CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This chapter presents a review of literature and studies , both local and foreign,

that are relevant to the present study. Through her readings, the researcher gained a

broader perspective on the environmental conditions in Balumbato Elementary School

in Quezon City and their effects on the health of the pupils.

Related Literature

Environmental Pollution

Pollution, as defined by Sanchez and Agpaoa, is the alteration of our

surroundings, wholly or largely, as a by-product of man’s actions, through direct or

indirect effects of changes in every pattern, radiation level, chemical and physical

constitution and abundance of organisms. It is also the presence of air and water

pollutants in greater quantity than what is normally contained in these elements1.

As cited by Gralla, rapid industrialization and population growth are the two

main factors in the spread of pollution. The most common pollutants or contaminants

are waste products from industrial plants and motor vehicles. Factories have poisoned

just every corner of the world by their toxic chemicals, organic wastes, and emissions of

11
Custodiosa A. Sanchez and Fe B. Agpaoa, “Contemporary Social
Problems and Issues,” Revised Edition, (Manila: National Bookstore, Inc. 1987),
153.

15
 16
poisonous gases—the litany of what they spew into the water, land and sky, goes on and

on endlessly. Factories and transportation depend on huge amounts of fuel--billions of

tons of coal and oil are consumed around the world every year. When these fuels burn,

they introduce smoke and other less visible by-products into the atmosphere.2

Air Pollution

Air pollution is the addition of harmful substances to the atmosphere resulting in

damage to the environment, human health, and quality of life. One of the many forms of

pollution, air pollution occurs inside homes, schools, and offices; in cities; across

continents; and even globally. Air pollution makes people sick—it causes breathing

problems and promotes cancer—and it harms plants, animals, and the ecosystems in

which they live. Some air pollutants return to Earth in the form of acid rain and snow,

which corrode statues and buildings, damage crops and forests, and make lakes and

streams unsuitable for fish and other plant and animal life.3

The total quantity of pollution is principally determined by the amount of

energy, which is at man’s control. The major cause of air pollution is the incomplete

internal-combustion engine of automobiles. Gasoline is never completely burned in the

engine of a car, just as coal is never completely burned in the furnace of a steel mill.

Once they are released into the air, the products of incomplete combustion--particulate

matter (soot, ash, and other solids), unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, sulfur

dioxide, various nitrogen oxides, ozone, and lead--undergo a series of chemical

2
Preston Gralla, How The Environment Works, (California,1994), 145.
3
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2002.
 17
reactions in the presence of sunlight. The result is the dense haze characteristic of smog.

Smog is caused by industrial and automobile pollution. It is compounded by

temperature inversions, which cause the air pollution to be kept in a particular area for

extended periods. Continued exposure to smog can result in respiratory problems, eye

irritation, and even death.4 Smog may appear brownish in color when it contains high

concentrations of nitrogen dioxide, or it may look blue-grey when it contains large

amounts of ozone. Although wind and rain occasionally wash away the smoke given off

by power plants and automobiles, the cumulative effect of air pollution poses a grave

threat to humans and the environment.5

There are five major primary pollutants: hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide

(CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), and particulates.

Hydrocarbons (HC) are substances whose molecules contain only hydrogen and

carbon atoms. They are emitted mainly as a result of the partial combustion of fossil

fuels. Although urban concentration of hydrocarbons has not been shown to cause any

adverse health effects directly, they are essential in the formation of photochemical

smog that can be deleterious to health. It has been determined that 0.3 parts per million

(ppm) of nomethane hydrocarbons during the 3 hour period from 6:00 to 9:00 am can

be expected to cause an average one-hour photochemical oxidant concentration of 0.1

ppm about 2-4 hours later- a level which has been determined to have adverse health

effects.

4
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2002.
5
Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia © 1999, The Learning Company, Inc.
 18
Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that can cause

dizziness, unconsciousness, or even death by lessening the ability of blood to carry

oxygen. It results from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons and its main source

is the automobile. Carbon monoxide constitutes the single largest pollutant in the urban

atmosphere. Natural resources create a background concentration of about 1 ppm, but

this is insignificant compared to normal levels. The principal cause of CO emissions is

the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons which may result when any of the

following four variables are not kept sufficiently high: (a) oxygen supply, (b) flame

temperature, (c) gas residence time at high temperature, and (d) combustion chamber

turbulence.

