these marble results from the reflection of light lying in the surface of inner crystals.

HISTORY OF MARBLE
Small, round objects made from stone have been unearthed in the excavations of ancient cultures all around the globe. The antecedent of the marble was probably the nut, polished by youngsters in ancient times into a smooth surface for playing games. Both Greek and Roman youths played games with small balls made from clay, and marbles were discovered in the tomb of the young Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen. In North America, objects of stone and clay that appear to be marbles have been unearthed from several sites. One of the most famous is the Hopewell burial sites in Ohio. Marbles and marble games for children continued to be a popular form of entertainment well through the Middle Ages. Unfortunately, youngsters playing marble games came to be seen as delinquents, and efforts were made to restrict their marble-playing activities. Most of the marbles used in medieval and Elizabethan times were made from clay. Around 1600, water-powered stone mills in Germany began producing more polished versions from the marble and alabaster quarries nearby, especially in the regions near Coburg and Oberstein. The word marble is derived from the German term "for the rock," and has come to mean any small, round sphere used as such. Soon the mills began grinding out versions from agate, limestone, brass, and gemstone, and these large operations could grind a marble into shape at the rate of about 800 an hour. This made Germany the center of marble manufacturing for several centuries. Glass marbles, the most common version of the object today, only came into existence relatively recently in the history of the object. It is debated whether they originated in Venice, where glassblowing had become a well-developed industry since the ninth century, or back in Germany. Historians point to 1846 as the invention of marbelschere (marble scissors) by a glass factory employee in Germany. This tool resembled a pair of tongs with a small cup on one end and a slicing device on the other. A molten glass rod would be forcefully inserted into the cup, and the worker would then twist the cup, which would help form the sphere of the marble. Squeezing the tongs shut sliced off the rest of the glass. Such marbles can be identified by their pontil marks, the two tiny tags at each end of the sphere where the cooling glass was severed from the rest of the rod. The objects were further cooled inside a wooden barrel and then taken up with an iron spoon and inserted into an annealing oven, a process which yielded a tougher piece of process which yielded a tougher piece of glass not likely to break or become brittle. Marble manufacturing migrated to American shores in the later decades of the 19th century. In 1900 Martin Frederick Christensen received a patent for a machine that made near-perfect spheres of steel ball bearings. The first machine-made marbles were manufactured in a barn

behind Christensen's house in Ohio, which eventually led to a prosperous manufacturing facility. By 1910 the 33 workers at the M.F. Christensen and Son plant were producing 10,000 marbles a day. The furnaces were fired by natural gas, however, and the onset of World War I brought rationing of the resource and spelled the fiscal end of Christensen's operation. Today, marbles are still produced in record numbers, but most are made in Third World factories. One such operation, Vacor de Mexico, located in Guadalajara, produces about 12 million marbles a day, which are then shipped to 35 different countries.
RAW MATERIALS

Modern marbles are made from a combination of sand, soda lime, silica, and several other ingredients added for pigment or decoration. These other additives range from aluminum hydrate to zinc oxide. The primary component, sand, is essentially loose, granular particles of disintegrated rock. Soda lime is the chemical term for the mixture of calcium hydroxide and sodium or potassium hydroxide. It is a drying agent and absorbs carbon dioxide. Another compound used in marble manufacturing is silica, a white or colorless crystalline found in agate, flint, quartz, and other rocks. Some marbles are also made from cullet, or scrap glass.
THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Meltdown

Sand, soda lime, and crushed cullet are fed into a large, furnace-driven tank. In the tank, the mixture is heated to 2300F (1260C) to melt the raw materials. This can take as long as 28 hours.

Injection

Next, the molten mixture moves out of the tank through an opening into another vat known as the flow tank. There an opening in the tank injects molten colored glass. This hot, pigmented glass gives the marbles their distinct appearance. A green marble has been injected with glass containing iron oxide; cobalt results in a blue marble; and manganese will yield a purple one. The use of uranium oxide gives marbles an eerie, greenish-yellow cast. The speed and force of the injection determines the final design of the marble.

Cutting and cooling

Next, the still-molten glass is released from the flow tank as globs of glass. Automatic cutting devices slice the mixture into equal parts. The globs travel down metal ramps that simultaneously cool them and perfect their spherical shape. Next, they travel down a second metal slide and are sorted by hand. Marbles with flaws are sent back to another area of the factory for re-melting. The marbles cool off in 5-gallon (191) containers that house 5,000 marbles at a time.

TYPES OF MARBLE FOUND WORLDWIDE

The major categories of marble comprises of Beijing White, Boticena and Onyx (Green), Carrara, Danby, Fauske Katni, Llano Pink, Macael Nabresina, Parian, Red, Thassos, Vencac, White and Yule that are available worldwide. Since the ancient times, white marble have been a primary choice for the monuments for its softness, relative isotropy, homogeneity and a comparative confrontation to devastating. Besides, the waxy looks of a human body sculptures form due to the low index of calcite which allows light to penetrate some millimeters in to the stone before being scattered out. The table below shows historically notable marble varieties throughout the world.

MARBLE PRODUCT PARAMETRES AND MARKET

PARAMETERS FOR THE SELECTION OF MARBLE

Marble is selected on the basis of various parameter meant for its specific and end use. They are rated on three basic characteristics namely, color, pattern and grain size. Colour Color has its importance in the market for marble which varies as per time, markets, and marble type from country to country, i.e. European markets prefer white marble while Middle East & far eastern markets demand for white, black & beige marble.

Pattern
Pattern has its effect on the looks of marble, thus it plays a major role.

Grain Size
Fine, medium and large grain materials are the general form of grain size. Grain size is meant for the use of marble rather than its looks. Fine grain materials have a micro hardness and are meant for load bearing areas and sharp corners, whereas Medium and especially the large grain materials are unsuitable for those areas as there are chances of their breakage and cracks. Thus, the vary combinations of colors, sizes and patterns are meant for different segments of customers, i.e. customers with high price range look for rare color, fine grain and homogeneous pattern of marble or for medium grain, common colors and homogeneous pattern. and for the medium price range, the market has the marble with rare colors, large grain size and heterogeneous pattern.

Marble Specifications

Production of International Standard Size blocks divides of cracks and fractures in international market the standard size of block is according to the following specification: Length: 1.9m, 2.6m Width: 1.4m, 1.8m Height: 1.1m, 1.4m The standard weights of these blocks are 13.7tons, 22.7 tons even large up-to 30tons.

Slabs Tiles

American sizes of Slabs are 120 inches. The International standard sizes of tiles are 22 up-to 24.

APPLICATIONS OF MARBLE

Blocks of cut Marble

Colorless or light-colored marbles are a very pure source of calcium carbonate, which is used in a wide variety of industries. Finely ground marble or calcium carbonate powder is a component in paper, and in consumer products such as toothpaste, plastics, and carbonate can be made from limestone, chalk, and marble; about three-quarters of the ground calcium carbonate worldwide is made from marble. Ground calcium carbonate is used as a coating pigment for paper because of its high brightness and as a paper filler because it strengthens the sheet and imparts high brightness.

Consumer Products

Ground calcium carbonate is used in consumer products such as a food additive, in toothpaste, and as inert filler in pills. It is used in plastics because it imparts stiffness, impact strength, dimensional stability, and thermal conductivity. It is used in paints because it is good filler and extender, has high brightness, and is weather resistant. However, the growth in demand for ground calcium carbonate in the last decade has mostly been for a coating pigment in paper Calcium carbonate can also be reduced under high heat to calcium oxide (also known as "lime"), which has many applications including being a primary component of many forms of cement.

Production Sculpture

White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, relative isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low index of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate several millimeters into the stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which gives "life" to marble sculptures of the human body.

