Descriptive Grammar of

the Occitan Language

PHONOLOGY AND WRITING

Alphabet (Alfabet) Letter Aa [a], [ ] Bb [b], [] Cc [s], [k] Dd [d] Ee [ ], [e] Ff [f] Gg [g], [d ], [t ] Pp [p] Hh [...]

Phonetic Value

Letter Phonetic Value

Ii [i]

Jj [d ]

Ll [l]

Mm [m], [n]

Nn [n]

Oo [u]

Qq [k]

Letter Phonetic Value

Rr [ ], [ ], [...]

Ss [s], [z]

Tt [t]

Uu [y]

Vv [b], []

Xx [gz]

Zz [z]

See the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

Occitan orthography uses acute and grave accents (as in and ) and a few letter combinations (ch, tg, tj, lh, nh, tz, gn, rr and mp) for some specific sounds. The cedile (,) is used under the letter c to mark its pronunciation as [s] in front of a, o and u. Three other letters -- K, W and Y -- are used in names and words of foreign origin. Pronunciation (Prononciacion)
Vowels (Vocalas) Consonants (Consonantas)

Vowels
Sound
a O O e E casal tumbledown house annada year veni he was coming sec dry vengut he came [ka'zal] [annadO] [be'njO] [sek] [Ben'GEt]

Sign
a, a e,

Examples
far he'll do cabra she-goat farmaci pharmacy esps thick aprs afterwards [fa'ra] ['kabrO] [farma'sjO] [es'pes] [a'prEs]

i, o, u,

i U O y

tiri I pull Tolosa Toulouse aqu that luna moon

['tiri] [tU'lUzO] [a'kO] ['lynO]

aqu here urs happy prti I wear desss above, over

[a'ki] [y'rUs] ['pOrti] [de'sys]

Diphthongs
Sound
aj aw ej Ej ew Ew Uj Oj Ow iw paire father laurar to plough veire to see ime [good] sense deute debt nu snow coire copper cire to cook plure to rain viure to live

Sign
ai au ei, i i eu u oi, i i u iu

Examples
['pajre] [law'ra] ['Bejre] ['Ejme] ['dewte] [nEw] ['kUjre] ['kOjre] ['plOwre] ['Biwre] faire to do, make causa thing crisser to grow pira stone beure to drink tune thin conisser to know fire to hoe mure to move siure cork ['fajre] ['kawza] ['krejse] ['pEjrO] ['bewre] ['tEwne] [kU'nUjse] ['fOjre] ['mOwre] ['siwre]

Consonants
Position
before e, i final all positions final all positions final

Sign
g g j m n n

Sound
dJ tS dJ n n roge red freg cold mija half f. clarum clearness vent wind [r'UdJe] [fretS] ['miEdJO] [kla'ryn] [ben] [ma[n]]

Examples
fugs he runs away pug hill [fu'dJis] [puEtS]

fum smoke

[fyn]

...
camin way

...
[ka'mi[n]]

often mute man hand

r v

final all positions

mute b/B

cantar to sing vila town

[kan'ta] ['BilO], ['bi-]

professor teacher aver to have

[prUfe'sU] [a'Be], [a'be]

Consonantic Digraphs
Position
all positions initial & middle final initial & middle final all positions all positions

Sign
ch lh lh nh nh tj tz

Sound
tS L l N n tS ts quichar to press palha straw talh cutting edge vinha vine planh moan vilatjon hamlet dotze twelve [ki'tSa] ['paLO] [tal] ['BiNO] [plan] [bila'tSU] ['dUtse]

Examples
cht owl balhar to give telh lime-tree [tSOt] [ba'La] [tel]

banhar to bathe, to wet [ba'Na] banh bath [ban]

...
cantatz you sing [pl.]

...
[kan'tats]

Pronunciation of consonnant clusters in final syllables

Cluster
-rn

Sound
[rt], [r], [n] or [] [ks], [ts], [tS], [s] or [] [ts], [tS], [s] or [] [ps], [ts], [tS], [s] or [] [ns], [s], or [] [ns], [n] [ns], [nks], [n] [ls], [j] [ts], [tS], [s] or [] [s] or [r] [bEls] or [bEs]

Examples
carn meat sacs bags cantats sung taps corks pans loaves of bread rams boughs banhs baths embolhs quarrels lachs milks; gaug joys cors lecture; tr bent bls tall or beautiful