The level of carbon monoxide (CO) emissions that are liable to occur in urban

air, such as in Quezon City where Balumbato Elementary School is located, seems to

have no effect on vegetation and associated microorganisms, but affects humans. The

effects on humans result from the fact that CO readily reacts with hemoglobin in the

blood to form carboxyhemoglobin (COHb). Some of the hemoglobin, instead of picking

up oxygen in the lungs, pick up CO so that the amount of oxygen carried by the blood is

reduced. The reduction in oxygen can cause headache, dizziness, or even death. To

maintain a reasonable amount of oxygen, the heart must work harder; cardiovascular

difficulties occur as CO concentrations increase. The amount of carboxyhemoglobin

(COHb) formed is dependent upon the CO concentration, the length of time of

exposure, and the rate of breathing.

Nitrogen oxides, mainly nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) are

formed when nitrogen and oxygen from the air are combined under high-temperature
 19
conditions. NO2 can cause damage to the plants. NO2 was associated with an increase in

acute respiratory diseases commonly occurring at urban concentrations. The frequency

of acute bronchitis increased among infants and school children when the range of 24-

hour NO2 concentrations, measured over a six- month period, was between 0.063 and

0.083 ppm.

Sulfur oxides, mostly sulfur dioxides (SO2) with some sulfur trioxide (SO3), are

emitted when fossil fuels containing sulfur impurities are burned. They are especially

dangerous in combination with particulates. Sulfur dioxides (SO2) can be detected in air

by taste at concentration above 3 ppm; it has a pungent, irritating odor.

For the most part, sulfur oxides are related to the irritation of the respiratory

system. The people most often affected are individuals with chronic pulmonary disease

or cardiac ailments/disorders as well as very young or old individuals. These effects are

enhanced by a factor of 3 or 4 when particulate matter is present along with SO 2.

Adverse health effects are noted when the annual mean concentration of SO2 exceeds

0.04 ppm or when the 24-hour mean exceeds 0.11 ppm.

Particulates include a wide range of solid or liquid particles that are typically

emitted during combustion or from the grinding of materials. Particles include aerosols,

fumes, dust, mist, and soot. They are measured in terms of micron (µ), which is equal to

10-6 meter. The particles of most interest lie between 0.1µ (micron) and 10µ in diameter,

which is roughly the size of bacteria. Particles smaller than 0.1 µ undergo random

(Brownian) motion and through coagulation generally grow to sizes larger than 0.0 µ.

Particles larger than 10 µ settle quickly as dust.

 20
High concentrations of particulate matter and SO2 have been implicated in every

severe air pollution episode. Epidemiological studies have shown a good correlation

between death rates for the respiratory diseases - asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema,

and average particulate levels in the area of residence. Adverse health effects have been

noted when the annual geometric mean level of particulate matter exceeds 80 µg/m3.

Vehicles are the largest source of CO, hydrocarbons, and NOx. Stationary fuel

combustion emissions come from power plants, industry, commercial, and residential

sources. The industrial processes category includes all non-combustion operations such

as those that occur in the manufacture of petroleum products, steel, plastics and

cements.6

Water Pollution

Water pollution is the contamination of streams, lakes, underground water, bays,

or oceans by substances harmful to living things. Water is necessary to life on earth. All

organisms contain it; some live in it; some drink it. Plants and animals require water

that is moderately pure, and they cannot survive if their water is loaded with toxic

chemicals or harmful microorganisms. People who ingest polluted water can become ill,

and, with prolonged exposure, may develop cancers or bear children with birth defects.7

Water pollution results from many human activities. Pollutants from industrial

sources may pour out from the outfall pipes of factories or may leak from pipelines and

underground storage tanks. Polluted water may flow from mines where the water has

