Mind Association

On Benoling
AulIov|s) Bevlvand BusseII
Bevieved vovI|s)
Souvce Mind, Nev Sevies, VoI. 14, No. 56 |Ocl., 1905), pp. 479-493
FuIIisIed I Oxford University Press on IeIaIJ oJ lIe Mind Association
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II.-ON BENOTINO.
B BEBTBANB BUSSELL.
B a denioling pIvase I nean a pIvase sucI as an one
oJ lIe JoIIoving a nan, sone nan, an nan, evev nan,
aII nen, lIe pvesenl
King
oJ EngIand, lIe pvesenl King oJ
Fvance, lIe cenlve oJ nass oJ lIe SoIav Sslen al lIe Jivsl
inslanl oJ lIe lvenlielI cenluv, lIe vevoIulion oJ lIe eavlI
vound lIe sun, lIe vevoIulion oJ lIe sun vound lIe eavlI.
TIus a pIvase is denoling soIeI in vivlue oJ ils Jovn. We
na dislinguisI lIvee cases |1) A pIvase na Ie denoling,
and el nol denole anlIing: e.g., )lIe pvesenl King oJ
Fvance |2) A pIvase na denole one deJinile oIjecl: e.g.,
lIe pvesenl King oJ EngIand

denoles a cevlain nan. |3)
A pIvase na denole anIiguousI: e.g., a nan

denoles
nol nan nen, Iul an anIiguous nan. TIe inlevpvelalion
oJ sucI pIvases is a nallev oJ considevaIIe diJJicuIlv: indeed,
il is vev Iavd lo Jvane an lIeov nol suscepliIIe oJ JovnaI
veJulalion. AII lIe diJJicuIlies vilI vIicI I an acquainled
ave nel, so Jav as I can discovev, I lIe lIeov vIicI I an
aIoul lo expIain.
TIe suIjecl oJ denoling is oJ vevv gveal inpovlance, nol
onI in Iogic and nalIeinalics, Iul aIso in lIeov oJ Inov-
Iedge. Fov exanpIe, ve Inov lIal lIe cenlve oJ n-ass oJ lIe
SoIav Sslen al a deJinile inslanl is sone deJinile poinl, and
ve can aJJivn a nunIev oJ pvoposilions aIouil il: Iul ve
Iave no innediale acquainlance vilI lIis poinl, vIicI is
onI Inovn lo us I descviplion. TIe dislinclion Ielveen
acquainlance and InovIedge aIoul is lIe dislinclion Ielveen
lIe lIings ve Iave pvesenlalions oJ, and lIe lIings ve onI
veacI I neans oJ denoling pIvases. Il oJlen Iappens lIal
ve Inov lIal a cevlain pIvase denoles unanIiguousI, aI-
lIougI ve Iave no acquainlance vilI vIal il denoles: lIis
occuvs in lIe aIove case oJ lIe cenlve oJ nass. In pevcep-
lion ve Iave acquainlance vilI lIe oIjecls oJ pevceplion,
and in lIougIl ve Iave
acquainlance
vilI oIjecls oJ a nove
aIslvacl IogicaI cIavaclev: Iul ve do nol necessaviI Iave
acquainlance vilI lIe oIjecls denoled I pIvases conposed
480 BEBTBANB BUSSELL
oJ vovds vilI vIose neanings ve ave acquainled. To laIe
a vev inpovlanl inslance TIeve seens no veason lo IeIieve
lIal ve ave evev acquainled vilI olIev peopIe's ninds, seeing
lIal lIese ave nol diveclI pevceived: Ience vIal ve Inov
aIoul lIen is oIlained lIvougI denoling. AII lIinIing Ias
lo slavl Jvon acquainlance: Iul il succeeds in lIinIing aIoul
nan lIings vilI vIicI ve Iave no acquainlance.
TIe couvse oJ n avgunenl viII Ie as JoIIovs. I sIaII
Iegin I slaling lIe lIeov I inlend lo advocale:
I
I sIaII
lIen discuss lIe lIeovies oJ Fvege and Meinong, sIoving
vI neilIev oJ lIen salisJies ne: lIen I sIaII give
lIe
gvounds in Javouv oJ n lIeov: and JinaII I sIaII IvieJI
indicale lIe pIiIosopIicaI consequences oJ n lIeov.
M lIeov, IvieJI, is as JoIIovs. I laIe lIe nolion oJ lIe
vaviaIIe as JundanenlaI: I use C |x) lo nean a pvoposi-
lion2 in vIicI x is a consliluenl, vIeve x, lIe vaviaIIe,
is
essenliaII and vIoII undelevnined. TIen ve can considev
lIe lvo nolions C |x) is aIvas lvue and C |x) is sone-
lines lvue .3 TIen
evevlIing
and nolIing and sonelIing
|vIicI ave lIe nosl pvinilive oJ denoling pIvases) ave lo
Ie inlevpveled as JoIIovs
C |evevlIing) neans C |x) is aIvas lvue:
C |nolIing) neans 'C |x) is JaIse' is aIvas lvue:
C |sonelIing)
neans Il is JaIse lIal ' C |x) is JaIse' is
aIvas lvue .
Heve lIe nolion C |x) is aIvas lvue is laIen as uIlinale
and indeJinaIIe, and lIe olIevs ave deJined I neans oJ il.
EvevlIing, nolIing,
and
sonelIing,
ave nol assuned lo Iave an
neaning in isoIalion, Iul a neaning is assigned lo evev pvo-
posilion in vIicI lIe occuv. TIis is lIe pvincipIe oJ lIe
lIeov oJ denoling I visI lo advocale lIal denoling pIvases
nevev Iave an neaning in lIenseIves, Iul lIal evev pvo-
ppsilion in vIose vevIaI expvession lIe occuv Ias a nean-
ing. TIe diJJicuIlies concevning denoling ave, I IeIieve,
alI
lIe vesuIl o*J a vvong anaIsis oJ pvoposilions vIose
vevIaI
expvessions conlain denoling pIvases.
TIe pvopev anaIsis,
iJ I an nol nislaIen, na Ie JuvlIev sel JovlI as JoIIovs.
I
I Iave discussed lIis suIjecl in FvincipIes oJ MalIenalics,
cIaplev
v., and ? 476. TIe lIeov lIeve advocaled is vev neavI
lIe sane as
Fvege's,
and is quile diJJevenl Jvon lIe lIeov lo Ie advocaled in vIal
JoIIovs.
2 Move exaclI, a pvoposilionaI Junclion.
3
TIe second oJ lIese can Ie deJined I nieans oJ lIe Jivsl,
iJ ve laIe
il lo nean, Il is nol lvue lIal 'C |x) is JaIse' is aIvas
lvue .
4I sIaII sonelines use, inslead oJ lIis conpIicaled pIvase,
lIe pIvase
C |x) is nol aIvas JaIse, ov C |x) is sonelines lvue, supposed
deJined
lo nean lIe sane as lIe conpIicaled
pIvase.
ON BENOTINO. 481
Suppose nov ve visI lo inlevpvel lIe pvoposilion, I nel
a nan . IJ lIis is lvue,. I nel sone deJinile nan: Iul lIal
is nol vIal I aJJivn. WIal I aJJivn is, accovding lo lIe lIeov
I advocale
'
I nel x, and x is Iunan' is nol aIvas JaIse .
OenevaII, deJining lIe cIass oJ nen as lIe cIass oJ oIjecls
Iaving lIe pvedicale Iunan, ve sa lIal
4'C |a nan) neans ' C |x) and x is Iunan' is nol aIvas
JaIse .
TIis Ieaves a nan, I ilseIJ, vIoII deslilule oJ neaning,
Iul gives a neaning lo evev pvoposilion in vIose vevIaI
expvession ' a nan