-cs -ts -ps -ns -ms -nhs -elhs -chs, -gs* -rs, -r -ls

-nc, -ng, -nt, -nd, -mp, -mb -rc, rg, -rt, -rd, -rp, -rb, -rv

[nk] or [n] [nt] or [n] [mp] or [n] [rk] or [r] [rt] or [r] [rp] or [r]

banc bench; reng row cant song; redond round bomb bound berc notch; larg wide

srp snake; srv serf

Note: There is a tendancy to form the plural in -ches, and -ges [laches, gauges] =>[etses], [etSes].
Accentuation (Accentuacion)

The stress position in Occitan may be recognized in spelling according to three simple rules: 1. Words terminated by a vowel, an s or an n (only in conjugation) are stressed on the antepenultimate syllable, cf. mecanica mechanics, voler to want, cantan (they) sing. 2. Words terminated by a consonant (save s) or a diphthong are stressed on the ultimate syllable, cf. gaton cat. 3. All the exceptions are marked by a written accent on the stressed syllable, cf. culher, pens. The above rules are almost the same as in Spanish.

MORPHOLOGY

Noun (Nom)
General Notions Feminine (Femenim) Plural

General Notions
Nouns in Occitan are classified as masculine and feminine.

The Feminine
As a rule, all nouns ending in -a are feminine, and the others are masculine. Note that this final -a is pronounced [ ]. There are however many exceptions: words in -ista can be masculine as well as feminine: ecologista is either a man or a woman; and there are many simple feminine words ending in a consonant, like mar sea, for instance. Generally, the feminine forms of nouns and adjectives are derived by adding an -a at the end of the words (as in Spanish), cf.:

un parent a relative => una parenta; un obrir a worker => una obrira; un jogaire a player => una jogaira.

The final consonant of the derived feminines is usually voiced, cf.:

un lop a wolf => una loba a she-wolf. lo conhat the brother-in law => la conhada the sister-in-law; un polit nebot a beautiful nephew => una polida neboda a beautiful niece.

In some cases the feminines restore a consonant that is vocalized in masculine, or add special suffixes, cf.:

nu (from L. novus, v => u) new => nova; viu (from L. vivus, v => u) alive => viva; un institutor a male-teacher => una institutritz (from L. institutor : institutrix).

Plural
Generally, the plural is made by adding -s to the nouns and adjectives. There exist, however, a lot of varieties concerning the different types of word endings as well as the dialects. In the following lines we'll make an overview of the plural forms in the main Occitan dialects, Languedocian (Lengadocian) and Vivaro-Alpine (Central Alpine):

General rule: The suffix -s is added to the words, cf.: me : mes color : colors femna : femnas

There occur a lot of particularities in dependence of the various word terminations: 1. Words terminated in sg. by -s, -, -sc, -st, -x, -xt, -tz, -ch, -g [=Engl. sh], -sh, -z form plural by adding -es, cf.: o mas : mases o ris : rises. Note that according to the rules of the graphic accentuation -s, -s, -s, -s, -s are transformed into -ases -eses -ises -oses -uses, cf.:
o o o

angls : angleses, precs : precises, fams : famoses.

In some cases the final -s is doubled in plural (-sses), cf.:

o o o

pas : passes, rus : russes, congrs : congrsses.

According to the rules of the graphic accentuation -s -s -s -s -s become in plural -asses -esses -isses -osses usses, cf.:
o o o

moveds : movedisses, grands : grandasses, esps : espesses.

There occur also the following orthographic modifications in plural: - => -ces, cf.:
o o o

atr : atrces, br : brces, do : doces.

-sc => -sques, cf.:

o o o

gigantesc : gigantesques, bsc : bsques, risc : risques.

-st => -stes, cf.:

o o o

arbust : arbustes, cst : cstes, gost : gostes.

-x => -xes, cf.:

o o o o

apendix : apendixes, ortodx : ortodxes, fax : faxes, fix : fixes.

-xt => -xtes, cf.:

o o

txt : txtes, mixt : mixtes.

-tz => -ses, cf.:

o o o

calculatritz : calculatrises crotz : croses, prtz : prses.

-ch => -ches, cf.:

o o o o

romanch : romanches nuch : nuches, fach : faches, dich : diches.

-g [=E. sh] => -ges, cf.:

o o o o o

assag : assages, estug : estuges, pug : puges, gaug : gauges, baug : bauges.

Note that in a few words the final -g is pronounced [k] and then the plural is formed according to the general rule, i.e. by adding -s, cf.:
o o o o o

larg : largs, long : longs, catalg : catalgs, estratg : estratgs, centrifug : centrifugs.