6
Gilbert M. Masters, John Wiley and Sons, Introduction to Environmental
Science and Technology, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 1997). 327-385.
7
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2002.
 21
leached through mineral-rich rocks or has been contaminated by the chemicals used in

processing the ores. Cities and other residential communities contribute mostly sewage,

with traces of household chemicals mixed in. Sometimes industries discharge pollutants

into city sewers, increasing the variety of pollutants in municipal areas. Pollutants from

such agricultural sources as farms, pastures, feedlots, and ranches contribute animal

wastes, agricultural chemicals, and sediment from erosion.8

The most common isolate of bacterial coliforms which are possible water

contaminants are as follows: (1) Escherichiae coli- a gram-negative rod which produces

pink colonies on MacConkey agar or a greenish metallic sheen on Eosine Methylene

Blue Differential media. The colonies are somewhat huge, mucoidal, and are easily

dispersed within the agar media Escherichia coli is commonly known as E. coli, a

species of bacteria normally present in human intestines. A recently recognized strain,

E. coli 0157:H7, produces high levels of toxins that can cause kidney damage, as well

as septicemia, or blood poisoning. Symptoms include diarrhea, chills, headaches, and

high fever. In some cases, the infection can lead to death, even with medical

intervention. Illness from E. coli may develop from consuming undercooked beef,

unpasteurized milk, or from handling food without washing hands after changing

diapers.9 2) Klebsiellae pneumoniae – although not a normal bacterial fecal

contaminant, this gram-negative encapsulated bacterium which is bacillus in nature

shows a strong tendency towards pathogenecity because of its highly virulent

characteristic. These unusual bacterial coliforms produce colored colonies in varying

8
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2002.
9
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2002.
 22
degrees (from white, to gray or yellow) and colonies which are pigmented and highly

mucoidal in nature.10

Rainwater falling over large basins is usually collected in lakes and rivers and

thus is subject to contamination by soil microbes and raw fecal material. For example,

an animal feed lot located near a community water supply source harbors innumerable

pathogens that are washed into lakes and rivers. A city that draws its water from local

rivers, processes it, and uses it, but dumps inadequately treated sewage into the river at

the other side of the town may be responsible for a serious health problem in another

city downstream of the river. The city downstream must then find some ways to get rid

of the pathogens in its water supply.

In many communities, untreated raw sewage and industrial wastes are dumped

directly into local waters; also, storm or floods may result in the contamination of the

local drinking water with sewage. Ground water from wells can also be dug deep

enough to ensure that the surface water is filtered before it reaches the level of the well.

Outhouses, septic tanks, and cesspools must be situated in such a way that surface water

passing through these areas does not carry fecal microbes directly into the well water.

With the growing popularity of trailer homes, a new problem has risen because of

sewage pipes leak. Sewage gains easy access to water pipes whenever there is a break in

the pipe at a point just before it enters the dwellings.11

Luthgarda D. Estrella, “Mineral Content and Potability Analysis of

10

Drinking Water Samples Obtained from the Different Public and Private Schools
of Baliuag, Bulacan: Implication to Health Related Incidences Among School
Children,” Center For Science Laboratories and Services, Baliuag University, (July
2001), 105.
11

Estrella, 24-25.
 23

Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is a buildup of toxic chemical compounds, salts, pathogens

(disease-causing organisms), or radioactive materials that can affect plant and animal

life. Solid wastes are unwanted solid materials such as garbage, paper, plastics and

other synthetic materials, metals, and wood. Billions of tons of solid waste are thrown

out annually. A person living in an industrialized nation produces a great variety of solid

waste. Some urban areas are beginning to experience a serious problem regarding the

disposal of garbage and hazardous wastes, such as solvents and industrial dyes and inks.

Unhealthy soil management methods have seriously degraded soil quality, have

caused soil pollution, and have enhanced erosion. Treating the soil with chemical

fertilizers, pesticides, and fungicides interferes with the natural processes occurring

within the soil and destroys useful organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and other

microorganisms. 12

Noise Pollution

Noise pollution, the least known environmental pollutant, refers to any loud and

unpleasant sound. Most noises are found within urban environments--from cars, trucks,

buses, airplanes, industrial operations, construction projects, street repair, air

conditioning equipment, power tools, lawn mowers and snow blowers, barking dogs,

radios, television sets, voices, and occasional church bells. Objects that vibrate at a rate

that the ear can detect produce sounds. This rate is called frequency and is measured in

hertz, or vibrations per second. Most humans can hear sounds between 20 and 20,000

hertz, while dogs can hear high-pitched sounds up to 50,000 hertz.