occuvs.
Considev nexl lIe pvoposilion
aII nen ave novlaI.
TIis pvoposilion
1
is veaII IpolIelicaI and slales lIal iJ an-
lIing is a nan, il is novlaI. TIal is, il slales lIal iJ x is
a nan, x is novlaI, vIalevev x na Ie. Hence, suIsliluling
'x is Iunan' Jov' x is a nan,' ve Jind-
AII nen ave novlaI neans ' IJ x is Iunan, x is novlaI'
is aIvas lvue .
TIis is vIal is expvessed in snIoIic Iogic I saing lIal
aII nen ave novlaI neans 'x is Iunan' inpIies 'x is
novlaI' Jov aII vaIues oJ x. Move genevaII, ve sa
4C
C|aII nen)
'
neans ' IJ x is Iunan, lIen C |x) is lvue' is
aIvas lvue
SiniIavI
C |no nen) neans ' IJ x is Iunan, lIen C |x) is JaIse'
is aIvas lvue.
C |sone nen) viII nean lIe sane as C |a nan),
2 and
''C |a nan)

neans Il is JaIse lIal ' C |x) and x is Iunan'
is aIvas JaIse .
C |evev nan) viII nean lIe sane as C |aII nen)
Il venains lo inlevpvel pIvases conlaining lIe. TIese ave
I Jav lIe nosl inlevesling and diJJicuIl oJ denoling pIvases.
:TaIe as an inslance

lIe JalIev oJ CIavIes II. vas execuled .
TIis assevls lIal lIeve vas an x vIo vas lIe JalIev oJ
CIavIes II. and vas execuled. Nov lIe, vIen il is slviclI
used, invoIves uniqueness: ve do, il is lvue, speaI oJ lIe son
,oJ So-and-so

even vIen So-and-so Ias sevevaI sons, Iul il
vouId Ie nove covvecl lo sa
a son oJ So-and-so . TIus
Jov ouv puvposes ve laIe lIe as invoIving uniqueness. TIus
vIen ve sa x vas lIe JalIev oJ CIavIes II. ve nol onI
.assevl lIal x Iad a cevlain veIalion lo CIavIes II., Iul aIso
I
As Ias Ieen aII avgued in Mv. BvadIe's Logic, IooI i., cIap. ii.
2FscIoIogicaII

C |a nan)

Ias a suggeslion oJ onI onie, and

C
|sone nen) Ias a suggeslion oJ nnove lIan one: Iul ve na negIecl
*lIese suggeslions in a pveIininav sIelcI.
482 BEBTBANB BUSSELL
lIal nolIing eIse Iad lIis veIalion. TIe veIalion in ques-
lion, vilIoul lIe assunplion oJ uniqueness, and vilIoul an
denoling pIvases, is expvessed I x Iegal CIavIes I.. To
gel an equivaIenl oJ x vas lIe JalIev oJ CIavIes
II.,
ve
nNusl
add,
IJ is olIev lIan x, did niol Iegel CIavIes II)
ov, vIal is equivaIenl, IJ Iegal CIavIes II., is idenlicaI
vilI x . Hence x is lIe JalIev oJ CIavIes II. Ieconnes
Iegal CIavIes IL: and ' il Iegal CIavIes IL, is idenlicaI
vilI x' is aIvas lvue oJ

TIus lIe JalIev oJ CIavIes IM vas execuled

Ieconues
Il is nol aIvas JaIse oJ x lIal x Iegal CIavIes II. and lIal
x vas execuled and lIal 'iJ

Iegal CIavIes IL, is
idenlicaI vilI x' is aIvas lvue oJ .
TIis nna seen a sonevIal incvediIIe inlevpvelalion: Iul
I an nol al pvesenl giving veasons, I an neveI
slaling
lIe
lIeov.
To inlevpvel
C |lIe JalIev oJ CIavIes II.),
vIeve C
slands Jov an slalenenl aIoul Iin, ve Iave onI lo suI-
slilule C |x) Jov x vas execuled in lIe aIove. OIsevve
lIal, accovdina lo lIe aIove inlevpvelalion, vIalevev slale-
nenl C na
Ie,
C |lIe JalIev oJ CIavIes II.) inpIies
Il is nol aIvas JaIse oJ x lIal ' iJ Iegal CIavIes
II., is
idenlicaI vilI x' is aIvas lvue oJ
,
vIicI is vIal is expvessed in connon Ianguage I CIavIes
II. Iad one JalIev and no nove. ConsequenlI iJ lIis con-
|ilion JaiIs, evev pvoposilion oJ lIe Jovnn C |lIe JalIev oJ
CIavIes II.) is JaIse. TIus e.g. evev pvoposilion oJ lIe
Jovnn