-sh => -shes, cf.:

o o

malgash : malgashes, brush : brushes

The words in -sh are rare and are borrowed recently. -z => -zes, cf.:
o o

merguz : merguzes, quirguiz : quirguizes.

The words in -z are rare and are borrowed recently; note that the final -z is pronounced [s].

2. The words terminated in sg. by -as, -es, -is, -os, -us and stressed on the penultimate syllable remain unchanged in plural, cf.: o autofcus : autofcus, o csmos : csmos, o virus : virus, o tnis : tnis, o iris : iris. 3. A few adjectives and pronouns form irregular plural by -es, cf.: o qualqu'un : qualques unes, o certan : certanes, o aquel : aqueles, o plan : planes, o tant : tantes, o crt : crtes, o un : unes, o tot : totes, o el : eles.

See the Plural of Nouns and Adjectives in Central Provenal (Rhodanian and Maritime). See the Plural of Nouns and Adjectives in Rhodanian and Maritime Provenal.

See the Plural of Nouns and Adjectives in Gascon, Limousin, Auvergnat. See the Plural of Nouns and Adjectives in Niois dialect.

Adjective (Adjectiu)
Gender of the Adjectives (Genre dels Adjectius) Adjectives of two forms Adjectives of one form Plural of the Adjectives (Plural dels Adjectius) Degree of the Adjectives (Gra dels Adjectius) Comparative degree (Gra Comparatiu) Superlative degree (Gra Superlatiu) Irregular Degrees (Comparatius e Superlatius irregulars)

As in the other Romance languages (and unlike in English), the adjectives in Occitan agree in gender and number with the nouns they refer to, cf.:

drlle educat educated boy : drlles educats educated boys; drlla educada educated girl : drllas educadas educated girls.

Gender of the Adjectives (Genre dels Adjectius)

As a rule, the feminine of the adjective is obtained by adding -a to the masculine, cf.:

novl : novla new; fresc : fresca fresh, cool; sord : sorda deaf; tardir : tardira late.

Adjectives of two forms

Adjectives ending in the masculine by -e or -u change -e or -u to -a to form their feminine, cf.:

nble : nbla noble; contemporanu : contemporana contemporary.

Adjectives ending in the masculine by a voiceless consonant voice that consonant before adding -a to form their feminine, cf.:

pesuc polit mut corts mig

: pesuga heavy : polida beautiful : muda dumb : cortesa courteous : mija half

Some adjectives ending in the masculine by -u change that -u to -v before adding -a to form their feminine, cf.:

nu : nva new; suau : suava mild;

viu : viva alive.

Some adjectives have a suffix for either gender -dor, -doira, -tor, -tritz, cf.:

volador : voladoira which can fly; conductor : conductritz conductive.

Adjectives of one form

Some adjectives have only one form for masculine and feminine. Except for the adjectives ended by a, the majority of the other uniform adjectives was inherited in Occitan from the Latin adjectives of the third declension. They are no longer productive, and are only to be found in compound substantives, place names, or isolated adjectives.

Masculine partit comunista communist party me jove young man ostal mger big(ger) house

Feminine organizacion comunista communist organization femna jove young woman carrira mger high street aigardent brandy, spirits La Parrquial place name

Plural of the Adjectives (Plural dels Adjectius)

Termination
vowel consonant stressed vowel

Plural
+ -s + -s + -es

Examples
nble : nbles ; polida : polidas grand : grands; volador : voladors angls : angleses; gos : gosses dogs; tr : trces pieces

See for more details Plural of the Nouns.

Degree of the Adjectives (Gra dels Adjectius)

Comparative Degree
of Superiority of Equality of Inferiority .

Formation
mai (plus) + ADJ + que tant + ADJ + coma mens + ADJ. + que

Examples
Es mai bl que Joan. He is taller than Juan. Es tant biaissuda coma sa maire. She is as quick as her mother. Soi mens inteligent que tu. I am less inteligent than you.

Superlative Degree
Absolute Synthectic

Formation
sobre-, subre- + ADJ. (Literary usage) plan, fra, mai que mai + ADJ. reduplication of the ADJ.

Examples
sobrebl very big, very beautiful subrenaut very high plan grand very big fra mal very bad mai que mai pc very stupid picht picht very small Aqu es lo mai vilh It is the most ancient.

Absolute Analytical

Relative of Superiority

DEF. ART. + mai (plus) + ADJ. Fogut la mai biaissuda She was the most skilful.

Relativo of Inferiority

DEF. ART. + mens + ADJ.

Fogut la mens biaissuda She was the least skilful.