12
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2002.
 24
While high-frequency sounds tend to be more hazardous and more annoying to

hearing than low-frequency sounds, most noise pollution damage is related to the

intensity of the sound, or the amount of energy it has. Measured in decibels, noise

intensity can range from zero, the quietest sound the human ear can detect, to over 160

decibels. Conversation takes place at around 40 decibels, a subway train is about 80

decibels, and a rock concert is from 80 to 100 decibels. The threshold for pain, tissue

damage, and potential hearing loss in humans is 120 decibels. Long-lasting, high-

intensity sounds are the most damaging to hearing and produce the most stress in

humans.

Prolonged exposure to noise levels above 90 decibels can damage the delicate

structures and nerves of the inner ear. People tend to lose their hearing gradually with

advancing age. This loss of hearing is the natural result of problems such as failing

blood circulation, which deprives nerve tissues of oxygen.

Any noise appreciably louder than talking can damage the delicate hair cells in

the cochlea, the structure in the inner ear that converts sound waves into auditory nerve

signals. The initial damage to the cochlea may be temporary, but with repeated

exposure, the damage becomes permanent. Loud noise deafens quickly; extremely loud

sounds, such as gunshots at close range, can cause immediate hearing loss. But even

sound levels of only 85 decibels will cause some hearing loss after prolonged exposure.

In addition to deafness, many people with damaged ears are afflicted with tinnitus, or

ringing in the ears. 13

13
John Hart, Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia © 1999.
 25
Even at levels below those that cause hearing loss, noise pollution produces

problems. Noise makes conversation difficult, interferes with some kinds of work, and

disturbs sleep. As a source of stress, it can promote high blood pressure and other

cardiovascular problems, as well as nervous disorders. Noise also puts stress on

domestic animals and wildlife. In remote areas, helicopters and military aircraft often

frighten animals. Aircraft noise in Alaska, for example, has been shown to reduce the

survival rate of caribou calves. There is concern that increasing noise levels in the

oceans may confuse the natural sonar that whales use to navigate, communicate, and

locate food. 14

Effects of Pollution on the Health

Estupigan asserted that environmental pollution and degradation have a huge

impact on peoples’ lives. Every year hundreds of people suffer from respiratory diseases

associated with indoor and outdoor pollution. Hundreds of people are exposed to

unnecessary physical and chemical hazards in the workplace and in the living

environment.15

Unless symptoms are evident, people usually believe that the indoor/outdoor air

quality is fine. But many pollutants, including carbon monoxide, asbestos particles, and

lead dust, are not easily detectable by sight or smell. Other pollutants are obvious only

John Hart, Saving Money: Environmental Strategies that Work, Microsoft

14

Encarta Encyclopedia 2002.

Cristobal Estupigan, “Environmental and Occupational Health is a Serious

15

Concern,” The Panorama, Manila Bulletin, (Manila, April 22, 2001).

 26
in high concentrations. Formaldehyde, paints, cleaning-fluid vapors, and mold and

fungus,. for example, have an odor only at harmful levels16.

The human symptoms of poor indoor air quality are eye, nose, throat, or lung

irritations. Both students and teachers are drowsy, exhibit shorter attention span, or

become out of breath when walking up the stairs or playing in the school grounds. In

searching for problems, one important consideration is whether pupil’s symptoms

disappear in a few hours after school.17

Drinking water must be clear, colorless, and free from objectionable taste and

odor. Above all, it must not contain any substance, organism, or chemical or radioactive

material at a level and/or concentration that could endanger the health and lives of the

consuming public. 18

Heavy metal pollution is a threat to human health. Lead (Pb), Cobalt (Co),

Copper (Cu), Nickel (Ni), Zinc (Zn), and other elements, whether naturally existing in

the soils or airborne, are taken in by the plants through the roots and/or through the

leaves. These elements may be toxic to certain plants at certain concentrations when

16

Charles Greim and William Turner, “Breathing Easy Over Air Quality” as cited
by Fred C. Lunenburg and Allan C. Ornstein, Educational Administration: Concepts
and Practices, International, (Second Edition Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1995), 361-
362.
17
Greim and Turner, 362.
18
“Philippine National Standards For Drinking Water,” Department of
Health, 1993.
 27
transferred to humans, and even at low concentrations, may have detrimental

cumulative effects. 19

Four million infants and children die every year from diarrhea diseases—largely

as a result of contaminated food or water according to the World Health Organization.

