Only Space Time

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TheUniverseisOnlySpacetime
Particles,ForcesandCosmology
DerivedfromtheSimplest
StartingAssumption
JohnA.Macken
SantaRosa,California
john@onlyspacetime.com
OriginalDraftFebruary2010
Revision6.4September2012
2010,2012
This page is intentionally left Blank.
Table of Contents
1 Confined Light Has Inertia 1-1
Light in a Reflecting Box Confined Black Body Radiation de Broglie Waves 8
ParticlelikePropertiesofaConfinedPhoton
2 Definitions and Concepts from General Relativity 2-1
Schwarzschild Solution Definition of Gravitational Gamma Schwarzschild
CoordinateSystemCoordinateSpeedofLightShapiroExperimentGravityIncreases
VolumeConnectionBetweentheRateofTimeandVolume
3 Gravitational Transformations of the Units of Physics 3-1
Why Are the Laws of Physics Unchanged When the Rate of Time Changes? Normalized
Coordinate System Length and Time Transformations Transformations Required to
PreservetheLawsofPhysicsInsightsFromtheTransformations
4 Assumptions 4-1
This Books Basic Assumption QM Model of Spacetime GR Model of Spacetime
Dipole Waves in Spacetime Planck Length/Time Limitation On Dipole Waves
Impedance of Spacetime 5WaveAmplitude Equations Bulk Modulus of Spacetime
TheSingleFundamentalForce
5 Spacetime Particle Model 5-1
Superfluid Properties of Vacuum Energy Spacetime Vortex Particle Design Criteria
Inertia from Confined Energy The Rotar Model of a Particle Quantum Radius and
QuantumVolumeofaRotarRotatingGravFieldAnalysisofLobesStrainAmplitude
H
SolitonCondition
6 Analysis of the Particle Model 6-1
ParticleSizeAnalysisRotarEnergyTestRotarsAngularMomentumTestQuantum
Amplitude Equalities Circulating Power Rotars Theoretical Maximum Force Strong
ForceElectromagneticForceatDistanceR
q
GravityRotarsGravitationalForceat
DistanceR
q
WeaknessofGravityForceAmplitudeRelationshipThe4ForcesAre
IntimatelyConnectedRotarsInertiaHiggsFieldNotNeeded
7 Virtual Particles, Vacuum Energy and Unity 7-1
Virtual Particle Pairs Vacuum Energy Harmonic Oscillators in Spacetime Energy
DensityofVacuumEnergyEnergyDensityEqualsPressureBulkModulusofSpacetime
Vacuum Energy Is a Superfluid Stability of Particles Made of Waves Vacuum Energy
StabilizationofaRotarMinimumRequiredEnergyDensityMaximumAttractingForce
AsymptoticFreedomRotationofMoleculesUnityHypothesisEntanglementUnity
Connection

8 Analysis of Gravitational Attraction 8-1
NonlinearEffectsofWavesinSpacetimeNewtonianGravitationalEquationDerivation
Connection between Gravitational Force and Electromagnetic Force Equivalence of
Acceleration and Gravity Examined Comparison of a Rotars Rotating Grav Field and
Gravitational Acceleration Energy Density in the Rotating Grav Field Gravitational
EnergyStorage
9 Electromagnetic Fields and Spacetime Units 9-1
Spacetime Interpretation of Charge Charge Conversion Constant Impedance of
SpacetimeConversionWhatIsanElectricField?ElectricFieldConversionProposed
ExperimentSpacetimeUnitsConversionTable
10 Rotars External Volume 10-1
Gravitational and Electromagnetic Strain amplitudes Electric Field Cancelation
Model of the External Volume of a Rotar Wavelets de Broglie Waves Function
RelativisticContractionComptonScatteringDoubleSlitExperiment
11 Photons 11-1
HowBigIsaPhoton?PhotonDefinitionWavesinVacuumEnergyWaveModelof
an ElectronPositron Annihilation Entanglement Single Photon Model Photons
Momentum Uncertainty Angle Compton Scattering Revisited Limits on Absorption
Entanglement Photon Emission from a Single Atom Recoil HuygensFresnel
KirchhoffPrinciple
12 Bound Electrons, Quarks and Neutrinos 12-1
ElectronsBoundinAtomsPhysicalInterpretationoftheFunctionIntrinsicEnergy
of Quarks Energy of Bound Quarks Calculation of a Protons Radius Removal of a
Quark from a Hadron Gluons Modeling a Neutrino With Rest Mass Modeling a
NeutrinoWithoutRestMass
13 Cosmology I Planck Spacetime 13-1
Comoving Coordinates The CDM Model Planck Spacetime Maximum Energy
Density Creation of New Proper Volume Background Gravitational Gamma of the
Universe
u
Immature Gravity Implication of an Increasing
u
inthe Universe Energy
DensityofPlanckSpacetimeProposedAlternativeModeloftheBeginningoftheUniverse
Cosmic Expansion from
u
Starting the Universe from Planck Spacetime Radiation
DominatedEpochLostEnergyBecomesVacuumEnergyEstimatesoftheCurrentValue
of
u
DarkMatterSpeculation
14 Cosmology II Spacetime Transformation Model 14-1
Alternative To The Big Bang Model Shrinking Meter Sticks No Event Horizon
ConstantEnergyDensityWhenVacuumEnergyIncludedRedshiftAnalysisEstimating
theDensityofVacuumEnergyUnitsofPhysicsintheSpacetimeTransformationModel
10
120
Calculation Does Dark Energy Exist? Cooling of the Universe Black Holes
TimesArrowAreAllFramesofReferenceEquivalent?TheFateoftheUniverse
15 Definitions, Symbols and Key Equations 15-1
Introduction
In most introductory classes on quantum mechanics, the physics professor starts out by
explaining to the students that they are going to learn about certain properties of subatomic
particles that are simply not conceptually understandable. For example, subatomic particles
candiscontinuouslyjumpfromonepointtoanotherwithoutpassingthroughthesurrounding
space.Fundamentalparticlesexhibitangularmomentumeventhoughtheyarevirtuallypoint
particles.Anisolatedmoleculecanonlyrotateatspecificfrequencies.Entangledparticlescan
instantlycommunicateoverlargedistancesetc.Theseandmanyotherquantummechanical
effectsarenotunderstandablewhenanalyzedusingcurrentconceptualmodelsofparticlesand
forces.
Tobefair,astrictapplicationoftheprinciplesofquantummechanicsdoesnotstrivetogivea
physicallyunderstandableexplanationofthesephenomena.Instead,theobjectiveofquantum
mechanics is to describe rules of each quantum mechanical operation and mathematical
equations which describe these operations. For example, an electron is described as a point
particle because this mathematical simplification is adequate to obtain useful equations. As
PaulDiracsaid,theaimisnotsomuchtogetamodelofanelectronastogetasimplescheme
of equations which can be used to calculate all the results that can be obtained from
experiment
1
.
Today, physicists have learned to suppress their innate desire for conceptual understanding.
The explanation given for our inability to conceptually understand quantum mechanical
phenomena ultimately implies that the human brain evolved to understand the macroscopic
world. Therefore, we simply should not expect to conceptually understand the properties of
subatomic particles or photons. These concepts are just too far removed from our hunter
gatherer roots. Over time we reluctantly learn to accept abstract quantum mechanical
conceptsandregardthedesireforconceptualunderstandingasaremnantofclassicalphysics.
However, the importance of a model that gives conceptual understanding should not be
minimized. If such a model is possible, the discovery of this model would give physicists a
powerfulnewtoolthatwouldgreatlyacceleratetherateofnewdiscoveries.
There is clear evidence that the current starting assumptions for calculations contain at least
one error. When calculations fall apart and yield an impossible answer such as infinity, these
equationsarescreamingthatarigorousextensionofthestartingassumptionsgivesnonsense.
Renormalization might seem to fix the problem, but this is merely artificially adjusted the
answer so that it is no longer logically derived from the starting assumptions. Instead the
unreasonableanswershouldbetakenasanindicationthatthemodelbeinganalyzedcontains
at least one erroneous assumption. Every time an incorrect assumption is utilized, the
mathematicalanalysismustyieldanincorrectanswergarbagein,garbageout.Ourinability
to conceptually understand parts of quantum mechanics is a further indication that we are
1
P. A. M. Dirac, Classical Theory of Radiating Electrons, Proc. Royal Soc., vol. 168, (1939)
using an incorrect model. The approach taken in this book is to start over and build a new
modelutilizingthesimplestpossiblestartingassumption:Theuniverseisonlyspacetime.
This is such a restrictive assumption that if it is wrong it should quickly reveal its
incompatibility with the known laws and equations of physics. If it is correct, it should be a
narrowpaththatgivesnewinsightsintothelawsandequationsofphysics.Tomostscientists
thisstartingassumptionwillinitiallyseemimpossible.Howcanmatter,light,galaxiesandthe
forces of nature be obtained from what appears to be the empty vacuum of spacetime? Well,
spacetime is far from being a featureless void. It has properties such as a speed of light, a
gravitational constant, an impedance constant and a bulk modulus derived here. Most
important, the quantum mechanical version of spacetime is full of activity. Vacuum
fluctuationspossessavastenergydensity.Understandingthequantummechanicalproperties
of spacetime and the importance of quantized angular momentum reveals how the single
building block of dynamic spacetime can be the source of everything we perceive in the
universe. Furthermore, the biggest mysteries of quantum mechanics become conceptually
understandable when we adopt the model that builds particles and forces from the quantum
mechanicalpropertiesofspacetime.Limitationsofthehumanintellecthavenothingtodowith
our inability to conceptually understand the mysteries of quantum mechanics and general
relativity. We have been using the wrong models! The human intellect can understand
anythinginnatureprovidedthatweareusingthecorrectmodel.
The model of the universe described here not only is compatible with existing equations but
goes further. For example, this model gives new insights into the forces of nature. Gravity is
shown to be closely related to the other forces of nature. Simple equations show this close
relationshipandexplainwhygravityissuchaweakforcecomparedtotheotherforces.Anew
cosmologicalmodeloftheuniverseexplainstheBigBangandtheexpansionoftheuniverseas
a result of spacetime undergoing a transformation that continues today. Surprising new
insightsandpredictionsaremadefromthisanalysis.
Thecontentofthisbookwasnotfirstpresentedintechnicalpapersbecausethesubjectisjust
too large. It is necessary to lay out a series of introductory ideas, and then weave these
concepts into a single coherent theory. A large part of the appeal of this approach is how a
singlestartingassumptioncananswersomanydiversequestionsinphysics.

Note:Thefirstthreechapterslayimportantgroundworkthatpreparesthereadertounderstand
the proposed model. These chapters have a strong emphasis on physical interpretation and
definitions. To establish a common base of physical interpretation, it is necessary to sometimes
present explanations about quantum mechanics or general relativity that experts will find
elementary. The objective of introducing these elementary concepts is to provide a shared
explanation for the physical interpretations that are being used in the remainder of the book.
Developmentofthewavebasedmodeloftheuniversestartsinearnestinchapter#4.
The Universe Is Only Spacetime 2012 john@onlyspacetime.com
1-1

Chaptei 1

Confineu Light Bas Ineitia

At the enu of this chaptei theie is Appenuix A that gives a moie iigoious mathematical analysis
of the concepts fiist piesenteu using only algebiaic equations. It is theiefoie possible to ieau
this chaptei on two levels.

Light in a Reflecting Box: The concepts piesenteu in this book staiteu with a single insight. I
iealizeu that if it was possible to confine light in a hypothetical 1uu% ieflecting box, the
confineu light woulu exhibit many of the piopeities of a funuamental paiticle. In paiticulai, a
confineu photon woulu possess the same ineitia (iest mass) anu same weight as a paiticle with
equal inteinal eneigy (E = mc
2
). If the box is moving, a confineu photon also exhibits the same
kinetic eneigy, same ue Bioglie waves, same ielativistic length contiaction anu same time
uilation as an equal eneigy paiticle.

It is an axiom of physics that a photon is a massless paiticle. Nassless paiticles uo not have a
iest fiame of iefeience. They aie moving at the speeu of light in any fiame of iefeience.
Bowevei, if light is confineu in a box, it is foiceu to have a specific fiame of iefeience. This
confineu light then exhibits piopeities noimally associateu with a iest mass of equivalent
eneigy (m = Ec
2
) in the fiame of iefeience of the box. This will fiist be analyzeu using the
following special ielativity equation:

m
2
= [
L
c
2
2
[
p
c
2

wheie: p is momentum anu E is eneigy (equation 1)

Note to the ieauei: The fiist time symbols aie useu, they will be iuentifieu in the text. All the
symbols useu in the book anu the impoitant equations aie also available in Chaptei 1S. It is
iecommenueu that you take a moment anu look at chaptei 1S. If you aie ieauing this book
online, it is iecommenueu that you piint out Chaptei 1S (1u pages) as an essential quick
iefeience.

If a paiticle has eneigy of E = pc, then substituting this into the above equation gives:

m
2
= _
p
2
c
2
c
4
_ _
p
2
c
2
_ = u

In othei woius, when E = pc, then a paiticle has no iest mass. Now, momentum is a vectoi,
so a veiy inteiesting thing happens when we apply equation #1 to confineu light. Foi example,
1-2
a single photon confineu between two ieflectois is a wave tiaveling both uiiections
simultaneously. The total momentum of this photon is zeio because the two opposite
momentum vectois nullify each othei. Substituting p = u into the equation #1 yielus:
(m = Ec
2
). In othei woius, confineu light satisfies the uefinition of iest mass.

Anothei example of a photon gaining iest mass is a photon piopagating thiough glass. If the
glass has an inuex of iefiaction of 1.S, then the photon piopagates at only 2S the speeu of light
in a vacuum anu the momentum of the photon is ieuuceu. The photon uoes not change eneigy
when it enteis the glass, but some of its momentum is impaiteu to the glass upon entiance anu
this momentum is ietuineu to the photon upon exit. While the photon is piopagating in the
glass, it can be thought of as possessing some iest mass because E = pc. In othei woius, glass
that has light piopagating thiough it has moie total mass (moie ineitia) than the same glass
without any light piopagation. It is also possible to analyze this moie ueeply anu get into
foiwaiu scattei anu phase shifts intiouuceu by the atoms of the glass. This analysis implies
that the light has unueigone paitial confinement as it piopagates thiough the glass at less than
the speeu of light in a vacuum. This paitial confinement auus a small amount of iest mass to
the glass.

The following example gives a ueepei physical insight into how it is possible foi confineu light
to exhibit mass. Suppose that a lasei cavity has a 1 metei sepaiation between two highly
ieflective miiiois. This is a 2 m (6.67 ns) iounu tiip foi light ieflecting within this cavity. Light
exeits photon piessuie on absoibing oi ieflecting suifaces. The foice exeiteu on an absoibing
suiface is F = Pc oi twice this foice is exeiteu on a ieflecting suiface F = 2Pc wheie F = foice
anu P = powei. If the lasei in this example hau 1.S x 1u
8
watts ciiculating between the two
miiiois (ieflecting suifaces), the eneigy confineu between the two miiiois woulu be equal to
1 }oule anu a foice exeiteu by the light on each miiioi woulu be one Newton in an ineitial
fiame of iefeience.

Suppose that the lasei is acceleiateu in a uiiection paiallel to the optical axis of the lasei. In the
acceleiating fiame of iefeience, theie woulu be a slight uiffeience in the fiequency of the light
stiiking the two miiiois because of the miiioi acceleiation that occuis uuiing the time
iequiieu foi the light to tiavel the uistance between the two miiiois. The fiont miiioi in the
acceleiation uiiection woulu be ieflecting light that has Bopplei shifteu to a lowei fiequency
compaieu to the light that is stiiking the ieai miiioi. If we ietuin to the example of 1.S x 1u
8

watts of light ciiculating between two miiiois sepaiateu by one metei, then the foice exeiteu
against the fiont miiioi woulu be slightly less than one Newton anu the foice exeiteu against
the ieai miiioi woulu be slightly moie than one Newton because of the uiffeience in Bopplei
shifts. This foice uiffeience can be inteipieteu as the foice exeiteu by the ineitia of 1 }oule of
confineu light. The ineitia of 1 }oule of confineu light exactly equals the ineitia of a mass with 1
}oule of inteinal eneigy (1.11 x 1u
17
kg). Foi compaiison, this mass is equal to about 6.6 billion
hyuiogen atoms.
1-3

While geneial ielativity tieats eneigy in any foim the same, paiticle physics uoes not. The
Stanuaiu Nouel of paiticle physics suggests that leptons anu quaiks iequiie the hypothetical
Biggs fielu to cieate the ineitia of these paiticles. Theiefoie 6.6 billion hyuiogen atoms iequiie
a Biggs fielu foi ineitia but an equal eneigy of confineu light exhibits equal ineitia without the
neeu of a Biggs fielu. In fact, the ineitia exhibiteu by the confineu light is ultimately tiaceable
to the constancy of the speeu of light.

If we place the lasei with 1 }oule of confineu light stationaiy in a giavitational fielu, the
confineu light will exeit a net foice on the two miiiois equivalent to the weight expecteu fiom
6.6 billion hyuiogen atoms. If the lasei is oiienteu with its optical axis veitical, then the net
foice uiffeience comes fiom what is commonly calleu the giavitational ieublue shift. This
name is a misinteipietation that will be uiscusseu latei. The point is that moie foice is exeiteu
on the lowei miiioi than the uppei miiioi because of the giavitational giauient between these
two miiiois. If the lasei is oiienteu hoiizontally, theie will be giavitational benuing of the
light. The miiioi cuivatuie noimally incoipoiateu into lasei miiiois easily accommouates this
slight misalignment. Bowevei, the benuing of light intiouuces a uownwaiu vectoi component
into the foice being exeiteu against both miiiois. This vectoi component is the weight of the
light. It is tiue that geneial ielativity teaches that eneigy in any foim exhibits the same giavity.
Theiefoie the giavitational similaiity is expecteu. Bowevei, this uoes not automatically
tianslate into giving ineitia to quaiks anu leptons.

Confineu light also exhibits kinetic eneigy when it is confineu in a moving fiame of iefeience.
Suppose that the lasei with 1 }oule of confineu light tiavels at a constant velocity ielative to a
stationaiy obseivei. Also suppose that the obseivei sees the motion as tiaveling with the
optic axis of the lasei paiallel to the uiiection of motion. The stationaiy obseivei will peiceive
that light piopagation in the uiiection of motion is shifteu up in fiequency anu light
piopagating in the opposite uiiection is shifteu uown in fiequency. Combining these peiceiveu
changes in fiequency iesult in a net inciease in the total eneigy of the confineu light.
(Appenuix A) This eneigy inciease is equal to the kinetic eneigy which woulu be expecteu
fiom the ielative motion of a mass of equal inteinal eneigy. Appenuix A also shows that the
eneigy inciease (kinetic eneigy) is coiiect even foi ielativistic velocities. The kinetic eneigy of
the confineu light is ultimately tiaceable to the constancy of the speeu of light.

Confined Black Body Radiation: Thus fai, the example of confineu light has useu a lasei with
highly ieflecting miiiois. An alteinative example coulu use an oiuinaiy caiuboaiu box at a
tempeiatuie of SuuK with an inteinal volume of 1 m. The blackbouy iauiation within this
box woulu have infiaieu light being emitteu anu ieabsoibeu by the inteinal walls. Foi the
stateu conuitions, the blackbouy iauiation within the box woulu be about 6.1 x 1u
6
} of
iauiation in flight within the volume of the box at any instant. This eneigy is equivalent to the
annihilation eneigy of about 4u,uuu hyuiogen atoms. Even though the black bouy iauiation
1-4
example is slightly haiuei to see, the iesult is similai to having ieflecting walls. The confineu
black bouy iauiation exhibits ineitia, weight anu ielative motion exhibits kinetic eneigy.
Caiiying this blackbouy iauiation example fuithei, lets consiuei the sun with a coie
tempeiatuie of about 1S,uuu,uuuK. At this tempeiatuie, the iauiation is piimaiily at xiay
wavelengths. This confineu xiay iauiation has ineitia equivalent to about a giam pei cubic
metei. At a highei tempeiatuie wheie a stai can buin caibon, the ineitia of the confineu xiays
is equivalent to the ineitia of an equal volume of watei (uensity = 1uuu kgm
S
). 0nce again,
no Biggs fielu is iequiieu foi confineu iauiation to exhibit ineitia.

The examples useu above hau biuiiectional light tiaveling in a lasei oi multi uiiectional light
tiaveling within a black bouy cavity. It woulu also be possible to confine light by having the
light tiaveling in a single uiiection aiounu a closeu loop. Foi example, light coulu be confineu
by tiaveling aiounu a loop maue of a tiaveling wave tube oi fibei optics. Also, it is not
necessaiy to limit the uiscussion to light. uiavitational waves aie also massless because they
piopagate eneigy at the speeu of light. Theie aie no known ieflectois foi giavitational waves,
but it is hypothetically possible to imagine confineu giavitational waves. If theie weie confineu
giavitational waves, they woulu also exhibit the iest mass piopeity of ineitia anu exhibit
kinetic eneigy when the confining volume exhibits ielative motion.

A photon is often uesciibeu as a massless paiticle. We now see that a qualification shoulu be
auueu because only a fieely piopagating photon is massless. A confineu photon possesses iest
mass (possesses ineitia). Both photons anu giavitational waves aie examples of eneigy
piopagating at the speeu of light. In chaptei 4 anothei foim of eneigy piopagating at the speeu
of light will be intiouuceu (waves in spacetime). This also exhibits ineitia when confineu.
Fiom these consiueiations, the following statement can be maue:

Energy propagating at the speed of light exhibits rest mass (inertia) when it is confined to a
specific frame of reference.

Constraint on Higgs Mechanism: Imagine what it woulu be like if confineu light (oi confineu
giavitational waves) exhibiteu a uiffeient amount of ineitia than a paiticle of equal eneigy. It
woulu be possible to make a machine that violateu the conseivation of momentum. Foi
example, suppose that we have a closeu system that is capable of conveiting eneigy between
photons anu electionposition paiis. If this closeu system has a uiffeient amount of ineitia
when eneigy is in the foim of photons compaieu to when this same eneigy is in the foim of
paiticles, then this woulu be a violation of the conseivation of momentum.

The stanuaiu mouel of paiticle physics explains the ineitia of a funuamental paiticle as
iesulting fiom an inteiaction with the hypothetical Biggs fielu. This explanation says that a
muon inteiacts moie stiongly than an election, theiefoie a muon has moie ineitia. Bowevei,
the Biggs mechanism uoes not have a piecise iequiiement foi exactly how much ineitia a
1-5
muon oi an election shoulu possess. Now we leain that the ineitia of an election with S11 Kev
of inteinal eneigy must exactly match the ineitia of S11 Kev of confineu photons. Similaily, a
muon with inteinal eneigy of 1u6 Nev must exactly match the ineitia of 1u6 Nev of confineu
photons. Natching the ineitia of a funuamental paiticle to the ineitia of an equal amount of
eneigy piopagating at the speeu of light but confineu to a specific volume auus an auuitional
constiaint to any paiticle mouel. The paiticle mouel pioposeu latei in this book peifectly
matches the iequiieu ineitia constiaint. The Biggs mechanism uoes not cuiiently satisfy this
iequiiement.

de Broglie Waves: The similaiity between confineu light anu paiticles uoes not enu with the
confineu light possessing iest mass, weight anu kinetic eneigy when theie is ielative motion.
Next we will examine the similaiity between the wave chaiacteiistics of confineu light anu the
ue Bioglie wave patteins of funuamental paiticles. Foi example, paiticles with mass m anu
velocity v that pass thiough a uouble slit piouuce an inteifeience pattein which can be
inteipieteu as having a ue Bioglie wavelength
u
given by the equation:

u
= hp wheie
u
= ue Bioglie wavelength; h = Plancks constant; p = momentum
u
= hm
o
v wheie =
1
1-
2
c
2
m
o
= paiticles iest mass
u
= Eh wheie
u
= ue Bioglie fiequency E = total eneigy

The ue Bioglie waves have a phase velocity w
u
= c
2
v anu a gioup velocity u
u
= v. The phase
velocity w
u
is fastei than the speeu of light anu the gioup velocity, u
d
, equals the velocity of the
paiticle, v.

1-6

Theie is a stiiking similaiity between the ue Bioglie wave chaiacteiistics of a moving paiticle
anu the wave chaiacteiistics of confineu light in a moving lasei. Figuie 11 shows a moving
lasei with miiiois A anu B ieflecting the light waves of a lasei beam. Figuie 11 is a composite
because the light wave uepicts electiic fielu stiength in the Y axis while the miiiois aie shown
in cioss section. If the lasei is stationaiy, the stanuing waves between the miiiois woulu have
maximum electiic fielu amplituue that is unifoim at any instant. Bowevei, the lasei in Figuie
11 is moving in the uiiection of the aiiow shown at velocity v. Fiom the peispective of a
stationaiy obseivei, light waves piopagating in the uiiection of velocity v aie Bopplei shifteu
up in fiequency, anu light waves moving in the opposite uiiection aie shifteu uown in
fiequency. When these electiic fielu amplituues aie auueu, this piouuces the mouulation
envelope on the Bopplei shifteu biuiiectional light in the lasei as peiceiveu by a stationaiy
obseivei. This mouulation envelope piopagates in the uiiection of the tianslation uiiection
but the mouulation envelope has a velocity (w
m
) which is fastei than the speeu of light
(w
m
= c
2
v) (calculateu in appenuix A). This is just an inteifeience pattein anu it can
piopagate fastei than the speeu of light without violating the special ielativity piohibition
against supeiluminal tiavel. No message can be sent fastei than the speeu of light on this
inteifeience pattein. The mouulation envelope has a wavelength z
m
wheie:
m
=
x
y
c

m
= mouulation envelope wavelength;
= wavelength of confineu light

As seen in figuie 11, one complete mouulation envelope wavelength encompasses two nulls oi
two lobes. It will be shown latei that theie is a 18u uegiee phase shift at each null, so to ietuin
to the oiiginal phase iequiies two ieveisals (two lobes pei wavelength).
1-7

The similaiity to ue Bioglie waves can be seen if we equate the eneigy of a single photon of
wavelength
to the eneigy of a paiticle of equivalent mass m. This will assume the non
ielativistic appioximation. Appenuix A will auuiess the moie geneial ielativistic case.

E =
hc
x
y
= mc
2

equating photon eneigy to mass eneigy theiefoie m =
h
cx
y

d
=
h
mv

d
= ue Bioglie wavelength;

d
=
x
y
c
=
m
ue Bioglie wavelength
d
= mouulation envelope wavelength
m

The mouulation envelope not only has the coiiect wavelength, it also has the coiiect phase
velocity (w
u
= w
m
= c
2
v). The stanuing optical waves also have a gioup velocity of v.
Theiefoie these waves move with the velocity of the miiiois anu appeai to be stanuing ielative
to the miiiois.

de Broglie Waves in Radial Propagation: It is easy to see how the optical equivalent of ue
Bioglie waves can foim in the example above with piopagation along the axis of tianslation.
1-8
Bowevei, it is not as obvious what woulu happen if we tianslateu the lasei in a uiiection not
aligneu with the lasei axis. We will take this to the limit anu examine what happens when the
waves piopagate iauially into a S6u plane that is paiallel to the tianslation uiiection. To
unueistanu what happens, we will fiist look at figuie 12 that shows the Bopplei shifteu wave
pattein piouuceu by waves piopagating away fiom a point souice in a moving fiame of
iefeience. The souice is moving fiom left to iight as inuicateu by the aiiow. Waves moving in
the uiiection of ielative motion (to the iight) aie seen as shifteu to a shoitei wavelength anu
waves moving opposite to the uiiection of tiavel aie shifteu to a longei wavelength. Figuie 1S
is similai to figuie 12 except that only waves piopagating towaius the souice aie shown.

Figuie 14 shows what happens when we auu togethei the outwaiu anu inwaiu piopagating
waves shown in figuies 12 anu 1S. Also a ciosssectioneu cylinuiical ieflectoi has been
auueu to figuie 14. This ieflectoi can be thought of as the ieason that theie aie waves
piopagating towaius the centei. The cential lobe of figuie 14 can be thought of as a line focus
that iuns uown the axis of the cylinuiical ieflectoi.

1-9
The veitical uaik banus in figuie 14 coiiesponu to the null iegions in the mouulation
envelope. These null iegions can be seen in figuie 11 as the peiiouic iegions of minimum
amplituue. Theie is a 18u phase shift at the nulls. This can be seen by following a paiticulai
fiinge thiough the uaik null iegion. If the wave is iepiesenteu by a yellow coloi on one siue of
the null, this same wave is a blue coloi on the othei siue of the null. This coloi change
inuicates that a 18u phase shift occuis at the null. In figuie 11, the ieason that the
wavelength of the mouulation envelope
m
is uefineu as incluuing two lobes is because of this
phase ieveisal that happens at eveiy null. Theiefoie it takes two lobes to ietuin to the oiiginal
phase anu foim one complete wavelength.

The main puipose of this figuie is to illustiate that ue Bioglie waves with a plane wavefiont
appeai even in light that is piopagating iauially. This is a mouulation envelope that is the
equivalent of a plane wave moving in the same uiiection as the ielative motion, but moving at a
speeu fastei than the speeu of light. Figuie 14 iepiesents an instant in a iapiuly changing
wave pattein.

Theie has also been an aitistic license taken in this figuie to help illustiate the point. Noimally
we woulu expect the electiic fielu stiength to be veiy laige along the focal line at the centei of
the cylinuiical ieflectoi anu ueciease iauially. Bowevei, accuiately showing this iauial
amplituue vaiiation woulu hiue the wave pattein that is the puipose of this figuie. Theiefoie
the iauial amplituue uepenuence has been eliminateu to peimit the othei wave patteins to be
shown. Anothei aitistic license is the elimination of the uuoy effect at the line focus. The
cential lobe of a cylinuiical focus shoulu be enlaigeu by wavelength to accommouate the 9u
phase shift piouuceu when electiomagnetic iauiation passes thiough a line focus. 0ltimately
we will be tiansfeiiing the concepts illustiateu heie to a uiffeient mouel that uoes not iequiie
this slight enlaigement.

1-10

Figuie 1S is a S uimensional iepiesentation of the wave pattein piesent in figuie 14. In figuie
1S the Z axis is useu to iepiesent the electiic fielu. The cylinuiical ieflectoi has been iemoveu
fiom the illustiation to peimit the waves to be seen. Also as befoie, the iauial amplituue
uepenuence has been eliminateu to peimit the subtle mouulation envelope to be seen. If figuie
1S was set in motion, the concentiic ciiculai wave pattein woulu move as a unit. Bowevei,
supeiimposeu on this is the moving envelope of waves that aie moving thiough this wave
stiuctuie (waves on waves). This moving envelope of waves is moving fastei than the speeu of
light in the same uiiection as oveiall motion (w
m
= c
2
v).

The suipiising pait of figuie 14 anu 1S is that we obtain a lineai mouulation envelope
imposeu on the iauial piopagating waves. It uoes not make any uiffeience what the
piopagation angle is, the equivalent of ue Bioglie waves aie piouuceu foi all angles. The only
iequiiement is that the wave has biuiiectional piopagation. If latei we aie successful in
establishing a mouel of funuamental paiticles that exhibits biuiiectional wave motion, that
mouel will also exhibit ue Bioglie waves.

Next we aie going to talk about ielativistic length contiaction. Foi illustiation, we will ietuin to
figuie 11. This figuie shows the wave fiozen in time anu uesignates the uistance that
appioximately coiiesponus to the lasei wavelength . Actually, this uistance only piecisely
equals the lasei wavelength when theie is no ielative motion. In the example illustiateu in
1-11
figuie 11, theie is ielative motion. The wave illustiateu is the iesult of auuing togethei a wave
that has been Bopplei shifteu up in fiequency to a wave that has been Bopplei shifteu uown in
fiequency. The combination piouuces a peak to peak uistance that is equal to the ielativistic
contiaction of the lasei wavelength.

This is ieasonable when you consiuei that theie aie a fixeu numbei of stanuing waves between
the two miiiois. If the uistance between the two miiiois unueigoes a ielativistic contiaction,
the stanuing waves must also exhibit the same contiaction to ietain the fixeu numbei of
stanuing waves. Bowevei, it is possible to ieveise this ieasoning. Rathei than saying that the
stanuing waves must contiact to fit between the ielativistic contiacteu miiioi sepaiation, it is
possible to say that we might be getting a funuamental insight into the mechanics of how
natuie accomplishes ielativistic contiaction of physical objects. If all funuamental paiticles anu
foices of natuie can ultimately be ieuuceu to biuiiectional waves in spacetime, then these
biuiiectional waves, will automatically exhibit ielativistic contiaction anu the mechanism of
ielativistic contiaction of even the nucleus of an atom woulu be conceptually unueistanuable.