Irregular Degrees (Comparatius e Superlatius irregulars)

Adjective
bn good mal bad grand, bl big manit little alt high bas low

Comparative Regular Irregular

mai bn mai mal mai grand, mai bl mai manit mai alt mai bas melhor piger mger mendre superior inferior

Superlative Regular Irregular

plan bon fra mal mai que mai grand manit manit fra alt plan bas ---mnim (rare) suprm (rare) nfim (rare)

Adverb (Advrb)
List of Basic Adverbs Derived Adverbs Degree of the Adverbs (Gra dels Advrbs) Comparative Degree (Gra Comparatiu) Superlative Degree (Gra Superlatiu) Adverbials (Locucions adverbialas)

List of Basic Adverbs

Time
ara in this moment, now antan the last year passat ir the day before yesterday abans previously, preferably encara yet, still ir yesterday quand when despui after pui then ongan this year

Place
enbs, aval below, downstairs aic here, over here, this way ail thither, there dedins in defra outside aqu there, yonder ail there ail there, yonder abans before aic here

Manner
exprs intentionally, on purpose naut aloud aviat, lu-lua fast, quickly, swiftly atal like this, so, that way, thus bas silently ben plan well gaireben, quasiment almost, nearly clar clearly coma as, like, such as rai see note (1)

ui today jamai never lu soon deman tomorrow mentre while, whilst sempre , totjorn ever tard late d'ora, lu early pasmens still, yet ja already, by now, yet

amont above, on top, overhead, upstairs prs, prp close, near, nearby abans ahead, formerly, previously dedins inside darrir behind, after ont where ennaut above, on top, upstairs en fcia de in front of defra outside luenh away

plan planet slowly dur hard excpt exceptedly mal badly lu soon frt strongly rude brutally tirat, levat with the exception of suau calmly See also Derived Adverbs.

Quantity
gaire some, not much apenas barely, hardly, only just pro enough gairebenalmost tant as much (many) trp too, much pro enough, sufficiently mai more mens less fra a lot of, much, ver pauc little tant, de tot tant that much

Affirmation
atal thus segur certainly, sure c, i yes tamben also de verai really, actually

Negation
jamai never ni neither non no tampauc also not, neither

Doubt
benlu maybe, perhaps, possibly bensai maybe, perhaps, possibly saique maybe, perhaps, possibly

Exclusion
apenas barely, hardly, (only) just tirat, levat but, except, save titat, levat but sol only tampauc also not de mai moreover apasmens still, yet fins a till, until meteis even tamben also, too

Inclusion

Order
aprs after

Designation
u behold! see! there! here!

Interrogation
ont? to where? d'ont? where? coma? how? quand, quora? when? quant? how much (many) perqu, perdequ? why?

1. Rai, mainly in aqo rai or rai d'aqu, can be loosely rendered by "It's OK!" or "No problem(s)!". It is used in the same way in Catalan: "Aix rai!" Go back to =>

Derived Adverbs
A lot of adverbs are derived regularly from the feminine forms of the adjectives by adding the suffix ment (this pattern appeared in the Vulgar Latin), cf.

clar : clarament bl : belament trist : tristament

These adverbs correspond to the English adverbs formed by -ly. The derived adverbs are of:

manner (mainly): clarament clearly etc.; affirmation: efectivament effectively; doubt: possiblament possibly, probablament probably; exclusion: exclusivament exclusively, simplament simply, solament solely, unicament uniquely; order: primierament first, ultimament ultimately; etc.

Some adverbs are formed from the adjectives by the way of conversion (in other words their forms coincide with the masculine forms of the adjectives), cf.:

clar clear adj.; clearly adv. dur hard adj.; hard adv. lent slow adj.; slowly adv. gaire few adj.; some adv. etc.

Degree of the Adverbs (Gra dels Advrbs)

Comparative Degree (Gra Comparatiu)
Normal
tristament rapidament ben,plan mal fra pauc

Comparative Superiority
mai tristament que mai rapidament que melhor (mai bon) piger (mai mal) mai mens

Equality
tant tristament coma tant rapidament coma tant ben tant mal -

Inferiority
mens tristament que mens rapidament que mens ben mens mal -

Superlative Degree (Gra Superlatiu)

Superlative Normal Synthetic
tristament rapidament ben, plan mal fra pauc tristament rapidament -

Absolute Analytic
fra, plan tristament fra, plan rapidament fra, plan bon fra, plan mal -

Relative Superiority
lo mai tristament lo mai rapidament lo mai lo mens

Inferiority
lo mens tristament lo mens rapidament -

Adverbials (Locucions adverbialas)