C |lIe pvesenl Kinig oJ Fvance) is JaIse. TIis is a
gveal advanlage in lIe pvesenl lIeov. I sIaII sIov Ialev
lIal il is nol conlvav lo lIe Iav oJ
conlvadiclion,
as IigIl
Ie al Jivsl supposed.
TIe aIove gives a veduclion oJ aII pvoposilions in vIicI
Ienoling pIvases occuv lo Jovns in vIicI no sucI pIvases
occuv. WI il is inpevalive lo eJJecl sucI a veduclion, lIe
suIsequenl discussion viII endeavouv lo sIov.
TIe evidence Jov lIe aIove lIeov is devived Jvon lIe
diJJicuIlies vIicI seen unavoidaIIe iJ ve vegavd denoling
pIvases as slanding Jov genuine consliluenls oJ lIe pvoposi-
lions in vIose vevIaI expvessions lIe occuv. OJ lIe pos-
siIIe lIeovies vIicI adnil sucI consliluenls lIe sinpIesl is
lIal oJ Meinong.1 TIis lIeov vegavds an gvannalicaII
covvecl denoling pIvase as slanding Jov an oIjecl. TIus

lIe pvesenl King oJ
Fvance,

lIe vound
squave, elc., ave
I
See L'nlevsv.Aluinqe.n
xuv |egenslandalIeovie ulnd
FscIoIogie,
Leip-
zig,
1904, lIe Jivsl lIvee avlicIes
|I
MI
eiuiong,
Anaesedev and MaII ve-
specliveI).
ON BENOTINO.
483
supposed lo Ie genuine oIjecls. Il is adnilled lIal sucI
oIjecls do nol su6Isisl, Iul nevevlIeIess lIe ave supposed lo
Ie oIjecls. TIis is in ilseIJ a diJJicuIl viev: Iul lIe cIieJ
oIjeclion is lIal sucI oIjecls, adnilledI, ave apl lo inJvioge
lIe Iav oJ conlvadiclion. Il is conlended, Jov exanpIe, lIal
lIe exislenl pvesenl King oJ Fvance exisls, and aIso does nol
exisl: lIal lIe vound squave is vound, and aIso nol vound:
elc. Bul lIis is inloIevaIIe: and iJ an lIeov can Ie Jound
lo avoid lIis vesuIl, il is suveI lo Ie pveJevved.
TIe aIove IveacI oJ lIe Iav oJ conlvadiclion is avoided I
Fvege's lIeov. He dislinguisIes, in a denoling pIvase, lvo
eIenenls, vIicI ve na caII lIe neaninzg and lIe denolalion.'
TIus lIe cenlve oJ nass oJ lIe SoIav Sslen al lIe Iegin-
ning oJ lIe lvenlielI cenluv
is IigII conpIex in neaning,
Iul ils denolalion is a cevlain poinl, vIicI is sinpIe. TIe
SoIav Sslen, lIe lvenlielI cenluv, elc., ave consliluenls oJ
lIe neaning: Iul lIe denolalion Ias no consliluenls al aII.2
One advanlage oJ lIis dislinclion is lIal il sIovs vI il is
oJlen vovlI vIiIe lo assevl idenlil. IJ ve sa Scoll is
lIe aulIov oJ WavevIe, ve assevl an idenlil oJ denolalion
vilI a diJJevence oJ neaning. I sIaII, Iovevev,
nol vepeal
lIe gvounds in Javouv oJ lIis lIeov, as I Iave uvged
ils
cIains eIsevIeve |Ioc. cil.), and an nov concevned lo dispule
lIose cIains.
One oJ lIe Jivsl diJJicuIlies lIal conJvonl us, vIen ve adopl
lIe viev lIal denoling pIvases expvess
a neaning and
denole
a denolalion,3 concevns lIe cases in vIicI lIe denolalion
appeavs lo Ie aIsenl. IJ ve sa lIe King oJ EngIand
is
IaId, lIal is, il vouId seen, nol a slalenenl aIoul
lIe
conpIex neaning lIe King oJ EngIand, Iul .aIoul
lIe
acluaI nan denoled I lIe neaning. Bul nov
considev
lIe King oJ Fvance is IaId . B pavil oJ Jovn, lIis
aIso
ouigIl lo Ie aIoul lIe denolalion oJ lIe pIvase lIe King
oJ
Fvance . Bul lIis pIvase, lIougI il Ias a
neaning
pvovided
' See Iis UeIev Sinn und Bedeulung, ZeilscIviJl JiIv FIiI. unld
FIiI.
KviliI, voI. 100.
2Fvege dislinguisIes lIe lvo eIenenls oJ neaning
and denolalion
evevvIeve, and nol onI in conpIex denoling pIvases.
TIus il is lIe
neanings oJ lIe consliluenls oJ a denoling conpIex lIal enlev inlo ils
neaning, nol lIeiv denolalion. In lIe pvoposilion Monl BIanc is ovev
1,000 nelves IigI, il is, accovding lo Iin, lIe neaning
oJ c
Monl BIanc,
nol lIe acluaI nounlain, lIal is a consliluenl oJ lIe nneaning
oJ lIe pvo-
posilion.
3In lIis lIeov, ve sIaII sa lIal lIe denoling pIvase expvesses
a,
neaning: and ve sIaII sa IolI oJ lIe pIvase
and oJ lIe neaning
lIal
lIe denole a denolalion. In lIe olIev lIeov,
vIicI I
advocale,
lIeve
is no neaning, and onI sonelines a denolalion.
484 BEBTBANB BUSSELL
lIe King oJ EngIand Ias a neaning, Ias cevlainI no de-
nolalion, al Ieasl in an oIvious sense. Hence one vouId
suppose lIal lIe King oJ Fvance is IaId ougIl lo Ie
nonsense: Iul il is nol nonsense, since il is pIainI JaIse.
Ov again considev sucI a pvoposilion as lIe JoIIoving IJ u
is a cIass vIicI Ias onI one nenIev, lIen lIal one nenIev
is a nenIev oJ u, ov, as ve na slale il, IJ u is a unil
cIass, lIe u is a u . TIis pvoposilion ougIl lo Ie aIvas
lvue, since lIe concIusion is lvue vIenevev lIe IpolIesis is
lvue. Bul lIe u is a denoling pIvase, and il is lIe de-
nolalion, nol lIe neaning, lIal is said lo Ie a u. Nov iJ u
is nol a unil cIass, lIe u seens lo denole nolIing: Ience
ouv pvoposilion vouId seen lo Iecone nonsense as soo-n as
nu is nol a unil cIass.
Nov il is pIain lIal sucI pvoposilions do nol Iecone
nonsense neveI Iecause lIeiv IpolIeses ave JaIse. TIe
King in
TIe Tenpesl