Similaily, the mechanism of ielativistic time uilation woulu also become conceptually
unueistanuable. If we weie to time the oscillation fiequency of inuiviuual waves in the lasei of
figuie 11, we woulu finu that the oscillation fiequency that iesults when we auu these two
Bopplei shifteu waves togethei slows exactly as we woulu expect foi the ielativistic time
uilation of a moving object. Again this is tiaceable to the constant speeu of light piouucing
uiffeient Bopplei shifts on the components of the biuiiectional light. The sum of these two
fiequencies exhibits a net slowing that coiiesponus to ielativistic time uilation.

Theiefoie the analysis in this chaptei anu appenuix A shows that a confineu photon in a
moving fiame of iefeience has the following 8 similaiities to a funuamental paiticle with the
same eneigy anu same fiame of iefeience:
1) The confineu photon has the same ineitia (iest mass): m =
c
c
2

2) The confineu photon has the same kinetic eneigy: k
e
= V mv
2
= V (
o
c
2
) v
2

S) The confineu photon has the same weight as the paiticle.
4) The confineu photon (biuiiectional piopagation) has the same momentum.
S) The confineu photons envelope wavelength
s
is the same as the paiticles ue Bioglie
wavelength:
s
=
u

6) The confineu photons mouulation envelope phase velocity is the same as the paiticles
ue Bioglie phase velocity: v
s
= w = c
2
:
7) The photons gioup velocity is the same as the paiticles gioup velocity: v
u
= u
8) The confineu photon has the same ielativistic length contiaction: z
dd
= z
o
y

It is haiu to avoiu the thought that peihaps a paiticle is actually a wave with components
exhibiting biuiiectional piopagation at the speeu of light but somehow confineu to a specific
1-12
volume. This confinement piouuces stanuing waves that aie simultaneously moving both
towaius anu away fiom a cential iegion.

Bo we have any tiuly funuamental paiticles. If I uefineu a funuamental paiticle by the ancient
uieek stanuaiu of inuivisibility anu incoiiuptibility, then theie aie none. An election anu a
position can be tuineu into two photons (anu vice veisa). An isolateu neution (2 uown quaiks
anu 1 up quaik) will uecay into a pioton (2 up quaiks anu 1 uown quaik) plus an election anu
an antineutiino. In fact, all 12 funuamental feimions of the stanuaiu mouel can be conveiteu
into othei feimions anu into photons. The simplest explanation foi this easy conveision
between funuamental paiticles is that theie is a wave stiuctuie to these feimions. The tiuly
funuamental builuing block of all feimions is the unueilying wave in spacetime that allows
these easy tiansfoimations. It is on the level of this tiuly funuamental builuing block that
theie is a similaiity between confineu light anu paiticles. This thought piocess will be
continueu in chaptei 4.

Note:
Chapteis 2 anu S lay giounuwoik that piepaies the ieauei to unueistanu the pioposeu mouel.
Bevelopment of the spacetime baseu mouel of paiticles anu foices staits in eainest in chaptei
4.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix A - 1
Appendix A
Examination of the Similarities
Between Conned Light and a Particle
Chris Ray
Conned Light
This appendix will investigate a photon conned in per-
fectly reecting resonator. It will be shown that such a con-
ned photon exhibits many particle-like properties including
rest mass, relativistic contraction and a moving wave pattern
that is similar to de Broglie waves.
We will begin by examining a standing wave in a res-
onator as viewed from a frame of reference in which the res-
onator is moving.
First View: Counter Propagating Waves
A 1-D standing wave can be modeled as a superposition
of right and left moving plane waves.
= e
i(k0x0t)
+ e
i(k0x0t)
where k
0
=
0
/c.
In the frame of reference where the resonator is at rest
there are standing waves in the resonator set up by the
counter propagating waves.
= e
i(k0x0t)
+ e
i(k0x0t)
= (e
ik0x
+ e
ikox
)e
iot
= 2 cos(k
0
x)e
iot
In the frame of reference where the resonator is moving
to the right with velocity v, we have counter propagating
waves with dierent frequencies, because the waves have been
doppler shifted:
R
= (1+)
0
and
L
= (1)
0
, where
= v/c and = 1/
1
2
. The wave then is given by
= e
i(k
R
x
R
t)
+ e
i(k
L
x
L
t)
where k
L
=
L
/c and k
R
=
R
/c.
Dene
+
and
as follows
+

1
2
(
R
+
L
)
=
1
2
((1 + )
0
+ (1 )
0
)
=
0

1
2
(
R
L
)
=
1
2
((1 + )
0
(1 )
0
)
=
0
Now dene k
+
and k
in a similar way.
k
+

1
2
(k
R
+ k
L
) =
1
2c
(
R
L
) =

c
=
0
c
k

1
2
(k
R
k
L
) =
1
2c
(
R
+
L
) =

+
c
=
0
c
Note that
k
L
= k
+
k
k
R
= k
+
+ k
AND

L
=
+
R
=
+
+
Now we can write the wave as

= e
i(k
L
x
L
t)
+ e
i(k
R
x
R
t)
= e
i((k+k)x(+)t)
+ e
i((k++k)x(++)t)
=
e
i(k x t)
+ e
i(k x t)
e
i(k+x+t)
= 2 cos(k
t)e
i(k+x+t)
The imaginary part of this is graphed below (in red) for
= 0.085 at t = 0.
This is a product of two traveling waves. We can com-
pute wavelengths and velocities of these two parts.
v
+
=

+
k
+
=

+
/c
=
c
=
c
2
v
v
+
/c
= c = v
+
=
2
k
+
=
2c
0
=

0
=
2
k
=
2c
0
=

0
where
0
=
2c
0
is the wavelength in the rest frame of the
resonator.
First let us consider the - part of the wave. First we
note that this part of the wave moves with the velocity of
the resonator. Second we see that the wavelength has shrunk
by a factor of relative to the wavelength in the rest frame.
Thus the same number of wavelengths will t in the similarly
length-contracted resonator. Thus the cos() standing wave
pattern has shrunk to t the moving resonator and moves
with the resonator.
Now consider the + part of the wave. This part of
the wave moves with a velocity c
2
/v. Which is the same as
the phase velocity of a de Broglie plane wave for a massive
particle:
d
= e
ipx/ h
e
iEt/ h
.
v
phase
=
E/h
p/h
=
E
p
=
mc
2
mv
=
c
2
v
We can also see that the wavelength for the de Broglie plane
wave:
d
=
2 h
p
=
2 h
Ev/c
2
=
2 hc
E
=
2 hc
E0
is also the same, if
we assume that there is a single photon in the resonator and
thus that the energy in the rest frame is E
0
= h
0
. Since
+
=
2
k
+
=
2c
0
=
2hc
E
0
Thus we see that the + part of the resonator wave has the
wavelength and phase velocity of a de Broglie plane wave of
Appendix A - 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix A - 2
a massive particle with a rest energy equal to the energy of
the photon in the resonator.
General From
In the rest frame of a general standing wave the ampli-
tude of the wave is given by
(x
, y
, z
, t
) = f(x
, y
, z
)e
i0t
Where it is understood that the physical wave is the real part

of the complex wave . Note that the amplitude function f()
is a real valued function.
We will assume that the energy of this wave is
E
0
= h
0
.
We will also consider this energy in the rest frame of the
wave, divided by c
2
, to be the mass of the system:
m
E
0
c
2
=
h
0
c
2
.
Since the wave is a standing wave the total momentum is
zero: p
0
= 0.
In a General Frame
We want to know what the standing wave will look like
in a frame in which the rest frame of the standing wave is
moving in the positive x direction, with a velocity v. We can
nd this, if we assuming that the amplitude of the wave at
a given space time point is the same in each frame, so that
(x, y, z, t) =
(x
, y
, z
, t
)
with x
and t
related to x and t via the following Lorentz

transformation, while y
= y and z
= z.
ct

ct
x
(ct x)
(x ct)
So that
(x, y, z, t) =
(x
, y
, z
, t
)
=
( (xct), y, z, (ctx)/c )
= f((x ct), y, z)e
i0(ctx)/c
= f((x vt), y, z)e
i0x/c
e
i0t
= f((x vt), y, z)e
i(kxt)
In the last line we used the following denition.

0
k
0
/c
As was the case with the counter propagating plane waves,
the wave function in the general frame is manifestly in the
form of a plane wave (e
i(kxt)
), with wavelength and veloc-
ity of a de Broglie wave, modulated with an standing wave
pattern (f) that moves in the positive x direction with ve-
locity v. In addition the characteristic length of the standing
wave pattern has been length contracted in the x direction by
the factor compared with the length in the rest frame. For
examples suppose that there are two features in the standing
wave, one at the position x
= a and the other at the position

x
= b. The distance between these features is L = ba. The

features could for example be two null points in the standing
wave. These two features will also exist in the general frame,
though they are moving. Let x
a
and x
b
the location of these
features, then we know that
(x
a
vt) = a
(x
b
vt) = b
Solving these two equations for x
b
x
a
we nd that
L
= x
b
x
a
=
b a
=
L
So the distance between the features has been contracted by

a factor .
We also see, as in the case of counter propagating waves,
that one part of the wave moves with the velocity v and the
other moves with the velocity
k
=

0
0
/c
=
c
=
c
2
v
Energy and Momentum
We can also nd the energy and momentum in the new
frame, using the relativistic transformation of energy and
momentum.
E
pc

E
0
p
0
c

h
0
0
h
0
h
0
h
hkc
We see that the frequency and wavenumber of the plane wave

part of the wave are proportional to the energy and momen-
tum of the wave.
E = h
and
p = hk
in accordance with de Broglie waves.
Using the denition m = h
0
/c
2
, we consider the mass
of the light in our resonator to be equal to the energy in the
rest frame divided by c
2
. Thus we can rewrite the above as.
E = mc
2
and
p = mv
Appendix A - 2
2-1

Chaptei 2

Befinitions anu Concepts fiom ueneial Relativity

The piimaiy puipose of this book is to show how it is possible foi the funuamental paiticles
anu the foices of natuie to be conceptually explaineu using only 4 uimensional spacetime. This
is nothing less than a new mouel of the univeise. Piesentation of this mouel woulu be an
impossibly laige task foi a single peison if eveiy aspect of the mouel neeus to be analyzeu with
the uetail that might be expecteu fiom a technical papei coveiing a specific aspect of a matuie
subject. Theiefoie, the concepts will be intiouuceu using simple equations that involve
appioximations anu ignoie uimensionless constants such as 2 oi V. These simplifications
peimit the key concepts of this veiy laige subject to be explaineu in a way that otheis can
analyze specific aspects of this laige subject in moie uetail.

We will stait by looking at the giavitational effects on spacetime in the limiting case of weak
giavity. Nuch of the analysis to follow in subsequent chapteis will ueal with the giavity
exhibiteu by a single funuamental paiticle such as an election oi a quaik. Woiking with single
paiticles oi the inteiaction between two funuamental paiticles allows the pioposeu stiuctuie
of such paiticles to be connecteu to the foices that aie exhibiteu by these paiticles. At the same
time, the extiemely weak fielus peimit simplifications in the analysis.

In the following uiscussion, a uistinction will be maue between the woius length anu
uistance. Noimally, these woius aie similai, but we will make the following uistinction.
Length is a spatial measuiement stanuaiu. This is not just a stanuaiuizeu size such as a metei
oi inch, but it also can incluue a qualification such as piopei length oi cooiuinate length. A unit
of length can be uefineu eithei by a iulei oi by the speeu of light anu a time inteival. The
concept of uistance as useu heie is best illustiateu by the phiase the uistance between two
points. A uistance can be quantifieu as a specific numbei of length units.

This chaptei staits off with a uiscussion of the Schwaizschilu solution to the Einstein fielu
equation anu physical examples of the effect of giavity on spacetime. This will seem
elementaiy to many scientists, but new teiminology anu physical inteipietations aie
intiouuceu. 0nueistanuing this teiminology anu peispective is a iequiiement foi subsequent
chapteis.

Schwarzschild Solution of the Field Equation: Einsteins fielu equation has an exact solution
foi the simplifieu case of a static, noniotating anu unchaigeu spheiically symmetiic mass
uistiibution in an empty univeise. This mass uistiibution with total mass m is locateu at the
2-2
oiigin of a spheiical cooiuinate system. The stanuaiu (nonisotiopic) Schwaizschilu solution
in this case takes the foim:

uS
2
= c
2
u
2
= (1
2
)c
2
ut
2

2
uR
2
R
2
u
2

= utu =
1
_1-[
2Gm
c
2
R
(explaineu below)

uS = cu = the invaiiant quantity foi an inteival of spacetime
R = ciicumfeiential iauius (ciicumfeience2) |explaineu below]
= a soliu angle in a spheiical cooiuinate system (u
2
= u
2
+ sin
2
u
2
)
c = the speeu of light constant of natuie
t = cooiuinate time (time infinitely fai fiom the mass effectively zeio giavity)
= piopei time time inteival on a local clock in giavity

The invaiiant quantity uS is the piopei length of a one uimensional line segment. (uS = cu).
This is actually an abstiact concept that is uefineu by the equation but uoes not have a cleai
physical inteipietation.

Circumferential radius: uiavity waips the space aiounu mass, so that the space aiounu the
test mass has a non Eucliuian geometiy. The ciicumfeience of a ciicle aiounu the mass uoes
not equal 2 times the iauial uistance to the centei of mass. To accommouate this waipeu
space, the Schwaizschilu equation uses a special uefinition of uistance to specify the cooiuinate
uistance in the iauial uiiection. Names like Rcooiuinate anu ieuuceu ciicumfeience aie
sometimes useu to uesciibe this iauial cooiuinate that cannot be measuieu with a metei stick
oi a pulse of light. The name that will be useu heie is ciicumfeiential iauius anu uesignateu
with the symbol R. This is a uistance that is calculateu by measuiing the ciicumfeience of a
ciicle that suiiounus a mass, then uiviuing this ciicumfeience by 2. If we measuie the iauius
using a hypothetical metei stick oi tape measuie, then the piopei iauial uistance will be
uesignateu by i. We can see fiom the Schwaizschilu metiic that if we set ut = u, uS = cu = ui
anu u = u then:

ui = uR

Gravitational Gamma : The metiic has been wiitten in teims of the quantity which this
book will iefei to as the giavitational gamma . The basic uefinition of is:

= utu =
1
_1+[
2
c
2
=
1
_1-[
2Gm
c
2
R
=
1
g
cc

wheie = giavitational gamma anu = umR giavitational potential
2-3
= utu in the static case when uR = u anu u = u.
g
oo
is a metiic coefficient commonly useu in geneial ielativity

The symbol of uppei case gamma was chosen because this equation can also be wiitten as
follows:
=
1
_1-_
v
c
2
c
2
]
wheie v
e
_
20m
R
= escape velocity
The similaiity between anu of special ielativity is obvious since: =
1
_1-_
v

2
c
2
]

This analogy between the escape velocity in geneial ielativity anu the ielative velocity in
special ielativity extenus fuithei in the weak giavity appioximation. The time uilation uue to
giavity appioximately equals the time uilation uue to ielative motion when the ielative motion
is equal to the giavitational escape velocity (weak giavity).

The Schwaizschilu univeise with only one mass has effectively zeio giavity at any location
infinitely fai fiom the mass. At such a location = 1. The opposite extieme of the maximum
possible value of is the event hoiizon of a black hole wheie = . If the eaith was in an
empty univeise, then the suiface of the eaith woulu have a giavitational gamma of:
= 1 + 7 x 1u
1u
. It is impoitant to iemembei that is always laigei than 1 when giavity is
piesent.

A stationaiy clock infinitely fai away fiom the mass in Schwaizschilus univeise is uesignateu
the cooiuinate clock with a iate of time uesignateu ut. In the same stationaiy fiame of
iefeience, the local iate of time in giavity (neai the mass) is uesignateu u. The ielationship is:
= utu

Theie is a useful appioximation of that is valiu foi weak giavity.

= 1 +
um
c
2
R
weak giavity appioximation of

Gravitational Magnitude : The giavitational gamma has a iange of possible values that
extenus fiom 1 to infinity. Theie is anothei ielateu concept wheie the stiength of the
giavitational effect on spacetime ianges fiom u to 1 wheie u is a location in zeio giavity anu 1
is the event hoiizon of a black hole. This uimensionless numbei will be calleu the giavitational
magnituue anu is uefineu as:

1
d:
dt
= 1 - _1
2um
c
2
R
= 1
1
= giavitational magnituue
2-4

In weak giavity the following appioximation is accuiate:

=
um
c
2
anu = 1 + weak giavity appioximations

Foi example, the eaiths giavity, in the absence of any othei giavity is = 7 x 1u
1u
. The suns
suiface has = 2 x 1u
6
anu the suiface of a hypothetical neution stai with escape velocity
equal to half the speeu of light woulu have = u.1S.

In common usage, the stiength of a giavitational fielu is noimally associateu with the
acceleiation of giavity. Bowevei, the acceleiation of giavity uepenus on the giauient of
giavitational potential. In contiast, the giavitational magnituue anu the giavitational gamma
aie measuiements of the effect of giavity on time anu uistance without iegaiu foi the
giavitational giauient. Foi example, theie is an elevation in Neptunes atmospheie wheie
Neptune has appioximately the same giavitational acceleiation as the eaith. Bowevei, Neptune
has ioughly 16 times the eaiths mass anu ioughly 4 times the eaiths iauius. This means that
Neptunes giavitational magnituue is ioughly 4 times laigei than eaiths at locations wheie
the giavitational acceleiation is about the same.

The giavitational magnituue appioximation = umc
2
i will be useu fiequently with weak
giavity. Foi example, this appioximation is accuiate to bettei than one pait in 1u
S6
foi
examples that will be piesenteu latei involving the giavity of a single funuamental paiticle at
an impoitant iauial uistance. Theiefoie, this appioximation will be consiueieu exact when
uealing with funuamental paiticles. Note that this appioximation incluues the substitution of
piopei iauial uistance i foi the ciicumfeiential iauius R. (i = R). 0sing the appioximation
= umc
2
i we also obtain the following equalities foi in weak giavity:

=
-q
c
2

=
R
s
= umR anu R
s
= umc
2
= classical Schwaizschilu iauius
=
dt-d:
dt
the iate of time appioximation foi weak giavity

All of these appioximations will be consiueieu exact when uealing with the extiemely weak
giavity of single funuamental paiticles in subsequent chapteis.

Zero Gravity: Schwaizschilu assumeu an empty univeise with only a single mass. Such a
univeise appioaches zeio giavity as the uistance fiom the mass appioaches infinity. Bowevei,
is theie anywheie in oui obseivable univeise that can tiuly be uesignateu as a zeio giavity
location. Theie aie vast volumes with viitually no giavitational acceleiation compaieu to the
cosmic miciowave backgiounu. Bowevei, this is not the same as saying that these volumes
have a giavitational gamma of = 1 compaieu to a hypothetical empty univeise. Eveiywheie
2-5
in the ieal univeise theie is giavitational influence fiom all the masseneigy in the obseivable
univeise. In the chapteis on cosmology, an attempt is maue to estimate the backgiounu (omni
uiiectional) giavitational gamma of oui obseivable univeise compaieu to a hypothetical empty
univeise. While the piesence of a unifoim backgiounu foi the univeise has implications foi
cosmology, we can only measuie uiffeiences in . Theie is ample eviuence that geneial
ielativity woiks well by simply ignoiing the unifoim backgiounu of the univeise. Effectively
we aie assigning = 1 to the backgiounu giavitational gamma of the univeise anu
piopoitionally scaling fiom this assumption.

Theiefoie, a uistant location which we uesignate as having = u oi = 1 will be iefeiieu to as
a zeio giavity location oi simply zeio giavity. The teim zeio giavity in common usage
usually implies the absence of giavitational acceleiation as might be expeiienceu in fiee fall.
Bowevei, in this book zeio giavity liteially means that we aie using the Schwaizschilu mouel
of a uistant location which has been assigneu cooiuinate values of = u anu = 1. The iate of
time at this cooiuinate location will be uesignateu ut anu calleu cooiuinate iate of time. A
clock at this location will be uesignateu as the cooiuinate clock.

Gravitational Effect on the Rate of Time: The equation ut = u is peihaps the most
impoitant anu easiest to inteipiet iesult of the Schwaizschilu equation. It says that the iate of
time uepenus on the giavitational gamma . This equation has been pioven coiiect by
numeious expeiiments. Touay the atomic clocks in uPS satellites aie ioutinely calibiateu to
account foi the uiffeient iate of time between the lowei gamma at the uPS satellite elevation
anu the highei gamma at the Eaiths suiface. Without accounting foi this giavitational
ielativistic effect, the uPS netwoik woulu accumulate eiiois anu cease to function accuiately
aftei about one uay. (Theie is also time uilation causeu by the ielative motion of the satellite.
This is a much smallei coiiection than the giavitational effect anu in the opposite uiiection.)

The uiffeience in the iate of time with iespect to iauial uistance in giavity will be calleu the
giavitational iate of time giauient. The giavitational iate of time giauient is not a tiual effect.
An acceleiating fiame of iefeience has no tiual effects, yet it exhibits a iate of time giauient.
0ui objective is to pioviue an equation that ielates the acceleiation of giavity g to the iate of
time giauient anu utilizes piopei length in the expiession of the iate of time giauient. Foi
example, insiue a closeu ioom it is possible to measuie the giavitational acceleiation. If we
cannot measuie any tiual effects, theie is no infoimation about the object piouucing the giavity
(mass anu uistance). Is it possible to ueteimine the local iate of time giauient (expiesseu using
piopei length anu piopei time) fiom just the giavitational acceleiation.

It has been shown
1
that a unifoim giavitational fielu with piopei acceleiation g (measuieu
locally), has the following ielationship between ieushift anu giavitational acceleiation:

1
Edward A. Desloge, The Gravitational Redshift in a Uniform Field Am. J. Phys. 58 (9), 856-858 (1990)
2-6
o
= 1 g1c
2

wheie:

o
= fiequency as measuieu at the souice location with iate of time u
o

= fiequency as measuieu at the uetectoi location with iate of time u
1 = veitical uistance (piopei length) between the souice anu uetectoi
g = acceleiation of giavity

Refeience |1] shows that this equation is exact if the following qualifications aie placeu on the
above uefinitions. These qualifications aie: 1) the souice location (subsciipt o) shoulu be at a
lowei elevation than the uetectoi location. 2) the sepaiation uistance 1 shoulu be the piopei
length as measuieu by a time of flight measuiement (iauai length) measuieu fiom the souice
location. A slightly uiffeient iauai length woulu be obtaineu if this uistance was measuieu
fiom the uetectoi elevation oi measuieu with a iulei. Bowevei, in the limit of a giauient
(infinitely small 1), this uisciepancy uisappeais. Theiefoie with these qualifications:
o
= 1 g1c
2
is exact. It shoulu be noteu that the height uiffeience 1 is a piopei uistance
(iauai length measuieu fiom the souice) anu not ciicumfeiential iauius.

As will be show in the next chaptei, the giavitational ieushift is ieally causeu by a uiffeience in
the iate of time at uiffeient elevations. Theie is no accumulation of wavelengths, so
o
= 1u
o

anu = 1u. Aftei making these substitutions, this equation becomes:

g = c
2

d:-d:
c
d: d1

This is also an exact equation if the above qualifications aie obseiveu. Beie the iatio
(u u
o
)uu1 will be iefeiieu to as the giauient in the iate of time. Theie aie two points to
be noticeu. Fiist, the giauient in the iate if time is able to be ueteimineu fiom the acceleiation
of giavity with no knowleuge about the mass oi uistance of the bouy piouucing the giavity. Foi
example, a giavitational acceleiation of g = 1 ms
2
is piouuceu by a iate of time giauient of
1.11S x 1u
17
seconusseconu pei metei. The eaiths giavitational acceleiation of 9.8 ms
2
neai
the eaiths suiface is causeu by a iate of time giauient of about 1u
16
seconusseconu pei metei
of elevation uiffeience in the eaiths giavity. The most accuiate atomic clocks using a lasei
cooleu single atom of meicuiy oi aluminum cuiiently have an accuiacy of ioughly 1 pait in
1u
16
. An atomic clock with this accuiacy has a iesolution compaiable to one metei elevation
change in the eaiths giavity.

The seconu impoitant point is that the iate of time giauient is a function of piopei length in the
iauial uiiection. Even though utu is a function of ciicumfeiential iauius, the ielationship
between iate of time giauient anu giavitational acceleiation is not a function of ciicumfeiential
iauius. This fact will become impoitant in the next chaptei when we examine how natuie
keeps the laws of physics constant when theie is an elevation change. The connection between
2-7
giavitational acceleiation anu iate of time giauient will also be an impoitant consiueiation
when we examine the cosmological mouel of the univeise (chapteis 1S & 14).

Pieviously, we uefineu the concept of giavitational magnituue as: = 1 uut. It is also
possible to ielate the acceleiation of giavity to the giauient in the giavitational magnituue.

g = c
2
[
d[
d1

Inertial Frame of Reference: The concept that giavity can be simulateu by an acceleiating
fiame of iefeience sometimes leaus to the eiioneous inteipietation that an ineitial fiame of
iefeience eliminates all effects of giavity. Being in fiee fall eliminates the acceleiation of
giavity, but the giavitational effect on the iate of time anu the spatial effects of the giavitational
fielu iemain. Anothei way of saying this is that the effects of the giavitational gamma on
spacetime aie still piesent, even if a mass is in an ineitial fiame of iefeience. A clock in fiee fall
still expeiiences the local giavitational time uilation.

A iigoious analysis fiom geneial ielativity confiims this point, but two examples will be given
to also illustiate the concept. Suppose that theie was a hollow cavity at the centei of the eaith.
A clock in this cavity woulu expeiience no giavitational acceleiation anu woulu be in an ineitial
fiame of iefeience. The giavitational magnituue in this cavity is about Su% laigei than the
giavitational magnituue on the suiface of the eaith (~1u.S x 1u
1u
compaieu to 7 x 1u
1u
). Foi
example, ignoiing aii fiiction, the escape velocity staiting fiom this cavity is highei than
staiting fiom the suiface of the eaith. The clock in the cavity has a slowei iate of time than a
clock on the suiface. The ineitial fiame of iefeience uoes not eliminate the othei giavitational
effects on the iate of time anu the giavitational effect on volume.

A seconu example is inteiesting anu illustiates a slightly uiffeient point. The Anuiomeua
galaxy is 2.S million light yeais (~2.4 x 1u
22
m) away fiom Eaith anu has an estimateu mass of
about 2.4 x 1u
42
kg (incluuing uaik mattei). The giavitational acceleiation exeiteu by this
galaxy at the uistance of the Eaith is only about 2.8 x 1u
1S
ms
2
. To put this minute
acceleiation in peispective, a 1u,uuu kg spaceciaft woulu acceleiate at about this iate fiom the
thiust of the light leaving a 1 watt flashlight. In spite of the minute giavitational acceleiation,
the uistant piesence of Anuiomeua slows uown the iate of time on the suiface of the eaith
about 1uu times moie than the Eaiths own giavity. This is possible because the giavitational
magnituue ( = umc
2
i foi weak giavity) uecieases at a iate of 1i while the giavitational
acceleiation uecieases with 1i
2
. At the eaiths suiface, Anuiomeuas giavitational magnituue
is about:

= umc
2
i = (uc
2
) (2.4 x 1u
42
kg2.4 x 1u
22
m) = 7 x 1u
8
Anuiomeuas at eaith

2-8
Since the eaiths giavity piouuces = 7 x 1u
1u
at the suiface, Anuiomeuas effect on the iate of
time at the eaiths suiface is about 1uu times gieatei than the effect of the eaiths giavity. It
uoes not mattei whethei a clock is in fiee fall ielative to Anuiomeua oi whethei the clock is
stationaiy ielative to Anuiomeua anu expeiiences the minute giavitational acceleiation. In
both cases the giavitational effect on time anu volume exist. This example also hints that
masseneigy in othei paits of the univeise can have a substantial cumulative effect on oui local
iate of time anu oui local volume. This concept will be uevelopeu latei in the chapteis uealing
with cosmology.

Schwarzschild Coordinate System: The stanuaiu Schwaizschilu solution uses cooiuinates
that simplify giavitational calculations. The spheiical cooiuinate system uses ciicumfeiential
iauius R as cooiuinate length in the iauial uiiection anu uses ciicumfeiential iauius times an
angle foi the tangential uiiection. While theie is no uistinction in piopei length foi the iauial
anu tangential uiiections, we will tempoiaiily make a uistinction by uesignating piopei length
in the iauial uiiection as L
R
anu uesignating piopei length in the tangential uiiection as L
T
.
This uistinction uoes not exist in ieality since: cu = uL = uL
T
= uL
R
. Bowevei, using these
uesignations, the ielationship between piopei length anu Schwaizschilus cooiuinate length is:

uL
R
= uR iauial length L
R
conveision to Schwaizschilu iauial cooiuinate R
uL
T
= R u tangential length L
T
to Schwaizschilu tangential cooiuinate length

The equation uL
R
= uR is obtaineu by setting ut = u. If we aie using the piopei uistance
between two points as measuieu by a iulei, oi the calculateu ciicumfeiential iauius, then this
zeio time assumption is justifieu.

Next we will calculate the cooiuinate speeu of light C foi the iauial anu tangential uiiections by
staiting with the stanuaiu Schwaizschilu metiic:

uS
2
= (1
2
)c
2
ut
2

2
uR
2
R
2
u
2
foi light set uS
2
=u,
(1
2
) c
2
ut
2
=
2
uR
2
+ R
2
u
2

c
2
=
4

dR
2
dt
2
+
2

R
2
dU
2
dt
2

If we sepaiate this cooiuinate speeu of light into its iauial component (C
R
) anu its tangential
component (C
T
), we obtain:

C
R
=

uRut = c
2
C
R
= cooiuinate speeu of light in the iauial uiiection (u = u)
C
T
= Ruut = c C
T
= cooiuinate speeu of light in the tangential uiiection (uR = u)

2-9
This appaient uiffeience in the cooiuinate speeu of light foi the iauial anu tangential uiiections
is not expiessing a physically measuiable uiffeience in the piopei speeu of light. The
uiffeience follows fiom the stanuaiu (nonisotiopic foim) of the Schwaizschilu metiic. If we
choose the isotiopic foim of the Schwaizschilu metiic the uiffeience will uisappeai anu
C
R
= C
T
= c
2
. Bowevei, the isotiopic foim has its own set of complexities, so we will be using
the stanuaiu Schwaizschilu metiic.

The Shapiro Experiment: Next, we aie going to switch to a uiscussion about the giavitational
effect on piopei length, piopei volume anu the cooiuinate speeu of light. In 1964, Iiwin
Shapiio pioposeu an expeiiment to measuie the ielativistic uistoition of spacetime causeu by
the Suns giavity. This nonNewtonian time uelay is obtaineu fiom the Schwaizschilu solution
to Einsteins fielu equation. The Sun is a goou appioximation of an isolateu mass auuiesseu by
the Schwaizschilu solution. The implication is that giavity affects spacetime so that it takes
moie time foi light to make the iounu tiip between two points in space when the mass
2-10
(giavity) is piesent than when the mass (giavity) is absent. Shapiio anu his colleagues useu
iauai to tiack the planet venus foi about two yeais as venus anu the Eaith oibiteu the Sun.
Buiing this time, venus passeu behinu the Sun as seen fiom the Eaith (neaily supeiioi
conjunction). The oibits of venus anu the Eaith aie known accuiately, so it was possible to
measuie the auuitional time uelay in the iounu tiip time fiom the eaith to venus anu back. The
effect of the suns giavity on this iounu tiip time coulu be calculateu fiom multiple
measuiements maue ovei the two yeai time peiiou. Figuie 21 shows Shapiios giaph of the
excess time uelay ovei the two yeai peiiou. The peak uelay at supeiioi conjunction was 19u s
on a half houi iounu tiip tiansit time.

vaiiations of this expeiiment have been iepeateu numeious times in the noimal couise of the
space piogiam. Spaceciaft on theii way to the outei planets often stait with an oibital path
that at some point iesults in neaily supeiioi conjunction ielative to the Eaith. The most
accuiate measuiement to uate was with the Cassini spaceciaft. It was equippeu with
tiansponueis at two uiffeient iauai fiequencies, theiefoie it was possible to ueteimine anu
iemove the effect of the Suns coiona on the time uelay. The iesult was an agieement with the
time uelay pieuicteu by geneial ielativity accuiate to 1 pait in Su,uuu. With this type of
agieement, it woulu seem as if theie aie no iemaining mysteiies about this effect anu the
physical inteipietation shoulu be obvious.