Time
d'ara endavant hereafter de vspre tonight de davant beforehand de jorn in the day de lanuch al matin overnight de tantst afternoon, p.m de matin since the morni de nuch at night de cps, de fes sometime fin finala at last, finally

Place
a l'ostal home a drecha , a man drecha to the right a esqurra, a man esqurra to the left debs downstairs d'ara endavant henceforward de cap a fons downwar d'ont from here, from where endedins de within, inside, indoors endacm somewhere a l'ostal at home

Manner
a palpas, a rbas blindly a cavalhons piggyback a tustas e a bustas disorderly d'escondons secretely a ps junts stubbornly a trt e a travrs disorderly d'amagat silently, dins l'escuresina in the dark a la galaupada in full speed a la bobosa disorderly

passat ir the day after tomorrow per ara presently per campstre overland

ont que si anywhere en luc nowhere endacm mai elsewhere per tot everywhere per aqu this way en luc no where

Quantity
per lo mens at least per lo mai at most de fra of much de pauc of some de tot of all gaire mai (de) aproximately

Affirmation / Negation
a de bon sure de segur sure de verai sure segur of course ben segur of course d'acrdi in agreement de segur certainly, sure d'efich de facto, in fact res a faire in no way de verdad verily, really en correcto estado OK d'efich in effect segurament certainly als ulhs vesents apparently de segur of course sens dobte undoubtedly

a la moda modish al contrari just the opposite de grat of good will sul cp suddenly, fast de ressabuda, offhand per bona espcia intentionally de mal esqui unwillingly de racacr unwillingly aviat fast sul pic suddenly subte, subran suddenly de badas in vain en general in total, in general por malastre unfortunately a pus prs aproximately subre tot above all, especially

Determiners (Determinants)
Articles (Articles) Possessive Adjectives (Adjectius Possesius) Demonstrative Adjectives (Adjectius Demonstratius) Interrogative Adjectives (Adjectius Interrogatius) Exclamatives Indefinite Adjectives (Adjectius Indefinits) Negative Adjectives (Adjectius Negatius)

Articles (Articles)

Indefinite Article Singular Plural

m f m f un una de (d') de (d')

Definite Article
Basic Forms lo (l') la (l') los las Contracted Forms a al als de del dels per pel pels sus sul suls -

The apostrophized forms d' and l' are used in front of words beginning with a vowel. The form de is the true undefinite form for plural; unes, unas rather mean some, a few. For example: Fau de ccas. I am cooking cakes. Fau unas ccas. I am cooking a few cakes.

Dialect variations
Gascon has slightly different forms for the indefinite articles: un, ua [y ], , .

The forms of the definite articles are more diversified: In the area between Toulouse, Foix e Carcassonne, the masculine forms are le, les. These should not be regarded as French influences, since they occur in documents previous to the French presence in this area. They should rather be seen as the evolution of Latin demonstrative ille => le, whereas the evolution has been illum => lo elsewhere. In some Pyreneans valleys (Coseran, Comenges and Bigorre), the forms are quite different: eth, era; eths, eras. In the northern areas, la, las may be sounded [l , l s], along with the general trend to turn non-stressed [a] into [ ] in this area.

Possessive Adjectives (Adjectius Possesius)

One owner singular mon ma ton ta son sa plural mos mas tos tas sos sas singular nstre nstra vstre vstra lor

Person 1 2
st

Man

masculine feminine masculine feminine masculine feminine

nd

rd

Dialect variations

Possessives in Maritime: moun (ma, mi) toun (ta, ti) soun (sa, si) noueste (nouesto, nouesti) voueste (vouesto, vouesti) soun (sa, si)

Possessives in Rhodanian: moun (ma, mi) toun (ta, ti) soun (sa, si) noste (nosto, nosti) voste (vosto, vosti) soun (sa, si)

Demonstrative Adjectives (Adjectius Demonstratius)

Short Distance
m Sg. f n m Pl. f n Aiceste / Aqueste Aicesta / Aquesta Ei / Ai Aicestes / Aquestes Aicestas / Aquestas =Sg.

Indeterminate distance
--o --=Sg.

Long distance
Aquel Aquela Aqu (Aco) / Ail Aqueles Aquelas =Sg.

The following variations also occur in the speech. aquest (aquesto, aqusti); aquu (aquelo, aqulei / aquli).

Interrogative Adjectives (Adjectius Interrogatius)

Variable
Singular Masculine quant? how much? Feminine quanta? Masculine quants? Plural Feminine quantas? qui? que? qual? quin? who? what?