nigIl sa,

IJ Fevdinand is nol
dvovned, Fevdinand is n onI son . Nov

n onI son
is a denoling pIvase, vIicI, on lIe Jace oJ il, Ias a denola-
lion vIen, and onI vIen, I Iave exaclI one son. Bul lIe
aIove slalenenl vouId nevevlIeIess Iave venained lvue iJ
Fevdinand Iad Ieen in Jacl dvovned. TIus ve nusl eilIev
pvovide a denolalion in cases in vIicI il is al Jivsl sigIl
aIsenl, ov ve nusl aIandon lIe viev lIal lIe denolalion is
vIal is concevned in pvoposilions vIicI conlain denoling
pIvases. TIe Iallev is lIe couvse lIal I advocale. TIe
Jovnev couvse na Ie laIen, as I Meinong, I adnilling
oIjecls vIicI do nol suIsisl, and dening lIal lIe oIe
lIe Iav oJ conlvadiclion: lIis, Iovevev, is lo Ie avoided iJ
possiIIe. AnolIev va oJ laIing lIe sane couvse |so Jav as
ouv pvesenl aIlevnalive is concevned) is adopled I Fvege,
vIo pvovides I deJinilion sone puveI convenlionaI denola-
lion Jov lIe cases in vIicI olIevvise lIeve vouId Ie none.
TIus lIe King oJ Fvance, is lo denole lIe nuII-cIass:

lIe onI son oJ Mv. So-and-so

|vIo Ias a Jine JaniI oJ
len), is lo.denole lIe cIass oJ aII Iis sons: and so on. Bul
lIis pvoceduve, lIougI il na nol Iead lo acluaI IogicaI evvov,
is pIainI avliJiciaI, and does nol give an exacl anaIsis oJ
lIe nallev. TIus iJ ve aIIov lIal denoling pIvases, in
genevaI, Iave lIe lvo sides oJ neaning and denolalion, lIe
cases vIeve lIeve seens lo Ie no denolalion cause diJJicuIlies
IolI on lIe assunplion lIal lIeve veaII is a denolalion and
on lIe assunplion lIal lIeve veaII is none.
A IogicaI lIeov na Ie lesled I ils capacil Jov deaIing
vilI puzzIes, and il is a vIoIesone pIan, in lIinIing aIoul
Iogic, lo slocI lIe nind vilI as nan puzzIes as possiIIe,
ON BENOTINO. 485
since lIese sevve nucI lIe sane puvpose as is sevved I
expevinenls in pIsicaI science. I sIaII lIeveJove slale lIvee
puzzIes vIicI a lIeov as lo denoling ougIl lo Ie aIIe lo
soIve: and I sIaII sIov Ialev lIal n lIeov soIves lIen.
|1) IJ a is idenlicaI vilI I, vIalevev is lvue oJ lIe one is
lvue oJ lIe olIev, and eilIev na Ie suIsliluled Jov lIe olIev
in an pvoposilion vilIoul aIleving lIe lvulI ov JaIseIood oJ
lIal pvoposilion. Nov Oeovge IV. visIed lo Inov vIelIev
Scoll vas lIe aulIov oJ WcavevIe: and in Jacl Scoll vas
lIe aulIov oJ WavevIe. Hence ve na suIslilule Scoll Jov
lIe aulIov oJ TWavevIe, and lIeveI pvove lIal Oeovge IV..
visIed lo Inov vIelIev Scoll vas Scoll. Yel an inlevesl
in lIe Iav oJ idenlil can IavdI Ie allviIuled lo lIe Jivsl.
genlIenan oJ Euvope.
|2) B lIe Iav oJ excIuded niddIe, eilIev A is B
ov
A is nol B nusl Ie lvue. Hence eilIev lIe pvesenl.
King oJ Fvance is IaId
ov

lIe pvesenl King oJ Fvance is
nol IaId nusl Ie lvue. Yel iJ ve enunevaled lIe lIings
lIal ave IaId, and lIen lIe lIings lIal ave nol IaId, ve
sIouId nol Jind lIe pvesenl King oJ Fvance in eilIev Iisl.
HegeIians, vIo Iove a
snlIesis, viII pvoIaII concIude lIal
Ie veavs a vig.
|3) Considev lIe pvoposilion A diJJevs Jvon B . IJ lIis
is lvue, lIeve is a diJJevence Ielveen A and B, vIicI Jacl
na Ie expvessed in lIe Jovn

lIe diJJevence Ielveen A and
B suIsisls . Bul iJ il is JaIse lIal A diJJevs Jvon B, lIen
lIeve is no diJJevence Ielveen A and B, vIicI Jacl na Ie
expvessed in lIe Jovn

lIe diJJevence Ielveen A and B does.
nol suIsisl . Bul Iov can a non-enlil Ie lIe suIjecl oJ
a pvoposilion ? I lIinI, lIeveJove I an

is no nove evidenl
lIan I an lIe suIjecl oJ a pvoposilion, lIeveJove I an,
pvovided I an is laIen lo assevl suIsislence ov Ieing,1-
nol exislence. Hence, il vouId appeav, il nusl aIvas Ie
seIJ-conlvadiclov lo den lIe Ieing oJ anlIing: Iul ve
Iave seen, in connexion vilI Meinong, lIal lo adnil Ieing
aIso sonelines Ieads lo conlvadiclions. TIus iJ A and B
do nol diJJev, lo suppose eilIev lIal lIeve is, ov lIal lIeve is.
nol, sucI an oIjecl as lIe diJJevence Ielveen A and B
seens equaII inpossiIIe.
TIe veIalion oJ lIe neaning lo lIe denolalion invoIves,
cevlain valIev cuvious diJJicuIlies, vIicI seen in lIenseIves
suJJicienl lo pvove lIal lIe lIeov vIicI Ieads lo sucI diJJi--
cuIlies nusl Ie vvong.
WIen ve visI lo speaI aIoul lIe neaning oJ a denoling
I
I use lIese as snonns.
486 BEBTBANB BUSSELL
pIvase, as opposed lo ils denolalion, lIe naluvaI node oJ
doing so is I invevled connas. TIus ve sa
TIe cenlve oJ nass oJ lIe SoIav Sslen is a poinl, nol a
denoling conpIex:
TIe cenlve oJ nass oJ lIe SoIav Sslen is a denoling
conpIex, nol a poinl.
Ov again,
TIe Jivsl Iine oJ Ova's EIeg slales a pvoposilion.
TIe Jivsl Iine oJ Ova's EIeg does nol slale a pvoposi-
lion. TIus laIing an denoling pIvase, sa C, ve visI lo
considev lIe veIalion Ielveen C and C, vIeve lIe diJJev-
ence oJ lIe lvo is oJ lIe Iind exenpIiJied in lIe aIove lvo
inslances.
We sa, lo Iegin vilI, lIal vIen C occuvs il is lIe
denolalion lIal ve ave speaIing aIoul: Iul vIen