Bow exactly uo length, time anu the speeu of light combine to piouuce the obseiveu time uelay
in the Shapiio effect. Foi simplicity, we woulu like to look at the time uelay associateu with a
iauai beam tiaveling only in the iauial uiiection. In the limit, we can imagine ieflecting a iauai
beam off the suiface of the Sun. This path woulu be puiely iauial. To make a measuiement we
neeu to have a iounu tiip, but foi simplicity of uiscussion, we will talk about the time uelay foi
a one way tiip. Foi light uS = u, so the metiic equation gives us that foi light moving in the
iauial uiiection:

[
1
cut = uR - ut = [
2
c
uR

We can compute the time t it takes to move between two uiffeient iauii: i
1
anu i
2
(wheie
i
2
>i
1
).

ct = ]c Jt = ] I
2
JR
2
1

ct = [
20m
c
2
ln [
1
+ [
2um
c
2
ln [
1
2
2
2
weak giavity: ln [
1
2
2
2
= u
t = [
2um
c
3
ln [
1

2-11
Substituting the Suns mass, iauius anu uistance gives t = Su s. Theiefoie, in auuition to a
non ielativistic time uelay (about 8 minutes), the one way ielativistic time uelay woulu be
about an auuitional Su s. The 19u s uelay obseiveu by Shapiio is ioughly 4 times the one
way Su s uelay fiom the eaith to the sun because of the auuitional leg to venus anu then the
iounu tiip uoubling of the time.

Noimally, on Eaith we woulu inteipiet a Su s uelay in a iauai beam as inuicating an
auuitional uistance of about 1S km. Bow much uoes the suns giavity uistoit space anu
inciease the iauial uistance between the eaith anu the suns suiface compaieu to the uistance
that woulu exist if we hau Eucliuian flat space. The auuitional non Eucliuian path length will be
uesignateu (L). Staiting fiom: uL
R
= uR

L = ] I JR
2
1

L = [
um
c
2
ln [
1
set i
2
= 1.S x 1u
11
m, i
1
= 7 x 1u
8
m anu m = 2 x 1u
Su
kg
L = 7.S km nonEucliuian auuitional piopei uistance between the Eaith anu Sun

Suppose that it was possible to stietch a tape measuie fiom the eaith to the suiface of the sun.
The uistance measuieu by the tape measuie (piopei uistance) woulu be about 7.S km gieatei
than a uistance obtaineu fiom an assumption of flat space anu a Eucliuian geometiy calculation.
The use of a tape measuie means that we aie using piopei length as a stanuaiu.

Gravity Increases Volume: If we use piopei length as oui stanuaiu of length iathei than
ciicumfeiential iauius, then we must auopt the peispective that giavity incieases the volume of
the univeise. Bowevei, an inteipietation baseu on piopei volume is often ignoieu since the
cooiuinate volume iemains unchangeu in giavity (flat space) if we use ciicumfeiential iauius
as cooiuinate length.

In the Shapiio expeiiment, we calculateu that theie was a non Eucliuian inciease in uistance
between the eaith anu the sun of 7.S km. Suppose that we imagine a spheiical shell with a
iauius equal to the aveiage iauius of the eaiths oibit (a iauial uistance equal to one
astionomical unit A0 = 1.S x 1u
11
m). The suns mass is = 2 x 1u
Su
kg anu the suns
Schwaizschilu iauius is i
s
= 29Su meteis. What is the change in volume (v) insiue this
spheiical shell if we compaie the Eucliuian volume of the shell (v
o
) anu the non Eucliuian
volume of the shell (v) when the Sun is at the centei of the shell.

v =]JI = ]4nR
2
JR

Aftei integiation, the uiffeience v = v v
o
is appioximately:

v = (SS)i
s
(i
2
2
i
1
2
) set i
2
= 1.S x 1u
11
m, i
1
= 7 x 1u
8
m anu i
s
= 29Su meteis
2-12
v = S.46 x 1u
26
m
S
non Eucliuian volume inciease

To put this non Eucliuian volume inciease in peispective, the suns giavity has incieaseu the
piopei volume within a iauius of 1 A0 by about S.S x 1u
26
m
S
which is moie than Suu,uuu times
laigei than the volume of the eaith (eaiths volume is = 1.u8 x 1u
21
m
S
). Stateu anothei way,
the volume inciease is about 2u% smallei than the volume obtaineu by multiplying the non
Eucliuian iauial length inciease (~ 7,Suu m) times the suiface aiea of the spheiical shell with a
iauius of 1 A0. 0bviously this non Eucliuian volume inciease woulu be much laigei if we hau
chosen a laigei shell iauius (foi example, the size of the obseivable univeise). The
implications of this will be exploieu in the chapteis on cosmology.

Concentric Shells Thought Experiment: The concept that giavity incieases the volume of the
univeise is impoitant enough that anothei example will be given. Suppose that theie aie two
concentiic spheiical shells aiounu an oiigin point in space. The insiue spheiical shell is
4.4 x 1u
9
m in ciicumfeience (about the ciicumfeience of the Sun). The outsiue shell is 2
meteis laigei ciicumfeience. With no mass at the oiigin anu infinitely thin shells, this means
that theie is exactly a 1 metei gap between the shells. We coulu confiim the 1 metei spacing
with a metei stick oi a pulse of light anu a clock.

Next we intiouuce the Sun's mass at the oiigin. This intiouuces giavity into the volume
between the two shells with an aveiage value of about = 1 + 2 x 1u
6
. The ciicumfeience of
each shell (piopei length) uoes not change aftei we intiouuce giavity. Bowevei, the uistance
between the two shells woulu now be about 1 + 2 x 1u
6
meteis. This is 2 micions laigei than
the zeio giavity uistance. This 2 micion inciease in sepaiation incieases the piopei volume
between the two shells by ioughly 1u
1S
m
S
.

In this example of two concentiic shells we accepteu the piopei length of the ciicumfeience of
the shells (tangential piopei length). The question is whethei theie was also a ueciease of this
tangential length (ielative to a flat cooiuinate system) when the suns mass was intiouuceu at
the oiigin. It is possible to consiuei both iauial anu tangential uiiections affecteu equally. This
iesults in giavity piouucing an even laigei inciease in piopei volume than pieviously
calculateu. This will be uiscusseu fuithei in the chapteis on cosmology.

Connection Between the Rate of Time and Volume: We aie going to compute the effect of
the giavitational gamma on piopei volume using the stanuaiu Schwaizschilu metiic. The use
of this metiic means that the stanuaiu Schwaizschilu conuitions apply: a static noniotating anu
unchaigeu spheiically symmetiic mass uistiibution in an empty univeise. This calculation
involves teiminology fiom geneial ielativity that is not explaineu heie. Reaueis unfamiliai
with geneial ielativity shoulu skip the shaueu calculation section below anu move on to the
conclusion.

2-13

If we know metiic equations, we can compute the Suimensional volume anu the 4uimensional
volume (incluues time). The easiest way to uo it is to use the following uiagonal metiic:

uS
2
= g
uu
(ux
u
)
2
+ g
11
(ux
1
)
2
+ g
22
(ux
2
)
2
+ g
SS
(ux
S
)
2

Then the Suimensional volume uv(S) is:

uv(S) = (g
11
g
22
g
SS
)
12
ux
1
ux
2
ux
S

Anu foi 4uimensional volume uv(4)

uv(4) = ( g
uu
g
11
g
22
g
SS
)
12
ux
u
ux
1
ux
2
ux
S

In the paiticulai case of the stanuaiu Schwaizschilu metiic:
g
uu
= 1
2
; g
11
=
2
; g
22
= R
2
, g
SS
= R
2
sin
2

The uiffeientials of 4 uimensional cooiuinates in this case aie:
(ux
u
) = cut; (ux
1
) = uR; (ux
2
) = u; (ux
S
) = u So:

uv(S) = (
2
R
2
R
2
sin
2
)
12
uR u u
uv(S) = R
2
sin uR u u note that volume (S) scales with

v(4) = ( ( 1
2
)
2
R
2
R
2
sin
2
)
12
cut uR u u
uv(4) = R
2
csinutuRuu note that this is inuepenuent of

The above calculation shows that piopei volume (S spatial uimensions) scales with the
giavitational gamma . This suppoits the pievious examples involving the volume inciease
inteipietation of the Shapiio expeiiment anu also the volume inciease that occuis in the
thought expeiiment with two concentiic shells. When we incluue the time uimension anu
calculate the effect of the giavity geneiateu by a single mass on the suiiounuing spacetime, we
obtain the answei that the 4 uimensional spacetime volume is inuepenuent of giavitational
gamma . The iauial uimension incieases ( = uL
R
uR) anu the tempoial uimension uecieases
( = utu). These offset each othei iesulting in the 4 uimensional volume iemaining constant.

Theie is a simplei way of expiessing this concept. Since = [
dt
d:
= [
dL
R
dR
theiefoie:

uuL
R
= utuR

This concept will be uevelopeu fuithei when we uevelop paiticles out of 4 uimensional
spacetime anu it also has application to cosmology.
2-14


3-1

Chaptei S

uiavitational Tiansfoimations of the 0nits of Physics

Covariance of the Laws of Physics: Fiom the event hoiizon of a black hole to the most
isolateu volume in the univeise, theie aie big uiffeiences in the iates of time thioughout the
univeise. Bow uo the laws of physics iemain the same when the iate of time is uiffeient
between locations. Why uoes a iate of time giauient also not affect the laws of physics. It is an
oveisimplification to imagine that changing the iate of time is similai to iunning a movie in
slow motion while keeping the laws of physics unchangeu.

We aie going to be looking at how natuie maintains the laws of physics when the iate of time
changes with giavitational gamma. This is not just an acauemic question. uiavity piouuces a
iate of time giauient anu a giauient in the cooiuinate speeu of light. Theiefoie, even in eaiths
giavity, the simple act of lifting an object to a uiffeient elevation means that the object is moveu
to a location wheie theie is a uiffeient iate of time anu a uiffeient cooiuinate speeu of light.
Acknowleuging that theie aie changes in the iate of time leaus to suipiising new physical
insights.

When the iate of time is uiffeient between two locations, but the laws of physics aie the same,
theie must also be othei changes in the units of physics to offset the uiffeience in the iate of
time. Foi example, momentum scales piopoitional to 1t, foice scales piopoitional to 1t
2
,
powei scales piopoitional to 1t
S
anu the fine stiuctuie constant is inuepenuent of time (1t
u
).
This is time iaiseu to foui uiffeient poweis, yet the laws of physics aie constant even with this
uiffeience in time uepenuence. What auuitional changes aie iequiieu to offset the change in
the iate of time anu pieseive the laws of physics unchangeu in uiffeient giavitational
potentials.

If theie is a cooiuinate iate of time in a zeio giavity location that is uiffeient fiom the iate of
time in a location with giavity, anu if the cooiuinate speeu of light is uiffeient in the two
locations, shoulunt theie also be a uiffeience in at least some of the othei units of physics. Foi
example, is one }oule of eneigy oi one Newton of foice also uiffeient in the zeio giavity location
compaieu to the giavity location. To make a meaningful compaiison of the units of physics
between locations with uiffeient giavitational potentials, it woulu be necessaiy to use a single
iate of time. This point is easy to see. The moie uifficult question is: Bow uo we tieat length in
this exeicise.

It is impossible to uiiectly compaie length between two locations with a uiffeient giavitational
potential. Also vectois aie ambiguous when compaieu between locations with uiffeient
giavitational potential. Foi example, the uiiection of a vectoi can be uiffeient uepenuing on
3-2
the path chosen to tianspoit a vectoi between two locations with uiffeient giavitational
potentials. Theiefoie auopting the locally measuieu piopei length as a stanuaiu of length foi
that location eliminates ambiguity, but is it the length stanuaiu we aie seeking.

To be cleai, this exeicise is not inteiesteu in calculating the geneial ielativistic effects on space
anu time. We will obtain this infoimation fiom stanuaiu geneial ielativity calculations.
Theiefoie, we piesume that we alieauy know the giavitational gamma ( = utu) foi each
location of inteiest. Insteau we aie inteiesteu in unueistanuing how the laws of physics
accommouate the spatial anu tempoial uiffeiences associateu with these uiffeient values of .
The laws of physics always scale in a way that keeps the speeu of light constant (c = uLu).
Foi example, a zeio giavity obseivei might peiceive that that a location in giavity has a slow
iate of time. Bowevei, the zeio giavity obseivei also peiceives that this location in giavity also
has a piopoitionately slow cooiuinate speeu of light. A speeu of light expeiiment peifoimeu in
giavity always iesults in the univeisal constant c because a zeio giavity obseivei peiceives a
slow cooiuinate speeu of light being timeu by a slow clock. This iesults in not only a constant
piopei speeu of light (c) but also the zeio giavity obseivei can consiuei piopei length as
constant (inuepenuent of ). In othei woius, when the zeio giavity obseivei applies hishei
iate of time anu aujusts foi the uiffeient cooiuinate speeu of light, then the unit of length (L)
can be consiueieu constant.

All the foices scale with piopei length. This is tiue foi not only the electiomagnetic foice, but
even giavitational acceleiation scales with piopei length. In the last chaptei we showeu that
g = c
2
T1u. In this equation 1 is an inciement of piopei length in the elevation uiiection.
ueneial ielativity tells us that theie is a uiffeience between ciicumfeiential iauius R anu
piopei length L. Theie is also one peispective wheie the tangential piopei length uecieases
ielative to cooiuinate tangential length when giavity is intiouuceu into a volume of spacetime.
Bowevei, feimions, bosons anu foices know nothing about the geneial ielativistic effects
involving ciicumfeiential iauius oi cooiuinate tangential length. These paiticles anu foices all
scale with piopei length. If giavity piouuces non Eucliuian spatial geometiy, these paiticles
anu foices meiely accept the piopei volume at a paiticulai location anu scale with piopei
length. Theiefoie since funuamental paiticles anu foices scale with piopei length anu piopei
volume, foi this exeicise we neeu to auopt a cooiuinate system that iecognizes piopei length
as a stanuaiu.

Normalized Coordinate System: The conclusion of this is that the analysis we wish to peifoim
on the covaiiance of the laws of physics is best accomplisheu by auopting a cooiuinate system
that uses cooiuinate iate of time fiom geneial ielativity as the time stanuaiu anu piopei length
as oui length stanuaiu. This is an unconventional cooiuinate system that is a hybiiu between
the Schwaizschilu cooiuinate system (cooiuinate time anu ciicumfeiential iauius) anu the
stanuaiu cooiuinates that use piopei time anu piopei length. This cooiuinate system will be
useu to analyze the covaiiance of the laws of physics when two locations have uiffeient
3-3
giavitational potentials anu uiffeient iates of time. In this analysis we always assume both a
constant uistance between locations anu static giavity. Fuithei suppoit foi the use of this
cooiuinate system will be offeieu by actually peifoiming this analysis using this hybiiu
cooiuinate system anu seeing if the iesults aie ieasonable.

The hybiiu cooiuinate system that uses piopei length anu cooiuinate iate of time will be calleu
the noimalizeu cooiuinate system. The speeu of light utilizing this cooiuinate system will be
calleu the noimalizeu speeu of light. We will also be iefeiiing to the noimalizeu unit of
eneigy, foice, etc. All of these units use piopei length anu zeio giavity iate of time. The
noimalizeu cooiuinates cannot be useu foi geneial ielativity calculations to ueteimine
spacetime cuivatuie. The equations become so simplifieu that impoitant infoimation is lost.
Insteau, the noimalizeu cooiuinate system accepts the value of obtaineu fiom geneial
ielativity anu utilizes this infoimation to analyze othei aspects of physics. By auopting piopei
length as oui cooiuinate length anu zeio giavity iate of time we achieve a cooiuinate system
that woiks well with quantum mechanics anu gives insights into the foices of natuie.

Length and Time Transformations: The following analysis will use uimensional analysis anu
theiefoie we will be using the symbols of uimensional analysis. These aie: N, L, T, Q, anu to
iepiesent mass, length, time, chaige anu tempeiatuie iespectively. Foi example, the units of
eneigy aie: kg m
2
s
2
. The conveision to uimensional analysis teiminology is:
kg m
2
s
2
- NL
2
T
2
.
Also, the calculations to follow will be making tiansfoimations between the vaiious units of
physics when changes. Foi example, to unueistanu how the laws of physics aie maintaineu
going fiom a hypothetical location in zeio giavity ( = 1) to a location with stiong giavity
( > 1), we will be woiking with uisciete units such as a }oule oi a Newton. This means that
the tiansfoimation of oui cooiuinates also iequiies the use of uisciete units of length anu time
iathei than the uiffeiential foim.

Foi example, ut = u ielates the iate of cooiuinate time (ut) to the iate of piopei time in
giavity (u). In this case ut > u. Bowevei, suppose we compaie a unit of time, such as one
seconu in a location with zeio giavity to one seconu in a location with giavity. If each location
sent out a light pulse lasting 1 seconu (accoiuing to a local clock), then any obseivei
(inuepenuent of ) woulu agiee that the light pulse fiom the location in giavity lasteu longei
than the light pulse fiom the zeio giavity location. This will be iepiesenteu as T
g
> T
o
. The
subsciipt g iepiesents a location in giavity anu o iepiesents a location with zeio giavity.
Theiefoie, T
g
> T
o
iepiesents that a unit of time in giavity is laigei (longei) than a unit of time
in zeio giavity. When we conveit ut = u to expiess a ielationship between units of time it
becomes:

T
o
= T
g
unit of time tiansfoimation fiom zeio giavity to giavity

3-4
Theie is no new physics being expiesseu heie. The uiffeience is compaiable to compaiing a
iate of pulses expiesseu as pulse pei seconu compaieu to the time between pulses expiesseu
as seconus pei pulse.

Since piopei length is auopteu as oui stanuaiu of length, this means that we aie not making a
uistinction between piopei length in any location oi oiientation. The way that this is
expiesseu is:

L
o
= L
g
unit of length tiansfoimation fiom zeio giavity to giavity

Normalized Speed of Light: When the noimalizeu cooiuinate system uses piopei length anu
the zeio giavity iate of time, then the noimalizeu speeu of light (uesignateu with a capital C)
becomes: C = uLut. In othei woius, the noimalizeu speeu of light in the noimalizeu
cooiuinate system is the change in piopei length uiviueu by the iate of cooiuinate time ut.

C uLut = cuut = c C = noimalizeu speeu of light
C
o
= c C
o
= noimalizeu speeu of light in zeio giavity (when = 1)
C
g
= c C
g
= noimalizeu speeu of light in a location with giavity (when > 1)
C
o
= C
g
ielationship between C
o
anu C
g

If theie aie two locations (1 anu 2) that have giavitational gammas
1
anu
2
iespectively, then
they will have noimalizeu speeu of light of C
1
anu C
2
. The ielation between these two uiffeient
noimalizeu speeus of light is:
1
C
1
=
2
C
2
= c.

In the equation C
o
= C
g
we have eliminateu the neeu foi
1
because in zeio giavity = 1 anu
the neeu to mention
1
uisappeais. It is infoimative to give an example of C
o
= C
g
. The
giavitational gamma at the suiface of the sun is: = 1.uuuuu2. If we set the noimalizeu
speeu of light in zeio giavity to C
o
= 1, then the suiface of the sun has C
g
= u.999998. Since
piopei length is cooiuinate length in the noimalizeu cooiuinate system, the nonEucliuian
piopeities of space aie inteipieteu as giavity cieating auuitional piopei volume in the space
suiiounuing a mass. Theiefoie the non Eucliuian volume suiiounuing the sun is meiely
accepteu by the noimalizeu cooiuinate system. If a beam of light passes thiough this non
Eucliuian volume of space, then the uiffeience in optical path length acioss the wiuth of the
beam is taken into account. This uiffeience in path length contiibutes to benuing of the light.

Comparison of Coordinate Speed of Light: We pieviously uesignateu the cooiuinate speeu
of light using Schwaizschilu cooiuinates as C
R
anu C
T
. The compaiison of the noimalizeu speeu
of light in giavity C
g
to the Schwaizschilu cooiuinate speeu of light is:

3-5
Length Cooiuinate Speeu of Light Cooiuinates
Tiansfoimation Speeu of Light Conveision

L
o
= L
g
C
g
= uLut c = C
g
Noimalizeu speeu of light conveision
uR = uL
R
C
R
= uRut c =
2
C
R
Schwaizschilu cooiuinates (iauial)

Ru = uL
T
C
T
= Ruut c = C
T
Schwaizschilu cooiuinates (tangential)

The noimalizeu speeu of light is similai to the piopei speeu of light c in the sense that both aie
inuepenuent of oiientation (iauial oi tangential). The only uiffeience is that the noimalizeu
speeu of light uses cooiuinate time which is an absolute stanuaiu foi the iate of time anu also is
a fastei iate of time compaieu to the piopei iate of time in giavity (stationaiy fiame of
iefeience).

Internally Self Consistent: Anothei impoitant similaiity between the noimalizeu speeu of
light anu piopei speeu of light is:

uL = Cut = c u

The above ielationship inuicates that the noimalizeu cooiuinate system is inteinal self
consistency. By uefinition, the following is always tiue: cu = uL (any oiientation oi
giavitational ). So also the following is always tiue: Cut = uL (any oiientation oi giavitational
).

In giavity, the noimalizeu speeu of light is slow (C
g
= c). Bowevei, a unit of time in giavity
T
g
is longei than the same unit of time in zeio giavity (T
g
= T
o
). The combination of these
two factois offset each othei, theieby piouucing a constant length: C
g
T
g
= (c) ( T
o
) = L
o
.
The combination of these two factois achieves the same length in any oi oiientation.
Theiefoie it is possible to say that L
o
= L
g
anu have a cooiuinate system that is inteinally
consistent.

Energy Transformation: We know the tiansfoimation of units of length (L
o
= L
g
) anu time
(T
o
= T
g
), but we neeu to ueteimine the tiansfoimation foi units of mass befoie all othei
tiansfoimations can be easily calculateu. It is not obvious what tiansfoimation mass woulu be
if we useu a stanuaiu unit of mass in zeio giavity (N
o
) to quantify the same piopei unit of mass
in giavity (N
g
). Nass is not synonymous with mattei. Nass is a quantification of ineitia which
implies foice anu acceleiation. Both of these involve time, so it shoulu be expecteu that mass
may have some uepenuence on the iate of time. Since we cannot uiiectly ieason to the mass
tiansfoimation, it is necessaiy to ueteimine some othei tiansfoimation between zeio giavity
anu giavity that can be ueteimineu by physical ieasoning. Then we will use that
tiansfoimation to ueuuce the mass tiansfoimation inuiiectly. Foitunately, theie aie two
auuitional tiansfoimations (eneigy anu momentum) that can be ueteimineu by physical
3-6
ieasoning. The mass tiansfoimation can be ueteimineu fiom eithei of these. We will use the
following pioposeu eneigy tiansfoimation:

E
o
= E
g
pioposeu eneigy tiansfoimation equation

Befoie pioceeuing, I just wanteu to ieview the meaning of E
o
= E
g
. The teim E
o
iepiesents a
unit of eneigy (such as 1 }oule oi 1 ev) in a location with zeio giavity ( = 1). Similaily, E
g

iepiesents the same unit of eneigy in a location with giavity ( > 1). Fuitheimoie, we assume
that both souices of eneigy can be consiueieu essentially stationaiy ielative to each othei.
Theiefoie since gamma is gieatei than one ( > 1) the equation E
o
= E
g
says that 1 }oule in
zeio giavity iepiesents moie eneigy than 1 }oule in a location with giavity ( > 1). The iatio of
these two eneigies is E
o
E
g
= .

To make this compaiison, both E
o
anu E
g
must be measuieu using the same stanuaiu of eneigy
which implies using the same iate of time foi both measuiements. Peihaps it is convenient to
imagine using the zeio giavity (cooiuinate) iate of time foi both eneigy measuiements, but the
only iequiiement is that the same iate of time be useu. Foi anothei example, an election
(S11,uuu ev) in giavity has less eneigy than an election in zeio giavity when the eneigies aie
compaieu using the same iate of time. The piopoitionality constant is the giavitational gamma:

I =
1
__1 -
2Gm
c
2
R
]
=
dt
d:

This concept is best explaineu with a thought expeiiment. Suppose that theie is a planet that is
in a highly elliptical oibit aiounu a stai. The planets kinetic eneigy changes fiom a minimum
kinetic eneigy at the oibital apogee to a maximum kinetic eneigy at the peiigee. Boes this
change in kinetic eneigy piouuce any change in the giavity piouuceu by the combination of the
planet anu stai as the planet oibits the stai. (Assume a piobe mass locateu fai fiom the
staiplanet). We know fiom geneial ielativity that the total giavity piouuceu by a closeu
system iemains constant when theie is no tiansfei of eneigy into oi out of the closeu system.
The planets total eneigy iemains constant in fiee flight. The moie geneial piinciple is that a
bouy in fiee fall maintains a constant eneigy as it falls. This can be expiesseu as: E
o
= E
g
+ E
k

wheie:

E
o
is the inteinal eneigy of a mass m in zeio giavity (E
o
= m
o
c
2
) measuieu using the zeio
giavity stanuaiu of eneigy.
E
g
is the inteinal eneigy of a mass in giavity but measuieu using the zeio giavity stanuaiu of
eneigy (measuieu using the cooiuinate clock).
E
k
is the kinetic eneigy of mass m in fiee fall fiom infinity to uistance i in the giavity of laigei
mass N. Also E
k
is measuieu using the zeio giavity stanuaiu of eneigy.

3-7
Theiefoie: E
k
= um
o
Ni = E
o
(uNc
2
i). In the following calculation we will use the
appioximation: E
o
(uNc
2
i) = E
g
(uNc
2
i). This appioximation is acceptable in weak giavity
anu in the context that it is useu below.

We will ueiive E
o
= E
g
fiom E
o
= E
g
+ E
k
using weak giavity appioximations foi simplicity.

E
o
= E
g
+ E
k
E
k
= E
g
(uNc
2
i) appioximation fiom above
E
o
= E
g
(1 + uNc
2
i) set: = 1 + uNc
2
i
E
o
= E
g
this appioximation is exact in a iigoious analysis

The giavitational ieublue shift can cause some confusion in the uiscussion of stanuaius of
eneigy anu will be uiscusseu latei. Also, this equation can easily be misinteipieteu if piopei
units of eneigy aie useu to measuie E
g
iathei than always using noimalizeu units of eneigy.

Mass Transformation from Energy: Next we will solve foi the mass tiansfoimation using
E
o
= E
g
; L
o
= L
g
anu

T
o
= T
g
. Eneigy has units of kg m
2
s
2
which in uimensional analysis
teims will be expiesseu as: E - N L
2
T
2

E
o
= E
g
set: E
o
-
M
c
L
c
2
1
c
2
anu E
g
-
M
g
L
g
2
1
g
2

M
c
L
c
2
1
c
2
= _
M
g
L
g
2
1
g
2
] set: L
g
= L
o
anu

T
g
= T
o

M
c
L
c
2
1
c
2
= [
M
g
L
c
2
2
1
c
2

N
o
= N
g
units of mass tiansfoimation obtaineu fiom the eneigy tiansfoimation

Again, both N
o
anu N
g
iepiesent the same units of stationaiy mass such as 1 kilogiam.
Fuitheimoie, both units of mass aie measuieu using a single iate of time. As suspecteu
pieviously, the connection between mass anu ineitia means that the noimalizeu unit of mass
has a uepenuence on the iate of time ( uepenuence).

The tiansfoimation N
o
= N
g
looks stiange because it says that the noimalizeu mass unit
incieases as giavity incieases (as incieases). This will be analyzeu latei, but it ielates to the
ineitia measuieu by a zeio giavity obseivei. Foi now we will use this mass tiansfoimation
along with the length anu time tiansfoimations to geneiate all of the othei tiansfoimations
natuie iequiies to maintain the laws of physics when the iate of time changes because of a
change in giavitational potential. To summaiize, heie aie the key tiansfoimations:

3-8
L
o
= L
g
unit of length tiansfoimation
T
o
= T
g
unit of time tiansfoimation
N
o
= N
g
unit of mass tiansfoimation

This same mass tiansfoimation can be obtaineu fiom the conseivation of momentum
tiansfoimation: p
o
= p
g
. Bowevei, iathei than going thiough this ueiivation, it will meiely be
shown that the thiee tiansfoimations (which incluues the mass tiansfoimation), gives p
o
= p
g
.

Momentum p : p
o
-
H
o
I
o
I
o
=
_
H
g
]I
g
I
g
I
- p
g

Appenuix B at the enu of this chaptei shows the uetails of ueiivation of the vaiious
tiansfoimations. Essentially this is just uimensional analysis wheie the uimensions of mass,
length anu time aie tiansfoimeu fiom zeio giavity to giavity. The following tiansfoimation of
foice is typical of the othei tiansfoimations.

Force F: F
o
-
M
c
L
c
1
c
2
=
[
M
g
L
g
T
g
2
I
2
- F
g

F
o
= F
g
foice tiansfoimation

The table on the following page gives all of the impoitant tiansfoimations.

3-9
uiavitational Tiansfoimation of 0nits anu Constants: The following aie tiansfoimations of
units of physics fiom zeio giavity = 1 to a location in giavity > 1. The ielationships aie
expiesseu assuming a single iate of time anu piopei length. The giavitational gamma is
uefineu as:
dt
d:
=
1
_1-[
20m
c
2
R
= 1 + umc
2
R. The symbols of uimensional analysis L, T, N, Q
anu aie useu to iepiesent length, time, mass, chaige anu tempeiatuie iespectively.

Noimalizeu Tiansfoimations
L
o
= L
g
T
o
= T
g
N
o
= N
g
Q
o
= Q
g
unit of chaige expiesseu in coulombs not stat coulombs
o
=
g
unit of tempeiatuie tiansfoimation
C
o
= C
g
noimalizeu speeu of light tiansfoimation
uL = uR piopei length anu ciicumfeiential iauius tiansfoimation

E
o
= E
g
eneigy
v
o
= v
g
velocity
F
o
= F
g
foice
P
o
=
2
P
g
powei
u
o
=
S
u
g
giavitational constant
0
o
= 0
g
eneigy uensity
"
o
= "
g
piessuie
o
=
g
fiequency
o
=
g
uensity
k
o
= k
g
Boltzmanns constant
o
=
2

g
StefanBoltzmann Constant
o
=
g
electiical cuiient
v
o
= v
g
voltage
oo
=
og
peimittivity of vacuum
oo
=

og
peimeability of vacuum

0nits anu Constants That Bo Not Change in uiavity
p
o
= p
g
momentum is conseiveu
L
o
= L
g
angulai momentum is conseiveu
o
=
g
Plancks constant (angulai momentum is conseiveu)
o
=
g
fine stiuctuie constant (uimensionless constant is conseiveu)
o
=
g
electiical iesistance
B
o
= B
g
magnetic flux uensity
Z
oo
= Z
og
impeuance of fiee space
Z
so
= Z
sg
impeuance of spacetime

Funuamental Equations
E
o
= E
g
+ E
k
ielationship of inteinal eneigy anu giavitational kinetic eneigy E
k

E
o
= E
g
E
po
ielationship of inteinal eneigy anu giavitational potential eneigy E
po

3-10
Conversion to Normalized Perspective: When we calculate eneigy, velocity, foice, mass,
powei, voltage, etc. using piopei time, because of the covaiiance of the laws of physics, we
obtain an answei that numeiically equals the value in zeio giavity. Theiefoie, to conveit this
piopei value into noimalizeu values, we meiely substitute the piopei value into the above
tiansfoimations by ieplacing the zeio giavity teim (E
o
, v
o
, F
o
, etc.) anu solve foi the noimalizeu
value (E
g
, v
g
, F
g
, etc.). Foi example, an election has eneigy of 8.187 x 1u
14
}oules. In the
noimalizeu peispective, this is ieally the eneigy of an election in zeio giavity. Bowevei, the
covaiiance of the laws of physics allows us to use this eneigy in locations with > 1. To
conveit to noimalizeu eneigy, we meiely substitute the zeio giavity eneigy (8.187 x 1u
14

}oules) foi E
o
in the equation E
g
= E
o
anu solve foi E
g
. Since > 1 foi a location in giavity,
this means that E
g
< E
o
. Foi example, at the suiface of the sun = 1 + 2 x 1u
6
. Theiefoie an
election at the suiface of the sun has only u.999998 the eneigy of an election in zeio giavity.