Construction Marble

Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine which is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the Dimension stone trade, the term "marble" is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossil ferrous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that Geologists call the Holston Formation. According to the United States Geological Survey, U.S. dimension marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium

carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons.

Artificial Marble

Marble dust is combined with cement or synthetic resins to make reconstituted or cultured marble. The appearance of marble can be simulated with faux marbling, a painting technique that imitates the stone's color patterns. Ancient Marble columns in the prayers Hall of the mosque of Uqba in Kairouan,Tunisia. As the favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see classical sculpture), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material, and it is often imitated in background patterns for computer displays, etc. Places named after the stone include Marblehead,Ohio; Marble Arch, London; the Sea of Marmara; India's Marble Rocks; and the towns of Minnesota; Marble; and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York. The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon that are on display in the British Museum. They were brought to Britain by the Earl of Elgin

GEO-ECONOMICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE MARBLE INDUSTRY

WORLD MARBLE INDUSTRY

According to the site tunisianindustry.net, approximately 57% of the world's marble exports are contributed primarily by five countries; namely, Italy (20%), China (16%), India (10%), Spain (6%), and Portugal (5%). While it comes to major importer countries of marble, the top marble importer countries series wise are: Germany, Japan & Taiwan for the import of nearly 4 million tons together. Whereas other countries such as USA, the Benelux countries, Hong Kong, France, Switzerland & Saudi Arabia import over one million tons.

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Figure above shows the demand of marble worldwide (in a span of five years) from the year 2003 till 2007. It represents a constant growth in the demand of marble which is supposed to be the total finished marble exported by some major exporting countries, i.e. Turkey, Italy, Spain & China. The world s demand for marble on the measure of average annual increase, it is 13.7% while keeping the year 2000 as the base year (2000=100).
GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

ITALY

Along with the availability of stone materials, Italian stones possess a greater diversity, with respect to color and sizes that adds to their attractive global demand. A traditional world leader in its sector Italy has advantages like highly skilled workers, modern technologies that are constantly established communication between stone suppliers & machine manufacturers keeping them ahead in the competitive arena. Italian marble blocks are majorly exported to the European markets such as Spain, Portugal, Greece, Slovenia & Turkey. Furthermore markets such as Russia, Poland, Croatia, Morocco, Algeria, Switzerland & the Arab Emirates, in 2007, fueled the demand for the Italian marble other than prominent countries like the US and Germany. EXPORTS As per IMM Carara, Italy reports Egypt, Libya, India, Tunisia and China as the top five countries with respect to the export of rough blocks and slabs of marble. Figure below depicts the quantity in thousand tons for export to the respective countries.

ITALY-TOP FIVE COUNTRIES WHERE ROUGH BLOCKS AND SLABS OF MARBLE EXPORTED

Similarly, the worked and finished marble products are primarily exported to Spain, Germany, UAE, Saudi Arabia and USA. Figure below shows the top five countries with quantity in thousand tons.

ITALY-TOP FIVE COUNTRIES FOR THE EXPORTS OF WORKED AND FINISHED PRODUCTS OF MARBLE

TURKEY

The Turkish stone industry, as of today, comprises of 2000 quarries & 1500 factories. 60% of the deposits and factories are spread over a radius of 400 Km near Izmir. Turkey s vast marble reserves are easily & well compatible with the marble found worldwide with their more than 100 varieties such as very light gray to black & brilliant white shades. Besides, Turkey has other world famous range of marble such as Afyon White, Afyon Tigerskin, Bilecik Pink, Marmara White, Burdur Brown, Denizli Travertine, Elazig Cherry, Karacabey Black, Golpazar Beige, Milas Kavaklidere, Aeagan Bordeaux, and Aksehir Black. In the recent years, Turkey has enjoyed 25% of exports due to its availability of diverse color patterns as highlighted above. Additionally, the Turkish marble industry is quite promising for its national & international investors in terms of future profit. EXPORTS Turkish stone industry showed a rapid growth within a time span of ten years. The amount of the total value of natural stone exports accounted to US$ 1.3 billion in 2008, of which nearly 63% was cut & polished processed marble. Amongst the processed & block marble, processed marble accounts for approximately US$ 887 million export value that were primarily exported to the countries like U.S.A., the United Kingdom, Canada, Saudi Arabia & the United Arab Emirates in 2008. Whereas, block marble with US$ 438 million, in export value, were majorly exported to China, India, Italy, Syria & Greece.

As per the reports from the Undersecretarial for Foreign Trade & IGEME, the total amount of marble exported by Turkey since the year 2004 till the year 2008 in tons is depicted below in figure

TURKEY'S MARBLE EXPORT (QUANTITY: TON)

CHINA

There are approximately 123 mines 26 provinces for the marble production in China. Hebei Quyang, Jiangsu Yixin and Ganyu, Hubei Huangshi, Sichuan Baoxin, Shanxi Liuba and Guangdong Yingde marble mine are some of the main marble mining provinces amongst which Guangdong and Hebei hold leadership positioning. Until the year 2006, the total marble production in China was 900 million sq. meters. EXPORTS A total of approximately 31000 tons of worked and finished marble stones were exported from China in 2008. The period from the year 2004 through 2008 has experienced a growth of approximately 2% to South Korea, being the largest importer in the finished marble stones segment. Figure below shows the top five countries in terms of worked & finished marble exported to by China as per the data provided by IMM:-

CHINA-TOP FIVE COUNTRIES WHERE WORKED AND FINISHED PRODUCTS OF MARBLE EXPORTED

The scenario for the rough blocks and marble slabs is quite different from the finished products. As figure shown below indicates, Taiwan remained a dominant importer of unprocessed marbles

with 41000 tons in 2008. Other regions that contributed to this segment were Holland, Japan, South Korea and Hong Kong.

CHINA-TOP FIVE COUNTRIES WHERE ROUGH BLOCKS AND SLABS OF MARBLE EXPORTED

SPAIN

There are more than 1000 small & medium companies & 700 quarries in Spain trading with the dimensional stones such as marble, granite & slate. Various reports including the above one were presented at Piedra 2008 giving various details of Spanish marble industry such as the size & activities of that sector on an international level. EXPORTS UAE, Italy, USA, Hong Kong & China were the top five countries where the most amount of rough blocks & slabs of marble were exported between the time period of 2004 to 2008.

SPAIN-TOP FIVE COUNTRIES WHERE ROUGH BLOCK AND SLABS OF MARBLE EXPORTED

When it comes to worked & finished products of marble exported by Spain, UAE & Italy again have their place in the top five countries where worked & finished products of marble were exported during last four year, that is, from the year 2004 till the year 2008. Figure below shows the amount of marble in tons being exported by Spain (representing only top five countries it was exported to):-

SPAIN-TOP FIVE COUNTRIES WHERE WORKED AND FINISHED PRODUCTS OF MARBLE EXPORTED

GREECE

Greece too holds a good status in the world for its marble. During the year 2004 it was ranked 4th in the world marble exports & 6th in the world marble production. Throughout the world it is considered as top level architectural material & thus used that way. EXPORTS As per the data provided by IMM, following is the amount in ton for the exports of worked & finished products of marble by Greece. Singapore, Spain, Brazil, Cyprus & USA were marked as the top countries for that:-

GREECE-TOP FIVE COUNTRIES WHERE WORKED AND FINISHED PRODUCTS OF MARBLE EXPORTED

Greece exported most of its rough blocks & slabs of marble to J Rep, Hong Kong, Bulgaria, Albania & China during last five years, that is, 2004 to 2008:-