C

occuvs,
il is lIe
neaning.
Nov lIe veIalion oJ neaning and denola-
lion is nol neveI Iinguislic lIvougI lIe pIvase lIeve nusl
Ie a IogicaI veIalion invoIved, vIicI ve expvess I saving
lIal lIe neaning denoles lIe denolalion. Bul lIe diJJicuIl
vIicI conJvonls us is lIal ve cannol succeed in IolI pvesevv-
ing lIe connexion oJ neaning and denolalion and pvevenling
lIen Jvon Ieing one and lIe sane: aIso lIal lIe neaning
cannol Ie gol al excepl I neans oJ denoling pIvases. TIis
Iappens as JoIIovs.
TIe one pIvase C vas lo Iave IolI neaning and denola-
lion. Bul iJ ve speaI oJ

lIe neaning oJ C, lIal gives us
lIe neaning |iJ an) oJ lIe denolalion. TIe neaning oJ
lIe Jivsl Iine oJ Ova's EIeg

is lIe sane as TIe neaning
oJ
'
TIe cuvJev loIIs lIe IneII oJ pavling da,' and is nol lIe
sane as TIe neaning oJ 'lIe Jivsl Iine oJ Ova's EIeg '.
TIus in ovdev lo gel lIe neaning ve vanl, ve nusl speaI
nol oJ lIe neaning oJ C, Iul oJ lIe neaning oJ
'
C,'

vIicI is lIe sane as C I ilseIJ. SiniIavI lIe denola-
lion oJ C

does nol nean lIe denolalion ve vanl, Iul neans
sonelIing vIicI, iJ il denoles al aII, denoles vIal is denoled
I
lIe denolalion ve vanl. Fov
exanpIe,
Iel C Ie lIe
denoling conpIex occuvving in lIe second oJ lIe aIove in-
slances. TIen
C = lIe Jivsl Iine oJ Ova's EIeg, and
lIe denolalion oJ C
=
TIe cuvJev loIIs lIe IneII oJ pavling da.
Bul vIal ve neanl la Iave as lIe denolalion vas

lIe Jivsl
Iine oJ Ova's EIeg. TIus ve Iave JaiIed lo gel vIal
ve vanled.
TIe diJJicuIl in speaIing oJ lIe neaning oJ a denoling,
conpIex na Ie slaled lIus: TIe nonenl ve pul iIe coin-
pIex in a pvoposilion, lIe pvoposilion is aIoul lIe denolalion:
ON BENOTINO. 487
and iJ ve naIe a pvoposilion in vIicI lIe suIjecl is lIe
neaning oJ C, lIen lIe suIjecl is lIe neaning |iJ an) oJ
lIe denolalion, vIicI vas nol inlended. TIis Ieads us lo
sa lIal, vIen ve dislinguisI neaning and denolalion, ve
nusl Ie deaIing vilI lIe neaning lIe neaning Ias denola-
lion and is a conpIex, and lIeve is nol sonelIing olIev lIan
lIe neaning, vIicI can Ie caIIed lIe conpIex, and Ie said
lo Iave IolI neaning and denolalion. TIe vigIl pIvase,
on lIe viev in queslion, is lIal sone neanings Iave de-
nolalions.
Bul lIis onI naIes ouv diJJicuIl in speaIing oJ neanings
nove evidenl. Fov suppose C is ouv conpIex: lIen ve ave
lo sa lIal C is lIe neaning oJ lIe conpIex. NevevlIeIess,
vIenevev C occuvs vilIoul invevled connas, vIal is said
is nol lvue oJ lIe neaning, Iul onI oJ lIe denolalion, as
vIen ve sa TIe cenlve oJ nass oJ lIe SoIav Sslen is a
poinl. TIus lo speaI oJ C ilseIJ, i.e., lo naIe a pvoposilion
aIoul lIe neaning, ouv suIjecl nusl nol Ie C, Iul sonelIing
vIicI denoles C. TIus C, vIicI is vIal ve use vIen
ve vanl lo speaI oJ lIe neaning, nusl Ie nol lIe neaning,
Iul sonelIing vIicI denoles lIe neaning. And C nusl nol
Ie a consliluenl oJ lIis conpIex |as il is oJ lIe neaning oJ
C ): Jov iJ C occuvs in lIe conpIex, il viII Ie ils denolalion,
nol ils neaning, lIal viII occuv, and lIeve is no IacIvavd
voad Jvon denolalions lo neanings, Iecause evev oIjecl can
Ie denoled I an inJinile nunIev oJ diJJevenl denoling pIvases.
TIus il vouId seen lIal

C

and C ave diJJevenl enlilies,
sucI lIal

C

denoles C: Iul lIis cannol Ie an expIanalion,
Iecause lIe veIalion oJ

C

lo C venains vIoII nslevious:
and vIeve ave ve lo Jind lIe denoling conpIex

C

vIicI
is lo denole C ? Moveovev, vIen C occuvs in a pvoposilion,
il is nol onI lIe denolalion lIal occuvs |as ve sIaII see in
lIe nexl
pavagvapI): el,
on lIe viev in
queslion,
C is
onI
lIe denolalion, lIe neaning Ieing vIoII veIegaled lo C '.
TIis is an inexlvicaIIe langIe, and seens lo pvove lIal lIe
vIoIe dislinclion oJ neaning and denolalion Ias Ieen
vvongI
conceived.
TIal lIe neaning is veIevanl vIen a denoling pIvase
occuvs in a pvoposilion is JovnaII pvoved I
lIe
puzzIe
aIoul lIe aulIov oJ WavevIe. TIe pvoposilion
Scoll vas
lIe aulIov oJ WlvevIe Ias a pvopevl
nol
possessed I