In the Philippines, air, water and soil pollution and food contamination are serious

health hazards. The common air pollutants, their sources, and their effects on living

things and properties are shown in Appendix B-2.

Related Studies

In her study, Landingin described the environmental factors and their effects

towards learning among secondary students of Sto. Rosario High School, Sto.

Domingo, Nueva Ecija during School Year 1996-1997. She found out that the factors

affecting the learning of the students were rains, floods, muddy roads, extreme heat,

talkative students, prevalence of diseases, dust, smelly comfort rooms, unclean

surroundings/rooms, and roadside gambling.20

The results of the study conducted by Gacoscosim led her to the conclusion that

no matter how well teachers and school administrators perform their functions, there

are other factors that could serve as deterrents to good performance, such as the school

19
Redemcion Grifal, et al., Status of heavy Metals Concentration in Soils and
Plants of the Metro Manila and Neighboring Provinces, Bureau of Soil and Water
Management (BSWM), (August 1997).
20
Ma. Cecilia P. Landingin, “ Environmental Factors and Poverty: Their Effects
Towards Learning Among Secondary Students,” ( Pamantasan ng Araullo, Cabanatuan
City, 1977).
 28
facilities and environment. Some schools were described as congested and had small

classrooms while one had a foul odor because it was near the fish drier. Other schools

were muddy during rainy days. Schools near highways suffered from traffic noise that

disrupted the daily lessons. Schools near the hammer mills and the manufacturing plants

suffered from noise and air pollution21.

A study was conducted to determine the factors affecting the level of awareness

and the attitudes towards environmental issues of students in both the public and the

private high schools of Ilocos Norte. A greater awareness of environmental issues was

observed among students in urban communities. The environmental problems identified

by the biggest number of students in urban areas as existing in their community and

which should be given immediate action were the improper disposal of waste and the

pollution caused by motor vehicles. 22 In the present study, the researcher foresees that

the pupil-respondents of her study may be able to identify the environmental conditions

that exist in their school community, but they may not be fully aware of effects of the

environment on their health.

Based on the results of an experimental study conducted by Estrella, it was

found out that some schools in Baliuag, Bulacan were using untreated hardwater.

Natural fresh waters were not pure; they contained dissolved minerals and suspended

matters, and sometimes, even harmful bacteria. The study also concluded that the
21
Gilda M. Gacoscosim “Influences Affecting the Academic Performance of the
Public Elementary School Children in the Lower Primary Grades at the Division of
Leyte, Districts of Alang-Alang and San Miguel, 1996-1997,” UP Graduate Studies,
Diliman, Quezon City, 1997).
22
“Factors Affecting the Students Awareness and Attitudes Towards
Environmental Issues of the Private and Public High Students of Ilocos Norte,” UP
Graduate Studies, Diliman Quezon City, 1998).
 29
factors causing water pollution were increased population, industrial requirements for

water, atmospheric pollution, toxic wastes dumps, and the use of pesticides. The

researcher recommended that there should be a constant system of water analysis using

special advanced gadgets such as photoelectric meter or spectrophotometer for schools,

specifically those with significant findings (positive result for fecal contamination). She

further recommended that the local water district should consider alternative ways and

means of minimizing fecal contamination through visual examination and repairs of all

pipelines by drilling through underground pipelines23.