GREECE-TOP FIVE COUNTRIES WHERE ROUGHBLOCKS AND SLABS OF MARBLE EXPORTED

PAKISTANS GEOLOGICAL POTENTIAL AND UNTAPPED MARBLE RESERVOIRS

MARBLE INDUSTRY OF PAKISTAN

Marble industry is one of the most important industries in Pakistan. Since 1990 mining & quarrying has consistently contributed 0.5% to the GDP. According to the industry estimates 1.37 million tons of marble and granite were produced while 97% of it was consumed locally. Little efforts were made in the past to identify and estimate marble and granite reserves in the country. Some of the reserves of marble and granite were however calculated with the efforts made by development projects and concerned departments. Known reserves of Marble in Pakistan are 160 million tones while actual reserves could be manifold. These reserves are mostly concentrated in NWFP and Balochistan. Estimated reserves of Granite in Pakistan are 2 billion M.T. out of which 1.15 Billion M.T. are in Thar - Sindh. Major mining areas can be identified as Chitral, Buner, Swat, Lasbela, Swabi, Khuzdar, Mohmand Agency, Mardan, Kashmir and Mansehra. Mine in Mianwali has also started meager operations.
DEPOSITS IN PAKISTAN

Pakistan has enormous wealth of marble, re-crystallized lime stone, fossil-ferrous limestone, dolomite and granite. These materials occur on the surface suitable for open cast bulk.

RESERVES

Not specifically measured, however Marble& Onyx more than 300 billion tons of reserves are estimated.

MAJOR COLOURS

White, Black, Green, Pink, Grey, Brown and Yellow colours.

LOCATION

Mohmand Agency, Chitral, Buner, Swat, Parachinar, Gilgit, Hunza, Swabi, Bajour, Mardan, Wazirstan, Azad Kashmir, Lasbela, Chagai & Khuzdar.

MARBLE DEPOSITS IN PAKISTAN

MARBLE INDUSTRY IN NORTH WESTERN PARTS OF PAKISTAN

Marble mining and cutting is one of the most important industries in Pakistan. It provides the local population employment opportunities as well as contributing a substantial share to the economy of the country. In spite of the immense economical importance of the marble sector, the relevant industry has not been developed enough to sustain its growth and optimize its utilization. The economical potential of the marble industry and its slow growth can be estimated from the fact that in the fiscal year 1980-81, its production was about 1,14,000 tones which increased to 1,22,000 tons in 1985-86. This is about 7% increase in 5 years period. The deposits of marble, onyx and granite are not only huge in quantity but excellent in quality as well. Marble deposits are found in the northern parts of the NWFP and Balochistan. Deposits of calcite marble containing gem-quality ruby has been discovered in the Hunza valley, Northwestern mountains, and Kashmir valley as well. Vast reserves of marble are also found in different areas of NWFP including Mardan, Nowshera, Swabi, Buner, Swat, Chitral and, Malakand, Khyber and Mohmand belts. The NWFP marble reserves constitute about 97 per cent of the country s total marble deposits. The marble processing industry in Pakistan is around 33 years old, when the first major marble deposits were discovered at Mullagori and Swabi in NWFP in the country. Marbles with a variety of colours occur in NWFP but white marble has universal demand in the international market. Various types and colours of marble available in NWFP are given in the table below.

DEPOSITS IN BALUCHISTAN

Baluchistan-Chaghi District

Deposits of high quality onyx (travertine) marble locally known as Malmal are found in Chaghi District at seven localities, 50 to 80 Km away from the railheads of Dalbandin and Nokkundi.

JUHLI DEPOSITS
Pale to deep green beds. Deep green variety is the most desired decorative stones. Reddish and rusty brown known as multicolor onyx. Reserves of 1.5 million cubic feet.

ZARD KHAN DEPOSITS

Yellow, pale green, grayish white and white dense, thinly bedded and fine grained.

 Reserves of 30 million cubic feet

MASHKI CHAH DEPOSITS

Transparent to translucent white, pale yellowish marble. Reserves of 6 million cubic feet.

Patkok Deposits 3 feet thick bed pale green marble of 24,000 cubic feet reserves. Butak Deposits Good quality thin bedded, dense yellow marble of 60,000 cubic feet
reserves.

Tozghi Deposits Opaque having off white color with ferruginous layers of 24,000
cubic feet reserves

Zeh Deposits Green good quality reserves studies to be carried out to determine its
quality and quantity.

DEPOSITS IN SINDH

THANO BULA KHAN Travertine Deposits occurring in Cavern and Cavities in the limestone. Reserves have been estimated at 360,000 tons. THATTA Braudabad, Sonda Jherak, Jangshahi dense grey, greyish white limestone and dolomite in considerable quantities.
DEPOSITS IN PUNJAB

Crystalline grey, grayish white limestone and dolomite in district Mianwali (Punjab).Crystalline grey, grayish white limestone and dolomite in district Mianwali (Punjab). Table provided below shows the types of marbles found in different parts of Pakistan. TYPE LOCATION
Mohmand Agency, Chitral Buner, Swat, Parachinar, Gilgit, Hunza, Swabi, Malakan

COLOUR
Pure white: white with pink, brown and Green shades white to grey with yellowish patches, white to light grey with yellowish brown Patches; Creamy white

WHITE

Buner,Bajour.Mardan,Bela

BLACK

Deep Black :with patches of white: Black with white and golden steaks Dark Green,green with streak & patches of white grey and black,greenish white, Pink with streaks and patches white, grey,redand brown :pink with fossils Grey with white bands grey with pink ,beown and green patches Dark Brown with white lines ,brown with yellow Patches,light brown with fossils Yellow with golden patches: Yellowish golden with fossils Dark Green with layers of light green, green with streaks of white and yellow

GREEN

Swat,Swabi,Buner,Azad Kashmir and Lasbela

Nowshehra,chitral,Lasbela

PINK
Buner,Bajour,Mardan,Swat,Muhammad Agency,Lasbela Bunner Swat,Kohat,Waziristan,Khuzdar Bunner Swat,Kohat,Waziristan,Khuzdar Jhuli,Zard Khan,Zeh

GREY

BROWN

YELLOW

GREEN

MARBLE PRODUCTION IN PAKISTAN STATISTICS

Tables provided below show the amount of marble produced in tones per annum in Pakistan. PROVINCE BALOCHISTAN PROVINCE PUNJAB Product Marble Product Marble 2006-2007 461465 2006-2007 10059 2007-2008 337756 2007-2008 42016

PROVINCE SINDH

Product Marble Product Marble

2006-2007 3,305 2006-2007 428,649

2007-2008 1,415 2007-2008 196,545

PROVINCE KHYBER-P

Outlook of Water jet machining process

Primordial Marble and Granite Cutting Tools

Marble is a very hard surface. Granite is significantly harder. These materials are so hard that normal household tools would not be strong enough to properly cut and shape them. A hammer or drill that easily goes through wood or drywall would do likely do little other than scratch or damage these very hard stones. Specialty tools are required to shape these sturdy, beautiful and classic materials. These tools are often stronger than other tools. In the case of granite, most tools are made of diamond.
1. Hammer Drills
o

Most power drills works by quickly rotating a drill bit into wood, drywall, or other materials, basically acting as a high powered screwdriver. A hammer drill adds a pounding action. While the drill spins, it is also being pounded in. This is necessary to get the drill further into the marble or granite as a normal drill would not be powerful enough.

Chisels
o

A chisel is a tool with a cutting blade on one end. It is forced into a substance by a hammer or mallet. This cuts away a small piece of the substance. There are many different types of chisels. Each is used for a specific purpose such as cutting a specific shape or area. Granite and marble work require special chisels, often with diamond blades.