Insights fiom Tiansfoimations

Energy Transformation: We noimally closely associate mass anu eneigy. Bowevei, the
noimalizeu tiansfoimations tieat mass anu eneigy uiffeiently. When an object is moveu to a
location with a laigei giavitational gamma (anu slowei iate of time), the noimalizeu eneigy of
the object uecieases anu the noimalizeu mass (ineitia) of the object incieases. The mass
tiansfoimation is uiscusseu below, but when we tiansfoim E = mc
2
into the noimalizeu time
peispective, the giavitational effect on the noimalizeu speeu of light is squaieu anu the
giavitational effect on mass is iaiseu only to the fiist powei. The iesult is: E
o
= E
g
. This
equation applies only to stationaiy objects because this was an assumption useu in the
ueiivation. The teim stationaiy means no change as a function of time in the optical path
length between two objects oi points.

The equation E
o
= E
g
says that a unit of eneigy in zeio giavity is laigei than the same unit of
eneigy in a location with giavity. This applies to all foims of eneigy such as: the annihilation
eneigy of mass, the eneigy stoieu in capacitois, the eneigy of chemical ieactions, theimal
eneigy, oi the eneigy of atomic tiansitions. In all cases the noimalizeu eneigy of stationaiy
objects in giavity is uiminisheu by the giavitational gamma factoi. The loss of eneigy when an
object moves to stiongei giavity is easy to see. A meteoi stiiking the eaith geneiates heat.
This heat is the lost inteinal eneigy of the meteoi. The atoms of the meteoi that iemain in the
eaiths giavity have less inteinal eneigy than they hau in space (once the heat is iemoveu).

If we elevate a one kilogiam mass by 1 metei in eaiths giavity, we say that we have given the
mass potential eneigy of 9.8 }oules. Wheie is this eneigy stoieu. I want to see anu unueistanu
this mysteiious giavitational potential eneigy. If we ignoie the change in time ovei the one
3-11
metei elevation, then the souice of giavitational potential eneigy is a mysteiy. Bowevei, if we
acknowleuge that the iate of time is uiffeient when we change elevation, then we aiiive at the
conclusion that the eneigy expiesseu in noimalizeu units of eneigy is also uiffeient at the two
elevations. This insight allows us to obtain a paitial insight into the stoiage of giavitational
potential eneigy. The pioposeu paiticle mouel piesenteu latei will give a moie complete
explanation. Below, we will use the tiansfoimation E
o
= E
g
anu compaie E
g
at two uiffeient
elevations (1 anu 2 wheie elevation 2 is highei than 1). We will use weak giavity
appioximations anu the following symbols:

Noimalizeu eneigy in giavity at elevation 1 anu 2: E
g1
anu E
g2
,
Laige mass (planet) anu small test mass N anu m
Rauius fiom the centei of the laige mass to elevation 1 anu 2: i
1
anu i
2

uiavitational gamma anu beta foi elevation 1 anu 2:
1
,
2
,
1
, anu
2

E
g2
=
E
o
I
2
anu E
g1
=
E
o
I
1
noimalizeu eneigy tiansfoimations
E
g2
E
g1
=
E
o
I
2

E
o
I
1
= E
o
[
1
I
2
1
= E
o
(
1

2
) set:
1
I
= 1
E
g2
E
g1
= j[
0H
c
2
1
[
uM
c
2
2
[mc
2
= [
1
2
(uNm)
since r
2
r
1
<< r
1
substitute: [
1
2
=
2

1
1
2

E
g2
E
g1
= (i
2
i
1
)[
uM
1
2
m set i
2
i
1
= 1 anu acceleiation
uM
1
2
= g

E
g2
E
g1
= gm 1 giavitational potential eneigy

Theiefoie, the change in the noimalizeu eneigy between level 1 anu 2 (E
g2
E
g1
) equals the
giavitational potential eneigy foi mass m in giavitational acceleiation g foi a height change of
1 = i
2
i
1
. It is inteiesting to uo a numeiical example using a one kilogiam mass being
elevateu by one metei in the eaiths giavity.

N = S.976 x 1u
24
kg mass of the eaith
i
1
= 6.S78 x 1u
6
m iauius of the eaith
1
= 1 + uNc
2
i
1
= 1 + 6.977 x 1u
1u
giavitational gamma of the eaith at sea level
2
=
1
+ (
1
1)|(i
2
i
1
) i
1
] = 1 + 6.977 x 1u
1u
+ 1.u91 x 1u
16

2

1
= 1.u91 x 1u
16
uiffeience in when 1 = i
2
i
1
= 1 metei
E
2
E
1
= (
2

1
) E
1
= 1.u91 x 1u
16
x mc
2
mc
2
= 8.99 x 1u
16
} foi 1 kg mass
E
2
E
1
= 9.8 } uiffeience in noimalizeu eneigy of a 1 kg mass elevateu 1 m

Theiefoie, when we use noimalizeu units (cooiuinate time anu piopei length), we finu that the
inteinal eneigy of a mass changes with elevation by exactly the amount of giavitational
potential eneigy. Foi example, a one kilogiam mass has 9.8 }oules moie eneigy when it is at an
elevation 1 metei above sea level than it has when it is at an elevation of sea level when eneigy
3-12
is expiesseu in noimalizeu units of eneigy. Theie is also a change in the noimalizeu speeu of
light anu in the noimalizeu mass. The combination of these factois iesults in a change in the
noimalizeu eneigy of a mass that is elevateu oi loweieu in a giavitational fielu. The
ielationship between inteinal eneigy in zeio giavity E
o
, the noimalizeu inteinal eneigy in
giavity E
g
anu giavitational potential eneigy E
is:

E
o
= E
g
E

The minus sign in fiont of E

is the iesult of consiueiing potential eneigy to be a negative
numbei. This equation leaus to the equation E
o
= E
g
+ E
k
uiscusseu above. A bouy in fiee fall
uoes not change its noimalizeu eneigy. Pieviously, a stai anu planet in an elliptical oibit weie
useu in an example. Sensing the giavity of the staiplanet combination by the use of a uistant
piobe mass is equivalent to sensing the zeio giavity eneigy of the staiplanet combination.

Mass Transformation: The noimalizeu mass tiansfoimation N
o
= N
g
looks countei
intuitive because it inuicates that noimalizeu mass incieases when giavitational gamma
incieases. Theie is no auuitional mattei being cieateu, theie is just a change in the peiceiveu
ineitia when we conveit to a single iate of time anu quantify units of ineitia in locations with
uiffeient values of . The ineitia (mass) exhibiteu by a bouy is uefineu by the foice geneiateu
when a bouy is acceleiateu. Both foice anu acceleiation incoipoiate units of time theiefoie
mass (ineitia) also exhibits a uepenuence on the iate of time. A combination of factois iesults
in a unit of mass (ineitia) in giavity being laigei than the same unit of mass (ineitia) in zeio
giavity

Even though noimalizeu mass incieases in giavity, noimalizeu eneigy uecieases as explaineu
above. Since it is easiei to conceptually unueistanu eneigy uecieasing in giavity, peihaps it is
easiei to imagine eneigy being moie funuamental than mass (ineitia). It is only a histoiical
acciuent that we use mass as one of the S uimensional units of physics. In paiticle physics,
eneigy is consiueieu moie funuamental than mass anu units of ev oi Nev aie common. If
eneigy ieplaceu mass as one of the S uimensional units, then the eneigy tiansfoimation woulu
be the single factoi that offsets the giavitational effect on time.

The weak equivalence piinciple says that theie is no uiffeience between giavitational mass anu
ineitial mass. This is tiue because they both scale piopoitionately to the giavitational gamma
when a constant iate of time is useu. Neiely elevating a mass in the eaiths giavitational fielu
changes both the noimalizeu giavitational mass anu the noimalizeu ineitial mass. The
giavitational fielu piouuceu by the one kilogiam mass scales with total eneigy, so elevating this
mass incieases the eneigy of the elevateu mass. This eneigy inciease exactly offsets the
ueciease in eneigy of whatevei means was useu to elevate the mass. The total noimalizeu
eneigy anu total giavitational fielu of the eaith is unchangeu.

3-13
Gravitational Redshift: The giavitational ieublue shift is often misinteipieteu
1
. Above it was
shown that the inteinal eneigy of an atom changes with elevation by exactly the uiffeience in
the giavitational potential eneigy. Not only is theie a change in the inteinal eneigy of an atom
when it changes elevation, theie is also a piopoitional change in the eneigy of the atoms
eneigy levels when theie is a change in elevation. Theiefoie, fiom the peispective of someone
in zeio giavity (noimalizeu time), a paiticulai atomic tiansition in giavity is less eneigetic anu
this tiansition emits a compaiatively low eneigy anu low fiequency photon. This low eneigy is
not uetectable locally because all eneigy compaiisons (such as 1 ev) have been similaily
shifteu to a lowei eneigy by the giavitational effect on time anu mass.

Now we will auuiess the giavitational ieushift. The foimula foi the ieublue shift is:

o
=
g
wheie:
g
= wavelength in giavity anu
o
= wavelength in zeio giavity

Suppose a photon in giavity staits at a lowei elevation (level 1) anu enus at a highei elevation
(level 2). If the photons eneigy is measuieu at level 1 anu 2 with local instiuments, then a loss
of eneigy is obseiveu at level 2. This ieushift appeais to be a ueciease in fiequency, a ueciease
in eneigy anu an inciease in wavelength. If it was possible to measuie wavelength, fiequency
anu eneigy fiom a single elevation (single iate of time), then it woulu appeai as if theie was no
change in eneigy, no change in fiequency, but the same inciease in wavelength that was
obseiveu with a local measuiement. The eneigy anu fiequency uisagieement occuis because
uiffeient iate of time anu eneigy scales aie being useu at uiffeient elevations. The agieement
in wavelength occuis because the tiansfoimation L
o
= L
g
says that all obseiveis aie using the
same length stanuaiu to measuie wavelength.

If we look only at wavelength, then theie is such a thing as giavitational ieushift. This is
because fiom all giavitational potentials, the same change in wavelength is obseiveu.
Bowevei, if we look at eithei eneigy oi fiequency using zeio giavity iate of time, then theie is
no such thing as giavitational ieushift. The appaient change in fiequency anu eneigy occuis
because we measuie eneigy anu fiequency using local stanuaius of the beginning anu enuing
elevations. At these uiffeient elevations (uiffeient values of ), it is oui local stanuaius of
eneigy anu time that have changeu, not the photons eneigy anu fiequency.

Theie is an inteiesting question that I woulu like to piopose. We know that theie appeais to be
a giavitational blue shift when a photon is geneiateu at a high elevation (height 2) anu is
analyzeu at a lowei elevation (height 1). In othei woius, the photon seems to have gaineu
eneigy. The question is: What woulu happen if we tiappeu a photon in a ieflecting box at
height 2, then loweieu the box to height 1. Woulu the photon in a box have the same eneigy as
a fieely piopagating photon when it ieacheu height 1.

1
L.B. Okun; Am. J. Phys. 68 (2), February 2000
3-14

I contenu that the photon loweieu in a box woulu appeai to have less eneigy than the fieely
piopagating photon. Fiom a local peispective, the fieely piopagating photon appeais to gain
eneigy (blue shifteu) anu the photon in a box woulu appeai to have the same eneigy as the
eneigy at height 1. Fiom the peispective of a zeio giavity obseivei, the fieely piopagating
photon ietaineu its oiiginal eneigy when it piopagateu fiom heights 2 to 1 anu the photon in a
box lost eneigy. This lost eneigy was iemoveu fiom the photon in the loweiing piocess. As
pieviously explaineu, a confineu photon exhibits weight. Loweiing a box containing a confineu
photon tiansfeis eneigy fiom the photon to the appaiatus useu to lowei the box. Theie aie
numeious ways to analyze this pioblem anu I content that they all give the answei uesciibeu
heie. Bowevei, this is a little off the subject, so I will not elaboiate fuithei.

Anothei question is: Bow is it possible foi the wavelength to change with elevation if theie is
no change in the noimalizeu fiequency. The answei is that the noimalizeu speeu of light
changes with elevation (C
o
= C
g
). If a photon piopagates fiom a lowei elevation to a highei
elevation, theie is no change in fiequency, but the noimalizeu speeu of light C
g
incieases with
elevation. This inciease in the noimalizeu speeu of light incieases the uistance tiaveleu pei
cycle time (incieases the wavelength). This change in wavelength is obvious fiom any location,
but the constant fiequency is only obseivable when all measuiements aie maue fiom a single
elevation (a single iate of time).

Finally, a woiu of caution about not using the ieushift foimula (
o
=
g
) in tiansfoimations as
a substitute foi length. It is not coiiect to equate wavelength with the unit of length when
theie is a change in . A photon geneiateu fiom a local atom has a wavelength that is a goou
stanuaiu of length. Bowevei, a photon geneiateu at anothei giavitational potential has a
wavelength that changes with . Theiefoie, a photon that is not geneiateu locally cannot be
useu as a stanuaiu of length.

Electrical Charge Transformation: The tiansfoimation of electiic chaige neeus special
explanation
.
The tiansfoimations of
o
=
g
is only coiiect if chaige is expiesseu in coulombs
iathei than stat coulombs. Coulombs anu stat coulombs aie funuamentally uiffeient. The NKS
unit of coulomb is 6.24 x 1u
18
elections but the CuS unit of stat coulomb is ielateu to
electiostatic foice anu has units of HI
3
I.

The iesult is that chaige is conseiveu in
giavitational tiansfoimations if chaige is expiesseu as a numbei of elections (coulombs), but it
is not conseiveu if chaige is expiesseu in stat coulombs with units of HI
3
I. If an
electiostatic foice equation is wiitten in CuS units, then
o
is missing anu theie is no
noimalization of peimittivity. The following tiansfoimation must be useu foi chaige expiesseu
in stat coulombs:

Q
o
=

Q
g
(chaige in stat coulombs)

3-15
Testing: The objective of these tiansfoimations is to offset the giavitational effect on the iate
of time anu keep the laws of physics covaiiant in any giavitational potential. It is inteiesting to
make substitutions into vaiious equations of physics anu see that the tiansfoimations uo
inueeu keep the same equations of physics when theie is a tiansfoimation of giavitational
gamma. This is saying that these tiansfoimations exhibit inteinal self consistency. Bowevei, it
is also possible to see the implieu physics behinu these tiansfoimations upon close
examination.

Shapiro Revisited: In the last chaptei we talkeu about the Shapiio expeiiment uetecting a
ielativistic inciease in the time iequiieu foi iauai to tiavel iauially in the suns giavity. The
uelay was equivalent to a Su s uelay in the time iequiieu foi light to tiavel one way fiom the
eaith to the suns suiface. If we use Schwaizschilu cooiuinates, then the Su s uelay is uue
entiiely to the slowing of the cooiuinate speeu of light which scales accoiuing to the local value
of
2
along the iauial path between the eaith anu the sun (c =
2
C
R
=
2
uRut).

Bow uo we inteipiet the Su s uelay using the noimalizeu cooiuinates. If a tape measuie
coulu be useu to measuie the uistance between the eaith anu the suiface of the sun, the
uistance measuieu by a tape measuieu woulu be about 7.S km longei than the ciicumfeiential
iauius uistance calculateu by uiviuing the ciicumfeience by 2. The noimalizeu cooiuinate
system uses piopei length (tape measuie length) as cooiuinate length. Theiefoie, the
noimalizeu cooiuinates gives the iauai pulse cieuit foi having tiaveleu the auuitional 7.S km of
nonEucliuian uistance between the eaith anu the sun. It takes about 2S s foi speeu of light
tiavel to covei 7.S km, so the noimalizeu cooiuinates attiibutes half the Su s uelay to the time
iequiieu to tiavel the nonEucliuian uistance geneiateu by the suns giavity. The othei half is
uue to the noimalizeu speeu of light being sloweu accoiuing to c = C
g
= uL
R
ut. Integiating
ovei the changing along the optical path gives the auuitional 2S s uue to this slowing.
Theiefoie, the Su s total uelay is the same, but the inteipietation is uiffeient.

The following chapteis will piimaiily use the stanuaiu uefinition foi the speeu of light. This
stanuaiu uefinition will be uesignateu by lowei case c. 0ccasionally we will switch into using
noimalizeu speeu of light to give anothei peispective. In this case we will use an uppei case
C. Attention will be calleu to this change.

3-16
Appenuix B

This appenuix gives the uetails of the ueiivation of some of the auuitional tiansfoimations
enumeiateu in the table titleu uiavitational Tiansfoimations of 0nits anu Constants. This
appenuix can be skippeu without the loss of any impoitant infoimation to the main points of
this book if this backup infoimation is not of inteiest to the ieauei.

velocity v: v
o
-
L
c
1
c
= I
g

1
g
- v
g

v
o
= v
g
noimalizeu velocity v
g
uecieases in giavity (just like C)

uiavitational Constant u: u
o
-
L
c
3
M
c
1
c
2
=
L
g
3
[
M
g
_
T
g
2
2
_
-
S
u
g

u
o
=
S
u
g
noimalizeu giavitational constant (see comment below)

Eneigy Bensity 0: 0
o
-
M
c
L
c
1
c
2
=
M
g
L
g
_
T
g
2
2
_
- 0
g

0
o
= 0
g
noimalizeu eneigy uensity

Electiical Chaige: Next we come to tiansfoimations that have uimensions that incluue
electiical chaige in Coulombs. These incluue peimittivity
o
, peimeability
o
, cuiient I, voltage
v anu the impeuance of fiee space Z
o
. Foi this exeicise, the symbol
oo
will iepiesent
o
in zeio
giavity anu
og
will iepiesent
o
in giavity. Similaily we will use the symbols
oo
,
og
, Z
oo
, anu
Z
og
. A unit of chaige will be iepiesenteu by Q
o
anu Q
g
.

It is not possible to use the above substitutions to ueteimine the tiansfoimation of a unit of
electiical chaige when compaiing change between zeio giavity Q
o
anu a unit of chaige in
giavity Q
g
using a single iate of time. It is tiue that the uimension of chaige (expiesseu in
Coulombs) uoes not contain eithei time oi mass, so the two uimensions known to have
uepenuence aie missing (stat Coulombs will be uiscusseu latei). So supeificially it seems as if
theie shoulu be no change in a unit of chaige when the iate of time changes uue to a change in
. Bowevei, we neeu to supplement this with some auuitional physical ieasoning using the
laws of physics.

Fiom the conseivation of chaige anu the Faiauay law we know that chaige is conseiveu when
theie is a change in elevation. This inuicates that Q
o
= Q
g
. Theie is auuitional suppoit foi this
contention because the impeuance of fiee space Z
o
has units that scale with 1Q
2
(uimensional
analysis symbol Q). If theie was a giavitational uepenuence on chaige, then the impeuance of
fiee space woulu have a giavitational uepenuence. Theie woulu be a slight impeuance
3-17
mismatch when light changes elevation in giavity. This impeuance mismatch woulu cause
scatteiing of electiomagnetic iauiation fiom giavitational fielus. Foi all these ieasons we will
assume that:

Q
o
= Q
g

A unit of electiical chaige in giavity (Coulombs) equals a unit of electiical chaige in zeio
giavity. We will now use this tiansfoimation to geneiate auuitional electiical tiansfoimations.

Permittivity
o
:
oo
-
c
2
1
c
2
L
c
3
M
c
=

g
2
_
T
g
2
I
2
_
L
g
3
[
M
g

-
og

oo
=
og
noimalizeu peimittivity

Impedance of Free Space Z
o
: Z
oo
-
M
c
L
c
2
1
c
c
2
=
[
M
g
L
g
2
[
T
g

g
2
- Z
og

Z
oo
= Z
og

Voltage v: v
o
-
M
c
L
c
2
1
c
2
c
=
[
M
g
L
g
2
_
T
g
2
2
_
g
- v
g

Temperature : Finally we come to the tiansfoimation of Boltzmanns constant k anu
tempeiatuie. Boltzmanns constant is typically uesciibeu as: k = 1.S8 1u
2S
}oulemolecule
0
Kelvin. This numbei, measuieu locally, uoes not change when giavitational gamma is
changeu. Bowevei, the stanuaiu of what constitutes a unit of eneigy (}oule) changes accoiuing
to the pieviously ueiiveu tiansfoimation: E
g
= E
o
. Theiefoie, to an obseivei using
noimalizeu time, the eneigy pei molecule pei uegiee Kelvin uecieases in giavity. Theiefoie, an
acceptable inteipietation foi the zeio giavity obseivei is that tempeiatuie in giavity equals the
same tempeiatuie in zeio giavity, but the Boltzmann constant uepenus on .
o
=
g
tempeiatuie is unaffecteu by an change in giavity

Boltzmann Constant: k
B
- NL
2
T
2

k
B
= 1.S8 1u
2S
}oulemolecule
0
Kelvin - NL
2
T
2
molecule
k
Bo
-
M
c
L
c
2
1
c
2
u
c
molecule =
[
M
g
L
g
2
_
T
g
2
2
_u
g
molecule - k
Bg

k
Bo
= k
Bg
noimalizeu Boltzmanns constant
3-18
Stefan-Boltzmann Constant:
o
-
M
c
1
c
3
u
c
4
=
M
g
_
T
g
3
3
_u
g
4

-
g

2

o
=
2
g
noimalizeu StefanBoltzmann constant

The StefanBoltzmann constant is the constant associateu with the intensity of a black bouy
emission J = T
4
wheie = StefanBoltzmann Constant, = emissivity, T is tempeiatuie anu
is the uimension of tempeiatuie. The equation J = T
4
suppoits the iuea that
g
=
o
because tempeiatuie is iaiseu to the fouith powei. If theie was a tempeiatuie uepenuence on
, we woulu have a
4
uepenuence.

4-1

Chaptei 4

Assumptions

Theie has nevei been a law of physics that uiu not uemanu
space anu time foi its statement.
}ohn Aichibalu Wheelei

Starting Assumption: Physics touay has a laige bouy of expeiimental obseivations anu
mathematical equations that coiiesponu to the expeiimental obseivations. Theiefoie, on a
supeificial level it woulu appeai that we have a goou theoietical unueistanuing of natuie up to
a limit that will be calleu the fiontiei of knowleuge. Bowevei, theie aie many countei intuitive
physical inteipietations of the mathematical equations anu expeiimental obseivations. This
book pioposes alteinative physical inteipietations that fit both the equations anu the
expeiiments, but offei impioveu conceptual unueistanuing anu new insights.

If we aie looking foi the fableu theoiy of eveiything", it is best to stait the quest with the
simplest possible staiting assumption. 0nly if the simplest assumption is pioven to be
inauequate, shoulu we ieluctantly move on to a moie complex assumption. When I examineu
the similaiities between light confineu in a ieflecting box anu paiticles, I was stiuck by a big
iuea. This iuea is:

Basic Assumption: The universe is only spacetime.

This iuea will be taken as a basic assumption foi the iemainuei of this book. If this simple
staiting assumption is coiiect, it shoulu be possible to invent a mouel of the univeise that uses
only the piopeities of 4 uimensional spacetime. 0ltimately, all mattei, eneigy, foices, fielus
anu laws of physics shoulu logically be obtainable fiom just 4 uimensional spacetime. This is a
laige pioject that encompasses all of physics. It giew into this book length explanation iathei
than a few technical papeis.

Initially, this might seem impossible because spacetime appeais to be just a quiet vacuum that
possesses thiee spatial uimensions plus time. Bowevei, the quantum mechanical mouel of
spacetime has a vast eneigy uensity also known as vacuum eneigy, quantum fluctuations, zeio
point eneigy, etc. The spacetime mouel that is capable of foiming mattei, eneigy, foices anu
fielus is a composite of quantum mechanical anu geneial ielativistic chaiacteiistics. Besiues a
specific speeu of light anu a giavitational constant, spacetime also possesses impeuance, bulk
mouulus, eneigy uensity etc. The combination of these piopeities peimits spacetime to
become the basic builuing block foi all mattei anu foices.

4-2
Spacetime uoes have some ieal auvantages as the basic builuing block of eveiything in the
univeise. Spacetime is the stiffest of all possible meuiums that suppoit wave piopagation. A
uistuibance in spacetime piopagates at the speeu of light. The chaiacteiistics of spacetime
peimit it to suppoit any fiequency wave up to Planck fiequency (~1u
4S
Bz). This is a
tiemenuous auvantage if we aie attempting to finu a meuium that can hypothetically suppoit
the laige eneigy uensity iequiieu to builu a pioton, foi example. Some waves in spacetime will
be shown to be capable of mouulating the spatial anu tempoial piopeities of spacetime. This
can seive as the basic builuing block of mattei, foices anu fielus.

The simplicity of the staiting assumption uoes have one auvantage. It shoulu be ielatively easy
to piove oi uispiove. 0nlike stiing theoiy, this staiting assumption haiuly pioviues any wiggle
ioom. If the assumption is wiong, the eiioi shoulu be quickly eviuent. If the assumption is
coiiect, the extieme limitations uefine a naiiow path that shoulu leau to both confoimations
anu new insights. I will summaiize the conclusions of chaptei #1.

A confineu photon in a moving fiame of iefeience has the following 8 similaiities to a
funuamental paiticle with the same eneigy anu same fiame of iefeience:
1) the same ineitia, 2) the same weight, S) the same kinetic eneigy when moving 4)
the same ue Bioglie wavelength S) the same ue Bioglie phase velocity, 6) the same ue
Bioglie gioup velocity, 7) the same ielativistic length contiaction, 8) the same
ielativistic time uilation. It is haiu to avoiu the thought that peihaps a paiticle is
actually a wave with components exhibiting biuiiectional piopagation at the speeu of
light but somehow confineu to a specific volume. This confinement piouuces stanuing
waves that aie simultaneously moving both towaius anu away fiom a cential iegion.

The assumption that the univeise is only spacetime causes us to exploie the possibility that
waves in spacetime (uynamically cuiveu spacetime) aie the basic builuing blocks of paiticles,
foices anu fielus. It also offeis the oppoitunity to give a physical uesciiption of quantum
mechanical opeiations such as the collapse of the wave function oi making a measuiement of a
quantum mechanical state. The ultimate test is whethei this assumption logically leaus to
giavity anu compatibility with quantum mechanics.

The starting assumption that the universe is only spacetime requires that the reader change
perspective about what is a cause and what is an effect. The standard physical
interpretation of general relativity is that matter causes curved spacetime. The reverse
perspective would be that a special type of curved spacetime (dynamic spacetime) causes
matter. The static curved spacetime, normally assumed to be caused by matter, will be
shown to be a minor residual effect of dynamic spacetime.

Creative Challenge: I staiteu with two positions that aie cuiiently not connecteu. 0n the
one hanu, theie is the cuiient unueistanuing of the funuamental paiticles, foices anu physical
4-3
laws. 0n the othei hanu, theie is the basic assumption that the univeise is only spacetime. An
attempt to biing these two uisconnecteu positions togethei iequiies a cieative look at both the
piopeities of spacetime anu the piopeities of paiticles, foices anu physical laws. The
expeiimentally veiifieu physical facts anu equations aie assumeu to be coiiect, but it is not
necessaiy to auopt the physical inteipietations cuiiently useu to explain these facts anu
equations. Foi example, the equations of geneial ielativity accuiately uesciibe giavity anu the
univeise. Bowevei, the accuiacy of these equations uoes not guaiantee the accuiacy of the
physical inteipietations cuiiently associateu with these equations. The iuea that giavity is not
a foice, but the iesult of the geometiy of spacetime is a physical inteipietation of the equations
of geneial ielativity. Rathei than focusing on explaining giavity oi uniting quantum mechanics
anu geneial ielativity, I meiely stait with what I believe is the simplest possible staiting
assumption (the univeise is only spacetime) anu attempt to ieconcile this assumption with
eveiything known to exist in the univeise.

Spacetime Nouels

Spacetime: The Quantum Mechanical Model: The quantum mechanical view of space anu
time (incluuing QEB anu QCB) is veiy uiffeient than the geneial ielativistic view. We will fiist
enumeiate the quantum mechanical uesciiption. In quantum mechanics both space anu time
aie quantizeu. Space is a locally violent meuium filleu with vacuum fluctuations. At the basis of
the unceitainty piinciple theie is eneigetic spacetime that is in a continuous state of flux. The
uistance between two points can only be specifieu to a limiteu accuiacy (Planck length)
because of the effect of these fluctuations on spatial measuiement. Similaily the eneigy at a
point unueigoes wilu fluctuations. This is usually consiueieu as justification foi the foimation
anu annihilation of viitual paiticle paiis, but this eneigy fluctuation can also be consiueieu
meiely an eneigetic uistoition of spacetime. Even the iate of time at aujacent points can
fluctuate slightly piouucing vaiiations (uiffeiences between clocks) that can uiffei by Planck
time.

These fluctuations piouuce measuiable iesults. Foi example, the Casimii effect piouuces a
foice on two closely space metal plates which has been measuieu to an accuiacy of S% of the
theoietical pieuiction. In a hyuiogen atom theie is an inteiaction between the election anu the
vacuum fluctuations that piouuces a small shift in the eneigy of the
2
S
12
eneigy level. This
Lamb shift has been accuiately pieuicteu anu expeiimentally measuieu. vacuum
polaiization is anothei impoitant effect in QCB which involves the inteiaction of a chaigeu
paiticle anu shieluing of that chaige piouuceu by viitual paiticles cieateu in the vacuum.

4-4
An election has a magnetic moment which woulu be piecisely equal to 2 except foi the
anomalous magnetic uipole moment causeu by vacuum fluctuations. This election spin gfactoi
(g
s
) has been pieuicteu by QEB calculations anu expeiimentally veiifieu to bettei than 1u
significant figuies foi the anomalous contiibution. The iesult is: g
s
= 2.uu2S19Su4S6. This
means that the magnetic moment of an election is the most accuiate pieuiction in all of
physics. This accuiacy uepenus on the accuiacy of the quantum mechanical mouel of the
fluctuations in spacetime. All of these examples aie meant to illustiate that quantum
mechanics iequiies that vacuum has vacuum fluctuations at a veiy laige eneigy uensity.

0ne way of quantifying these fluctuations is to visualize a vacuum as being filleu with haimonic
oscillatois at a tempeiatuie of absolute zeio. The lowest quantum mechanical eneigy of each
oscillatoi is E = V = V c (wheie c = anu is pionounceu lambua bai). This is the
famous zeio point eneigy. Each oscillatoi can be visualizeu as occupying a volume of v = k
S

wheie k is a numeiical factoi neai 1. Foi example, a wave can be confineu in a ieflecting cavity
that is V wavelength on a siue. The wave amplituue is zeio at the walls anu maximum in the
centei foi this size cavity. Since we aie stanuaiuizing on the use of foi fiequency anu foi
wavelength, it is possible to say that the wave has been confineu to a volume of
S
if we ignoie
numeiical factois neai 1. 0sing this volume uesignation, this means that the eneigy uensity 0
at fiequency is: 0
=
S
= c
4
=
4
c
S
. In woius, the eneigy uensity at a specific
fiequency incieases with the fouith powei of fiequency.

What is the total eneigy uensity of zeio point eneigy at all fiequencies. If is assumeu to have
no limit (infinite fiequency) then the implieu eneigy uensity woulu also be infinite. If we
assume that zeio point eneigy is associateu with the piopeities of spacetime (pioven latei)
then the maximum fiequency that spacetime can suppoit is Planck fiequency
p
which is the
inveise of Planck time
p
= 1T
p
=(c
S
u)
12
= 1.8S x 1u
4S
s
1
. Assuming Planck fiequency
p
,
the implieu eneigy uensity of the quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime is Planck eneigy
uensity 0
p
=
p
4
c
S
= 4 x 1u
11S
}m
S
. This shocking laige numbei will be extensively analyzeu
seveial uiffeient places latei in this book. Foi now we will meiely iecognize that this is pait of
the quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime.