In his study, Andrada stated that the tanneries in Meycauayan, Bulacan were

economically beneficial to the communities. As far as environmental/ecological aspects

were concerned, however, the operation of the tanneries had adverse impact,

particularly on the biophysical conditions of the Meycauayan River, the atmospheric air,

and the health of the communities. Andrada also recommended that the DENR should

be very strict in requiring the tanneries to put up state-of-the art wastewater treatment

facilities and to implement proper solid-waste disposal. 24

In 1992, Andres did an inventory of the emissions of sulfuric oxides (SO 2),

Particulate Matters (PM), and Carbon Monoxides based on the fuel consumption of the

three power generating plants located in the National Capital Region and of 179 various

industries/commercial establishments. His data were taken from the files of the

DENR-EMB and LLDA. He also included the estimated fuel consumption of motor
23
Estrella, 105.
24
Reinhard T. Andrada, “Environmental Impact of the Operation of Selected
Tanneries in Meycauayan, Bulacan: An Assessment,” (Unpublished Master’s thesis,
Gregorio Araneta University Foundation, 2000).
 30
vehicles plying congested areas as identified in the AADT map provided by the TEC-

DOTC. Results showed that the whole areas of Makati, Mandaluyong, Malabon,

Navotas, Pateros, and San Juan, and 42.11% of the total numbers of barangays /zones of

Valenzuela, Caloocan, Manila, Pasay, Quezon City, Marikina, Pasig and Taguig were

affected by moderate air pollution.25 At present, based on the General Air Pollution

Assessment Report (2000-2001), the over-all general pollution index in Congressional

Avenue Project 8, Quezon City, (traffic-oriented, commercial and residential), was

classified as poor. The common source of particulate matter was mobile.26

Blanc and Wolfe explored what adults, adolescents and children like and dislike

in their local environment and which dimensions they considered most important. The

result showed that knowledge about the environment existed among the populace. Noise

pollution ranked number one among the adults; pollution created by factories and traffic

was emphasized by the adolescents; and physical environment was the focus of the

children’s attention.

Lackney reported that U.S. school officials recognize the impact of the

environmental quality of the school upon the educational process. However, what role

these environmental factors were perceived to play in influencing effectiveness and

outcomes, and how they interacted in contributing to quality were less understood.

25
Esmeralda P. Andres et al., Potential Air Pollution Areas within the
National Capital Region, (Terminal Research Report to DENR-EMB-NCR, 1992).
26
“Pangkat Hangin,” EMB-NCR, Stations General Air Pollution Assessment
Report, 2000-2001. ( See Appendix A-2 for the Report.).
 31
Teachers perceived ten specific environmental quality attributes to have varying

degrees of influence on educational outcomes, such as facility management to have

control and responsibility over physical comfort and health, safety and security,

aesthetics and appearance and some control over personalization and ownership. The

consequence to this conclusion, implied by the concept of ‘place making,’ was that

educators felt they, their students, and the community, by implication, have some

measure of responsibility, influence and control over the six remaining environmental

qualities of classroom adaptability, building and functionality, places for social

interaction, privacy, sensory stimulation, and crowding/spaciousness.27

Schiffman, et al. studied and determined the effect of environmental odors

emanating from large-scale hog operations on the mood of the nearby residents using

the POMS (Profile of Mood States). The scores for six POMS factors and the TMD

(total mood disturbance score) for 44 experimental subjects were compared to those of

44 control subjects who were matched according to gender, race, age, and years of

education. Results indicated a significant difference between control and experimental

subjects who were compared for all six POMS factors and the TMD. Persons living near

the intensive swine operations who experienced the odors were reported significantly to

have more tension, more depression, more anger, less vigor, more fatigue, and more

confusion than control subjects as measured by the POMS. Persons exposed to the

27
Jeffrey Andrew Lackney, “Quality in School Environments: A Multiple Case
Study of the Diagnosis, Design and Management of Environmental Quality in Five
Elementary Schools in Baltimore City Public Schools from an Action Research
Perspective,” (Maryland). The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee 1996 (Pro Quest
Dissertation-Abstract)
 32
odors also had more total mood disturbance than controls as determined by their ratings

on the POMS. 28

28
SS Schiffman, et al., “The Effect Of Environmental Odors Emanating From
Commercial Swine Operations On The Mood Of The Nearby Residents,” (International
Abstracts@Yahoo.com. June 1995).