Scoll vas Scoll, naneI lIe pvopevl
lIal
Oeovge IV.
visIed lo Inov vIelIev il vas lvue. TIus lIe lvo ave nol
idenlicaI pvoposilions: Ience lIe neaning
oJ lIe aulIov oJ
WcavevIe nusl Ie veIevanl as veII as lIe
denolalion,
iJ ve
adIeve lo lIe poinl oJ viev lo vIicI lIis dislinclion
IeIongs.
488 BEBTBANB BUSSELL
Yel, as ve Iave jusl seen, so Iong as ve adIeve lo lIis poinl,
oJ viev, ve ave conpeIIed lo IoId lIal onI lIe denolalion
can Ie veIevanl. TIus lIe poinl oJ viev in queslion nusl
Ie aIandoned.
Il venains lo sIov Iov aII lIe puzzIes ve Iave Ieen con-
sideving ave soIved I lIe lIeov expIained al lIe Ieginning
oJ lIis avlicIe.
Accovding lo lIe viev vIicI I advocale, a denoling pIvase
is essenliaII
pavl
oJ a senlence, and does nol, IiIe nosl
singIe vovds, Iave an signiJicance on ils ovn accounl. IJ
I sa Scoll vas a nan, lIal is a slalenenl oJ lIe Jovnn
x vas a nan, and il Ias Scoll Jov ils suIjecl. Bul
iJ I sa
lIe aulIov oJ WcavevIe vas a nan, lIal is nol a,
slalenenl oJ lIe Jovn x vas a nan, and does nol Iave lIe
aulIov oJ WavevIe Jov ils suIjecl. AIIvevialing lIe slale-
nenl nade al lIe Ieginning oJ lIis avlicIe, ve na pul, in
pIace oJ lIe aulIov oJ WavevIe vas a nan, lIe JoIIov-
ing One and onI one enlil vvole WavevIe, and lIal
one vas a nan. |TIis is nol so slviclI vIal is neanl as
vIal vas said eavIiev: Iul il is easiev lo JoIIov.) And speaI-
ing genevaII, suppose ve visI lo sa lIal lIe aulIov oJ
WavevIe Iad lIe pvopevl
0,
vIal ve visI lo sa is equiva-
Ienl lo
One and onI one enlil vvole WavevIe, and lIal
one Iad lIe pvopevl
0
.
TIe expIanalion oJ denolalion is nov, as JoIIovs. Evev
pvoposilion in vIicI

lIe aulIov oJ WavevIe
occuvs
Ieing expIained as aIove, lIe pvoposilion Scoll vas lIe
aulIov oJ WavevIe |i.e. Scoll vas idenlicaI vilI lIe
aulIov oJ WavevIe) Iecones

One and onI one enlil
vvole WavevIe, and Scoll vas idenlicaI vilI lIal one: ov,
vevevling lo lIe vIoII expIicil Jovn Il is nol aIvas
JaIse oJ x lIal x vvole WavevIe, lIal il is aIvas lvue oJ
lIal iJ vvole WavevIe is idenlicaI vilI x, and lIal Scoll
is idenlicaI vilI x . TIus iJ

C

is a denoling pIvase, il
na Iappen lIal lIeve is one enlil x |lIeve cannol Ie nove
lIan one) Jov vIicI lIe pvoposilion x is idenlicaI vilI C
is lvue, lIis pvoposilion Ieing inlevpveled as aIove. We
na lIen sa lIal lIe enlil x is lIe denolalion oJ lIe
pIvase C . TIus Scoll is lIe denolalion oJ
lIe aulIov
oJ WavevIe. TIe -C in invevled connas viII Ie neveI
lIe pIvase, nol anlIing-lIal can Ie caIIed lIe neaning. TIe
pIvase pev se Ias no neaning, Iecause in an pvoposilion in
vIicI il occuvs lIe pvoposilion, JuII expvessed, does nol
conlain lIe pIvase, vIicI Ias Ieen IvoIen up.
TIe puzzIe aIoul Oeovge IV.'s cuviosil is nov seen lo
Iave a vev sinpIe soIulion. TIe pvoposilion
Scoll vas
ON BENOTINO. 489
lIe aulIov oJ WavevIe, vIicI vas vvillen oul in ils un-
aIIvevialed Jovn in lIe pveceding pavagvapI, does nol con-
lain an consliluenl lIe aulIov oJ WavevIe Jov vIicI
ve couId suIslilule Scoll . TIis does nol inlevJeve vilI
lIe lvulI oJ inJevences vesuIling Jvon naIing vIal is vevIaII
lIe suIslilulion oJ Scoll Jov lIe aulIov oJ WavevIe, so
Iong as lIe aulIov oJ WaavevIe Ias vIal I caII a pvinav
occuvvence in lIe pvoposilion consideved. TIe diJJevence oJ
pvinav and secondav occuvvences oJ denoling pIvases is
as JoIIovs-
WIen ve sa

Oeovge IV. visIed lo Inov vIelIev so-
and-so, ov vIen ve sa So-and-so is suvpvising ov

So-
and-so is lvue, elc., lIe so-and-so nusl Ie a pvoposilion.
Suppose nov lIal

so-and-so
conlains a denoling pIvase.
We na eilIev eIininale lIis denoling pIvase Jvon lIe
:suIovdinale pvoposilion
so-and-so,
ov Jvon lIe vIoIe pvo-
posilion in vIicI