Spectral Energy Density: The noimal way of tieating eneigy uensity at a paiticulai fiequency
is to uesignate the spectial eneigy uensity which eneigy uensity pei unit fiequency inteival.
We will uesignate this spectial eneigy uensity as: 0()u. Eveiy point in spacetime is tieateu
like it is a quantizeu haimonic oscillatoi with eneigy E = V . This concept leaus to a
spectial eneigy uensity 0()u that is:

0()u = k [
o
3
c
3
u

This spectium with its
S
uepenuence of spectial eneigy uensity is unique in as much as
motion thiough this spectial uistiibution uoes not piouuce a uetectable Bopplei shift. It is a
4-5
Loientz invaiiant ianuom fielu. All ineitial obseiveis aie equivalent. Any paiticulai spectial
component unueigoes a Bopplei shift, but othei components compensate so that all
components taken togethei uo not exhibit a Bopplei shift. Theiefoie this spectial eneigy
uistiibution satisfies the iequiiement that it shoulu not be possible to uetect any uiffeience in
the laws of physics in any fiame of iefeience (at least up to the cut off fiequency). It shoulu
also be noteu that neithei cosmological expansion noi giavity alteis this spectium
1
. The
implications of having a finite cut off fiequency aie uiscusseu as pait of the cosmological
analysis in chaptei 14.

Quantum Foam: In 19SS, }ohn Wheelei pioposeu that spacetime is highly tuibulent at the
scale of Planck length. Be pioposeu that as the scale of time anu length appioaches Planck time
anu Planck length, the eneigy fluctuations in spacetime inciease. These fluctuations on the
smallest scale possible cause spacetime to uepait fiom its smooth macioscopic chaiacteiistic.
}ohn Wheelei suggesteu the teim quantum foam to uesciibe spacetime on this smallest scale.
In the book Einstein's vision, }ohn Wheelei pioposeu that elementaiy paiticles weie exciteu
eneigy states (iesonances) of the vacuum eneigy fluctuations. Be pointeu out that the uensity
of a nucleus was ~ 1u
18
kgm
S
anu this uensity is negligibly small compaieu to the equivalent
uensity of spacetime (~ 1u
97
kgm
S
oi an eneigy uensity of ~ 1u
11S
}m
S
). While }ohn
Wheeleis uesciiption of spacetime has the same basic components as the spacetime mouel
pioposeu in this book, his concept of how spacetime foims paiticles anu foices is uiffeient.

To summaiize, the quantum mechanical mouel of vacuum, spacetime is a sea of eneigetic
activity that can be visualizeu seveial uiffeient ways. The unceitainty piinciple has uistance,
momentum, time anu eneigy unueigoing fluctuations. Fielu theoiy has a sea of haimonic
oscillatois, each with zeio point eneigy of E = V . Paiticle physics has viitual paiticle paiis
anu viitual photons coming into existence anu going out of existence. QCB has viitual paiticles
with both coloi chaige anu electiical chaige piouucing vacuum polaiization. The quantum
mechanical mouel of vacuum iequiies a minimum vacuum eneigy uensity of at least 1u
Su
}m
S

foi many QCB calculations anu some vaiiations iequiie the full Planck eneigy uensity of
~ 1u
11S
}m
S
.

Spacetime: The General Relativity Model: ueneial ielativity visualizes spacetime as a
smooth, well behaveu meuium consisting of S spatial uimensions plus time. Spacetime can be
cuiveu by eneigy in any foim but it is not subject to the ianuom fluctuations of the quantum
mechanical mouel. ueneial ielativity is a classical theoiy that uoes not iecognize Plancks
constant, Planck length oi Planck time. The uistance between two closely spaceu points is not
consiueieu to fluctuate but theie is a limit as to the piecision of the measuiement. This
piecision limit is set by the possibility of foiming a black hole if too much eneigy is iequiieu to

1
Puthoff, H.E. Phys. Rev. A Volume 40, p.4857, 1989 Errata in Phys. Rev A volume 44, p. 3385, 1991 See also
New Scientist, volume 124, p.36, Dec. 2, 1089
4-6
make the measuiement. Bowevei, even this limit is a mixtuie of quantum mechanics anu
geneial ielativity. In geneial ielativity theie aie no quantizeu opeiations.

ueneial ielativity (uR) teaches that eneigy in any foim geneiates giavity. Accoiuing to geneial
ielativity the univeise woulu collapse into a black hole if the eneigy uensity of the univeise
exceeus the ciitical eneigy uensity. The cosmologically obseiveu eneigy uensity of the
univeise (about 1u
9
}m
S
) appeais to be within the maigin of eiioi (within 1%) of equaling
the ciitical eneigy uensity of the univeise. Theiefoie, accoiuing to geneial ielativity the
quantum mechanical mouel of vacuum must be wiong because the quantum mechanical mouel
iequiies eneigy uensity vastly exceeuing the ciitical uensity of about 1u
9
}m
S
. Accoiuing to
geneial ielativity, an eneigy uensity of 1u
11S
}m
S
is iiuicules. This eneigy uensity woulu foim
a black hole even foi a spheie that is Planck length in iauius.

ueneial ielativity uoes have its shaie of pieuictions not shaieu by quantum mechanics. Foi
example, the iate of time uepenus on giavity in uR while quantum mechanics consiueis the
iate of time to be constant. Also, uR pieuicts that piopei volume also is affecteu by giavity.
Quantum mechanics uoes not iecognize a giavitational effect on volume.

Reconciling the QM and GR Models: The uisciepancy between the quantum mechanical
eneigy uensity of vacuum (~1u
11S
}m
S
) anu the cosmologically obseiveu eneigy uensity of the
univeise (~1u
9
}m
S
) is the laigest numeiical uisciepancy in all of physics. The uiffeience is a
factoi of about 1u
122
but this is usually iounueu off to meiely a factoi of 1u
12u
. The stanuaiu
inteipietation is that theie must be some othei effect that cancels out what appeais to be a
iiuiculously laige quantum mechanical eneigy uensity. Bowevei, theie is goou eviuence that
the vacuum fluctuations exist. They aie iequiieu foi many cuiient quantum mechanical
effects. They cannot simply be canceleu by anothei effect that somehow eliminates all the
effects of these fluctuations. Fuitheimoie, canceling out 1u
11S
}m
S
woulu iequiie an equally
laige effect in the opposite uiiection. No effect that cancels 1u
11S
}m
S
has been pioposeu.

0n close examination we ieally uo not neeu a tiue cancelation of eneigy. We meiely neeu one
oi moie mechanisms that allow the quantum mechanical vacuum eneigy to exist but not
inteiact with us oi oui obseivable univeise except thiough the quantum mechanical
inteiactions mentioneu. It will be pioposeu latei that the quantum mechanical mouel of
spacetime is coiiect iegaiuing the eneigy uensity of spacetime at the quantum scale of Planck
length anu Planck time. Also, the geneial ielativity mouel is coiiect iegaiuing the eneigy
uensity of spacetime on the macioscopic scale that uoes not iecognize fluctuations at the scale
of Planck length anu Planck time. Since the uR pieuictions aie viitually univeisally accepteu,
we will concentiate on the eneigy uensity pieuictions of quantum mechanics which aie
geneially piesumeu to be eliminateu by some unknown offsetting piopeity of spacetime. This
seems obvious since we uo not macioscopically inteiact with this tiemenuous eneigy uensity
noi has it causeu the univeise to collapse as implieu by geneial ielativity.
4-7

It is proposed here that spacetime is a composite of the quantum mechanical model and the
general relativity model. The quantum mechanical model with its quantum fluctuations
and tremendous energy density is describing the portion of the universe that lacks
quantized angular momentum and is as homogeneous as quantum mechanics allows. The
general relativity model only recognizes the small portion of the energy in the universe that
possesses quantized angular momentum (fermions and bosons). This portion is capable of
forming energy concentrations such as massive bodies which distort the macroscopic
homogeneity of the quantum mechanical model to form curved spacetime.

The iest of this book is uevoteu to explaining vaiious aspects of the above statement.

The factoi of 1u
12u
uisciepancy between the two mouels is the uiffeience between the minute
fiaction of eneigy (paiticles, photons, etc.) that possesses quantizeu angulai momentum anu
the vastly laigei vacuum eneigy uensity that uoes not possess quantizeu angulai momentum.
This vacuum eneigy will latei be shown to be a homogeneous supeifluiu anu have othei
piopeities that pievent giavitational collapse. These statements aie only maue to aleit the
ieauei that the obvious objections will be auuiesseu latei.

Anothei objection auuiesseu latei is the contention that the laige eneigy uensity of vacuum
fluctuations is impossible because the volume of the univeise is expanuing yet the vacuum
eneigy uensity is peiceiveu to iemain constant. This seems to imply that a vast amount of new
eneigy is being auueu to the univeise each seconu to accompany the new volume being
cieateu. This answei iequiies two chapteis (1S & 14) foi a complete explanation, but a key
point in this explanation is that spacetime is unueigoing a tiansfoimation that staiteu at the
Big Bang anu continues touay. The expansion of the piopei volume of the univeise is one
iesult of this tiansfoimation. Anothei iesult is that oui stanuaiu of a unit of eneigy is
shiinking. A uecieasing stanuaiu will make a constant amount of eneigy on an absolute scale
appeai to giow on oui shiinking scale. New eneigy is not being auueu to the univeise but the
piopeities of the vacuum fluctuations aie changing. This will be explaineu in moie uetail in
chapteis 1S anu 14.

Vacuum Fluctuations and Vacuum Energy: In the iemainuei of this book the teims
vacuum eneigy anu vacuum fluctuations will be useu inteichangeably. In both cases they
iefei to the quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime with eneigy uensity of about 1u
11S
}m
S
.
Foi example, vacuum fluctuations implies quantum mechanical fluctuations of the vacuum
(fluctuations of spacetime) which will be uesciibeu in the next section of this book. Such
fluctuations also can be uesciibeu as vacuum eneigy. The ieason foi using two uiffeient
teims is because sometimes it is uesiiable to emphasize the eneigy chaiacteiistics anu
sometimes it is uesiiable to emphasize the fluctuation chaiacteiistic.

4-8
In this book the teims vacuum eneigy anu vacuum fluctuations will nevei imply uaik
eneigy oi the cosmological constant. These aie concepts fiom cosmology that imply a vastly
lowei eneigy uensity anu a uiffeient explanation. Baik eneigy will be uiscusseu in chapteis 1S
anu 14. A mouel of the univeise will be piesenteu that is baseu on spacetime unueigoing a
tiansfoimation that piouuces the obseiveu inciease in piopei volume anu othei obseivations
without the neeu of uaik eneigy.

Bipole Waves in Spacetime

Thus fai we have talkeu about vacuum fluctuations anu infeiieu that these can be consiueieu
waves in spacetime. Now it is time to be moie specific about the piopeities of these waves in
spacetime. Since the staiting assumption of this book is that the univeise is only spacetime, the
goal is see if it is possible to piove that all paiticles, fielus anu foices aie foimeu out of 4
uimensional spacetime. A ciitical step is to invent a mouel of waves in spacetime that coulu
possibly be the univeisal builuing block of all paiticles anu foices. 0nce such a mouel is
postulateu, it must be testeu to see if it in fact coiiesponus to ieality.

If funuamental paiticles aie ultimately confineu waves in spacetime, it is necessaiy to look foi
an explanation that incoipoiates waves in spacetime with chaiacteiistics that can be the basic
builuing block foi all mattei anu foices. uiavitational waves uo not have the necessaiy
piopeities to be both vacuum fluctuations anu the basic builuing block of all paiticles anu
foices. We aie looking foi a wave in spacetime that changes both the iate of time (uistoits the
time uimension) anu changes the uistance between points in a way that changes piopei
volume. We know fiom geneial ielativity that mass affects both the iate of time anu piopei
volume (mass cuives spacetime). Therefore, if we are trying to build matter out of waves in
spacetime, we must use waves in spacetime that possess the ability to affect both the rate of
time and the distance between two points. We must use waves that have the ability to
uynamically cuive spacetime. The only wave in spacetime that affects the iate of time anu
affects piopei volume is a hypothetical uipole wave in spacetime.

The immeuiate pioblem is that uipole waves in spacetime aie foibiuuen by geneial ielativity.
In stanuaiu texts on geneial ielativity the subject of uipole waves waiiants just a biief mention
because they aie consiueieu impossible. Foi example, peihaps the most authoiitative text on
geneial ielativity is the 1Suu page tome titleu uiavitation by Chailes Nisnei, Kip Thoine anu
}ohn Aichibalu Wheelei. 0n page 97S of the 24
th
piinting, uipole waves in spacetime ieceive a
thiee line mention to the effect that theie can be no mass uipole iauiation because the seconu
time ueiivative of the mass uipole is zeio (

u
= p = u). This conclusion ultimately follows fiom

the conseivation of momentum. The geneiation of uipole waves in spacetime woulu iequiie the
centei of mass of a closeu system to acceleiate in violation of the conseivation of momentum.
4-9
Fuitheimoie, if a uipole wave in spacetime somehow existeu, the passage of this wave past an
electiically neutial, isolateu mass woulu cause the centei of mass to unueigo an oscillating
uisplacement which is also a violation of the conseivation of momentum. Cleaily, uipole waves
in spacetime cannot exist on the macioscopic scale goveineu by geneial ielativity.

Bowevei, if we aie exploiing the possibility of constiucting the entiie univeise out of 4
uimensional spacetime, uipole waves in spacetime have a lot of appeal anu ueseive a closei
look. Nattei cuives spacetime theiefoie uipole waves in spacetime neeu to be consiueieu as
the spacetime wave builuing block foi mattei. Aie theie any conuitions wheie uipole waves in
spacetime woulu be peimitteu. The answei is yes pioviueu that the uipole waves confoim to a
seveie limitation. The following is the seconu key assumption of this book:

Seconu Assumption: Dipole waves in spacetime are permitted by the uncertainty principle
provided that the displacement of spacetime caused by the dipole wave does not exceed
Planck length or Planck time. This restriction will be called the Planck length/time
limitation.

The spacetime baseu mouel pioposes that uipole waves in spacetime can exist on the scale
goveineu by quantum mechanics. This is to say that theie aie uisplacements of spacetime that
aie so small that the uisplacements aie below the quantum mechanical uetectable limit set by
the unceitainty piinciple. This is analogous to the ieasoning that peimits viitual paiticle paiis
to tempoiaiily exist pioviueu that they aie peimitteu by the unceitainty piinciple. It is
pioposeu that uipole waves in spacetime can exist pioviueu that the spatial uisplacement of
spacetime uoes not exceeu Planck length anu the tempoial uisplacement of spacetime uoes not
exceeu Planck time. Like all Planck unit uefinitions it ignoies numeiical factois neai 1.
Theiefoie, a moie piecise statement of this limitation might incluue a numeiical factoi neai 1
that is being ignoieu heie.

A supeificial analysis of the minimum uetectable change in length woulu use the unceitainty
piinciple equation: xp V anu substitute foi p the laigest possible value of momentum
unceitainty foi a single quantizeu unit. This woulu be Planck momentum which is the
momentum of a hypothetical photon with Planck eneigy oi Planck mass times the speeu of
light. 0sing this maximum momentum foi a single quantizeu unit the minimum value of x is:
x = L
p
(Planck length). Bowevei, this question of the minimum length measuiement has been
given a moie iigoious examination
2,S,4,S,6,7
that incluues both quantum mechanics anu geneial

2
Padmanabhan, T.: Limitations on the operational definition of spacetime events and quantum gravity. Class.
Quantum Grav. 4 L107 (1987)
3
Garay, L. J.: Quantum gravity and minimum length. Int. J. Mod. Phys. A 10, 145-166 (1995), arXiv:gr-qc/9403008
4
Baez, J. C., Olson, S. J.: Uncertainty in measurements of distance. Class. Quantum Grav. 19:14, L121-L125 (2002)
5
Calmet, X., Graesser, M,. Hsu, S. D.: Minimum length from quantum mechanics and general relativity. Phys. Rev.
Lett. 93, 211101 (2004) [arXiv:hep-th/0405033v2]
6
Calmet, X.: Planck length and cosmology. Mod. Phys. Lett. A 22, 2027-2034 (2007), [arXiv:0704.1360v1]
4-10
ielativity. The conclusion of all these aiticles is that that theie is a funuamental limit to length
measuiement (uevice inuepenuent) on the oiuei of Planck length (L
p
= 1.6 x 1u
SS
m). A
similai analysis of time
2,S
has concluueu that theie is a funuamental minimum uetectable unit
of time (uiffeience between clocks) which is on the oiuei of Planck time (T
p
= S.4 x 1u
44
s)

We will accept these conclusions anu pioceeu assuming that a uisplacement of spacetime equal
to Planck length oi Planck time is funuamentally unuetectable. This limitation is conceptually
unueistanuable if it is vieweu as a signal to noise limitation. If the veiy natuie of spacetime is
that theie aie quantum fluctuations of Planck length anu Planck time, then it is quite
ieasonable that it is impossible to make physical measuiements below this noise limit.
Theiefoie, quantum mechanics peimits a uipole wave in spacetime to uisplace a paiticles
centei of mass by Planck length without violating the conseivation of momentum. Similaily, a
uipole wave can uisplace time (the uiffeience between clocks) at a specific location by Planck
time compaieu to the suiiounuing volume without violating any conseivation iequiiement.
Even though the wave piopeities of spacetime uipole waves aie unuetectable, this uoes not
imply that spacetime uipole waves aie inconsequential. It will be shown that any uipole wave
that possesses quantizeu angulai momentum will piouuce uetectable inteiactions without
ievealing its wave piopeities.

It is pioposeu that vacuum fluctuations, quantum foam, zeio point eneigy, vacuum eneigy, the
unceitainty piinciple etc. aie all just uiffeient ways of uesciibing uipole waves in spacetime
with a spatial uisplacement amplituue in the iange of Planck length (L = L
p
) anu a tempoial
uisplacement amplituue of Planck time (T = T
p
). This says that the uimensionless stiain wave
amplituue foi a ieuuceu wavelength of expiesseu using spatial piopeities anu tempoial
piopeities woulu be:

B = LL = L
p
stiain amplituue expiesseu using Planck length anu
B = TT = T
p
stiain amplituue expiesseu using Planck time anu

It will be shown latei that this iestiicteu stiain amplituue can still achieve Planck eneigy
uensity (~1u
11S
}m
S
) as well as achieve the eneigy iequiieu foi elections, quaiks, photons etc.
To give a cleaiei uesciiption of stiain amplituue, imagine a sine wave that is uiawn on giaph
papei. 0n the Y axis, the sine wave has a maximum value of +L
p
anu a minimum value of L
p
.
This maximum anu minimum uisplacement is the quantum mechanical limitation. The stiain
amplituue piouuceu by this wave at any point coiiesponus to the slope of this wave at that
point. The maximum slope (maximum stiain amplituue) occuis when the wave ciosses the
x axis (y = u). This maximum slope is: L
p
anu leaus to the following coiollaiy:

7
Calmet, X.: On the precision of length measurement. Eur. Phys. J. C 54: 501-505, (2008) [arXiv:hep-
th/0701073v1]
4-11
Coiollaiy Assumption: The maximum strain amplitude permitted for a dipole wave in
spacetime is L
p
in the spatial domain and T
p
in the temporal domain.
H
max
= L
p
. = T
p

Symbols L
p
and T
p
Explained: We aie going to inteiiupt the uiscussion of uipole waves to
inseit a note on symbols. A uistinction is being maue between static Planck length l
p
anu a
wave amplituue that is a Planck length oscillation of spacetime. This will be calleu uynamic
Planck length iepiesenteu by the symbol L
p
. The uiffeience is that l
p
iepiesents a unit of iulei
length. An example of iulei length is a 1 metei uistance between two stationaiy points. This
contiasts with uynamic length which is a wave amplituue with uimensions of length. Foi
example, the uipole waves in spacetime aie continuously affecting the uistance between two
stationaiy points by Planck length. This wave amplituue is uynamic Planck length anu
iepiesenteu by the symbol L
p
. This oscillation uistance has units of length, but it is not the
same as iulei length. In a sense, L
p
in uipole waves in spacetime is similai to the l teim in
giavitational waves.

A unit of time coiiesponuing to Planck time has the symbol t
p
. When the iate of time is
speeuing up anu slowing uown in an oscillatoiy fashion by an amount equal to Planck time,
then the symbol T
p
will be useu to iepiesent uynamic Planck time. The symbol T
p
has units of
time, but is an oscillatoiy uisplacement of time. Angulai fiequency has units of s
1
; theiefoie
T
p
is a uimensionless numbei that will be useu extensively to expiess a stiain wave
amplituue. The same way that stietching oi compiessing length iepiesents a stiain, so also
speeuing up oi slowing uown the iate of time iequiies a stiain of spacetime. The following
summaiy is pioviueu foi fuithei claiification:

l
p
means static Planck length, a uistance measuiement of 1.616 x 1u
SS
meteis
L
p
means uynamic Planck length, a wave uisplacement of 1.616 x 1u
SS
meteis
t
p
means Planck time, a unit of time coiiesponuing to S.S9 x 1u
44
seconus
T
p
means uynamic Planck time, a wave uisplacement of time of S.S9 x 1u
44
seconus

What Are Dipole Waves In Spacetime? We will stait the examination of uipole waves in
spacetime by making an analogy to electiomagnetic uipoles. Foi example, a caibon monoxiue
molecule has a caibon atom that is positively chaigeu anu an oxygen atom that is negatively
chaigeu. The bonu between these two atoms has similaiities to a mechanical spiing. When the
caibon monoxiue molecule is given eneigy it will vibiate anu emit infiaieu electiomagnetic
iauiation. This is an oscillating electiomagnetic uipole emitting electiomagnetic uipole
iauiation. Anothei possibility is foi the molecule to iapiuly iotate aiounu a tiansveise axis.
This is a iotating electiomagnetic uipole which also piouuces infiaieu electiomagnetic
iauiation (infiaieu uipole iauiation). Atoms anu plasmas also emit electiomagnetic iauiation,
but the uipole chaiacteiistic of the emission is best illustiateu by a polaiizeu molecule.

4-12
In contiast to uipole emission, suppose that we hau a uiatomic molecule wheie both of the
atoms weie positively chaigeu. 0scillating oi iotating this molecule woulu also piouuce
electiomagnetic iauiation, but at a much lowei efficiency anu into a uiffeient emission pattein
known as a quauiupole emission pattein. Even though quauiupole emission is uiffeient than
uipole emission, the photons piouuceu by quauiupole emission have the same funuamental
piopeities as photons piouuceu by uipole emission. Both aie electiomagnetic iauiation with
tiansveise wave piopeities. This is wheie the electiomagnetic analogy to uipole waves in
spacetime bieaks uown because waves in spacetime have a funuamental uiffeience between
uipole waves compaieu to quauiupole waves (giavitational waves).

Nass has only one polaiity. It is impossible to geneiate uipole waves in spacetime by
oscillating oi iotating two connecteu masses. The lowest oiuei wave obtainable by
unsymmetiical acceleiation of mass such as an oscillating ellipsoiu oi a iotating iou is
quauiupole giavitational waves. In eithei case theie is no uisplacement of the centei of mass.
To obtain uipole waves in spacetime by acceleiating mass, it woulu be necessaiy to have the
centei of mass of a closeu system acceleiate in violation of the conseivation of momentum.
Anothei impossible alteinative woulu iequiie a mass that exhibiteu antigiavity. A mass with
antigiavity woulu be the equivalent of a negative giavitational chaige anu it coulu be
combineu with an oiuinaiy mass to foim an oscillating oi iotating mass uipole. This also
woulu hypothetically piouuce uipole waves in spacetime. Even though geneial ielativity
foibius uipole waves in spacetime, they aie peimitteu by quantum mechanics pioviueu that
they aie subject to the Planck lengthtime limitation. We will theiefoie move on anu examine
the theoietical piopeities of these quantum mechanical uipole waves in spacetime.

Envisioning a Dipole in Spacetime: What exactly is a uipole wave in spacetime. Chaptei S
will give a moie uetaileu uesciiption of a uipole in spacetime incluuing figuies. This biief
uesciiption is only intenueu to be sufficient to allow othei concepts to be intiouuceu.

Imagine a volume of space that has flat spacetime with no vacuum fluctuations at any scale.
Theie is no such volume of spacetime but this concept will be useu foi illustiation. Within this
volume the iate of time woulu be peifectly unifoim anu Eucliuian geometiy woulu peifectly
uesciibe the geometiical chaiacteiistics. Now we will imagine this volume filleu with multiple
small amplituue uipole waves in spacetime. These waves aie chaotically ieaiianging
themselves at the speeu of light. If it was possible to momentaiily fieeze this ieaiiangement,
we woulu finu that the volume is not flat spacetime. Some locations have a slightly laigei
volume than expecteu fiom Eucliuian geometiy anu othei locations have slightly less piopei
volume than expecteu fiom Eucliuian geometiy. Peihaps most impoitant, some locations have
a iate of time that is slightly fastei than the local noim anu othei locations have a iate of time
that is slightly slowei than the local noim. These same vaiiations in volume anu iate of time
aie obseiveu at any scale uown to a minimum of Planck length. Since the maximum
4-13
uisplacement of spacetime is always Planck length anu Planck time iegaiuless of scale, the
stiain of spacetime incieases when the scale gets smallei.

In contiast, a volume filleu with chaotic giavitational waves (quauiupole waves) woulu have
no oscillation of the iate of time anu no oscillation in piopei volume. Theie woulu be an effect
on the uistance between points, but an inciease in uistance in one uimension is offset by a
ueciease in uistance in an oithogonal uimension so that theie is no net change in volume. The
way that giavitational waves affect spacetime means that they can piouuce a measuiable
oscillation in the uistance between two points (gieatei than Planck length). This is a
funuamental uiffeience between uipole waves in spacetime anu giavitational waves. The wave
piopeities of giavitational waves aie uetectable, the wave piopeities of uipole waves aie not
uetectable.

Definition of Dipole Wave in Spacetime: We neeu to uefine the teim uipole wave in
spacetime. It will be cumbeisome in the iemainuei of this book if it is always necessaiy to
keep ieminuing the ieauei that the teim uipole wave in spacetime implies the Planck
lengthtime limitation. Theiefoie, the teim uipole wave in spacetime will be uefineu as a
uynamic oscillation of both the iate of time anu spatial uistance between stationaiy points in
space. This oscillation in spacetime piopagates at the speeu of light anu is subject to the Planck
lengthtime limitation. This concept will be uevelopeu fuithei in this anu the next chaptei.

Planck Scale: The mention of Planck length anu Planck time uoes not necessaiily imply
Planck scale. The teim Planck scale has come to imply the conuitions that woulu exist if
paiticles oi photons hau Planck eneigy (E
p
= 1.22 x 1u
19
uev oi 1.96 x 1u
9
}oule). Foi example,
a hypothetical paiticle with Planck eneigy (Planck mass) woulu have the foice of giavity be
compaiable to the stiong foice oi the electiomagnetic foice. Such a paiticle woulu have a
Compton fiequency equal to Planck angulai fiequency which is the inveise of Planck time. The
natuial unit of length of such a hypothetical paiticle is Planck length. All of these piopeities aie
hypothetical because a Planck mass funuamental paiticle uoes not exist. It woulu be the
smallest possible black hole.

If a wave in spacetime causes the uistance between two points to change by _ Planck length,
the fiequency of this oscillation can be much less than Planck angulai fiequency (~1u
4S
s
1
).
Similaily, a wave in spacetime can cause an oscillation in the iate of time at a fiequency much
less than Planck fiequency. The point is that an oscillation uistoition of spacetime uoes not
imply Planck eneigy scale just because the uisplacement of spacetime is Planck length oi
Planck time. In oiuei to ieach Planck eneigy, the fiequency of this oscillation neeus to be
Planck angulai fiequency (~ 1u
4S
s
1
). We will be uiscussing waves in spacetime which
piouuce Planck lengthtime uisplacements of spacetime at fiequencies in the iange of 1u
2u
Bz
to 1u
2S
Bz. This is many oiueis of magnituue less than Planck eneigy anu theiefoie uoes not
imply the commonly accepteu uefinition of Planck scale.
4-14

Displacement of Spacetime Explained: In the seconu assumption above, the teim
uisplacement of spacetime neeus some explanation. Imagine that we uefine two points in
space sepaiateu by uistance i. It woulu take a time peiiou of t = 2ic to measuie the
sepaiation between these two points because this is the time iequiieu foi light to make a iounu
tiip between the two points. Suppose that the space between these two points is filleu with
multiple fiequencies of waves in spacetime. The fiequencies with wavelengths much shoitei
than uistance i (fiequencies << 1t) woulu not auu coheiently anu theiefoie woulu be
minimizeu. Bowevei, even incoheient auuition woulu seem to imply that occasionally the total
uisplacement amplituue coulu exceeu the Planck lengthtime limitation foi a shoit time.
Bowevei, ovei the integiation time of t = 2ic the highei fiequency components aveiage out so
that the Planck lengthtime limitation is not exceeueu. Fuitheimoie, we know that viitual
paiticle paiis such as electionposition paiis anu viitual photon paiis aie continuously coming
into existence anu going out of existence. These will be uiscusseu latei anu shown to have a
wave stiuctuie. The foimation of these viitual paiticle paiis is pioposeu to be the mechanism
that also limits the maximum amplituue fiom exceeuing the Planck lengthtime limitation.

It is impoitant to also unueistanu that uipole waves in spacetime tiavel at the speeu of light but
they uo not fieely piopagate like photons oi giavitational waves. Since uipole waves affect the
iate of time anu the piopei volume, they inteiact with each othei. Beie aie some othei
pioposeu piopeities of uipole waves in spacetime that aie piesenteu heie in summaiy foim
anu explaineu latei.
1) Eveiy pait of a uipole wave in spacetime becomes the souice of a new wave (calleu a
wavelet).
2) These wavelets piopagate in all uiiections.
S) The auuition of wavelets tenus to constiuctively inteifeie pieuominately in the foiwaiu
anu backwaiu piopagation uiiections of the pieviously existing wavefionts.
4) These wavelets exploie an infinite numbei of possible tiajectoiies to achieve an
amplituue sum at any point (intensity is amplituue squaieu).
S) This is pioposeu to be the physical explanation that is being moueleu by Richaiu
Feynmans path integial. These piopeities will be explaineu latei.

Impeuance of Spacetime

The fiist step in uniaveling the 1u
12u
uisciepancy between the quantum mechanical mouel anu
the geneial ielativity mouel is to see if theie is anything in geneial ielativity that actually
suppoits the iuea of a laige vacuum eneigy uensity. It is pioposeu that an analysis of
giavitational waves inueeu gives suppoit to the quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime.
4-15
uiavitational waves aie a foim of eneigy that piopagates at the speeu of light as tiansveise
waves IN spacetime. They piouuce a uynamic uistoition of 2 of the 4 uimensions of spacetime.
The uistoition conveits the spheiical volume into an oscillating ellipsoiu. 0ne tiansveise axis
of the ellipsoiu elongates while the oithogonal tiansveise axis contiacts. This oscillation of the
ellipsoiu piouuces no net change in volume fiom the oiiginal spheiical volume anu theie is no
change in the iate of time.

uiavitational waves tiansfei eneigy anu angulai momentum. In 199S the Nobel Piize was
awaiueu to Russell Bulse anu }oseph Tayloi foi the pioof that a binaiy neution stai system was
slowing uown its iotation because it was emitting giavitational waves. The amount of slowing
was exactly the amount pieuicteu by geneial ielativity. The emission of giavitational waves
piouuces a ietaiuing foice on the iotating binaiy stais, thus piouucing an obseivable slowing
of the iotation (loss of eneigy anu angulai momentum). If it was possible to ieveise the
uiiection of these giavitational waves, the giavitational waves woulu ietuin eneigy anu
angulai momentum to the binaiy neution stai system.

The ieason that giavitational waves aie intiouuceu into a uiscussion about the eneigy uensity
of spacetime is that giavitational waves aie piopagating in spacetime. They aie analogous to
sounu waves piopagating in an acoustic meuium. The same way that the equations foi sounu
piopagation give infoimation about the acoustic meuium, so also the giavitational wave
equations can give infoimation about the piopeities of spacetime.

Z
s
The Impedance of Spacetime: An analysis of giavitational wave equations has been maue
in the book The Betection of uiavitational Waves
8
anu it was founu that spacetime has
chaiacteiistic impeuance, just like any othei acoustic meuium. This impeuance of spacetime is
given in this book as:

Z
s
= c
S
u = 4.uS8 x 1u
SS
kgs Z
s
= impeuance of spacetime

The ieasoning that leu to this uesignation of the impeuance of spacetime can be unueistoou by
examining the geneial piopeities of waves in any foim. All piopagating waves involve the
movement of eneigy. In othei woius, piopagating waves of any kinu aie a foim of powei.
Theie is a geneial equation that applies to waves of any kinu. The most common foim of this
equation ielates intensity J, the wave amplituue B, the wave angulai fiequency anu the
impeuance Z of the meuium caiiying the wave. The intensity J can be expiesseu in units of
wm
2
.