Grinder
o

A grinder is used for cutting, polishing, removing excess material, and shaping. A grinder rotates a blade at great speed to do this. There are many different types of grinder blades, each with different strengths and uses. When working with marble, and especially granite, blades with diamond edges are recommended.

Tile Saw
o

A tile saw is used for shaping marble into specific sizes. These saws work similarly to electric saws used for wood or other materials. Tile saws used for marble work typically have diamond blades.

WATER JET

Preliminaries

Figure Courtesy of Xinology Corp.

Engineering and manufacturing departments are constantly on the lookout for an edge. The water jet process provides many unique capabilities and advantages that can prove very effective in the cost battle. Learning more about the water jet technology will give us an opportunity to put these cost-cutting capabilities to work. Beyond cost cutting, the water jet process is recognized as the most versatile and fastest growing process in the world. Water jets are used in high production applications across the globe. They compliment other technologies such as milling, laser, EDM, plasma and routers. No poisonous gases or liquids are used in water jet cutting, and water jets do not create hazardous materials or vapors. No heat effected zones or mechanical stresses are left on a water jet cut surface. It is truly a versatile, productive, cold cutting process. The water jet has shown that it can do things that other technologies simply cannot. From cutting whisper, thin details in stone, glass and metals; to rapid whole drilling of titanium; for cutting of food, to the killing of pathogens in beverages and dips, the water jet has proven itself unique. Think of a water jet as something with about 30 times the pressure of the power washer wand at your local car wash. Power washing at car washes is an everyday example of a dirt film being "cut" off the body, wheels and tires of an automobile. A water jet is a tool used in machine shops to cut metal parts with a (very) high-pressure stream of water. As amazing as it sounds; if you get water flowing fast enough it can actually cut metal.

Beyond cost cutting, the water jet process is recognized as the most versatile and fastest growingprocess in the world (per Frost & Sullivan and the Market Intelligence Research Corporation). Water jets are used in high production applications across the globe. They compliment other technologies such as milling, laser, EDM, plasma and routers. No noxious gases or liquids are used in water jet cutting, and water jets do not create hazardous materials or vapors.No heat effected zones or mechanical stresses are left ona water jet cut surface. It is truly a versatile, productive,cold cutting process. The water jet has shown that it can do things that other technologies simply cannot. From cutting whisper thin details in stone, glass and metals; to rapid hole drilling of titanium; to cutting of food, to the killing of pathogens in beverages and dips, the water jet has proven itself unique. Water jets remove material without heat. In this cold cutting process, the supersonic water jet stream performs a supersonic erosion process to "grind" away small grains of material. After this water jet stream has been created, abrasive can be added to the stream to increase the power of the process many times. The key to cutting metal with water is to keep the spray coherent. Water jets are able to cut because the spray is channeled through a very narrow jeweled nozzle at a very high pressure to keep the spray coherent. Unlike metal cutters, a water jet never gets dull and it cannot overheat.

Computer-controlled water jet and abrasivejet cutting are used today in industry to cut many soft and hard materials. The plain water-abrasive mixture leaves the nozzle at more than 900 mph. The latest machines can cut to within two thousandths of an inch, and have jet speeds around Mach 3. Water jets can cut: Marble Granite Stone Metal Plastic Wood Stainless steel A water jet can remove the bark from a tree at a distance of 40 feet if one alters the chemistry of plain water by adding a soluble polymeric chemical that acts like a series of molecular spinal columns or concrete reinforcement bars that tie the individual water molecules together in more structured way to form a coherent jet. Imagine the potential for cutting down roadside weeds.

A water jet can cut a "sandwich" of different materials up to four inches thick. This odorless, dust-free and relatively heat-free process can also cut something as thin as five thousandths of an inch. The tiny jet stream permits the first cut to also be the final finished surface. This single cutting process saves material costs and machining costs. For example, the engineer merely gives a gear drawing to the cutting shop via a diskette or e-mail and gets the finished gear back. Water jets cut softer materials, while abrasive jets are used for harder materials. The actual cutting is often done under water to reduce splash and noise. Faster feed rates are used to prevent the jet from cutting all the way through. The water pressure is typically between 20,000 and 55,000 pounds per square inch (PSI). The water is forced through a 0.010" to 0.015" in diameter orifice (hole) in a jewel. HISTORY

Water jet cutting can be traced back to hydraulic mining of coal in the Soviet Union and New Zealand. Water was collected from streams and aimed to wash over a blasted rock face carrying away the loose coal and rock. This method of mining was redeveloped in South African gold mines to remove blasted rock from the work area into a collection drift or tunnel. In the California Gold Country between 1853-1886, pressurized water was first used to excavate soft gold rock from the mining surfaces. The pressurized water allowed the miner to stand further back from the face being washed. This was safer because there was less danger of being covered by a collapsing wall of blasted rock. By early 1900s this method of mining had re ached Prussia and Russia. In these two countries the pressurized water was used to wash blasted coal away.

In the 1930s it was Russia that made the first attempt at actually cutting the rock with the pressurized water. A water cannon was used to generate a pressure of 7000 Bars. In the 1970s technology was developed in the USA that was capable of creating a 40,000 bar pressure. Most of the water jet mining growth after this involved combining a drill with the water jet. In 1972 Professor Norman Franz of Michigan worked with McCartney Manufacturing Company to install the first industrial water jet cutter. The equipment was installed in Alton Boxboard. Flow industries also began to market industrial water jet cutting equipment. It was Flow Industries who added sand to a pressurized cleaning system to give metal a white finish. After this it was demonstrated that abrasive water jet systems could cut through metal and ceramics. From here the water jet cutting industry took off.
How Stuff Works

Most water jet cutting theories explain water jet cutting as a form of micro erosion as described here. Water jet cutting works by forcing a large volume of water through a small orifice in the nozzle. The constant volume of water traveling through a reduced cross sectional area causes the particles to rapidly accelerate. This accelerated stream leaving the nozzle impacts the material to be cut. The extreme pressure of the accelerated water particles contacts a small area of the work piece. In this small area the work piece develops small cracks due to stream impact. The water jet washes away the material that "erodes" from the surface of the work piece. The crack caused by the water jet impact is now exposed to the water jet. The extreme pressure and impact of particles in the following stream cause the small crack to propagate until the material is cut through.
TYPES OF WATER JET CUTTING

Essentially there are two main types of water jet cutting which include Pure water jet and Abrasive water jet. PURE WATER JET CUTTING

Pure water jet is the original water cutting method. The first commercial applications were in the early to mid 1970s, and involved the cutting of corrugated cardboard.The largest uses for pure water jet cutting are disposable diapers, tissue paper, and automotive interiors. In the cases of tissue paper and disposable diapers the water jet process creates less moisture on the material than touching or breathing on it.

Attributes
Very thin stream (0.004 to 0.010 inch in diameter is the common range) Extremely detailed geometry Very little material loss due to cutting Non-heat cutting Cut very thick Cut very thin Usually cuts very quickly Able to cut soft, light materials (e.g., fiberglass insulation up to 24" thick) Extremely low cutting forces Simple fixturing 24 hour per day operation ABRASIVE WATER JET CUTTING

Abrasive water jet cutting differs from pure water jetcutting in just a few ways. In pure water jet cutting, the supersonic stream erodes the material.In the abrasivewater jet, the water jet stream accelerates abrasive particles and those particles, not the water, erode the material.The abrasive water jet is hundreds, if not thousands of times more powerful than a pure water jet. Both the water jetand the abrasive water jet have their place. Where the purewater jet cuts soft materials, the abrasive water jet cuts hard materials, such as metals, stone, composites and ceramics. Abrasive water jets using standard parameters can cut materials with hardness up to and slightly beyond aluminum oxide ceramic.