so-and-so
is a neve consliluenl. BiJJev-
enl pvoposilions vesuIl accovding lo vIicI ve do. I Iave
Ieavd oJ a loucI ovnev oJ a acIl lo vIon a guesl, on Jivsl
seeing il, venavIed, I lIougIl ouv acIl vas Iavgev lIan
il
is:
and lIe ovnev vepIied,
No,
n acIl is nol Iavgev
lIan il is . WIal lIe guesl neanl vas, TIe size lIal I
lIougIl ouv acIl vas is gvealev lIan lIe size ouv acIl
is : lIe neaning allviIuled lo Iin is, I lIougIl lIe size
oJ ouv acIl vas gvealev lIan lIe size oJ ouv acIl. To
veluvn lo Oeovge IV. and WavevIe, vIen ve sa, Oeovge
IV. visIed lo Inov vIelIev Scoll vas lIe aulIov oJ
WoavevIe, ve novnaII nean
Oeovge IV. visIed lo Inov
vIelIev one- and onI one nan vvole WavevIe and Scoll
vas lIal nan: Iul ve na aIso nean One and onI
one -nan vvole WavevIe, and Oeovge IV. visIed lo Inov
vIelIev Scoll vas lIal nan . In lIe Iallev,
lIe aulIov
oJ WavevIe Ias a pvinav occuvvence: in lIe Jovnev, a
secondav. TIe Iallev nigIl Ie expvessed I Oeovge IV.
visIed lo Inov, concevning lIe nan vIo in Jacl vvole
WavevIe, vIelIev Ie vas Scoll . TIis vouId Ie lvue, Jov
exanpIe, iJ Oeovge IV. Iad seen Scoll al a dislance, and
Iad asIed Is lIal Scoll? A secondav occuvvence oJ a
denoling pIvase na Ie deJined as one in vIicI lIe pIvase
occuvs in a pvoposilion p vIicI is a neve counsliluenl oJ lIe
pvoposilion ve ave consideving, and lIe suIslilulion Jov lIe
denoling pIvase is lo Ie eJJecled innp, nol in lIe vIoIe pvo-
posilion concevned. TIe anIiguil as Ielveen pvinav and
secondav occuvvences is Iavd lo avoid in Ianguage: Iul il
does no Iavn iJ ve ave on ouv guavd againsl il. In snIoIic
Iogic il is oJ couvse easiI avoided.
33
490 BEBTBANB -BUSSELL
TIe dislinclion oJ pvinav and secondav occuvvences aIso
enaIIes us lo deaI vilI lIe queslion vIelIev lIe pvesenl
King oJ Fvance is IaId ov nol IaId, and genevaII vilI lIe
IogicaI slalus oJ denoling pIvases lIal denole nolIing. IJ
C is a denoling pIvase, sa lIe levn Iaving lIe pvo-
pevl F, lIen
C Ias lIe pvopevl I neans one and onI one levn
Ias lIe pvopevl F, and lIal one Ias lIe pvopevl
I.6
IJ nov lIe pvopevl F IeIongs lo no levns, ov lo sevevaI, il
JoIIovs lIal
C Ias lIe pvopevl sI is JaIse Jov aII vaIues
oJ '. TIus lIe pvesenl King oJ Fvance is IaId is cevlainI
JaIse: and lIe pvesenl King oJ Fvance is nol IaId is JaIse
iJ il neans
TIeve is an enlil vIicI is nov King oJ Fvance and is nol
IaId,
Iul is lvue iJ il neans
Il is JaIse lIal lIeve is an enlil vIicI is nov King oJ
Fvance and is IaId .
TIal is, lIe King oJ Fvance is nol IaId is JaIse iJ lIe
occuvvence oJ lIe King oJ Fvance is pvinav, and lvue iJ
il is secondav. TIus aII pvoposilions in vIicI lIe King oJ
Fvance Ias a pvinav occuvvence ave JaIse: lIe deniaIs oJ
sucI pvoposilions ave lvue, Iul in lIen lIe King oJ Fvance

Ias a secondav occuvvence. TIus ve escape lIe concIusion
lIal lIe King oJ Fvance Ias a vig.
We can nov see aIso Iov lo den lIal lIeve is sucI an
oIjecl as lIe diJJevence Ielveen A and B in lIe case vIen A
and B do nol diJJev. IJ A and B do diJJev, lIeve is one and
onI one enlil x sucI lIal
x is lIe diJJevence Ielveen A and
B is a lvue pvoposilion: iJ A and B do nol diJJev, lIeve is
no sucI enlil x. TIus accovding lo lIe neaning oJ denola-
lion IaleI expIained,
lIe diJJevence Ielveen A and B Ias
a denolalion vIen A and B diJJev, Iul nol olIevvise. TIis
diJJevence appIies lo lvue and JaIse pvoposilions genevaII. IJ
'a B I slands Jov a Ias lIe veIalion B lo I, lIen vIen
aB I is lvue, lIeve is sucI an enlil as lIe veIalion B Ielveen
a and I: vIen a B I is JaIse, lIeve is no sucI enlil. TIus
oul oJ
an7
pvoposilion ve can naIe a denoling pIvase, vIicI
denoles an enlil iJ lIe pvoposilion is lvue, Iul does nol de-
nole an enlil iJ lIe pvoposilion is JaIse. E.g., il is lvue |al
Ieasl ve viII suppose so) lIal lIe eavlI vevoIves vound lIe
sun, and JaIse lIal lIe sun vevoIves vound lIe eavlI: Ience
lIe vevoIulion oJ lIe eavlI vound lIe sun denoles an
I
TIis is lIe aIIvevialed, nol lIe slviclev, inlevpvelalion.
ON BENOTINO. 491
enlil, vIiIe lIe vevoIulion oJ lIe sun vound lIe eavlI
does nol denole an enlil.'
TIe vIoIe veaIn oJ non-enlilies, sucI as lIe vound
squave, lIe even pvine olIev lIan 2, ApoIIo,
Han-
Iel, elc., can nov Ie salisJacloviI deaIl vilI. AII lIese ave
denoling pIvases vIicI do nol denole
anlIing.
A pvo-
posilion aIoul ApoIIo neans vIal ve gel I suIsliluling
vIal lIe cIassicaI diclionav leIIs us is neanl I ApoIIo,
sa lIe sun-god . AII pvoposilions in vIicI ApoIIo occuvs
ave lo Ie inlevpveled I lIe aIove vuIes Jov denoling pIvases.
IJ ApoIIo Ias a pvinav occuvvence, lIe pvoposilion con-
laining lIe occuvvence is JaIse: iJ lIe occuvvence is secondav,
lIe pvoposilion na Ie lvue. So again lIe vound squave is
vound neans lIeve is one and onI one enlil x vIicI is
vound and squave, and lIal enlil is vound, vIicI is a
JaIse pvoposilion, nol, as Meinong nainlains, a lvue one.
TIe nosl pevJecl Being Ias aII pevJeclions: exislence is
a pevJeclion: lIeveJove lIe nosl pevJecl Being exisls Ie-
cones
TIeve is one and onI one enlil x vIicI is nosl pevJecl:
lIal one Ias aII pevJeclions:
exislence is a pevJeclion: lIeve-
Jove lIal one exisls. As a pvooJ, lIis JaiIs Jov vanl oJ a
pvooJ oJ lIe pveniss lIeve is one and onI one enlil x
vIicI is nosl pevJecl '.2
Mv. MacCoII |MINB, N.S., No. 54, and again No. 55, p. 401)
vegavds individuaIs as oJ lvo sovls, veaI and unveaI: Ience
Ie deJines lIe nuII-cIass as lIe cIass consisling oJ aII unveaI
individuaIs. TIis assunes lIal sucI pIvases as