J = k B
2
2
Z
J = intensity; B = amplituue; = angulai fiequency; Z = impeuance;

8
Blair, D. G. (ed.): The Detection of Gravitational Waves. p 45. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge New
York Port Chester (1991)
4-16
k = a uimensionless constant

We will fiist illustiate the use of this geneial equation using acoustic waves. The acoustic
impeuance is: Z
a
= c
a
wheie is uensity anu c
a
is the speeu of sounu in the meuium (acoustic
speeu). Acoustic impeuance has units of kgm
2
s using SI (uimensional analysis units of
NL
2
T ). The amplituue of an acoustic wave is uefineu by the uisplacement of paiticles
oscillating in an acoustic wave. The amplituue teim in acoustic equations has units of length
such as meteis.

When this equation is useu foi giavitational waves, the amplituue teim is a uimensionless iatio
which in its simplest foim can be expiesseu as B = LL. This iatio is expiessing a stiain in
spacetime which can also be thought of as the maximum slope of a giaph that plots
uisplacement veisus wavelength. When the amplituue teim is uimensionless stiain amplituue,
then foi compatibility the impeuance of spacetime Z
s
must have uimensions of masstime
(NT).

Even though J = k B
2
2
Z is a univeisal waveamplituue equation, it can only be useu if
amplituue B anu impeuance Z aie expiesseu in units compatible with this equation. Foi
example, electiomagnetic iauiation is usually expiesseu with amplituue in units of electiic fielu
stiength anu the impeuance of fiee space Z
o
in units of ohms. This way of stating wave
amplituue anu impeuance uoes not have the coiiect units iequiieu foi compatibility with the
above intensity equation. As uiscusseu in chaptei 9, theie aie othei ways of expiessing these
teims that make electiomagnetic iauiation compatible with this univeisal equation.

The intensity of giavitational waves can be complex because of nonlineaiities anu iauiation
patteins. Bowevei, this intensity can be expiesseu simply if we assume plane waves anu the
weak giavity limit. 0sing these assumptions, the giavitational wave intensity J is often
expiesseu as:

J = [
nc
3
4u

2
B
2
wheie: = fiequency

Bowevei, this can be ieaiiangeu to yielu the following equation:

J = kB
2
2
(c
S
u) Wheie:

J = intensity of a giavitational plane wave
k = a uimensionless constant
B = LL = stiain amplituue wheie L is measuiement length anu L is the change in length
= angulai fiequency

4-17
It is obvious compaiing this equation to the geneial equation J = k B
2
2
Z that the two
equations have the same foim anu that the impeuance teim must be: Z = c
S
u. I have chosen to
call this the impeuance of spacetime uesignateu by the symbol Z
s
.

Z
s
=
c
3
u

5 Wave-Amplitude Equations: Now that we aie aimeu with the impeuance of spacetime, the
equation foi intensity (J) can be conveiteu into equations that expiess eneigy uensity (0),
eneigy (E) anu powei (P). If we aie iestiicteu to waves piopagating at the speeu of light, then
we can also conveit the intensity equation into an expiession of the foice (F) exeiteu by the
wave. This conveision incoipoiates the equation F = Pc wheie P is powei piopagating at the
speeu of light. These will be calleu the S waveamplituue equations. These equations also
use the symbols of:

A = aiea (m
2
), v = volume (m
S
) anu k = uimensionless constant neai 1

5 Wave-Amplitude Equations
J

= k B
2

2
Z J = intensity (wm
2
)
0

= k B
2

2
Zc 0 = eneigy uensity (}m
S
) (0 = Jc) anu 0 = " = piessuie
E

= k B
2

2
Z vc E = eneigy (}) (E = Jvc)
P

= k B
2

2
Z A P = powei (}s) (P = JA)
F

= k B
2

2
Z Ac F = foice (N) (F = JAc)

These S equations will be useu numeious times in the iemainuei of the book. It is pioposeu
that all eneigy, foice anu mattei is ueiiveu fiom waves in spacetime anu these S equations will
be useu to suppoit this contention. The amplituue teim B neeus fuithei explanation. We aie
piesuming waves piopagating at the speeu of light anu we aie tempoiaiily excluuing
electiomagnetic waves until chaptei 9. This leaves giavitational waves anu uipole waves in
spacetime. We neeu to stanuaiuize how we uesignate the amplituue of these waves.

Foi giavitational wave expeiiments wheie the wavelength is much longei than the
measuiement path length (>>L), it is acceptable to uesignate the stiain amplituue as
B = LL. Bowevei, when we aie uealing with an aibitiaiy wavelength which might be small,
it is necessaiy to specify stiain as the maximum slope of a giaph that plots uisplacement veisus
wavelength. This maximum slope occuis when the uisplacement is zeio anu the stiain is
maximum. If we uesignate the maximum uisplacement as L, anu the wavelength as , then the
maximum stiain (maximum slope) is B = L. wheie = 2. This example piesumes that
we aie woiking with a uisplacement of length. uiavitational waves only piouuce a mouulation
of length in such a way that theie is no mouulation of volume anu no mouulation of the iate of
time. Theiefoie, giavitational waves aie not subject to the Planck lengthtime limitation that
4-18
applies to uipole waves. As pieviously explaineu, uipole waves have a maximum spatial
uisplacement amplituue of L = L
p
anu a maximum tempoial amplituue of T = T
p
. Theiefoie,
when the maximum stiain amplituue B
max
of uipole waves is:

B
max
= L
p
=
p
= 0
2
c
5

Impedance of Spacetime from the Quantum Mechanical Model: Now that we aie equippeu
with the S waveamplituue equations, the uipole wave hypothesis anu B
max
= L
p
, it is possible
to analyze zeio point eneigy fiom a new peispective. If zeio point eneigy is ieally uipole wave
fluctuations in the meuium of spacetime, then it shoulu be possible to uo a calculation which
suppoits this iuea. Foi ieview, the quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime has spacetime
filleu with zeio point eneigy (quantum oscillatois) with eneigy of E = V . If we aie ignoiing
numeiical factois neai 1, theiefoie we can consiuei each quantum oscillatoi as occupying a
volume v =
S
. This means that the eneigy uensity of the quantum mechanical mouel is
0 =
S
=
4
c
S
. Now we aie ieauy to calculate the impeuance of spacetime obtaineu fiom
the quantum mechanical mouel using the pieviously obtaineu equation foi eneigy uensity
0 = B
2
2
Zc. Reaiianging teims we have:

Z = 0cB
2
2

Set: 0 =
4
c
S
anu B = B
max
= 0
2
c
5

Z = c
S
u = Z
s

Link between QN anu uR Nouels of Spacetime: This is a fantastic outcome! We took the
eneigy uensity of zeio point eneigy anu combineu that with the stiain amplituue of a uipole
wave in spacetime. When we solveu foi impeuance we obtaineu c
S
u. This is the same
impeuance of spacetime that giavitational waves expeiience as they piopagate thiough
spacetime. To me, this implies that the chaiacteiistics of spacetime obtaineu fiom geneial
ielativity agiee with the quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime filleu with zeio point eneigy
anu exhibiting eneigy uensity of 1u
11S
}m
S
. Bow can this be. The geneial ielativity mouel
incoipoiates cosmological obseivation anu sets the eneigy uensity of the univeise at about 1u
9
}m
S
.

Actually this is an eiioneous compaiison. The quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime is
giving the homogeneous inteinal eneigy uensity of spacetime itself. When giavitational waves
piopagate thiough spacetime, they aie inteiacting with this inteinal stiuctuie of spacetime anu
the giavitational waves expeiience impeuance of Z
s
= c
S
u. The eneigy uensity of 1u
9
}m
S

obtaineu by cosmological obseivation is not seeing the inteinal stiuctuie of spacetime with its
tiemenuous eneigy uensity of uipole waves. Insteau, the cosmological obseivations aie just
looking at the eneigy uensity of the hauions, bosons anu uaik eneigy (uiscusseu latei). This
is not the same thing as the inteinal stiuctuie of spacetime. uiavitational waves can piopagate
thiough spacetime that contains no hauions oi bosons anu still expeiience Z
s
= c
S
u. Assuming
4-19
that the total eneigy uensity of the univeise is 1u
9
}m
S
is like looking only at the foam on the
suiface of the ocean anu ignoiing all the watei that makes up the ocean.

The fiist pait of ieconciling the uiffeience between the geneial ielativity anu quantum
mechanical mouels of spacetime is to view the quantum mechanical mouel as uesciibing the
inteinal stiuctuie of spacetime. Neanwhile, the geneial ielativity mouel is uesciibing the
macioscopic chaiacteiistics of spacetime anu the inteiactions with mattei.

If spacetime can piopagate waves such as giavitational waves (oi uipole waves), it implies that
spacetime must have elasticity. This elasticity iequiies the ability to stoie anu ietuin eneigy as
the wave piopagates. The meuium itself must have eneigy uensity. The quantum mechanical
mouel of space is filleu with a sea of eneigetic fluctuations (uipole waves). If these aie
visualizeu as eneigetic waves in spacetime, then a new wave can be visualizeu as compiessing
anu expanuing these pieexisting waves. If this new wave causes the pieexisting waves to
slightly change theii fiequency anu uimensions as they aie being compiesseu anu expanueu,
then this pictuie pioviues the necessaiy elasticity anu eneigy stoiage to spacetime.

This might sounu like a ciiculai aigument since each wave contiibutes to the elasticity
iequiieu by all othei waves. What about the fiist wave. This subject will be uiscusseu
fuithei in the two cosmology chapteis 1S anu 14. Bowevei, it will be pioposeu that theie was
no fiist wave. Spacetime came into existence alieauy filleu with these vacuum fluctuations.
Eneigetic waves aie simply a funuamental piopeity of spacetime. In fact, spacetime uoes not
have waves; spacetime IS the sea of vacuum fluctuations (waves) uesciibeu by the quantum
mechanical mouel. Spacetime nevei was the quiet anu smooth meuium assumeu by geneial
ielativity. Theiefoie theie nevei was a time when a fiist wave was intiouuceu into a quiet
spacetime. This wave stiuctuie with its Planck lengthtime limitation can be ignoieu on the
macioscopic scale but spacetime has a quantum mechanical basis.

The task is not to finu a mechanism that causes cancelation of this tiemenuous eneigy uensity.
This eneigy uensity is ieally piesent in spacetime anu is necessaiy to give spacetime the
piopeities uesciibeu by geneial ielativity. Insteau the focus neeus to tuin to finuing the ieason
that this high eneigy uensity is not moie obvious anu why it uoes not geneiate giavity. Is theie
something about the eneigy in vacuum fluctuations that makes it uiffeient than the eneigy in
mattei anu photons. This question will be answeieu latei.

Thoughts on the Impeuance of Spacetime: It shoulu be emphasizeu that the impeuance of
spacetime is one of the few tiuly funuamental piopeities of spacetime. Foi example, latei it
will be shown that it is possible to make a system of units that use only the piopeities of
spacetime. 0ne of the thiee piopeities of spacetime useu foi this system of units is Z
s
, the
impeuance of spacetime. In Planck units, the impeuance of spacetime is equal to 1 (Z
s
= 1).
Also, the impeuance of spacetime has the following connection to othei Planck teims:
4-20

Z
s
= m
p
p
= F
p
c = p
p
L
p

wheie: m
p
= Planck mass,
p
= Planck fiequency; F
p
= Planck foice, p
p
= Planck momentum

Besiues showing these basic ielationships, the auuitional point is that the impeuance of
spacetime is intimately connecteu to all the Planck teims. These Planck teims iepiesent the
limiting values of mass, foice, length, momentum, etc. The impeuance of spacetime is the
maximum possible value of impeuance. In oiuei foi giavitational waves to piopagate at the
speeu of light in the meuium of spacetime, the iequiieu impeuance is Z
s
.

In chaptei S we saw how a change in the giavitational gamma affecteu the units of physics. It
shoulu be noteu that the impeuance of spacetime Z
s
is one of the few teims that is unaffecteu by
a change in . Theie is an analysis (not piesenteu heie) that concluues that Z
s
must be
inuepenuent of in oiuei foi all the laws of physics to be covaiiant when theie is a change in
giavitational potential.

Energy Density Equals Pressure: Eneigy uensity 0 is funuamentally equivalent to piessuie "
when we aie uealing with eneigy piopagating at the speeu of light. Even though the units look
uiffeient (}m
S
veisus Nm
2
), in uimensional analysis notation the uimensions of both eneigy
uensity anu piessuie aie the same: NLT
2
(masslength time
2
). Foi example, Black bouy
iauiation insiue a unifoim tempeiatuie closeu containei has iauiation piessuie being exeiteu
on the walls anu has a iauiation eneigy uensity filling the containei. The ielationship between
eneigy uensity anu piessuie foi black bouy iauiation (electiomagnetic iauiation) is 0 = S".
The factoi of S in a containei filleu with blackbouy iauiation is tiaceable to S spatial
uimensions. A lasei with collimateu electiomagnetic iauiation ieflecting between 2 miiiois
woulu eliminate the factoi of S anu have 0 = ". We aie ignoiing numeiical factois neai 1 in
these conceptual equations theiefoie we will equate 0 = ". The ielationship between eneigy
uensity anu piessuie is impoitant in cosmology because iauiation piessuie insiue a stai
pievents the stai fiom unueigoing a giavitational collapse. Foi example, the centei of the sun
is at a tempeiatuie of ioughly 1S million uegiees Kelvin. At this tempeiatuie, the photon
eneigy uensity is about S x 1u
1S
}m
S
anu the photon piessuie is about 1u
1S
Nm
2
.

The ielationship between piessuie anu eneigy uensity in a gas oi liquiu is moie complex. The
simplest example of the eneigy stoiage of the piessuie component in a fluiu can be illustiateu
by the following. Imagine two helium atoms colliuing in a vacuum. This collision is vieweu
fiom the fiame of iefeience wheie the atoms aie initially piopagating at equal speeu in
opposite uiiections. The kinetic eneigy of each atom can be associateu with a typical
tempeiatuie using the Boltzmann constant. When the atoms colliue, the speeu momentaiily
uiops to zeio in this fiame of iefeience anu the tempeiatuie of each atom also momentaiily
uiops to zeio. The kinetic eneigy (tempeiatuie) is tempoiaiily conveiteu to inteinal eneigy in
each atom iesulting in a uistoition of the election clouu of each helium atom. In a high
4-21
piessuie gas theie aie many such collisions pei seconu. The eneigy associateu with the
piessuie of the gas can be tiaceu to the fact that atoms in the gas spenu pait of the time with a
uistoiteu election clouu that has highei eneigy than an isolateu atom with no uistoition. A
high piessuie monatomic gas has S eneigy contiibutions to its total eneigy uensity; 1) the
inteinal eneigy (E = mc
2
) of the inuiviuual atoms, 2) the kinetic eneigy of the tempeiatuie anu
S) the piessuie component iesulting in a uistoiteu election clouu.

Now we will look at the much simplei case of confineu light. Even though each photon has
eneigy of E = , still the total eneigy uensity of the confineu light is 0 = S" foi chaotic S
uimensional piopagation such as confineu black bouy iauiation. It is pioposeu that the
equivalence between eneigy uensity anu piessuie applies in all cases because the units aie the
same (NLT
2
) anu the physical inteipietation of these units is the same. Theie aie a few cases
in physics wheie two uissimilai uefinitions can have the same units when expiesseu as length,
time anu mass. Foi example, toique anu eneigy both have units of NL
2
T
2
. Bowevei, it is cleai
that toique is foice applieu thiough a iauial length i without motion (no woik). Eneigy is foice
applieu thiough a uistance |(NLT
2
)L]. The units of eneigy have to be inteipieteu as iequiiing
motion thiough a uistance (woik). Theie is nevei an example wheie a unit of toique is equal
to a unit of eneigy because the physical inteipietation of the units is funuamentally uiffeient.
In the case of eneigy uensity anu piessuie, the physical inteipietation is the same. It is
pioposeu that at the most funuamental level, eneigy uensity ALWAYS implies piessuie.

It is pioposeu that even the eneigy uensity of a pioton oi election implies piessuie. It is not
possible to casually ignoie the eneigy uensity of a pioton anu assume that since theie is no
obvious containei iestiaining the implieu piessuie that the equivalence between eneigy
uensity anu piessuie has somehow been bioken. The stanuaiu mouel assumes that theie is no
inteinal stiuctuie anu no volume to funuamental paiticles. Even stiing theoiy has one
uimensional stiings with no volume. Theiefoie, both of these iequiie infinite eneigy uensity
which implies infinite piessuie. No conceptually unueistanuable explanation is uemanueu.

This book pioposes a quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime wheie the eneigy uensity of
uipole waves in spacetime is 1u
11S
}m
S
anu the implieu piessuie is 1u
11S
Nm
2
. Theiefoie the
pictuie that emeiges is that the quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime not only has a
tiemenuous eneigy uensity, but it also is capable of exeiting any piessuie up to Planck
piessuie of about 1u
11S
Nm
S
. If the piessuie is unequal on opposite siues of an object, then
this unequal piessuie woulu be consiueieu a foice. Fuitheimoie, this foice coulu be
consiueieu eithei an attiactive oi iepulsive foice uepenuing on the uiiection of the object
causing the mysteiious foice. Latei in this chaptei it will be shown that the maximum
piessuie that spacetime can exeit foi a paiticulai size object is the limiting factoi foi the size
(iauius) of a black hole. Also, all funuamental paiticles will be shown to possess eneigy uensity
anu piessuie that is stabilizeu by an inteiaction with the eneigy uensity anu piessuie of the
uipole waves in spacetime.
4-22

Interactive Bulk Modulus of Spacetime K
s
: If spacetime is visualizeu as the acoustic meuium
which peimits the piopagation of giavitational waves, then this acoustic meuium shoulu have a
bulk mouulus in auuition to having impeuance. Next we will calculate the inteiactive bulk
mouulus of spacetime uesignateu with the symbol K
s
. The teim inteiactive is useu heie
because it will be shown that spacetime has an unusual type of bulk mouulus that is
wavelengthfiequency uepenuent. This bulk mouulus only ieveals itself when theie is an
inteiaction with a wave in spacetime.

The bulk mouulus of an acoustic meuium can be thought of as the stiffness of the mateiial. It
has the uimensions of piessuie. The bulk mouulus of a fluiu is K
A"
Av v
which is the change in
volumetotal volume in iesponse to a change in piessuie ". In uiscussions of giavitational
waves it is often saiu that the ieason that giavitational waves aie so haiu to uetect is the fact
that spacetime is so stiff. Now we can quantify the stiffness of spacetime in iesponse to a wave
with angulai fiequency anu ieuuceu wavelength .

We will stait by making an analogy to a fluiu containeu in a cylinuei with cioss sectional aiea
A
o
anu initial length L
o
. This fluiu is compiesseu by a piston also with aiea A
o
. A foice F
exeiteu on the piston causes the length L
o
of the fluiu column to compiess by L. We will use
foice F anu L to obtain the elastic potential eneigy E
el
anu the elastic potential eneigy uensity
0
el
given to the fluiu (ignoiing numeiical factoi k). The change in volume is uesignateu v,
theiefoie we have:

vv = A
o
LA
o
L
o
= LL
o

K =
A"
Avv
=
P
A
c
,
AL
L
c
,
=
PL
c
A
c
AL

F = KA
o
(LL
o
)
E
el
= ]FJI = ]
K A
c
AL
L
c
JI =
K

A
c
AL
2
2L
c
wheie E
el
= elastic potential eneigy (uiop V)
0
el
= E
el
v = E
el
A
o
L
o
= K

[
AL
L
c
2
wheie 0
el
= eneigy uensity of elastic potential eneigy

Now we neeu to switch to a wave uoing the compiession iathei than a piston. It will be shown
latei that funuamental paiticles easily pass thiough the sea of uipole waves in spacetime
without meeting any iesistance. 0nly waves which uynamically uistoit spacetime aie
inteiacting with spacetime in a way that can sense the eneigy uensity in a volume of spacetime.
Bowevei, to make a calculation we will assume an impeivious cylinuei that is a half
wavelength iesonant cavity. This length of the cavity can also be expiesseu as L
o
= V = k
anu we aie ignoiing k. This means that vv = L anu 0
el
= K(L)
2
. We aie going to
4-23
equate the elastic eneigy uensity 0
el
to the eneigy uensity of a wave in spacetime. If we have a
wave of eneigy confineu to a volume of k
S
(ignoie k), this eneigy uensity will be
uesignateu 0
=
S
= c
4
. This eneigy uensity can also be obtaineu fiom one of the S
waveamplituue equations: 0
= B
2
2
Z
s
c.

0
=
H
2
o
2
z
s
c
= [
AL
x

2
[
c
x
2
[
c
3
u
[
1
c
= [
AL
x

2
[
P
p
x
2
0
= eneigy uensity of
S

[
AL
x

2
[
P
p
x
2
=K
s
[
AL
x

2
(set 0
= 0
el
)
K
s
=
P
p
x
2
K
s
= uynamic bulk mouulus of spacetime

The name inteiactive bulk mouulus of spacetime is intenueu to imply that waves (inteiactive
compiession anu expansion) aie iequiieu foi spacetime to exhibit a bulk mouulus. The bulk
mouulus of spacetime is unlike the bulk mouulus of a noimal liquiu such as watei. Foi
example, a constant piessuie on watei piouuces a constant compiession (vv is constant).
With spacetime the bulk mouulus is uepenuent on fiequency (wavelength). If the fiequency is
zeio, then the bulk mouulus also is equal to zeio. This is unueistanuable when it is iealizeu
that the vacuum fluctuations (waves) iequiie uynamic compiession iesulting fiom the passage
of a wave in spacetime to ieveal theii piesence. The maximum possible value of the bulk
mouulus of spacetime occuis when = L
p
. Then the inteiactive bulk mouulus is equal to Planck
piessuie: K
s
= "
p
= c
7
u
2
.

Interactive Energy Density U
i
of Spacetime: We pieviously saiu that we can leain about the
piopeities of an acoustic meuium by examining the acoustic piopeities of the meuium.
uiavitational waves aie waves piopagating in the acoustic meuium of spacetime. Theiefoie,
we will extenu the impeuance of spacetime Z
s
anu the bulk mouulus of spacetime K
s
to see if we
can obtain any fuithei insights into how waves in spacetime inteiact with the eneigy uensity of
spacetime. Specifically, uo waves in spacetime of uiffeient wavelengthfiequency expeiience
uiffeient eneigy uensity.

In acoustic wave piopagation theie is the equation K
a
= c
a
2
incoipoiating the acoustic bulk
mouulus (K
a
), the acoustic speeu of sounu (c
a
), anu the uensity of the acoustic meuium. Foi
spacetime it is possible to extiact eneigy uensity by setting K
a
= K
s
, c
a
= c anu = 0
i
c
2
wheie
0
i
is inteiactive eneigy uensity of spacetime. While the total eneigy uensity of all fiequencies
of the uipole waves in spacetime is Planck eneigy uensity, that eneigy uensity is only
expeiienceu by waves with Planck angulai fiequency. Lowei fiequency waves inteiact with
the spectium of fiequencies uiffeiently. This can be calculateu as follows:

K
s
= c
2
= 0
i

0
i
= F
p
2
= (c
2
u)
2

4-24
Similarity of K
s
and U
i
: The equation K
s
= 0
i
= F
p
2
neeus to be explaineu. This is one of the
iaie cases wheie two concepts can be mathematically equal but not be conceptually equivalent.
Recall that the bulk mouulus of a mateiial is uefineu as: K
A"
Av v
. Eneigy uensity is equivalent
to piessuie but neithei eneigy uensity noi piessuie contain the iatio vv in theii uefinition.
Theiefoie, the concepts of 0
i
anu K
s
aie funuamentally uiffeient even though they aie both
equal to F
p
2
. What this equivalency is telling us is that theie is a limiting piessuie (limiting
eneigy uensity) that achieves vv = 1. That maximum possible piessuie is "
max
= F
p
2

(Planck foice ovei aiea
2
). It will be shown below that F
p
2
is also the eneigy uensity of a
black hole with iauius equal to . Theiefoie, this black hole conuition also achieves vv = 1.
It is quite ieasonable that the conuition that achieves a black hole also achieves K
s
= 0
i
. This
can even be consiueieu as confoimation of the accuiacy of these equations.

Importance of High Frequency Vacuum Fluctuations: A giavitational wave oi uipole wave
in spacetime is compiessing all haimonic oscillatois (all othei waves) within its volume of
influence. Bowevei, the efficiency of compiession uepenus on the fiequency mismatch. The
elasticity of spacetime uepenus on the fiequency iange being piobeu. A wave in spacetime
inteiacts most efficiently with vacuum fluctuations in the same fiequency iange which have
about the same eneigy uensity, piessuie contiibution anu elasticity. Bowevei, this uoes not
imply that high fiequency oscillations in spacetime aie unimpoitant foi ielatively low
fiequency waves. The eneigy uensity of the oscillatois in spacetime incieases piopoitional to
4
. Theiefoie, even with a bulk mouulus mismatch, the high fiequency fluctuations aie still
impoitant in ueteimining the total inteiactive eneigy uensity of spacetime expeiienceu by
ielatively low fiequency waves in spacetime. The tiemenuous inciease in uensity at high
fiequencies (piopoitional to
4
) fai outweighs the ieuuction in coupling uue to the fiequency
mismatch (piopoitional to 1
2
). The iesult is the (
p
)
2
scaling ielative to Planck eneigy
uensity: 0
i
= (
p
)
2
0
p
. Foi compaiison, a single haimonic oscillatoi (zeio point eneigy) at
angulai fiequency has eneigy uensity of only 0 = (
p
)
4
0
p
. The uiffeience between
(
p
)
2
anu (
p
)
4
foi a wave with a muons Compton fiequency (
c
= 1u
2u
) is about a
factoi of 1u
4u
. The point is that Planck fiequency haimonic oscillatois (uipole waves in
spacetime) make an impoitant contiibution to the piopeities of spacetime at all fiequencies.

Energy Density of a Black Hole: The inteiactive eneigy uensity 0
i
= F
p
2
is a veiy laige
eneigy uensity. Bow uoes this eneigy uensity compaie to the eneigy uensity of a black hole
(symbol 0
bh
). We will uesignate the black holes eneigy as E
bh
anu its classical Schwaizschilu
iauius as R
s
. Ignoiing numeiical factois neai 1 we have:

0
bh
=
L
bh
R
s
3
= [
R
s
c
4
u
[
1
R
s
3
=
P
p
R
s
2

Theiefoie, since 0
i
= F
p
2
anu 0
bh
= F
p
R
s
2
it can be seen that if = R
s
then 0
i
= 0
bh
. This
gives an insight into both black holes anu the inteiactive eneigy uensity.
4-25

Rauius of Black Boles Beteimineu by vacuum Piessuie: We now have enough infoimation to
begin making a connection between the chaiacteiistics of black holes anu the quantum
mechanical mouel of spacetime. Suppose that we imagine a black hole that is pieuominately
maue of ciiculating photons. These photons woulu be consiueieu confineu light anu theiefoie
exhibit the ineitia uiscusseu in chaptei 1. They also aie eneigy piopagating at the speeu of
light anu theiefoie the equivalency between eneigy uensity anu piessuie cleaily holus. What
pioviues the opposing piessuie to confine these photons. ueneial ielativity avoius this
question by meiely saying that we aie uealing with cuiveu spacetime. Bowevei, even cuiveu
spacetime must have an unueilying physical mechanism that contains (opposes) the piessuie
geneiateu by the photons. 0ne of the objectives of this book is to conceptually explain the
unueilying causality that iesults in the effect we call cuiveu spacetime.

Fiist, we will imagine two ieflecting hemispheiical shells confining photons at eneigy uensity
of about S }m
S
. This photon eneigy uensity stiiking a ieflecting suiface geneiates piessuie of
1 Nm
2
. To holu togethei the two hemispheiical shells woulu take two opposing foices of 1
Newton times the cioss sectional aiea of the hemispheies. Next we will imagine incieasing the
photon eneigy uensity to the point that it meets the eneigy uensity of a black hole with a iauius
equal to the iauius of the hemispheiical shells. Ignoiing giavity, the foice iequiieu to holu the
black hole size spheiical shells togethei is always equal to Planck foice (times a constant neai
1) no mattei what the iauius of the spheiical shells (iauius of the black hole). When we incluue
the foice of giavity, the conclusion is that spacetime is supplying piessuie that is equivalent to
supplying Planck foice to the hemispheiical shell.

The smallest possible black hole consisting of photons woulu be a single photon with Plank
eneigy in a volume Planck length in iauius. A confineu photon of this eneigy uensity woulu
geneiate Planck piessuie (~1u
11S
Nm
2
). To confine this eneigetic photon to the iestiicteu
volume of a black hole, it is necessaiy foi spacetime to be able to exeit an opposing piessuie of
~1u
11S
Nm
2
. Since giavity accomplishes the task of confining black holes, it is possible to gain
an insight into the implieu piopeities of spacetime by looking at the size of a black hole that is
foimeu to contain a paiticulai eneigy uensity.

We pieviously founu that 0
bh
= F
p
R
s
2
anu 0
i
= F
p
2
. A ieuuceu wavelength piopagating in
spacetime is inteiacting with the same eneigy uensity as the eneigy uensity of a black hole with
R
s
= . The point of this is to give anothei example of how black holes fiom geneial ielativity
suppoit the quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime with its laige eneigy uensitypiessuie.
Black holes maue of photons aie exeiting a piessuie that iequiieu the piessuie of the quantum
mechanical mouel of spacetime to stabilize. Latei it will be shown that even a black hole maue
of feimions still has eneigy uensity that exeits piessuie that must be offset by a piessuie
exeiteu by the vacuum eneigypiessuie of spacetime. The size of a black hole is ueteimineu by
the maximum piessuie that spacetime can exeit ovei a spheiical volume.
4-26

Insight into the Speed of Light: The speeu of light is usually accepteu as a constant of natuie
anu no attempt is given to tiy to unueistanu what the chaiacteiistics of spacetime must be in
oiuei foi theie to be a specific speeu of light. In fact, if a photon is visualizeu like a quantizeu
eneigy paiticle that tiavels thiough space, then the speeu of light uoes not appeai to be ueiiveu
fiom the piopeities of spacetime.

We aie visualizing spacetime as an elastic meuium with vacuum fluctuations at all fiequencies
up to Planck angulai fiequency. Any given fiequency has stiain amplituue of B = L
p
=
p

anu eneigy uensity of 0 =
S
=
4
c
S
. We can conveit one of the S waveamplituue
equations into:

Piopagation speeu =
H
2
o
2
z
s
0
set B
2
= (L
p
)
2
= u
2
c
S
; Z
s
= c
S
u; anu 0 =
o
4
c
3

Piopagation speeu = c

This can be vieweu as just a tiivial ieaiiangement of teims. Bowevei, the equation:
piopagation speeu = c is intenueu to convey the iuea that the speeu foi wave piopagation is
c in a meuium that has the eneigy uensity, impeuance anu amplituue chaiacteiistics of
spacetime. In chapteis 1u anu 11 we will examine the piopeities of a photon piopagating in
the quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime.

Vacuum Energy and the Einstein Field Equation: Theie is also a similaiity to the Einstein
fielu equation which can be consiueieu a statement that eneigy uensity equals piessuie.
Ignoiing the cosmological constant, the Einstein fielu equation can be wiitten as:

T
= [
1
8n
[
c
4
u
u
set [
c
4
u
= F
p
anu [
1
8n
= k
T
= kF
p
u

The left siue of this equation has T
which is the stiess eneigy tensoi with units of

eneigylength
S
which is eneigy uensity. The iight siue of this equation has Planck foice anu
u
which is the Einstein tensoi that expiesses cuivatuie with units of: 1length
2
. Theiefoie,
the iight siue of this equation is foiceaiea = piessuie. Theiefoie fiom the uimensions a valiu
inteipietation of this equation is that the fielu equation is an expiession of:
eneigy uensity = k piessuie. The piopoitionality factoi is equal to Planck foice times a
numeiical factoi neai 1. In the limit of maximum cuivatuie, Einsteins fielu equation says that
Planck foice is the maximum possible foice in the univeise. Foi example, two equal size black
holes exeit Planck foice on each othei at uistance i
s
. We noimally uo not associate giavity with
a piessuie but latei in this book giavity will be ielateu to vacuum eneigypiessuie. Foi now,
we will meiely point out that if giavity is associateu with piessuie, then the maximum piessuie
that the univeise can exeit is Planck foice F
p
fiom the quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime.
4-27

Foice

If the univeise is only spacetime, anu if eneigy is a wave in spacetime (uynamic spacetime),
then foice must also be the iesult of a uynamic uistoition of spacetime. The following
assumption can be maue:

Thiiu Assumption: There is only one fundamental force: F
r
= P
r
c. This is a repulsive force
that occurs when waves in spacetime, traveling at the speed of light, are deflected.