Attributes
Used to cut much harder materials Water is not used directly to cut material as in Pure, instead water is used to accelerate abrasive particles which do the cutting 80-mesh garnet (sandpaper) is typically used though 50 and 120-mesh is also used

 Standoff distance between mixing tube and work part is typically 0.010-0.200 important to keep to a minimum to keep a good surface finish Evolution of mixing tube technology Standard Tungsten Carbide lasts 4-6 hours (not used much anymore) Premium Composite Carbide lasts 100-150 hours Consumables include water, abrasive, orifice and mixing tube

Tolerance
Typically +/- 0.005 inch Machines usually have repeatability of 0.001 inch Comparatively traditional machining centers can hold tolerances 0f 0.0001 inch with similar repeatability Water Jet tolerance range is good for many applications where critical tolerances are not crucial to workpart design
Schematics of Abrasive and Simple water jet

Abrasive

Simple

MULTI AXIS WATER JET

With recent advances in control and motion technology, 5-axis water jet cutting (abrasive and pure) has become a reality. Where the normal axes on a water jet are named X (back/forth), Y(left/right) and Z (up/down), a 5-axis system will typically add an A axis (angle from perpendicular) and C axes (rotation around the Z-axis). Depending on the cutting head, the maximum cutting angle for the A axis can be anywhere from 55, 60, or in some cases even 90 degrees from vertical. As such, 5-axis cutting opens up a wide range of applications that can be machined on a water jet cutting machine. A 5-axis cutting head can be used to cut 4-axis parts, where the bottom surface geometries are shifted a certain amount to produce the appropriate angle and the Z-axis remains at one height. This can be useful for applications like weld preparation where a bevel angle needs to be cut on all sides of a part that will later be welded, or for taper compensation purposes where the kerf angle is transferred to the waste material - thus eliminating the taper commonly found on water jet-cut parts. A 5-axis head can cut parts where the Z-axis is also moving along with all the other axis. This full 5-axis cutting could be used for cutting contours on various surfaces of formed parts.Because of the angles that can be cut, part programs may need to have additional cuts to free the part from the sheet. Attempting to slide a complex part at a severe angle from a plate can be difficult without appropriate relief cuts.

Advantages
Cheaper than other processes. Cut virtually any material. (pre hardened steel, mild steel, copper, brass, aluminum; brittle materials like glass, ceramic, quartz, stone) Cut thin stuff, or thick stuff. Make all sorts of shapes with only one tool. No heat generated.

Leaves a satin smooth finish, thus reducing secondary operations. Clean cutting process without gasses or oils. Modern systems are now very easy to learn. Is very safe. Machine stacks of thin parts all at once. Unlike machining or grinding, water jet cutting does not produce any dust or particles that are harmful if inhaled. The kerf width in water jet cutting is very small, and very little material is wasted. Water jet cutting can be easily used to produce prototype parts very efficiently. An operator can program the dimensions of the part into the control station, and the water jet will cut the part out exactly as programmed. This is much faster and cheaper than drawing detailed prints of a part and then having a machinist cut the part out. Water jets are much lighter than equivalent laser cutters, and when mounted on an automated robot. This reduces the problems of accelerating and decelerating the robot head, as well as taking less energy.

CNC WATER JET CUTTING

CNC water jet cutting is a process that produces shapes by cutting sheet material using a high pressure stream of water containing abrasive particles. CNC water jet cutting is an economical way to cut 2Dshapes in a very wide range of materials with no tooling costs. The unique process of CNC water jetcuttingprovides reasonably good edge quality, no burrs and usually eliminates the need for secondary finishing processes. The process also generates no heat so the material edge is unaffected and there is no distortion. CNC water jet cutting can cut single or multi-layer materials from as thin as .001" to as thick as several inches. The process yields no poisonous gas when cutting plastics or rubber. Shapes possible with CNC water jet cutting include 2D shapes with cutouts of almost any complexity. Examples of parts that are often cut using CNC water jet cutting include: Robot Parts, Washers, Front Panels, Automotive Parts, Metal boxes and Chassis etc.

PROS AND CONS OF WATER JET CUTTING

Advantages

Water jet cutting has many applications, and there are many reasons why water jet cutting is preferable over other cutting methods. Listed below are several advantages, along with a brief explanation. In water jet cutting, there is no heat generated. This is especially useful for cutting tool steel and other metals where excessive heat may change the properties of the material. Unlike machining or grinding, water jet cutting does not produce any dust or particles that are harmful if inhaled. The kerf width in water jet cutting is very small, and very little material is wasted. Water jet cutting can be easily used to produce prototype parts very efficiently. An operator can program the dimensions of the part into the control station, and the water jet will cut the part out exactly as programmed. This is much faster and cheaper than drawing detailed prints of a part and then having a machinist cut the part out. Water jet cutting can be easily automated for production use. Water jet cutting does not leave a burr or a rough edge, and eliminates other machining operations such as finish sanding and grinding. Water jets are much lighter than equivalent laser cutters, and when mounted on an automated robot. This reduces the problems of accelerating and decelerating the robot head, as well as taking less energy.

Disadvantages

Water jet cutting is a very useful machining process that can be readily substituted for many other cutting methods; however, it has some limitations to what it can cut. Listed below are these limitations, and a brief description of each. One of the main disadvantages of water jet cutting is that a limited number of materials can be cut economically. While it is possible to cut tool steels, and other hard materials, the cutting rate has to be greatly reduced, and the time to cut a part can be very long. Because of this, water jet cutting can be very costly and outweigh the advantages. Another disadvantage is that very thick parts cannot be cut with water jet cutting and still hold dimensional accuracy. If the part is too thick, the jet may dissipate some, and cause it to cut on a diagonal, or to have a wider cut at the bottom of the part than the top. It can also cause a ruff wave pattern on the cut surface. Taper is also a problem with water jet cutting in very thick materials. Taper is when the jet exits the part at a different angle than it enters the part, and can cause dimensional

inaccuracy. Decreasing the speed of the head may reduce this, although it can still be a problem.

APPLICATIONS OF WATER JET CUTTING

Due to the uniqueness of water jet cutting, there are many applications where it is more useful and economical than standard machining processes. In this section, some of the major applications and uses for water jet cutting will be discussed, and the reasons why this method works better. First of all, water jet cutting is used mostly to cut lower strength materials such as wood, plastics, and aluminum. When abrasives are added, stronger materials such as steel, and even some tool steels can be cut, although the applications are somewhat limited. Listed below are different applications, and reasons why water jet cutting is used for each one. Printed Circuit Boards: For circuit boards, water jet cutting is mostly used to cut out smaller boards from a large piece of stock. This is a desired method, since it has a very small kerf, or cutting width, and does not waste a lot of material. Because the stream is so concentrated, it can also cut very close to the given tolerances for parts mounted on the circuit board without damaging them. Another benefit is that water jet cutting does not produce the vibrations and forces on the board that a saw would, and thus components would be less likely to be damaged. Wire Stripping: Wire stripping is another application that can be used effectively in water jet cutting. If no abrasives are used, the stream is powerful enough to remove any insulation from wires, without damaging the wires themselves. It is also much faster and efficient than using human power to strip wires. Food Preparation: The cutting of certain foods such as bread can also be easily done with water jet cutting. Since the water jet exerts such a small force on the food, it does not crush it, and with a small kerf width, very little is wasted. Tool Steel: For abrasive water jet cutting, tool steels are one application, although a limited one. It can be very useful though because tool steel is generally very difficult to cut with conventional machining methods, and may cause an unwanted byproduct: heat. Abrasive water jets, however, do not produce heat that could alter the structure of the material being cut, and thus the strength of the tool is retained. Wood Cutting: Woodworking is another application that abrasive water jet machining can be used for. Since wood is a softer material compared to steel, almost all wood can be cut, and the abrasive particles sand the surface, leaving a smooth finish that doesn t require sanding.