Invariable

qual? quala? what? which ?

quales? qualas?

Exclamatives
Qual, quin, quant what a, what, can be either adjectives or pronouns, and agree with number and gender: quant (polit) animal! what a (beautiful) animal! quantas ncias! what foolish women!

Que (de) ... so much ..., so many ... ! que de mond! so many people! que d'aiga! so much water!

Indefinite Adjectives (Adjectius Indefinits)

Variable Singular
Masculine autre other un one cadun, every one, each one mantun several tant (tan) as much tot all, the whole... Feminine autra una caduna mantuna tanta tota autres unes some, few -mantuns tant, tantes totes every

Plural
Masculine Feminine autras unas -mantunas

Invariable
un pauc de a little gaire few, little pro enough fra, plan (de) many, much cada every, each

qualque (quauque) some, a few

qualques (quauques) tant, tantas totas

Negative Adjectives (Adjectius Negatius)

Variable Singular
Masculine
degun nobody

Plural
Feminine
deguna

Invariable
-cap (de), ges (de) no, none

Masculine
--

Feminine

Pronouns (Pronums)
Personal and Reflexive Pronouns (Pronoms Personals e Reflexius) Possessive Pronouns (Pronoms Possessius) Demonstrative Pronouns (Pronoms Demonstratius) Relative Pronouns (Pronoms Relatius) Interrogative Pronouns (Pronoms Interrogatius) Indefinite Pronouns (Pronoms Indefinits) Negative Pronouns (Pronoms Negatius)

Number

Personal and Reflexive Pronouns (Pronoms Personals e Reflexius)

Person
1 2
st

Subject
iu I tu you el he ela she el it -nosautres / nos we nosautras / nos we vosautres / vos you vosautras / vos you eles they elas they --

Direct Object
me (m') me te (t') you lo (l') him la (l') her o it se him/her/itself nos us vos you los them las them se themselves

Indirect Object
without preposition me to me te to you li / to him, to her se to him/her/itself nos to us vos to you li / lor to them se themselves with preposition a iu to me a tu to you a el to him a ela to her a el to it a el to him/herself a nosautres (as) to us a vosautres (as) to you a eles to them a elas to them a se to themselves

mf mf m f n reflex. m f m f m f reflex.

nd

Sg.
3rd

1st 2nd

Pl.

rd

... Note: nos and vos, 1st and second person plural subject forms, are polite forms only. ...

Possessive Pronouns (Pronoms Possessius) One owner

Singular m
lo mieu la mi / mieuna mieu lo tieu la ti / tieuna

Many owners
Plural Singular
lo nstre la nstra nstre lo vstre la vstra

Plural
los nstres las nstras -los vstres las vstras

los mieus las mis / mieunas -los tieus las tis / tieunas

1st person

f n m f

2nd person

n m 3rd person

tieu lo sieu la si / sieuna sieu

-los sieus las sis / sieunas --

vstre lo lor, lo sieu la lor, la sieuna lor / sieu

-los lors, los sieus las lors, las sieunas --

f n

... These forms can also be adjectives, for insistance: lo mieu paire my father. ...

Demonstrative Pronouns (Pronoms Demonstratius)

Variable Singular Plural Invariable

Masculine

Feminine

Masculine

Feminine (Neuter)

aiceste this aqueste this / that aquel that lo de... (1) the one of...

aicesta aquesta aquela la de

aicestes aquestes aqueles los de

aicestas aquestas aquelas las de

ai this

l'autre the other

l'autra

los autres

las autras

aqu this, that aqu that

... 1. Aquel can es lo de mon paire. That dog is my father's (that of my father): the definite article has retained its original demonstrative value. ...

Relative Pronouns (Pronoms Relatius)

Variable Singular Masculine
lo que (he)who lo qual (he)who dont, que whose

Plural Feminine
la que la quala dont, que

Invariable Feminine
las que las qualas dont, que que who , whom qui who, whom

Masculine
los que los quales dont, que

...

Interrogative Pronouns (Pronoms Interrogatius)

Variable Singular Masculine
qui, qual ? who?

Plural Feminine Masculine Feminine

qui, qual ?

Invariable
que? who? what?

(de) qu? what? quant? how much / many? quanta? quantes?

(de) qu? quantas?

...

Indefinite Pronouns (Pronoms Indefinits)

Variable Singular Masculine Feminine
qualqu'una (quauqu'una) tota tanta una caduna

Plural Masculine
qualques uns (quauques uns) some, few totes tantes unes -qual que sin que que sin

Invariable Feminine

qualqu'un (quauqu'un) somebody tot all tant as much un (some)one, everyone cadun (some)one, everyone

qualques unas (quauques unas) totas tantas unas -m someone quicm something

qual que si whoever que que si whatever

...