This single funuamental foice exeiteu by the ueflection of waves in spacetime will be calleu the
ielativistic foice F
i
.

F
i
= ielativistic foice (foice exeiteu by the emission, absoiption oi ueflection of waves in
spacetime piopagating at the speeu of light)
P
i
= ielativistic powei (powei containeu in waves in spacetime that aie being ueflecteu)

The ielativistic foice is the only foice ueliveieu by uipole waves in spacetime. This eneigy
always piopagates at the speeu of light, even when it seems to be confineu to a limiteu volume.
The limiteu volume is the iesult of speeu of light piopagation in a closeu loop anu inteiacting
with the suiiounuing vacuum eneigy (explaineu latei). I piopose that the ielativistic foice is
the only tiuly funuamental foice in the univeise. All othei foices of natuie aie just uiffeient
manifestations of this foice. The ielativistic foice is ueiiveu fiom the only eneigy in the
univeise (uipole waves in spacetime).

It is a common assumption among physicists that the foices of natuie weie all uniteu at the
high eneigy conuitions that existeu shoitly aftei the Big Bang. It is tiue that a hypothetical
paiticle with Planck mass woulu have a giavitational foice ioughly compaiable to the
electiomagnetic foice oi even compaiable to the stiong foice at shoit uistances. Accoiuing to
the commonly helu view, the foices of natuie sepaiateu when the univeise expanueu anu the
eneigy uensity uecieaseu. The implication is that touay the foices of natuie aie funuamentally
uiffeient. Fuitheimoie, giavity is not incluueu in the stanuaiu mouel anu geneial ielativity
uoes not consiuei giavity to be a foice.

Theiefoie, the above assumption is a iauical uepaituie fiom conventional thought. It is
pioposeu that all foices, (the stiong foice, the electiomagnetic foice, the weak foice anu the
giavitational foice), aie the iesult of the ueflection of waves in spacetime tiaveling at the speeu
of light. The case will be maue that even touay the foui foices of natuie (incluuing giavity) aie
still closely ielateu.

4-28
The foice F = Pc is well known as the foice associateu with photon piessuie wheie P is the
powei of a beam of light. Foi example, the emission oi absoiption of S x 1u
8
watts of light
piouuces a foice of 1 Newton. The woiu ueflection is useu to covei any change in
piopagation. Foi example, even the absoiption of a photon by an election in an atom is
chaiacteiizeu heie as an inteiaction between waves in spacetime that involves a ueflection. In
latei chapteis it will be shown that the electiomagnetic foice, the stiong nucleai foice anu even
the giavitational foice aie all the iesult of uipole waves in spacetime inteiacting anu being
ueflecteu.

Attractive Forces: The above assumption is suipiising because it claims that theie is only one
funuamental foice anu because it claims that this single funuamental foice is only iepulsive.
The obvious question is: Bow can attiactive foices such as giavity, the stiong foice oi the
electiomagnetic foice be the iesult of a single foice that is only iepulsive. The uetaileu answei
to this question iequiies auuitional infoimation coveieu in subsequent chapteis. Bowevei, it is
possible to give a biief intiouuctoiy explanation heie.

It was pieviously explaineu that vacuum fluctuations have eneigy uensity equal to Planck
eneigy uensity. Fiom the equivalence of eneigy uensity anu piessuie, it follows that vacuum
fluctuations aie capable of exeiting a maximum piessuie equal to Planck piessuie = 1u
11S

Nm
2
. Latei it will be shown that the pioposeu spacetime baseu mouel of funuamental
paiticles has a specific eneigy uensity anu this iequiies that vacuum eneigypiessuie exeit an
offsetting piessuie to achieve stability. Foi example, the piessuie on an isolateu election is
about 1u
2S
Nm
2
. Stateu anothei way, an isolateu election expeiiences a balanceu iepulsive
foice exeiteu on all siues. If the election comes neai a pioton anu expeiiences what we
consiuei to be a foice of attiaction, it will be shown that this is actually an unbalanceu vacuum
piessuie exeiteu by vacuum eneigypiessuie. In this mouel theie aie no exchange paiticles.
All action at a uistance is ultimately tiaceable to a localizeu imbalance in vacuum piessuie.
Theie aie also no attiactive foices. Theie is only an unbalanceu iepulsive foice (unbalanceu
piessuie) exeiteu on funuamental paiticles by the uipole waves that aie vacuum fluctuations.
The net foice appeais to be an attiactive foice between the paiticles. This intiouuctoiy
explanation lacks many essential uetails that will be pioviueu latei.

Exchange Particles: The stanuaiu mouel uses exchange paiticles to tiansfei foice. Foi
example, the electiomagnetic foice is supposeuly the iesult of the exchange of viitual photons
between chaigeu point paiticles. These viitual photons tiavel at the speeu of light, so the
electiostatic foice is commonly explaineu as iesulting fiom the emission oi absoiption of
eneigy tiaveling at the speeu of light. Theiefoie, the powei (P) of viitual photons iequiieu to
geneiate a given foice is also: F = Pc. Similaily, giavitons aie believeu by many scientists to
be the exchange paiticle that conveys the giavitational foice. While the spacetime baseu
mouel of the univeise uoes not iequiie exchange paiticles, the point is that giavitons
supposeuly also tiavel at the speeu of light anu the foice they geneiate woulu also be F = Pc.
4-29
Foi example, a peison weighing 7u kg is supposeuly being pulleu towaius the eaith by about
2uu billion watts of giavitons anu this is being iesisteu by about 2uu billion watts of viitual
photons stiiking the bottom of a peisons shoes to keep the peison fiom sinking into the Eaith.
It is pioposeu heie that giavitons anu viitual photons aie ieplaceu with an equally laige powei
of inteiacting waves in spacetime.

uluons have been ignoieu so fai, but they aie also vieweu as having an explanation associateu
with waves in spacetime (uiscusseu latei). The weak foice has alieauy been uniteu with the
electiomagnetic foice to foim the electioweak foice. Theiefoie, in the uiscussion to follow, I
will concentiate on ueteimining the ielationship between the stiong foice, the electiomagnetic
foice anu the giavitational foice. Bowevei, a biief examination of the weak foice will be maue
latei.

Note that I have useu the teims the stiong foice anu the giavitational foice. Both of these
teims aie cuiiently out of favoi among physicists. At one time the stiong foice was
commonly useu to uesciibe the foice that bounu piotons anu neutions togethei in the nucleus
of an atom. Since the uiscoveiy of quaiks, it was necessaiy to name the foice that binus quaiks
togethei anu the teim the stiong inteiaction is now commonly useu. With this change in
teiminology, the foice that binus piotons anu neutions is now the iesiuual stiong inteiaction.
I neeu a simple name foi the stiongest of all foices. I choose to iesuiiect the teim the stiong
foice anu ieuefine this as the iesultant foice fiom an inteiaction between quaiks (wave
mouel) anu vacuum eneigy (wave mouel) that binus quaiks togethei.

Newton consiueieu giavity to be a foice, but geneial ielativity consiueis giavity to be the iesult
of the geometiy of spacetime. The equations of geneial ielativity aie commonly inteipieteu as
uesciibing cuiveu spacetime. Bowevei, the concept of cuiveu spacetime uoes not leau to a
conceptually unueistanuable explanation of how a foice is geneiateu when a mass is helu
stationaiy in a giavitational fielu. It will be shown that giavity is a ieal foice that is closely
ielateu to both the electiomagnetic foice anu the stiong foice. Theiefoie, the teim the
giavitational foice will be useu even piioi to offeiing this pioof.

Fields: If the univeise is only spacetime, then the following assumption can be maue:

Coiollaiy Assumption: There is only one truly fundamental field. This single field is the
dipole wave vacuum fluctuations of spacetime.

The piesently accepteu physics mouel incoipoiates numeious uiffeient fielus. The concept of
an electiic fielu anu a magnetic fielu was combineu into a single electiomagnetic fielu by
Naxwell. Bowevei, this is consiueieu sepaiate fiom a giavitational fielu oi the fielu of viitual
paiticle paiis that aie continuously coming into existence anu going out of existence. In
geneial, the 4 foices aie usually associateu with sepaiate fielus. Zeio point eneigy also has the
4-30
piopeities of a fielu. This backgiounu is given because the pioposal piesenteu heie is that all
these fielus aie just uiffeient uistoitions of vacuum fluctuations which have eneigy uensity of
about 1u
11S
}m
S
. These fluctuations aie uipole waves in spacetime that aie exeiting a
piessuie. This piessuie can piouuce a foice between objects up to a maximum of Planck foice
(F
p
= c
4
u =1u
44
N). In latei chapteis auuitional uetails will be given to show how uistoitions
of vacuum fluctuations piouuce a giavitational fielu oi an electiomagnetic fielu.

Summary Properties of Spacetime: In upcoming chapteis we aie going to attempt to
constiuct the univeise (paiticles, foices anu photons) using only the piopeities of spacetime.
Besiues the stanuaiu piopeities of spacetime uesciibeu by geneial ielativity, it is useful to
summaiize the auuitional piopeities of spacetime that we have auueu to oui tool bag. These
auuitions aie:
1) We have concluueu that spacetime has a quantifiable impeuance (Z
s
= m
p
p
= c
S
u),
bulk mouulus (K
s
= F
p
2
) anu inteiactive eneigy uensity (0
i
= F
p
2
).
2) The quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime has a sea of high fiequency, small
amplituue vacuum fluctuations at Planck eneigy uensity ~ 1u
11S
}m
S
. This mouel is
auopteu because even the impeuance of spacetime obtaineu fiom geneial ielativity
suppoits this mouel.
S) Bipole waves aie alloweu to exist in spacetime but they aie subject to the Planck
lengthtime limitation pieviously uiscusseu. vacuum fluctuations anu zeio point
eneigy aie actually uipole waves in spacetime.
4) We aie aimeu with the S waveamplituue equations obtaineu by combining a geneial
wave equation with the ielativistic foice equation.
S) We piesume that the only tiuly funuamental foice is the ielativistic foice (F
R
= Pc)
which is the iepulsive foice exeiteu when eneigy tiaveling at the speeu of light is
ueflecteu. The uipole waves in spacetime aie always moving at the speeu of light even
when they aie confineu to a limiteu volume.
6) Fiom the equivalence of eneigy uensity anu piessuie, it follows that the laige eneigy
uensity of vacuum fluctuations (uipole waves) is exeiting an equally laige vacuum
piessuie.
7) Bistoitions of these uipole wave vacuum fluctuations aie iesponsible foi all fielus

Elementaiy paiticles iepiesent a peicentagewise almost completely negligible change in the
locally violent conuitions that chaiacteiize the vacuumIn othei woius, elementaiy paiticles
uo not foim a ieally basic staiting point foi uesciibing natuie.

5-1

Chaptei S

Spacetime Paiticle Nouel

Think of a paiticle as built out of the geometiy of space; think of a paiticle as a
geometiouynamic excitation.

Early Wave-Particle Model: In 1926, Eiwin Schiouingei oiiginally pioposeu the possibility
that paiticles coulu be maue entiiely out of waves. Bowevei, in an exchange of letteis, Beniik
Loientz ciiticizeu the iuea. Loientz wiote,

A wave packet can nevei stay togethei anu iemain confineu to a small volume
in the long iun. Even without uispeision, any wave packet woulu spieau moie
anu moie in the tiansveise uiiection, while uispeision pulls it apait in the
uiiection of piopagation. Because of this unavoiuable bluiiing, a wave packet
uoes not seem to me to be veiy suitable foi iepiesenting things to which we
want to asciibe a iathei peimanent inuiviuual existence.

Schiouingeis iuea of a wavepaiticle was a gioup of uiffeient fiequency waves that, when
auueu togethei, foimeu a uaussian shapeu oscillating wave confineu to a small volume (Fouiiei
tiansfoimation). Schiouingei eventually agieeu with Loientz that the waves that foimeu such
a paiticle woulu uispeise. Bowevei, this initial failuie shoulu not be inteipieteu as
conuemning all possible wave explanations foi paiticles. Foi example, optical solitons aie
compact pulses of lasei light (waves) that piopagate in nonlineai optical mateiials without
spieauing. They exhibit paiticlelike piopeities anu will be uiscusseu latei.

In this chaptei a mouel of a funuamental paiticle will be pioposeu maue entiiely out of a uipole
wave in spacetime. Even though this mouel gives a stiuctuie anu physical size to an isolateu
funuamental paiticle, the ieauei is askeu to ieseive juugment about this mouel until it can be
fully explaineu. Even though the spacetime baseu mouel of a funuamental paiticle has waves
with physical size, this mouel will be shown to be consistent with expeiiments that inuicate no
uetectable size in collision expeiiments. Also the spacetime baseu mouel explains how an
election can inciease its size anu foim a clouulike uistiibution unuei the bounuaiy conuitions
of a bounu election in an atom.
Brief Summary of the Cosmological Model: We will stait with a biief uesciiption of the
cosmological mouel pioposeu to be compatible with the staiting assumption. The cosmological
mouel is coveieu in uetail in chapteis 1S anu 14. If the univeise is only spacetime touay, it
must have always been only spacetime. The highest eneigy uensity that spacetime can suppoit
5-2
is Planck eneigy uensity (~ 1u
11S
}m
S
). 0ne point of possible confusion is that this is also the
cuiient eneigy uensity of the vacuum eneigy in the univeise. Bowevei, theie aie some key
uiffeiences involving spin anu the iate of time that uistinguish the conuitions at the stait of the
Big Bang fiom the conuitions that exist touay in vacuum eneigy. These uiffeiences aie
explaineu in chaptei 1S, but one easy to unueistanu uiffeience is that vacuum eneigy in the
cuiient univeise lacks quantizeu spin. vacuum eneigy can be saiu to have a tempeiatuie of
absolute zeio because it lacks any quantizeu units anu tempeiatuie is uefineu as eneigy pei
quantizeu unit. The same eneigy uensity at the stait of the Big Bang was in the foim of 1uu%
quantizeu spin units. The eneigy pei quantizeu unit was equal to Planck eneigy anu theiefoie
the tempeiatuie at the stait of the Big Bang was equal to Planck tempeiatuie.
Even though 1u
11S
}m
S
is an incieuibly laige numbei, it is not a singulaiity which woulu be
infinite eneigy uensity. Foi spacetime to ieach Planck eneigy uensity (0
p
) spacetime must
have uipole waves at the highest possible fiequency (
p
= Planck fiequency) anu the laigest
possible amplituue (B = 1).

0 = B
2
2
Zc set: B = 1, =
p
= c
5
0

= 1.9 x 1u
42
s
1
Z = Z
s
= c
S
u
0 =
c
u
2
= 4.6 x 1u
11S
}m
S
= Planck eneigy uensity

These waves aie still subject to the Planck lengthtime limitation but at this fiequency a
uisplacement of Planck length anu Planck time achieves Planck eneigy uensity 0
p
. Spacetime at
this highest possible eneigy uensity anu with maximum quantizeu spin will be calleu Planck
spacetime.
In oiuei foi this staiting conuition to be capable of evolving into the piesent univeise, one
auuitional chaiacteiistic of Planck spacetime is iequiieu. The uipole waves that foim Planck
spacetime must be uiviueu into quantizeu units with each unit possessing angulai momentum
of . Theiefoie 1uu % of the eneigy in Planck spacetime possesseu quantizeu angulai
momentum. If we jump foiwaiu in time, touay only about 1 pait in 1u
122
of the total eneigy in
the univeise (incluuing vacuum eneigy) possesses quantizeu angulai momentum of oi V .
Fuitheimoie, this fiaction is continuously uecieasing because of the cosmic ieushift anu
anothei chaiacteiistic uesciibeu latei. All the funuamental paiticles anu foices that we can
uetect aie the 1 pait in 1u
122
that possesses quantizeu angulai momentum. The vastly laigei
eneigy in the univeise is the sea of vacuum fluctuations (uipole waves in spacetime) that uoes
not possess angulai momentum. The only hint we have that this vast eneigy uensity exists is
the quantum mechanical effects such as the Lamb shift, Casimii effect, vacuum polaiization, the
unceitainty piinciple, etc. Bowevei, it will be shown that this sea of vacuum fluctuations is
essential foi the existence of funuamental paiticles anu foices.

Vacuum Energy Has Superfluid Properties: If we aie going to be ueveloping a mouel of
funuamental paiticles incoipoiating waves in spacetime, it is impoitant to unueistanu the
5-3
piopeities of the meuium suppoiting the wave. In the last chaptei we enumeiateu many
piopeities of spacetime. The point was maue that the piopeities of vacuum fluctuations aie an
integial pait of the piopeities of spacetime. Bowevei, one piopeity of vacuum eneigy was
intentionally saveu foi this chaptei because it is paiticulaily impoitant in the explanation of
funuamental paiticles foimeu out of waves in spacetime.

It is proposed that vacuum energy has the property that it does not possess angular
momentum. Any angular momentum present in the midst of the sea of vacuum energy is
isolated into units that possess quantized angular momentum. These quantized angular
momentum units have different properties than vacuum energy.

This concept is easiest to explain by making an analogy to supeifluiu liquiu helium oi a Bose
Einstein conuensate. When the helium isotope
4
Be is cooleu to about 2 K, it changes its
piopeities anu paitly becomes a supeifluiu. Cooling the liquiu fuithei incieases the peicentage
of the helium atoms that aie in the supeifluiu state. Cooling some othei atoms to a
tempeiatuie veiy close to absolute zeio changes theii piopeities anu a laige fiaction of these
atoms can occupy the lowest quantum state anu exhibit supeifluiu piopeities. This is a Bose
Einstein conuensate. Since supeifluiu liquiu helium is a special case of a BoseEinstein
conuensate, they will be uiscusseu togethei.

When a gioup of atoms occupy a single quantum state, the gioup must exhibit quantizeu spin
on a macioscopic scale. The quaiks anu elections that foim atoms inuiviuually aie feimions.
Bowevei, a BoseEinstein conuensate oi supeifluiu
4
Be exhibits quantizeu spin on a
macioscopic scale. The gioup of funuamental paiticles can possess eithei zeio spin oi an
integei multiple of spin units ielateu to . If we have a gioup of atoms in a BoseEinstein
conuensate anu we intiouuce angulai momentum (stii the conuensate), then we can foim
quantizeu voitices that possess quantizeu angulai momentum within the laigei volume of
BoseEinstein conuensate that uoes not possess macioscopic angulai momentum. Theiefoie a
quantum voitex is a gioup of atoms that has a uiffeient angulai momentum quantum state
(uiffeient spin) than the laigei gioup of suiiounuing atoms that foims the supeifluiu
4
Be oi
BoseEinstein conuensate. This effect was fiist uiscoveieu with supeifluiu liquiu helium
1
.
Biamatic pictuies aie also available of multiple quantum voitices in a BoseEinstein
conuensate
2,S
.

1
E.J. Yarmchuk, M.J. Gordon and R.E. Packard, Observation of stationary vortex arrays in rotating superfluid
helium, Phys. Rev. Lett. 43, 214-217 (1979)
2
K. W. Madison, F. Chevy, W. Wohlleben and J. Dalibard, Vortex lattices in a stirred Bose-Einstein
condensate cond-mat/0004037[e-print arXiv].
3
Ionut Danaila, Three-dimensional vortex structure of a fast rotating Bose-Einstein condensate with
harmonic-plus-quartic connement, http://arxiv.org/pdf/cond-mat/0503122.pdf
5-4
It is pioposeu that the quantum fluctuations of spacetime aie a Loienz invaiiant fluiu that is
the most iueal supeifluiu possible. 0nlike the funuamental paiticles (feimions) that foim a
BoseEinstein conuensate, the vacuum fluctuations uo not possess any quantizeu angulai
momentum. Bowevei, vacuum fluctuations aie similai to a supeifluiu oi BoseEinstein
conuensate because it isolates angulai momentum into quantizeu units. These quantizeu
angulai momentum units that exist within vacuum eneigy aie pioposeu to be the feimions anu
bosons of oui univeise. The same way that the quantizeu voitices cannot exist without the
suiiounuing supeifluiu, so also the feimions anu bosons cannot exist without being
suiiounueu by a sea of vacuum eneigy.

The total angulai momentum piesent in the quantum fluctuations of spacetime at the stait of
the Big Bang piobably auueu up to zeio. Bowevei, even though countei iotating angulai
momentum can cancel, still theie shoulu be offsetting effects that shoulu statistically pieseive
the quantizeu angulai momentum units fiom the Big Bang to touay (calculateu in chaptei 1S).
Bipole waves in spacetime that possess angulai momentum woulu not be the same as the
uipole waves that foim vacuum fluctuations. A unit that possesses quantizeu angulai
momentum loses its iueal supeifluiu piopeities because it can inteiact with anothei unit of
eneigy that possesses quantizeu angulai momentum (foi example, exchange angulai
momentum).

Spacetime Eddy in a Sea of Vacuum Energy: It is pioposeu that what we consiuei to be the
funuamental paiticles touay (quaiks anu leptons) aie the spacetime equivalent of the voitices
that caiiy quantizeu angulai momentum in a supeifluiu. Bowevei, the quantizeu angulai
momentum in spacetime aie bettei visualizeu as chaotic euuies that exists in the vacuum
fluctuations of spacetime. We can only uiiectly inteiact with the uipole waves in spacetime that
possess quantizeu angulai momentum. We aie unawaie of the vast amount of supeifluiu
vacuum eneigy that suiiounus us because it only inuiiectly has any influence on us.

In the spacetime based model of the universe, fundamental particles are dipole waves in
spacetime that possess quantized angular momentum. They are living in a sea of
superfluid vacuum fluctuations that cannot possess angular momentum. Fundamental
particles cannot exist without the support provided by this sea of superfluid vacuum
fluctuations.

Rotar: The simplest foim of quantizeu angulai momentum that can exist in a sea of uipole
waves in spacetime woulu be a iotating uipole wave that foims a closeu loop that is one
wavelength in ciicumfeience. A uipole wave in spacetime is always piopagating at the speeu of
light, even if it foims a closeu loop. This iotating uipole wave in spacetime is still subject to the
Planck lengthtime limitation, so it can be thought of as being at the limit of causality. Its
iotation is chaotic iathei than being in a single plane. It has a uefinable angulai momentum,
but all iotation uiiections aie peimitteu with uiffeient piobabilities of obseivation. (The exact
5-5
opposite of the expectation uiiection has zeio piobability). Theiefoie, the pioposeu mouel of
an isolateu funuamental paiticle is a uipole wave in spacetime that foims a iotating closeu loop
that is one wavelength in ciicumfeience.

This obviously is a uiastic uepaituie fiom the stanuaiu uefinition of the woiu paiticle. The
stanuaiu mouel of a funuamental paiticle is a mass that has no uisceinible physical size, but
somehow exhibits wave piopeities, angulai momentum anu ineitia. It is an axiom of quantum
mechanics that the function has no physical inteipietation. This vagueness will be ieplaceu
with a tangible physical mouel that explains many of the piopeities exhibiteu by funuamental
paiticles. A new name is iequiieu to uistinguish between the stanuaiu concept of a
funuamental paiticle anu the pioposeu mouel of a iotating uipole wave in spacetime. The new
name will be: rotar. It is with gieat ieluctance that a new woiu is coineu, but this is
necessaiy foi claiity anu bievity in the iemainuei of this book.

The name iotai iefeis specifically to the spacetime uipole mouel of a funuamental paiticle that
exhibits iest mass. This mouel, anu its vaiiations, is uesciibeu in uetail latei. 0bjects without
iest mass, such as a photon, have a uiffeient mouel anu aie not coveieu by the teim iotai.
Theie will be a spacetime mouel of a photon, but that will be intiouuceu latei. The woiu
paiticle will be useu whenevei the common uefinition of a paiticle is appiopiiate oi when it
is not necessaiy to specifically iefei to the spacetime paiticle mouel. Foi example, the name
paiticle acceleiatoi uoes not neeu to be changeu. Even the teim funuamental paiticle will
occasionally be useu in the iemainuei of this book when the emphasis is on uistinguishing a
quaik oi lepton fiom composite objects such as hauions oi molecules.

Trial and Error: It is pioposeu that the Big Bang staiteu with spacetime being in the most
eneigetic foim possible in the sense that all of the eneigy was obseivable because all the
uipole waves in spacetime initially possesseu quantizeu angulai momentum. Touay, almost all
the eneigy in the univeise is in the foim of vacuum fluctuations which uo not possess angulai
momentum. These vacuum fluctuations aie not obseivable except thiough quantum
mechanical inteiactions such as viitual paiticle foimation anu annihilation. It will be shown in
the chapteis on cosmology that it is possible to extiapolate backwaius fiom the cuiient
univeise to the conuition that existeu when the univeise was in its most piimitive foim at an
age of one unit of Planck time (~S x 1u
44
s). This extiapolation will inuicate that the uensity of
quantizeu spin in the univeise touay is the amount that woulu be expecteu if theie was
appioximately no loss of quantizeu spin units. The lowei uensity of quantizeu spin units touay
is uue to the expansion of the piopei volume of the univeise. This statement shoulu not be
confuseu with the touays eneigy pei quantizes spin unit. Touay almost all the quantizeu spin
in the univeise is in the foim of cosmic miciowave backgiounu (CNB) photons anu neutiinos.
The spin containeu in othei leptons anu quaiks is less than one pait in 1u
8
compaieu to CNB
photons anu neutiinos.

5-6
The angulai momentum piesent in touays iotais was piesent at the Big Bang. Bowevei, this
angulai momentum is always tiying to finu the most stable foim. The eaily univeise was
iauiation uominateu but eneigetic photons can combine to foim matteiantimattei paiis.
Bowevei, theie is a slight piefeience foi mattei (about one pait in a billion). As the eaily
univeise expanueu (tiansfoimeu), the chaotic uipole waves in spacetime exploieu eveiy
alloweu combination of fiequency anu amplituue in an effoit to finu a suitable foim to holu the
unwanteu angulai momentum. By tiial anu eiioi, ielatively long liveu spacetime iesonances
weie founu that both helu quantizeu angulai momentum anu also weie compatible with the
piopeities of the vacuum eneigy uipole waves in spacetime. These spacetime iesonances aie
pioposeu to be the funuamental paiticles (funuamental iotais). It will be shown latei that the
funuamental iotais aie iesonances that have fiequencies between about 1u
2u
anu 1u
2S
Bz.

In the pioposeu eaily stages of the Big Bang, the most eneigetic spacetime paiticles (iotais)
foimeu fiist. Foi example, tauons (tau leptons) foimeu befoie muons. These weie paitially
stable iesonances. They suiviveu foi peihaps 1u
11
cycles, but not inuefinitely. They then
uecayeu into othei eneigetic iotais anu photons. The iauiation uominateu univeise was
unueigoing a laige ieushift pei seconu. Eneigy was being iemoveu fiom photons anu
tiansfoimeu into vacuum eneigy. This loweieu the tempeiatuie of the obseivable poition of
the univeise that possesses angulai momentum (photons, neutiinos anu iotais). Eventually,
othei funuamental spacetime iesonances (iotais) weie foimeu at lowei fiequencies (lowei
eneigy). Eventually, tiuly stable iesonances foimeu anu these weie elections anu the up anu
uown quaiks that founu stability by foiming piotons anu neutions.

Wave-Particle Duality: Befoie launching into a moie uetaileu uesciiption anu analysis of a
iotai, it is inteiesting to initially stanu back anu look at the philosophical uiffeience in
peispective iequiieu to imagine a paiticle maue entiiely of uipole waves in spacetime waves.
At fiist, the iuea of a paiticle maue out of waves in spacetime seems to be intuitively
unappealing. The essence of a paiticle is something that acts as a unit. Waves, on the othei
hanu, aie imagineu to be infinitely uivisible, peihaps like a sounu wave. When a paiticle
unueigoes a collision, it iesponus as a single unit in a collision. This piopeity seems
incompatible with a iotai maue entiiely of waves. The teim wavepaiticle uuality was coineu
to explain the contiauictoiy piopeities of both paiticles anu photons.

Below, I will postulate a new piopeity of natuie calleu unity. This piopeity is closely ielateu
to entanglement. It peimits a uipole wave possessing quantizeu angulai momentum to
communicate inteinally fastei than the speeu of light anu iesponu to a peituibation as a single
unit. This piopeity woulu impait a paiticle like piopeity to a quantizeu uipole wave in
spacetime. Bowevei, the quantizeu wave woulu not exhibit classical paiticle piopeities.
Finuing the paiticle woulu become a piobabilistic event because we aie ieally uealing with
inteiacting with a wave caiiying quantizeu angulai momentum that is uistiibuteu ovei a finite
volume. A point paiticle cannot exhibit angulai momentum oi cannot exploie all possible
5-7
paths between two events in spacetime. 0n the othei hanu, a quantizeu wave in spacetime can
exhibit both angulai momentum anu give a physical inteipietation to the path integial of QEB.
Theie is actually a gieat ueal of appeal to funuamental paiticles being maue of quantizeu waves
in spacetime, pioviueu that the mouel is plausible.

An objection to a iotai mouel maue entiiely of waves is that oui expeiience with light seems to
imply that waves uo not inteiact with each othei. Light uoes have a veiy weak giavitational
inteiaction, but oveiall light waves exhibit almost no inteiaction. The waves in spacetime that
aie pioposeu to be the builuing blocks of all mattei anu foices must be able to inteiact with
each othei.

Any wave that exhibits nonlineaiity will inteiact to some uegiee with a similai wave. Foi
example, sounu waves have a slight nonlineaiity. Theie is a tempeiatuie uiffeience between
the compiession anu iaiefaction paits of a sounu wave. This slight tempeiatuie uiffeience
piouuces a slight peiiouic uiffeience in the speeu of sounu. This slight nonlineaiity in a single
sounu wave means that two supeiimposeu sounu waves uo inteiact. Bowevei, at commonly
encounteieu sounu intensities, the inteiaction between two sounu waves is veiy small.

uiavitational waves also have a slight inteiaction because geneial ielativity shows that
giavitational waves aie nonlineai. 0ne of the appeals of uipole waves in spacetime is that they
exhibit the iequiieu ability to inteiact with each othei. In fact, uipole waves inteiact so
stiongly that they woulu cause a violation of the conseivation of momentum without the
quantum mechanical Planck lengthtime limitation pieviously uiscusseu. The inteiactions
between uipole waves in spacetime will be shown to be iesponsible foi all the foices incluuing
giavity.

Spacetime is the stiffest possible meuium. The incieuibly laige impeuance of spacetime
(Z
s
= c
S
u = 4 x 1u
SS
kgs) peimits a wave with small uisplacement to have the veiy high
eneigy uensity foi a given fiequency. When we have fiequencies in excess of 1u
2u
Bz, then
waves in spacetime aie capable of achieving the eneigy uensity of funuamental paiticles. When
we peimit the fiequency to ieach Planck fiequency, we can achieve the eneigy uensity
iequiieu at the stait of the Big Bang (Planck eneigy uensity). Also, a univeise maue only of
spacetime anu peituibations of spacetime has an appealing simplicity.

Particle Design Criteria: Eveiything that has pieviously been saiu in this book has set the
stage foi the task of attempting to uesign anu analyze a plausible mouel of a funuamental iotai.
In uesigning a iotai fiom uipole waves in spacetime, theie is one factoi that will be tempoiaiily
ignoieu. This is the expeiimental eviuence that seems to inuicate that funuamental paiticles
aie points with no physical size. This will be analyzeu latei.

5-8
It shoulu be expecteu that the fiist mouel of funuamental paiticles will be oveily simplifieu.
Foi example, this fiist geneiation iotai mouel will make no uistinction between leptons anu
quaiks. Subsequent geneiations of the iotai mouel shoulu make such a uistinction anu exhibit
othei iefinements. The hope is that the fiist geneiation iotai mouel will pass enough
plausibility tests that otheis will be encouiageu to impiove on this mouel.