Defense: Manufacturers working with the military are constantly exploring advanced applications for the latest in lightweight, high strength materials. Cutting these exotic materials can pose a serious challenge to traditional methods.Water jets effortlessly cut through the toughest materials including Super alloys, Ceramic matrix composites, Armor, Carbides, Titanium, Kevlar and Ballistic materials etc. Automotive:Water jets are used to cut a wide-range of interior and exterior components such as headliners, carpets, acoustical materials, instrument and door panels as well as side moldings, weather-stripping and castings.Removing paint overspray and build-up is a critical step in automotive quality, and water jet systems do the job quickly and thoroughly. Tank and Tote Cleaning: Tanks, reactors and totes are quickly cleaned with high-pressure water jets, generally in a fraction of the time needed for manual or caustic cleaning. Water jets are friendly to the environment and personnel. Since water jet cleaning eliminates the need for anyone to enter a tank, meeting the latest confined space standards is no problem at all. Artistic andArchitectural Applications: Imagination is the only limitation for creating unique designs with the water jet.From metal architecture for parking structures to decorative glass Christmas tree ornaments for the White House Christmas tree, artists and architects alike have discovered the ease of use and versatility of water jets to help create works of art. Aerospace: Water jet cutting technology has an effective use in aerospace industry. It is used in making titanium bodies for military aircrafts, engine components of aircrafts and interior cabin panels etc.
WATER JET VERSUS OTHER MACHINING PROCESSES

WATER JETS VS. LASERS

Abrasive water jets can machine many materials that lasers cannot. (Reflective materials in particular, such as Aluminum and Copper. Uniformity of material is not very important to a water jet. Water jets do not heat your part. Thus there is no thermal distortion or hardening of the material. Precision abrasive jet machines can obtain about the same or higher tolerances than lasers (especially as thickness increases). Water jets are safer. Maintenance on the abrasive jet nozzle is simpler than that of a laser, though probably just as frequent.

After laser

After water jet

WATER JETS VS. EDM

Water jets are much faster than EDM. Water jets machine a wider variety of materials (virtually any material). Uniformity of material is not very important to a water jet. Water jets make their own pierce holes. Water jets are capable of ignoring material aberrations that would cause wire EDM to lose flushing. Water jets do not heat the surface of what they machine. Water jets require less setup. Many EDM shops are also buying water jets. Water jets can be considered to be like super-fast EDM machines with less precision. WATER JET VS PLASMA Water jets provide a nicer edge finish. Water jets don't heat the part. Water jets can cut virtually any material. Water jets are more precise. Plasma is typically faster. Water jets would make a great compliment to a plasma shop where more precision or higher quality is required, or for parts where heating is not good, or where there is a need to cut a wider range of materials.

After plasma cutting

After water jet

MECHANICAL PROCESSES VS. WATER JET CUTTER Unlike mechanical methods, such as jackhammering, Cutter hydrodemolition does not damage the rebar or cause micro-cracks in the concrete. Furthermore, it is far more effective than the use of a hand lance, which is the simplest form of water jetting and is often incorrectly referred to hydrodemolition or concrete cutting.

Selective removal

Hydrodemolition removes the concrete only down to a preset quality depth , leaving a jagged or craggy surface that provides an extensive bonding area. Jackhammers tend to leave a flatter surface, with fewer peaks and valleys and therefore less bonding area. Another advantage of hydrodemolition is that the Cutter typically removes damaged concrete several times faster than jackhammers and users have found that it can be up to 25 times faster. Directing highvelocity water jets against a surface to produce a destructive effect has long been successfully used for the high-speed cutting or drilling of rocky materials and particularly concrete. Hydrodemolition developed from the uses of high-pressure water for drilling, cutting or hole-making in concrete. Water-jet cutting has also proved to be a versatile technique in many other areas of industry, from early uses in cleaning inaccessible machine parts to modern specialist applications such as the precision cutting of intricate components.
Efficient flexibility

Jet Cutter robots are the most advanced on the market thanks to their extensive range of features,

ensuring that top quality results are achieved safely at a high production rate with low operating and on-going costs. The robots are small and compact but at the same time big enough to handle the toughest applications. Their versatility enables hydrodemolition to take place in even the most difficult situations and the use of tracks instead of wheels makes the machines easy to manoeuvre across any terrain. A multi-axis system has been developed, that enables fast 3D positioning of the front power head so that the unit can be rapidly put to work on any vertical, curved or horizontal surface. Hydraulically controlled side shifting of the power head offers better reach and easier operation in confined spaces and the power head can be quickly tilted and turned for vertical and ceiling demolition, with no need for additional equipment. Tower sections can be erected easily if required.
Optimum capacity

The Water jet Cutters operates using an easily programmed automated control system, which optimizes the settings and applies only the minimal required force. The robot works selectively, with its high-pressure jet of water penetrating into the weak concrete as it passes across the surface. The jet breaks up the damaged concrete and flushes it away. All that is then needed is a final clean-up to remove any debris, leaving the clean, rough surface ready for concreting. The high-pressure water is delivered to the robot through a flexible high-pressure hose. The water travels down a lance where it meets a nozzle, whose opening is sized according to the pressure and flow requirements. The lance manipulates the jet as it leaves the nozzle and can either oscillate or rotate, depending on the type of removal required. Water jets accomplish their destructive action on concrete by means of three separate processes: direct impact, cavitations and pressurization of micro- and macro-cracks. The nozzle is played rapidly and continuously over the area to be removed. Jet efficiency is maximized when the jet itself is stable, and stability is influenced by the machine design, distance from the nozzle to point of impact, the shape and configuration of the nozzle, the water exit speed, the jet s movement and the angle of attack.

Fig: MECHANICAL DEMOLITION TECHNIQUES. [Orthodox]

Fig: HYDRODEMOLITION [Precise and Cost Effective]

FLAME CUTTING

Water jets would make a great compliment to a flame cutting where more precision or higher quality is required, or for parts where heating is not good, or where there is a need to cut a wider range of materials. MILLING

Water jets are used a lot for complimenting or replacing milling operations. They are used for roughing out parts prior to milling, for replacing milling entirely, or for providing secondary machining on parts that just came off the mill. For this reason, many traditional machine shops are adding water jet capability to provide a competitive edge. PUNCH PRESS

Some stamping houses are using water jets for fast turn-around, or for low quantity or prototyping work. Water jets make a great complimentary tool for punch presses and the like because they offer a wider range of capability for similar parts.
PROSPECTS OF USING WATER JET FOR CUTTING MARBLE

For impeccable quality and true elegance and beauty, water jet cutting provides the perfect stone and tile cut and finish. Ability to cut the most intricate stone, tile and marble designs. With speeds up to Mach 4 or 90,000psi water pressure capability for the fastest cutting process in the water jet industry using the Next Generation in stone and tile fabrication. Ideal for cutting up to 12 of materials depending on density of product.