lIe
pvesenl King oJ Fvance, vIicI do nol denole a veaI in-
dividuaI, do, nevevlIeIess, denole an individuaI, Iul an un-
veaI one. TIis is essenliaII Meinong's lIeov, vIicI ve
Iave seen veason lo vejecl Iecause il conJIicls vilI lIe Iav
oJ conlvadiclion. WilI ouv lIeov oJ denoling, ve ave aIIe
lo IoId lIal lIeve ave no unveaI individuaIs: so lIal lIe
nuII-cIass is lIe cIass conlaining no nenIevs, nol lIe cIass
conlaining as nenIevs aII unveaI individuaIs.
Il is inpovlanl lo oIsevve lIe eJJecl oJ ouv lIeov on lIe
inlevpvelalion oJ deJinilions vIicI pvoceed I neans oJ de-
1 TIe pvoposilions JvonI vIicI sucI enlilies ave devived ave nol iden-
licaI eilIev vilI lIese enlilies ov vilI lIe pvoposilions lIal lIese enlilies
Iave Ieing.
2TIe avgunenl can Ie nade lo pvove vaIidI lIal aII nenIevs oJ lIe
cIass oJ nosl pevJecl Beings exisl: il can aIso Ie pvoved JovnaII
lIal
lIis cIass cannol Iave nove lIan one nenIev: Iul, laIing lIe deJinilion
oJ pevJeclion as possession oJ aII posilive pvedicales, il can Ie pvoved
aInosl equaII JovnaII lIal lIe cIass does nol Iave even one nenIev.
492 BEBTBANB BUSSELL
noling pIvases. Mosl nalIenalicaI deJinilions ave oJ lIis
sovl Jov exanpIe, n-n neans lIe nunIev vIicI,
added lo
n, gives n . TIus n - n is deJined as neaning lIe sane as
a cevlain 'denoling pIvase: Iul ve agveed lIal denoling
pIvases Iave no neaning in isoIalion. TIus vIal lIe deJini-
lion veaII ougIl lo Ie is An pvoposilion conlaining vn-n
is lo nean lIe pvoposilion vIicI vesuIls Jvon suIsliluling
Jov 'vn-n' 'lIe nunIev vIicI, added lo n, gives vn' . TIe
vesuIling pvoposilion is inlevpveled accovding lo lIe vuIes
aIvead given Jov inlevpveling pvoposilions vIose vevIaI ex-
pvession conlains a denoling pIvase. In lIe case vIeve n
and n ave sucI lIal lIeve is one and onI one nunIev x
vIicI, added lo n, gives vn, lIeve is a nunIev x vIicI can
Ie suIsliluled Jov n - n in an pvoposilion conlaining n - n
vilIoul aIleving lIe lvulI ov JaIseIood oJ lIe pvoposilion.
Bul in olIev cases,
aII pvoposilions in vIicI in - n Ias a
pvinav occuvvence ave JaIse.
TIe useJuIness oJ idenlil is expIained I lIe aIove lIeov.
No one oulside a
Iogic-IooI
evev visIes' lo
sa
x is
x,
and
el assevlions oJ idenlil ave oJlen nade in sucI Jovns as

Scoll vas lIe aulIov oJ WavevIe ov lIou avl lIe nan .
TIe
neaning
oJ sucI
pvoposilions
cannol Ie slaled vilIoul
lIe nolion oJ idenlil, aIlIougI lIe ave nol sinpI slale-
nenls lIal Scoll is idenlicaI vilI anolIev levn, lIe aulIov
oJ WavevIe, ov lIal lIou avl idenlicaI vilI anolIev levn,
lIe nan. TIe sIovlesl slalenenl oJ Scoll is lIe aulIov
oJ WavevIe seens lo Ie
Scoll,
vvole WavevIe: and il
is aIvas lvue oJ lIal iJ vvole WavevIe, is idenlicaI vilI
Scoll . Il is in lIis va lIal idenlil enlevs inlo Scoll is
lIe aulIov oJ WavevIe: and il is oving lo sucI uses lIal
idenlil is vovlI aJJivning.
One inlevesling vesuIl oJ lIe aIove lIeov oJ denoling is
lIis vIen lIeve is anlIing vilI vIicI ve do nol Iave
innediale acquainlance, Iul onI deJinilion I denoling
pIvases, lIen lIe pvoposilions in vIicI lIis lIing is inlvo-
duced I neans oJ a denoling pIvase do nol veaII conlain
lIis lIing as a consliluenl, Iul conlain inslead lIe conslilu-
enls expvessed I lIe sevevaI vovds oJ lIe denoling pIvase.
TIus in evev pvoposilion lIal ve can appveIend |i.e. nol
onI in lIose vIose lvulI ov JaIseIood ve can judge oJ, Iul
in aII lIal ve can lIinI aIoul), aII lIe consliluenls ave veaII
enlilies vilI vIicI ve Iave innediale acquainlance. Nov
sucI lIings as nallev |in lIe sense in vIicI nallev occuvs
in pIsics) and lIe ninds oJ olIev peopIe ave Inovn lo us
onI I denoling pIvases, i.e., ve ave nol acquainled vilI
lIen, Iul ve Inov lIen as vIal Ias sucI and sucI pvopev-
ON BENOTINO. 493
lies. Hence, aIlIougI ve can Jovn pvoposilionaI Junclions
C |x) vIicI nusl IoId oJ sucI and sucI a naleviaI pavlicIe,
ov oJ So-and-so's nind, el ve ave nol acquainled vilI lIe
pvoposilions vIicI aJJivn lIese lIings lIal ve Inov nusl
Ie lvue, Iecause ve cannol appveIend lIe aeluaI enlilies
concevned. WIal ve Inov is So-and-so Ias a nind vIicI
Ias sucI and sucI pvopevlies Iul ve do nol Inov A Ias
sucI and sucI pvopevlies, vIeve A is lIe nind in queslion.
In sucI a case, ve Inov lIe pvopevlies oJ a lIing vilIoul
Iaving acquainlance vilI lIe lIing ilseIJ, and vilIoul, con-
sequenlI, Inoving an singIe pvoposilion oJ vIicI lIe lIing
ilseIJ is a consliluenl.
OJ lIe nan olIev consequences oJ lIe viev I Iave Ieen
advocaling, I viII sa nolIing. I viII onI Ieg lIe veadev
nol lo naIe up Iis nind againsl lIe viev-as Ie nigIl Ie
lenpled lo do, on accounl oJ ils appavenlI excessive con-
pIicalion-unliI Ie Ias allenpled lo conslvucl a lIeov oJ
Iis ovn on lIe suIjecl oJ denolalion. TIis allenpl, I Ie-
Iieve, viII convince Iin lIal, vIalevev lIe lvue lIeov na
Ie, il cannol Iave sucI a sinpIicil as one nigIl Iave ex-
pecled IeJoveIand.