Negative Pronouns (Pronoms Negatius)

Invariable
Persons Things

degun nobody

res nothing

Pronominal adverbs

Occitan uses the adverbs en and i in pronominal functions. This phenomenon occurs in many other contemporary Romance languages. NOTE: In Occitan grammars en and i are usually referred adverbial pronouns. ...

The pronominal adverb en

It has four distinct forms:

full: ne reduced: n reinforced: en elided (before vowels or h-): n.

The pronominal adverb en has two main functions:

replacing direct object of a verb (the direct object must not be preceded by a determiner): As comprat de lach? Have you bought milk?

N'as comprat? Have you bought (of) it [milk]?

replacing a phrase introduced by the preposition de: Ara que s morta, m parla ben de la Carme. Since shes dead, everyone speaks well about Carmen. Ara que ess morta, m ne parla ben. Since shes dead, everyone speaks well [about her].

...

The pronominal adverb i

The pronominal adverb i (fromthe Latin ibi here) is a location adverb:

I vau. I go there.

In the spoken language, it can replace the pronoun li:

O li dirai. I'll tell it to him. => O i dirai.

...

Idiomatic uses
The pronominal adverbs en and i may occur also in many idiomatic expressions:

Men vau. Im leaving. I a un drlle aqu. There is a boy here.

Numerals (Numerals)

See the Latin Numerals. ...

Numerals (Arabic) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Cardinal un, una dos,doas tres quatre cinc siis st uch (uit, uch) nu dtz onze dotze tretze quatorze Ordinal primir, primira segond, a tr, a (tresen, a) quart, a (quatren, a) quint, a (cinquen, a) seisen, a seten, a ochen, a (oiten, a) noven, a desen, a onzen, a dotzen, a etc. Multiplicative (1) simple doble triple quadruple quintuple sextuple septuple octuple nonuple decuple Fractions (2) -mitat tr quart cinquen seisen seten ochen noven desen

. . . .

. . . .

. .

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 30 31 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 101 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 10 000 100 000 1 000 000 1 000 000 000

quinze setze dtz-e-st dtz-e-uch dtz-e-nu vint vint-e un trenta trenta un quaranta cinquanta seissanta setanta ochanta, oitanten nonanta cent cent un dos cents tres cents quatre cents cinc cents siis cents st cents uch cents nu cents mila, mil dtz mila cent mila un milion un miliard

. . . .
detz-e-noven, a vinten, a etc.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
centuple

. . . . .
vinten vint-e-unen trenten etc.

. . . . . . . . .
centen, a

. . . . . .
centen etc.

. . . . . . . . .
milen

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .
milionen miliarden

... ...

Notes:

1. To those forms, derived from Latin, popular usage prefers the analytic forms: dos cps mai, tres cps mai, quatre cps mai, etc. Go back => 2. Again, popular usage prefers the analytic forms: de doas parts una, de tres parts una, de quatre parts una, for 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, etc. Go back =>

...Verb (Verb)
Auxiliary verbs

Aver | Tner (Tenir) | sser (stre) Tenses (Tempses) Reflexive Verbs Irregular Verbs Negation

The Occitan verbs fall in three conjugational pattern discerned by the endings of the present infinitive.

I conjugation: -ar
amar to love comprar to buy hablar to speak passar to go, pass

II conjugation: -ir
dormir to sleep sentir to hear pedir to ask finir to finish

III conjugation: -re, , -er, -r

batre to beat tner to hold far (faire) to do, make dever (deure) must

There is a wide variety of compound tenses. The one most used is the present perfect, constructed with the auxialiaries stre (sser) or aver and the past participle. As a general rule, transitive verbs have aver as an auxilliary verb, whereas untransitive and pronominal verbs have stre. Unlike French and Catalan, stre is its own auxilliary: soi estat versus French j'ai t and Catalan he estat. Another particularity of Occitan conjugation is the use of surcompound tenses to indicate that an action was done at least once in the past, at an indeterminate time, yet which left an impact in the mind of the speaker:

Aquel me, l'ai agut vist dins la carrira. I happened to see him that man in the street. => I think I could recognize him. D'estruci, n'ai agut manjat. I've had the opportunity to eat ostrich-meat. => I know what it tastes like.

As in Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, and contrary to French, the subjonctive imperfect is still a living tense: it is widelly and commonly used.