 The LARGEST International network of motion control water jet table system OEM integrators, including X-Y, X-Y-Z, or up to 6 Axis, offering you flexibility of choices including Saw and water jet combination systems. You decide what you need. Eliminates most secondary finishing no rough edges No Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) which is ideal for glass, stone, tile, marble and more. Eliminates the risk of discoloring or deformation. Safe for the Environment; no toxic fumes or dust and garnet is disposable. Omni-directional cutting. Minimal tolerances. No wasteful raw materials. Cutting heads do not have to be changed out during manufacturing avoiding aggravating delays. Thick or thin, water jet cutting is the most flexible process in manufacturing. Minimal set up for automated cutting process. Cuts without melting. Can pierce material directly without the need for a pre-drilled starter hole. Complex Shapes Precision Cutting Small cutting kerf No tool sharpening Capable of cutting 90 degree angles and corners. High or low surface pressure flexibility for sensitive or thick materials Tolerances around about(0.003")

Performance Quality

The Water Jet Cutting has been put to many seemingly impossible tasks of cutting mammoth concrete structures, yet the machines implementing state of the art Fluid Mechanics Techniques have lived up to the expectations of researchers and industrialists. Test slabs designed to provide a tough challenge to this new technology have been completely undone (The margin figure preserves the aftermath of one such test).

Minutiae of Pressurized Water Jet Cutter

Cutting Performance Measures

The cutting performance and precision are the key factor behind the adoption of a material machining process on an industrial scale. The criteria keep on varying from one application (each demanding a new level of specificity) to another, and each application provides new challenges to researchers. Some of the performance yardsticks are stated as follows: traverse speed flow rate standoff distance water pressure. feed rate.

Pressure Jet Morphology

Pulsating Jet Scheme

Generating of sufficiently high pressure pulsations in pressure water upstream the nozzle exit enables to create a pulsating liquid jet that emerges from the nozzle as a continuous liquid jet and it forms into pulses at certain distance from the nozzle exit. The advantage of such a pulsating jet over the continuous one is based on the fact that the initial impact of pulses of pulsating jet on the target surface generates the impact pressure that is several times higher than the stagnation pressure generated by the action of continuous jet under the same working conditions. In Fig: Fatigue Fracture addition, the action of pulsating jet induces also fatigue stress in the target material due to the cyclic loading of the target surface.

Fig: Fatigue Fracture

FIG: Damage morphology produced due to cyclic loading.

According to tests conducted at The Institute of Geonics ASCR, in Ostrava (IGN), the performance of pulsating water jets in cutting of various materials is at least two times higher compared to that obtained using continuous ones under the same working conditions.

 Analyses The efficient transfer of the high-frequency pulsation energy in the high-pressure system to longer distances (in order of meters) represents one of prerequisites for creation of a highly effective pulsating liquid jet with required properties. To achieve that goal, the amplification of pressure pulsations propagated through the high-pressure system is necessary. Therefore, both analytical and numerical models of the high-pressure system including the acoustic generator of pressure pulsations are used to study process of excitation and propagation of pressure waves in the system.

Fig: Tubular acoustic pressure wave generator.

Modeling and Simulation of Pulsating Jet

Analytical Model A majority of Analytical models are based on linearized Navier-Stokes equations and wave equation for propagation of pressure wave. Both standard kinematical viscosity and kinematical second viscosity that is related to the liquid compressibility are taken into account. Based on analytical solution in 3D domain with circular cross section, the transfer matrices are set up. Both pressure and flow pulsations of hydraulic systems can be solved on the basis of the transfer matrices. Simulations reveal that oscillations of a acoustic actuator can generate a standing wave in the hydraulic system. The standing wave converts to the travelling one at the area close to the nozzle exit. Based on the quality of the design of the diffuser-type nozzle , the amplitude of pressure pulsations at the exit of the pulsating nozzle can be increased many folds.

Fig: Standing Wave Pattern.

 Numerical Model The Numerical models are generally used for numerical simulation of 3D, Unsteady , turbulent flow of compressible water in the high pressure system. The model behaviour is verified by the comparison with the experimental measurement of the pressure using corresponding configuration of the system under the same working conditions. It is a common finding that numerical model provide information on time behavior of pressure in high-pressure system that is in relatively very good agreement with experimental measurement. It can be also stated that the numerical model is able to simulate influence of geometry changes on the amplitude of pressure accurately and thus also to simulate acoustic (and/or pressure) wave propagation and transmission in the high-pressure system. Flow Visualization Digital Flow visualization techniques are used to probe morphology of the pulsating water jets. The motives behind this effort are the following: 1. Examination of characteristics of the jet such as mean velocity and break-up length of the pulsating. 2. Study the process of formation of the jet and development of pulses in the jet. 3. Validate results obtained from CFD models. Among the common flow visualization techniques, the illumination of the pulsating jet by stroboscope is the most frequently put to use. However for high speed pulsating water jet, pulsed laser light produces best results. To study an instantaneous structure of the pulsating jet, the visualization tests such as Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) are performed.

Fig: The instantaneous structure of the flat pulsating

water jet generated at 20 MPa. (illumination by pulsed laser)

Fig: The mean structure of the pulsating water jet generated at 30 MPa (illumination by the stroboscope)

Abrasive Water Jet technology (AWJ)

The abrasive waterjet cutting technique is a controlled erosive process in which the impact of high velocity water and abrasives cause cutting of the target material.

Basic Geometry
The primary components of an abrasive waterjet cutting system are the dual intensifying pump, the nozzle assembly and the abrasive catcher assembly. These components are connected by a network of hoses and swivels and are controlled by a system of control valves and sensors. Fig: Typical nozzle configuration for mixing abrasive with
waterjet in an abrasive waterjet cutting head.

Fig: Block diagram of abrasive waterjet system components

Salient Features No thermal distortion, high machining versatility Little (if any)postmachining required.

 Coherent water stream laden with abrasives acts a s a focused high-velocity stream of particles. These particle travel at about twice the speed of sound and produce a very narrow kerf. Cuts can be initiated at any point on the workpiece and can be made in any direction of contour, linear, or tangential. No delamination. No thermal or nonthermal stresses along the cutting path.
Mathematical Models

For the past 4 decades, since the inception of Water jet Cutting Technology many Mathematical Models have been proposed. The important feature of all of the Models has been their individuality and versatility. Each Model of Fluid Dynamics has focused on nailing down the most crucial parameters involved in maximizing the efficiency of the cutting process. So far the few parameters which have been recognized as important are: feed rate water pressure Abrasive flow(If abrasives are added ) Following figures in indicate the importance of two of the parameters:

Fig: Variation of depth of mill as a function of feed rate and water pressure usingabrasive rate 0.55 kg/min

Fig: Variation of depth of mill as a function of feed rate and abrasive flow using a water pressure 3094 Bar

Type of analyses developed to construct Flow Models

regression analysis. fracture mechanics.[1] dimensional analysis.[2] Analyses based on solid particle erosive theories.[3][4]

FUTURE TRENDS IN WATER JET TECHNOLOGY

Since its development, water jet machining has seen many improvements in its design. Many different types of abrasives, nozzles, flow rates, and jet positions have been experimented with to name a few. Certain expected improvements and innovations in the water jet technology in the future are as under.
General trend towards smaller water jet machines

In general, there is a push towards smaller, more precise, and cheaper machines. These make great compliments to existing machine shop operations, or additions to existing water jet shops. Expect to see a lot of new machines of this type. This trend is analogous to what has happened with the printing industry beginning in the last part of the 20th century. Back then, if you wanted something printed, you went to a specialty shop that had a printing press, and paid a lot to get your printing work done. To keep costs manageable, you printed huge quantities at once. The setup was tedious, the equipment was big and messy, and it required a lot of special skills. Today, most offices have several printers, and a photocopier. You might still send some work to the printers for large volumes, but for the most part you do everything on your easy to use, small, and affordable desktop printer. This trend is already underway and will probably continue. There are even people who suggest that "desktop water jets" are possiblealthough they would be lower power (that is, slower) they would still be able to cut most materials. Like the printing press, there will still be a market for huge machines and high production.
Between now and the year 2015

In the next half-dozen years or so, you can expect to see the following changes: More manufacturers

Machines will be made by more manufacturers, most of whom will be system integrators who buy existing components and assemble them in unique ways. Others will spawn from job shops that have abrasive jet equipment, but think they can make it better. This is close to the current situation. More machines in different shops

You can expect to see more and more machines out there in many different shops. Most of these shops at this moment do not think they have a need for such machines because they don't yet understand what they are really capable of. Easier maintenance

There will be many improvements in terms of maintenance on the machines, and overall quality of the parts used in construction of the machines. In general, there will be a lot of refinements and polish in the machines, making them more user friendly, nicer looking, and easier to work on. Faster and more accurate machines

Manufacturers will make incremental, but steady, improvements in precision and speed. By 2015, the machines of the early 1990's will seem quaint and crude. More direct drive pumps

The shift from older intensifier pump designs to more efficient and faster cutting direct drive pumps will continue. Nearly all manufacturers will have direct drive pumps by 2015. Intensifier pumps will probably still be used on some older machines, or for specialty applications. Cheaper better mixing tubes

Somebody will make an absolute fortune by introducing a cheap, long-lasting mixing tube. Mixing tubes are expensive and tend to be worn down in only a few hundred hours of use.
Before the year 2030

The water jet industry is at about the same place the automotive industry was in the 1920's. There are a lot of companies that are making a lot of strange contraptions with different designs, but as time goes on we will see a more standard look to the machines as all the manufacturers borrow the good ideas from their competitors. There will be small size water jet machine tools in nearly every shop that has a vertical machining center, or a lathe. There will be even more huge machines used for high production. There will always be a lot of custom machines as well for custom applications. The total number of water jet manufacturers will decrease as companies merge. A few of the others will appear and disappear. A few will be very successful.

Beyond 2030

Looking this far into the future, especially with technology changing at an ever accelerating pace, it gets harder to accurately predict. Still, there are certain trends that are bound to continue. Throughout the machine tool world and other industries, controller technology will be astonishingly flexible. This will be driven by a combination of: Neural Network software Genetic Algorithms Nano technology Software and hardware architectures that use fractal like neural net structures A continuation of the current trend of exponential increases in computer speed and memory New processor architectures that exploit the various aspects of serial and parallel computing, as well as 3-D design and advanced cooling and organic electro-optical materials and devices Chemical computing (for example DNA), optical computing, and quantum computing may also play a part in this, though maybe not too soon. Other technologies yet to be discovered, such as holographic multidimensional computation and display devices..

Eventually, this will lead to the ultimate machine tool controller. This will be one that you walk up to and say, "Make something that pleases me." In the future, people will look back at the early 21st century as the beginning of the most exciting period in the water jet industry. Just as the Ford Model-T is seen as quaint and old-fashioned, the state-of-the-art water jet machines of today will seem out-of-date and underpowered.

REFERENCES
[1] A.A. Abdel-Rahman, and A. A. El-Domiaty, Maximum depth of cut for ceramics using abrasive water jet technique, Wear, 218, pp. 216-222, 1998. [2] J. Wang, A new model for predicting the depth of cut in abrasive waterjet contouring of alumina ceramics, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 209, pp. 2314-2320, 2009. [3] M. Hashish, A modeling study of metal cutting with abrasive waterjet, J. Eng. Mater. Technol. 106, pp. 88-100, 1984. [4] R.J. Wilkins, and E. Graham, An erosion model for waterjet cutting, J. Eng. Ind., 115, pp. 67-61, 1993. [5] Enhancing of Water Jet Effects by Pulsations Zlepenie inku vodnho la pulzciou J. Foldyna, K. Heiniger, S. Mettler, L. Sitek, J. uka [6] SOFTWARE SOLUTION FOR ABRASIVE WATER JET MILLING PROCESS Balc Nicolae Popan Alexandru Berce Petru Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering 103-105 B-dul Muncii, Cluj-Napoca Romania [7] A Closed-form Expression for an Abrasive Waterjet Cutting Model for Ceramic Materials Adel A. Abdel-Rahman INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS AND METHODS IN APPLIED SCIENCES Issue 4, [8] Multiphase Jet Flow in AbrasiveWater Jet Cutting Anna Kubik1 and Leonhard Kleiser11 Institute of Fluid Dynamics, ETH Zurich, Switzerland [9] Kyriaki Maniadaki . Thomas Kestis .Nicholaos Bilalis . Aristomenis Antoniadis A finite element-based model for pure waterjet process Simulation # Springer-Verlag London Limited 2006 [10] Computational fluid analysis of abrasive waterjet cutting head Md. G. Mostofa1,*, Kwak Yong Kil1 and Ahn Jung Hwan2 Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology 24 (2010) 249~252 www.springerlink.com/content/1738-494x DOI 10.1007/s12206-009-1142-5 [11] DEVELOPMENT OF AN ABRASIVE WATER JET OPTIMUM ABRASIVE FLOW RATE MODEL FOR TITANIUM ALLOY CUTTING (PREPRINT) S.J. Zhang, G. Galecki, D.A. Summers, and C. Swallow 2006 The Boeing Company. [12] Visualization of Submerged Cavitating Jet: Part Two Influences of Hydrodynamic Conditions, Nozzle Geometry and Visualization System Arrangement E.A. Hutli1 (MSc), M.

Nedeljkovic2 (Professor) and Vojislav Ilic3(PhD) 1,2 Department of Hydraulic Machinery and Energy Systems Belgrade University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia 16th Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference Crown Plaza, Gold Coast, Australia [13] Advances in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) of 3-dimensional Gas-Liquid Multiphase Flows Thomas Frank ANSYS Germany GmbH, Otterfing, Germany [14] Modeling and Optimization of Abrasive Waterjet Parameters using Regression Analysis Farhad Kolahan1, A. Hamid Khajavi2 M International Journal of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering 5:4 2011 248 [15]. Cluster diagnostic study marble processing Rawalpindi/Islamabad by Small and Medium Enterprise Development Authority [16]. How Products Are Made: An Illustrated Guide to Product Manufacturing Volume 3 by Kristine Krapp. [17]. TDAP: A report on Marble and Granite by Masroor Ahmed korai [18]. Abdul Latif Sultan, Marketing Strategies & Distribution Channels for Marble Industry [19]. Minerals and Rocks by J. Richard Wilson, Ventus Publishing ApS [20]. M.R. Smith, Stone: Building Stone, Rock fill and armourstone in construction. [21]. Metals Handbook, 9th Edition. Volume 16, 1989, page 520-527 [22]. "Interaction of abrasive water jet with cut material at high velocity impact- Development of an experimental correlation", A. Tazibt, N. Abriak, F. Parsy, European Journal of Mechanics, 1996, vol. 15, pg1037-1047 [23]. Principles of Abrasive Water Jet Machining, Andreas W. Momber & Radovan Dovacevic, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelber, 1998, New York [24]. Sheet Metal Industries Vol67 1990 [25]. "Slicing Through with Water Jet Technology", Matt Kalina. Welding Journal, Vol 78, No. 7. July 1999 [26].Water jet Cutting: Technology and Industrial Applications, Richard K. Miller, SAEI Technical Publications, 1985, Madison, GA [27]. Water jetting Technology, David A. Summers, Alden Press, 1995, Oxford UK [28]. John Smith, History of Granite and Marble

[29]. Stone History and Stone guide by Stone Care International Inc. [30]. Z. Karaca, Classification of Natural Building Stones [31]. G. Gandolfi, Re-engineering of natural stone production chain through knowledge based processes, eco-innovation and new organisational paradigms [32]. KMT Water Jet Systems [33]. Flow Water Jet Systems [34]. waterjets.org accessed on December 13, 2011. [35]. jetedge.com assessed on December 15, 2011.