Aver
The verb aver to have has retained its semantic usage and is (with sser) an auxiliary for constructing compound tenses, cf.:

Ai acabat. I have finished.

It is also used in a fundamental construction i aver there is, there are, cf.:

I a tres drllas que nos agachan There are three girls looking at us. Se venon pas, ii aur (de) problmas. If they dont show up, there will be problems.

...

Tner (Tenir)
The verb tner to hold may be used as an auxiliary in the periphrastic construction tner de + past participle with the meaning of continuity, cf.:

Ten sas fenstras de barradas. He keeps his windows shut.

...

sser (stre)
The verb sser to be has various functions:

it links a noun or noun group to a predicative, i.e., a word group indicating a quality, state or condition, cf.: o Aquestes perscs son los melhors que ai manjat. These peaches are the best ones I have eaten. it is used as an auxiliary for constructing the compound tenses of the intransitive verbs, cf.: o Soi anat a Marsilha. I have gone to Marseilles. it forms the passive voice of the transitive verbs, cf.: o El rei es aimat per son pble. The king is loved by his people. it is used in the periphrastic construction sser per + infinitive, which indicates an action in the future, cf.: o Es pas per morir. He is not going to die. it is used also in the construction sser a + infinitive to denote an action in progress, cf.: o ra a se passejar. He (she) was taking a walk. Compound tenses (Tempses compausats) Non-Finite Verbal Forms
Compound Infinitive (Infinitiu Compausat) Compound Gerund (Gerondiu Compausat)

Simple tenses (Tempses simples) Non-Finite Verbal Forms

Present Infinitive (Present de Infinitiu) Present Active Participle (Participi Present) The Gerund (Gerondiu) Past Passive Participle (Participi passat)

Finite Verbal Forms

Present Indicative (Present de Indicatiu) Future Indicative (Futur de Indicatiu) Imperfect Indicative (Imperfach de Indicatiu) Past Simple Indicative (Preterit de Indicatiu) Present Subjunctive (Present de Subjonctiu) Imperfect Subjunctive (Imperfect de Subjonctiu) Imperfect Conditional (Condicional Present) Present Imperative (Present de Imperatiu)

Finite Verbal Forms

Present Perfect Ind. (Passat Compausat de Indicatiu) Future in the Past Ind (Futur Anterior de Indicatiu) Pluperfect Indicative (Plus que Perfach de Indicatiu) Past Perfect Ind. (Preterit Compausat de Indicatiu) Perfect Subjunctive (Passat de Subjonctiu) Pluperfect Subjunctive (Plus que Perfach de Subjonctiu) Perfect Conditional (Condicional Passat)

Note that the reflexive verbs are normally conjugated in the compound tenses with the auxiliary aver. ... Verb beginning with consonant
Simple tense Compound tense Imperative

se levar to get up
Simple tense me lvi te lvas se lva nos levam vos levatz se levan Compound tense Imperative -lva-te -levem-nos levatz-vos -Gerund Past Participle

Infinitive

Gerund

Past Participle

Infinitive se levar

... The reflexive forms are: me, te, se, nos, vos, se. In front of a vowel they become m', t', s', nos,vos, s'.

The basic negation is pas, which follows the verb. Its translation is not (yes is said c and no is said non).

Parli pas. lit. I speak-not. = I don't speak An pas parlat. lit. (They) have not spoken. = They haven't spoken.

Pas may be combined with other negative words:

I vesi pas res. lit. I-see-not-nothing. = I don't see anything. Lo trbi pas enluc. lit. Him-find-not-nowhere. = I don't find him anywhere. Sorts pas jamai. lit. Goes out-not-never. = He never goes out. Degun es pas vengut. lit. Nobody-is-not-come. = Nobody came.

Prepositions (Preposicions)
davant before, in the presence of de of; from; about dejs below, beneath, under despui from, since detrs behind, after dus towards dins in, inside, within en c de + possessive at, to entre between fins till, until jos below, beneath, under per for, to, in order to segon according to sens without sobre over, above; about sota below, under, beneath sus over, above; about tras behind, after vrs towards ...

a to, toward abans before, in the presence of a c de + possessive at, to al lc de instead of amb with aprs after, afterwards cap towards contra against; in exchange for darrir behind daus towards

The prepositions a, de, jos, per, sus, have contracted forms with the masculine definite article el: al, del, jol, pel, sul.

Conjunctions (Conjonccions) Subordination dou tms que enterin que quand quouro tre que Cause per o que perqu que

Coordination adounc car dounc e ni mai o pamens que