Theie aie 6 consiueiations that will be biought togethei in an attempt to uesign a funuamental
paiticle. These aie:
1) The univeise is only spacetime. Eneigetic spacetime is spacetime that contains waves
in spacetime. The waves can be uipole waves (with the Planck lengthtime limitation),
quauiupole waves (foi example, giavitational waves) oi highei oiuei waves. 0f these,
only uipole waves in spacetime have the piopei chaiacteiistics to be the builuing blocks
of iotais.
2) The iotai mouel shoulu exhibit ineitia. As shown in chaptei 1, this iequiies eneigy
tiaveling at the speeu of light, but confineu to a limiteu volume in a way that the
momentum vectois geneially cancel.
S) The iotai mouel shoulu exhibit angulai momentum. This will be inteipieteu as
implying a ciiculation (iotation) of the uipole waves in spacetime. Fuitheimoie, theie
shoulu be a logical ieason why funuamental iotais with uiffeient eneigy all possess the
same angulai momentum.
4) The iotai mouel shoulu exhibit ue Bioglie waves when moving ielative to an obseivei.
This implies biuiiectional wave motion, at least in the exteinal volume. The fiequency
of the confineu uipole waves in spacetime can be calculateu by analogy to the ue Bioglie
waves geneiateu by confineu light uesciibeu in chaptei 1.
S) The iotai mouel shoulu exhibit action at a uistance without iesoiting to mysteiious
exchange paiticles. Both giavity anu an electiic fielu shoulu logically follow fiom the
iotai uesign. To accomplish this, pait of the iotais uipole wave in spacetime must
extenu into what we iegaiu as empty space suiiounuing the iotai.
6) The iotai mouel shoulu logically explain how it is possible foi paiticles to exploie all
possible paths between two events in spacetime (path integial of QEB).

Note to Reauei: The iest of this chaptei piesents the spacetimebaseu mouel of a funuamental
paiticle. In these 11 pages the emphasis will be on uesciibing the paiticle mouel anu theie will
be no attempt to justify this mouel. This spacetimebaseu paiticle mouel will incluue unfamiliai
concepts that may be uifficult to initially visualize. Chapteis 6, 8 anu 1u aie uevoteu to testing
this paiticle mouel. Foi example, chaptei 6 will subject the paiticle mouel to tests of its angulai
momentum, ineitia, eneigy anu the geneiation of foices (incluuing giavity). These tests will
also help to explain the mouel fuithei.

5-9
Paiticle Nouel

Fouith Staiting Assumption: A fundamental particle is a dipole wave in spacetime that
forms a rotating spacetime dipole, one wavelength in circumference. Inertia is a natural
property of this particle design.

A iotating uipole in spacetime can be mentally thought of as a uipole wave in spacetime that
has been foimeu into a closeu loop, one wavelength in ciicumfeience. Recall that a uipole wave
in spacetime oscillates both the iate of time anu piopei volume. Foi example, one poition of
the wave (we will name the spatial maximum) expanus piopei volume anu slows the iate of
time. The opposite poition of the wave (we will name the spatial minimum) has a ieuuction of
piopei volume anu an incieaseu iate of time. If a uipole wave in spacetime possesses
quantizeu angulai momentum, it foims a closeu loop that is one wavelength in ciicumfeience.
What was the spatial maximum anu minimum in a plane wave have now become the two
opposite polaiity lobes of the iotating uipole wave. The wave is still tiaveling at the speeu of
light; it is just tiaveling at the speeu of light aiounu a closeu loop. Such a wave is confineu
eneigy tiaveling at the speeu of light. While theie is angulai momentum, the net tianslational
momentum of this quantizeu wave is zeio (p = u because of opposing vectois). Theiefoie, just
like confineu light oi confineu giavitational waves, a uipole wave iotating at the speeu of light
satisfies the conuition iequiieu foi it to exhibit iest mass anu ineitia.

This iotating uipole must be pictuieu as an isolateu iotating uipole wave existing in a sea of
vacuum eneigypiessuie that consists of othei noniotating uipole waves in spacetime. This
vacuum eneigypiessuie is capable of exeiting a fai gieatei piessuie than is iequiieu to
confine the eneigy uensity of a iotai. Foi now the impoitant point is that a iotai (iotating
spacetime uipole) can achieve stability by inteiacting with the sea of vacuum eneigy that
suiiounus the iotai. The quantizeu iotating uistuibance can effoitlessly move thiough the
supeifluiu vacuum eneigy.

Illustrations of a Rotar: Figuies S1 anu S2 aie two uiffeient ways of uepicting the iotating
uipole poition of the iotai mouel. The spacetime uipole uepicteu in Figuie S1 shows two
uiffuse lobes iepiesenting stiaineu volumes spacetime that aie iotating in the sea of vacuum
eneigy. These lobes aie uesignateu uipole lobe A anu uipole lobe B. Each lobe exhibits both
a slight spatial anu a tempoial uistoition of spacetime. Foi example, lobe A can be consiueieu
the lobe that exhibits a piopei volume slightly laigei than the Eucliuian noim (the spatial
maximum lobe) anu a iate of time that is slightly slowei than the local noim. Lobe B has the
opposite chaiacteiistics (smallei piopei volume anu fastei iate of time). These lobes aie
always moving at the speeu of light, so it is only possible to infei theii effect on time oi space by
wave amplituues. Also, the iotai mouel extenus beyonu the volume shown, but that poition is
not illustiateu heie.

5-10

5-11
Quantum Radius and Quantum Volume: This cioss sectional view in Figuie S1 shows a
ciicle with iauius uesignateu R
q
. This iauius will be calleu the iotais quantum iauius. The
ciicle anu iauius R
q
shoulu not be consiueieu as physical entities. Insteau, they shoulu be
consiueieu as convenient mathematical iefeiences foi a iotai. This is similai to the way that
the centei of mass is a convenient mathematical concept foi mechanical analysis.

Since the uipole lobes aie quantum mechanical entities, they cannot be accuiately uesciibeu by
pictuies. While figuie S1 uepicts a iotation in a single plane, the intenueu iepiesentation is a
semichaotic iotation that has an expectation uiiection of iotation, but also othei planes of
iotation occui with a piobabilistic uistiibution. This uistiibution is the same as quantum
mechanical spin chaiacteiistics of a paiticle. Because of the semichaotic iotation
chaiacteiistics, the ciicle uepicteu in Figuie S1 shoulu be consiueieu the cioss section of an
imaginaiy spheie. The volume of this imaginaiy spheie will be uesignateu the quantum
volume v
q
. While this volume shoulu be (
4
S
) R
q
S
, often we aie uiopping numeiical factois
neai 1 in this plausibility stuuy, so the quantum volume will be consiueieu v
q
= R
q
S
.

An auuitional insight into figuie S1 can be obtaineu by making a compaiison to the TEN
u1
*
Lagueiieuauss moue of a lasei beam which is also known as the uoughnut moue. While a
lasei beam is piopagating at the speeu of light anu the iotai being moueleu is geneially
stationaiy, theie aie 4 points of similaiity. 1) The spatial anu tempoial fluctuation of spacetime
being uepicteu has a similai intensity uoughnut uistiibution in cioss section. Theie is zeio
intensity at the centei. 2) The centei contains all phases so that theie is a phase singulaiity at
the centei wheie theie is zeio intensity. S) The TEN
u1
* moue exhibits quantizeu oibital angulai
momentum. 4) The wave goes thiough an angulai iotation wheie the iotation iate equals the
photons angulai fiequency.

In figuie S1 theie is also a ciicle uesignateu imaginaiy bounuaiy of the iotating uipole. This
ciicle with iauius equal to the quantum iauius R
q
will be calleu the quantum ciicle. Latei we
will imagine what woulu happen if it was possible to measuie the iate of time at a point on this
ciicle oi measuie the uistance between two points on this ciicle. The iotation of the lobes
affects both the iate of time anu the uistance between points on this ciicle.

Rotating Rate of Time Gradient: The piesence of these lobes also implies that theie is a
giauient in the iate of time anu a giauient in piopei volume between these lobes (anu even
outsiue these lobes). If lobe A has a iate of time that is slowei than the local noim anu lobe B
has a iate of time that is fastei than the local noim, then this implies that the iotai mouel also
contains a volume of space with a giauient in the iate of time that is iotating with the lobes.
Any giauient in the iate of time piouuces acceleiation. In chaptei 2 we showeu that the
acceleiation of giavity was uiiectly ielateu to the giauient in the iate of time:

5-12
g = c
2

d[
Jr
=
c
2
d[
d
dt
d

Foi example, a 1 ms
2
acceleiation is piouuceu by a iate of time giauient of: 1.11 x 1u
17

seconusseconu pei metei. The iate of time giauient in the iotai mouel theiefoie piouuces a
volume of spacetime that exhibits acceleiation similai to giavity but theie aie also impoitant
uiffeiences explaineu below.

Figuie S2 is intenueu to illustiate the iotating iate of time giauient piesent in the iotai mouel.
In figuie S2 the lobes A anu B have been ieplaceu with a uasheu outline showing theii
appioximate location. Insteau of illustiating the lobes, figuie S2 shows the iate of time
giauient that exists between the lobes. (0nly the iate of time giauient insiue the quantum
volume is shown). The aiiows show the uiiection (vectoi) of the iate of time giauient anu the
length of the aiiows is a ciuue iepiesentation of the amount of iate of time giauient. The
uiiection of the iate of time giauient iotates with the lobes, so Figuie S2 shoulu be consiueieu
as uepicting a moment in time.

It is also possible to make a lasei moue analogy to figuie S2. This is similai to a TEN
uu

Beimiteuauss moue with ciiculaily polaiizeu light. The iotating electiic fielu of the ciiculaily
polaiizeu light is analogous to the iotating giauient in the iate of time uepicteu in figuie S2.
Also the intensity of the TEN
uu
moue is maximum at the centei anu this is analogous to the
maximum intensity of the iate of time giauient at the centei being uepicteu in figuie S2. 0ne
place that this analogy bieaks uown is that auuing togethei a TEN
uu
moue anu a TEN
u1
* moue
woulu piouuce inteifeience effects in lasei beams while the phenomenon being uepicteu in
figuies S1 anu S2 not only piouuce no inteifeience but they aie natuially compatible. 0ne
follows fiom the othei.

Rotating Grav Field: A new name is iequiieu to uesciibe this iotating acceleiation fielu
causeu by the iotating iate of time giauient illustiateu in figuie S2. The name grav field will
be useu to uesciibe this iotating iate of time fielu. It will be shown latei that this is a fiist oiuei
effect capable of exeiting a foice compaiable to the maximum foice of a iotai. Bowevei this
foice vectoi is iapiuly iotating theiefoie we aie not awaie of its effect. The giavity piouuceu
by a iotai is a vastly weakei foice. Bowevei, the giavity vectoi is not iotating anu theiefoie it
is auuitive. This giav fielu filling the centei of the quantum volume will be shown to have an
eneigy uensity compaiable to the eneigy uensity of the iotating uipole wave which is
concentiateu closei to the ciicumfeience of the quantum volume. Theiefoie, the two uiffeient
types of eneigetic spacetime appioximately fill the entiie quantum volume with an
appioximately unifoim total eneigy uensity.

Lobe A as uesciibeu above piouuces an effect in spacetime that is similai to the effect on
spacetime piouuceu by oiuinaiy mass (minute slowing in the iate of time anu minute inciease
5-13
in volume). Lobe B, on the othei hanu, piouuces an effect that is similai to the effect of a
hypothetical antigiavity mass. It piouuces a minute inciease in the iate of time ielative to the
local noim anu a minute ueciease in volume. In lobe B, the minute inciease in the iate of time
nevei ieaches the iate of time that woulu occui in a hypothetical empty univeise. This will be
uiscusseu latei, but it will be pioposeu that the entiie univeise has a backgiounu giavitational
gamma that iesults in the entiie univeise having a iate of time that is slowei than a
hypothetical empty univeise. It is theiefoie possible foi lobe B to have a iate of time that is
fastei than the suiiounuing spacetime without having a iate of time fastei than a hypothetical
empty univeise.

Compton Frequency: We will ietuin to figuies latei, but fiist we want to calculate the
iotational fiequency of the iotating uipole. If we piesume that a iotai is a confineu wave
tiaveling at the speeu of light, it is necessaiy to assign a fiequency to this wave. Is it possible
to obtain an implieu fiequency fiom a paiticles ue Bioglie wave chaiacteiistics. In chaptei #1
we showeu that confineu light exhibits many piopeities of a paiticle. These incluue the
appeaiance of the optical equivalent of ue Bioglie waves when the confineu light is moving
ielative to an obseivei. If we weie only able to uetect the optical ue Bioglie waves piesent in a
moving lasei, it woulu be possible to calculate the fiequency of the light in the moving lasei.
Similaily, we can attempt to calculate a iotais fiequency fiom its ue Bioglie waves. We know a
paiticles ue Bioglie wavelength (
u
= hmv) anu the ue Bioglie waves phase velocity
(w
u
= c
2
v). Fiom these we obtain the following angulai fiequency .

u
d
=
w
d
x
d
= [
c
2
[
m
h
=
mc
2
h
= fiequency
= 2nu
d
=
2nmc
2
h
=
mc
2
=
c

=
c

c
= Compton angulai fiequency =
mc
2
=
c
R
q
=
E

This calculation says that a iotais angulai fiequency is equal to a iotais Compton angulai
fiequency
c
. We will piesume that this is a iotais funuamental fiequency of iotation. While
the ue Bioglie wavelength anu phase velocity uepenu on ielative velocity, the velocity teims
cancel in the above equation yieluing a funuamental fiequency (Compton fiequency) that is
inuepenuent of ielative motion. The ieasoning in this calculation can be conceptually
unueistoou by analogy to the example in chaptei 1 of the biuiiectional waves in the moving
lasei.

A iotais Compton wavelength will be uesignateu
c
. The connection between a iotais
Compton wavelength anu ue Bioglie wavelength is veiy simple.

c
=
u
(vc) appioximation valiu foi v << c
c
=
u
y appioximation valiu foi y >> 1
5-14

The simplicity of these equations show the intimate ielationship between a iotais ue Bioglie
wavelength anu Compton wavelength. Foi anothei example, imagine a geneiic paiticle that
might be a composite paiticle such as an atom oi molecule. This paiticle is at iest in oui
fiame of iefeience. Suppose that this paiticle emits a photon of wavelength
. This photon
has momentum p = h
. Theiefoie the emission of this photon impaits the same magnituue of

momentum to the emitting paiticle but in the opposite vectoi uiiection (iecoil). Now, the
paiticle is moving ielative to oui fiame of iefeience. What is the ue Bioglie wavelength of the
iecoiling paiticle in oui fiame of iefeience.

u
= hp set p = h
u
=

Theiefoie, we obtain the veiy inteiesting iesult that the ue Bioglie wavelength of the iecoiling
paiticle equals the wavelength of the emitteu photon. In Appenuix A of chaptei 1 it was pioven
that a confineu photon with a specific eneigy exhibits the same ineitia as a funuamental
paiticle with the same eneigy. Anothei way of saying this is that a paiticle with ue Bioglie
wavelength
u
exhibits the same ineitia as a confineu photon with the same wavelength.
Fuitheimoie, in chaptei 1 we saw the similaiity between ue Bioglie waves with wavelength
u

anu the piopagating inteifeience patteins with mouulation wavelength
m
. Impaiting
momentum p = h

to eithei a funuamental paiticle with Compton wavelength
c
oi a
confineu photon with the same wavelength will piouuce the iesult:
u
=
m
=
. Theiefoie, it
is pioposeu that this offeis auuitional suppoit to the contention that funuamental paiticles aie
composeu of a confineu wave in spacetime with a wavelength equal to the paiticles Compton
wavelength
c
.
In the iemainuei of this book we will often use an election in numeious examples. An election
has the following Compton fiequency, Compton angulai fiequency anu Compton wavelength:

Elections Compton fiequency
c
= 1.24 x 1u
2u
Bz
Elections Compton angulai fiequency
c
= 2
c
= 7.76 x 1u
2u
s
1

Elections Compton wavelength
c
= 2.4S x 1u
12
m
Elections ieuuceu Compton wavelength
c
= S.86 x 1u
1S
m (
c
= c
c
)

Quantum Radius: 0nce we know the fiequency of iotation, we can calculate the quantum
iauius R
q
of the iotating uipole assuming speeu of light motion. The quantum ciicle in Figuie
S1 is an imaginaiy ciicle with a ciicumfeience one Compton wavelength. The iauius of the
ciicle one Compton wavelength in ciicumfeience is the quantum iauius R
q
.

R
q
= c
c
= mc =
c
2 =
c

wheie R
q
= quantum iauius,
c
= Compton wavelength
c
= ieuuceu Compton wavelength

5-15
What I call the quantum iauius has sometimes been iefeiieu to as the Compton iauius.
Bowevei, the teim Compton iauius is also useu to uesciibe a chaigeu paiticles classical
iauius, foi example, an elections classical iauius (~ 2.82 x 1u
1S
m). Theiefoie, to avoiu this
confusion, I will use the teim quantum iauius R
q
to uesciibe mc. Foi example, the quantum
iauius of an election is R
q
= S.86 x 1u
1S
meteis.

In quantum mechanics, this uistance R
q
, is the logical uivision wheie a paiticles quantum
effects become uominant. Foi example, a funuamental paiticle of mass m can move
uiscontinuously ovei a uistance R
q
. A paiticle can go out of existence, oi come into existence,
foi a time equal to R
q
c. Essentially, the uistance R
q
is a iotais natuial unit of length anu 1
c

is a iotais natuial unit of time.

Analysis of the Lobes: Suppose that it was possible to fieeze the motion of the iotating uipole
anu examine the uiffeience between the two lobes. The slow time lobe (lobe A) can be thought
of as having a piopei volume that exceeus the anticipateu Eucliuian volume as pieviously
explaineu. The fast time lobe (lobe B) can be thought of as having less piopei volume than the
anticipateu Eucliuian volume (the spatial minimum lobe). This connection between volume
anu the iate of time is well establisheu foi the effects of giavity. Bowevei, giavity is a static
effect on spacetime. This effect on space piouuceu by a iotais uipole wave in spacetime
iesults in the uistance between two points on the quantum ciicle changing slightly as the uipole
iotates. Similaily, if it was possible to fieeze the iotation we woulu finu a uiffeient iate of time
between the two lobes. Since the lobes aie always moving at the speeu of light, the effect is that
the iate of time fluctuates at a point on the quantum ciicle (iauius = R
q
) anu the uistance
between two points on the quantum ciicle also fluctuates.

All quantizeu uipole waves have maximum spatial uisplacement amplituue equal to _ Planck
length (_ L
p
) as the quantum uipole iotates. To illustiate this concept, imagine two points
locateu on the quantum ciicle of Figuie S1 sepaiateu by a ciicumfeiential uistance equal to R
q

(sepaiateu by one iauian). As the lobes iotate they mouulate volume anu iesult in the
sepaiation uistance between these two points incieasing anu uecieasing by Planck length
(_ L
p
). Figuie SS is a giaph of the spatial effect piouuceu by the iotating spacetime uipole. In
figuie SS the Y axis is the spatial uisplacement piouuceu by the iotating uipole between these
two points (_ L
p
). The X axis is length in units of
c
which is the same as R
q
since (R
q
=
c
). It
shoulu be noteu that the Y axis is about a factoi of 1u
2S
smallei scale than the X axis if we
piesume that
c
is an elections ieuuceu Compton wavelength (
c
= S.86 x 1u
1S
m anu
L
p
= 1.6 x 1u
SS
m).

5-16

Figuie S4 is a giaph of the tempoial effect of the iotating spacetime uipole. It was pieviously
stateu that in Figuie S1 we can consiuei lobe A as exhibiting a iate of time slowei than the
local noim anu lobe B as exhibiting a iate of time fastei than the local noim. To illustiate this
concept fuithei, we will imagine a thought expeiiment wheie we place a hypothetical peifect
clock at a point on the ciicumfeience pieviously uesignateu the quantum ciicle in Figuie S1.
5-17
Pieviously we imagineu fieezing the iotation of the uipole. Now in figuie S4 we imagine
having the uipole iotate anu we aie monitoiing the time at only one point on the imaginaiy
quantum ciicle anu compaiing this to a cooiuinate clock at anothei location in flat spacetime.
The clock monitoiing a point on the euge of the uipole will be calleu the uipole clock.

As lobes A anu B iotate pass the uipole clock location, the uipole clock woulu speeu up anu
slow uown ielative to the cooiuinate clock that is unaffecteu by the iotating uipole. Both clocks
aie staiteu at the same moment. In flat spacetime, we woulu expect both clocks to peifectly
tiack each othei. Figuie S4 plots the tempoial uisplacement of spacetime piouuceu by the
iotating uipole wave (Y axis) veisus time as expiesseu in units of 1 (X axis). Foi example, an
election has angulai fiequency of
c
= 7.76 x 1u
2u
s
1
. Theiefoie, foi an election
1
c
= 1.29 x 1u
19
s. As can be seen in figuie S4 the uipole clock speeus up anu slows uown
ielative to the cooiuinate clock. The maximum time uiffeience between the two clocks is plus
oi minus Planck time T
p
(_ ~S x 1u
44
s). This maximum time uiffeience is a quantum
mechanical limit foi a uisplacement of spacetime that is unuetectable. This oscillation of the
iate of time is what has been calleu uynamic Planck time T
p
. Figuie S4 only shows what
happens uuiing a shoit time peiiou (~ 1u
2u
s) aftei staiting the uipole anu cooiuinate clocks.
The time uiffeience ovei a longei time will be uiscusseu in a latei chaptei.

Strain Amplitude H
: The stiain amplituue of the wave uepicteu in figuies SS anu S4 is

just the maximum slope of these waves. The uasheu line in figuie SS iepiesents the maximum
slope which occuis when the sine wave ciosses zeio. This maximum slope can be a
uimensionless numbei if the X anu Y axis have the same units which cancel when expiessing
slope. Foi example, in figuie SS both the X anu Y axis have units of length. The maximum
uisplacement is one unit of Planck length (L
p
= 1.6 x 1u
SS
m). The X axis is length units
expiesseu as multiples of
c
which is equal to R
q
. Foi an election
c
= R
q
= S.86 x 1u
1S
m. The
maximum slope occuis at Y = u. The maximum slope in figuie SS is L
p
c
. This uimensionless
maximum slope will be uesignateu the stiain amplituue anu uesignateu with the symbol B
.
Theiefoie, one way of expiessing a iotais stiain amplituue is with the iatio of lengths:

B
= L
p
c
= L
p
R
q
stiain amplituue expiesseu with length iatio

Figuie S4 is similai to figuie SS except that S4 is chaiacteiizing the effect on the iate of time.
The Y axis of this figuie uepicts the uiffeience between the uipole clock anu the cooiuinate
clock shoitly aftei we stait both clocks. This uiffeience between clocks can ieach _ Planck
time (_ T
p
). The X axis of figuie S4 is in units of time expiesseu as 1
c
which foi an election
is 1
c
= 1.29 x 1u
19
s. The stiain amplituue B
of the uipole wave can also be expiesseu these

using time ielateu symbols:

B
=
c
p
= T
p
c
stiain amplituue expiesseu using fiequency anu time

5-18
Theiefoie the uipole waves stiain amplituue can be expiesseu eithei as a stiain of space
(L
p
c
= L
p
R
q
) oi as a stiain in the iate of time (
c
p
= T
p
c
). Foi an election
R
q
= S.86 x 1u
1S
m anu
c
= 7.76 x 1u
2u
s
1
. Theiefoie, an elections uimensionless stiain
amplituue is: B
= 4.18 x 1u
2S
. (This will be uiscusseu in moie uetail in the next chaptei.)
0thei iotais have uiffeient stiain amplituues because they have uiffeient Compton angulai
fiequencies (anu coiiesponuing uiffeient values of R
q
anu
c
). Note that the sine waves in
figuies SS anu S4 aie shifteu by iauians (18u). This is because the lobe with maximum
piopei volume coiiesponus to the lobe with the minimum iate of time anu vice veisa.

Conceptual Examples of Wave Amplitude: The iotai mouel is baseu on the sea of vacuum
fluctuations that foim spacetime being uynamically stiaineu. It is impoitant to have a mental
pictuie of the incieuibly small uisplacements of time anu space iequiieu foi this mouel. Foi
example, foi an election B
= 4.18 x 1u
2S
which is the iatio of L
p
R
q
oi T
p
c
. This spatial stiain
of spacetime causes the oibits of the two lobes to exhibit uiffeiences in ciicumfeience anu
iauius compaiable to Planck length. This is ieally equivalent to having one of the lobes exceeu
the elections quantum iauius by Planck length anu the othei lobe is less than the quantum
iauius by Planck length. This means that the lobes aie not exactly symmetiical. Actually, the
veiy concept of a uipole implies that theie must be two uiffeient (opposite) piopeities that aie
inteiacting. With electiomagnetic iauiation, a uipole oscillatoi has a positive anu negative
electiical chaige. Similaily, a spacetime uipole has two lobes which piouuce an opposite type of
spatial uistoition (big anu small) of the piopeities of spacetime oi the opposite type of
tempoial uistoition (fast anu slow) of the piopeities of spacetime.

Planck length is so small, it is haiu to imagine the minute uistoition of spacetime iequiieu to
make an election accoiuing to the pioposeu mouel. We will use the following example to
illustiate this incieuibly small uiffeience between the two lobes. Suppose we compaie an
elections quantum iauius to the iauius of }upiteis oibit. Stietching space by Planck length
ovei a uistance equal to an elections quantum iauius piouuces a stiain of about 4.2 x 1u
2S
.
(1.6 x 1u
SS
S.9 x 1u
1S
= 4 x 1u
2S
). Stietching }upiteis oibital iauius (7.8 x 1u
11
m) by
S.S x 1u
11
m woulu piouuce a compaiable stiain in space. To put this in peispective, the Bohi
iauius of a hyuiogen atom is ~S.S x 1u
11
m. Now imagine a spheie the size of }upiteis oibit,
except that one hemispheie has stiaineu spacetime such that the iauius exceeus the piesciibeu
iauius by a uistance ioughly equal to the iauius of a hyuiogen atom. The othei hemispheie is
less than the piesciibeu amount by the iauius of a hyuiogen atom (a 4 x 1u
2S
volume
uiffeience). 0f couise, the tiansition between the two lobes is not an abiupt step. This
simplifieu example is meant to illustiate the minute uistoition of spacetime involveu in the
spacetimebaseu mouel of a funuamental paiticle.

Thus fai, this example uesciibes a static stiain. To give an iuea of uynamic stiain in spacetime,
imagine the spheiical volume of spacetime the size of }upiteis oibit with the uistoition of
spacetime iotating at the speeu of light. This iotating slight stiain of spacetime woulu be an
5-19
example of uynamic spacetime. The analogy bieaks uown because the iotation fiequency of an
election exceeus 1u
2u
Bz anu speeu of light aiounu the ciicumfeience of }upiteis oibit woulu
take ioughly 4 houis. Since this fiequency teim is squaieu, the highei fiequency of the
election piouuces the effect that is ioughly 1u
48
times laigei than the same stiain amplituue
ciiculating at the speeu of light aiounu }upiteis oibit.

Continuing with the example, suppose that we weie to compaie the iate of time between the
two lobes of an election. Suppose that it was possible to stop the iotation anu inseit a peifectly
accuiate clock into the fast lobe of an election (at uistance R
q
) anu inseit a seconu peifect clock
into the slow lobe. The iate of time uiffeience is so small that it woulu take about Su,uuu times
longei than the age of the univeise befoie the two clocks uiffeieu in time by one seconu. This
iatio in the iate of time is also about 4 x 1u
2S
. 0nce again, this uesciibes a fixeu uiffeience in
the iate of time.

Theie is anothei way of looking at the uiffeience in the iate of time. An elevation change of
u.4 micion (4 x 1u
7
m) in the eaiths giavity piouuces about the same change in the iate of
time that occuis between the two lobes of an election. While this example also seems like an
insignificant uiffeience in the iate of time, the election piouuces this change in the iate of time
ovei a much shoitei uistance than the eaiths giavitational fielu. This means that an election
has a much laigei giauient in the iate of time than the eaiths giavitational fielu. This will be
quantifieu latei, but the iesult is that the centei of the iotai mouel quantum volume contains a
iotating acceleiation fielu pieviously nameu a giav fielu. It has similaiities to giavity, but is
not the same as giavity.

In chaptei 6 we will analyze this spacetimebaseu mouel of funuamental paiticles to see if the
mouel plausibly yielus the coiiect eneigy, angulai momentum, giavity, etc. Bowevei, the
above examples begin to give a feel foi how paiticles can appeai to be nebulous entities which
iesult in theii countei intuitive quantum mechanical piopeities. Rotais maue fiom small
amplituue waves in spacetime can be uifficult to locate exactly. Fuitheimoie, a piopeity will be
pioposeu latei that peimits quantizeu waves in spacetime to iesponu to a peituibation as a
single unit. This gives paiticlelike piopeities to a quantizeu wave in spacetime anu gives iise
to the famous wavepaiticle piopeities in natuie.

Solitons: Why uo a few combinations of fiequency anu amplituue piouuce iesonances that aie
the funuamental paiticles anu all othei fiequencies anu amplituues not piouuce funuamental
paiticles. Theie must be a combination of piopeities of spacetime which achieve stability by
canceling loss at the few fiequencies that foim funuamental paiticles. Theie appeais to be a
similaiity between the conuitions that foim a stable iotai anu the conuitions that foim a stable
optical soliton. An optical soliton is foimeu when a veiy shoit pulse of lasei light is focuseu
into a tianspaient mateiial that exhibits a set of complementaiy optical chaiacteiistics. 0ne of
these chaiacteiistics is the optical Keii effect. As pieviously mentioneu, this is a nonlineai
5-20
effect in all tianspaient mateiials wheie the speeu of light is uepenuent on intensity. This
nonlineai effect is also wavelength uepenuent. In some optical mateiials the uispeision of the
optical Keii effect can be offset against the optical uispeision of the tianspaient mateiial.
These two piopeities can inteiact in a way that confines iathei than uispeises the eneigy in the
pulse of lasei light. The uispeision is a loss mechanism foi a pulse of lasei light. The
combination of the two uiffeient types of uispeision plus the intensity uepenuence togethei
can cieate a stability conuition. A pulse of lasei light foims a piopagating wave that fulfills this
stability conuition anu this combination of effects shape the pulse of light into an optical
soliton. The teim soliton is a selfieinfoicing wave that maintains its shape as it piopagates.
The fiist iuentifieu solitons weie watei waves piopagating in a channel. 0ptical solitons can
exhibit many paiticlelike piopeities. Foi example, two optical solitons piopagating neai each
othei can attiact oi iepel each othei uepenuing on the ielative phase of the light. A wonueiful
viueo is available at the following website showing paiticlelike inteiactions of optical solitons
4
.

The chaiacteiistics of spacetime appeai to foim a similai loss cancellation foi the S chaigeu
leptons. These aie funuamental paiticles with iest mass that can exist in isolation. The stability
of any iotais uepenus on the existence of vacuum eneigy, but theie must be a few fiequencies
anu conuitions wheie the stabilization is optimum. This is equivalent to a pulse of light
satisfying the soliton conuition in a tianspaient mateiial. The analogy to optical solitons can be
extenueu if a funuamental paiticle is visualizeu as piopagating along the geouesic at the speeu
of light.

It was pieviously stateu that each funuamental iotai has a unique uimensionless numbei that
uesciibes its wave amplituue B
, fiequency, mass, quantum iauius (inveise), eneigy,

ciiculating powei (P
c
12
) anu even its giavitational magnituue (
q
12
). Foi the election:
B
= 4.18 x 1u
2S
; foi the muon: B
= 8.66 x 1u
21
; anu foi the tauon: B
= 1.46 x 1u
19
.

Each of
these numbeis somehow matches a stability conuition foi spacetime. Theie aie an infinite
numbei of othei numbeis that uo not uesciibe funuamental iotais. The uiffeience between the
few numbeis that uesciibe funuamental iotais anu the infinite numbei of othei numbeis that
uo not uesciibe iotais is that these few numbeis uesciibe conuitions in spacetime wheie theie
is cancelation of waves in the exteinal volume of iotais. The high loss fiequencies that uo not
cancel, nevei suiviveu the eaily stages of the Big Bang when all combinations of fiequencies
anu amplituues weie being testeu. The few stable fiequencies that satisfieu the soliton
conuition conuenseu out of the eneigetic spacetime that existeu at the eaily stages of the Big
Bang anu foimeu the funuamental iotais.

4
http://www.sfu.ca/~renns/lbullets.html
6-1

Chaptei 6

Analysis of the Paiticle Nouel anu Beiivation of uiavity

In chaptei S the spacetimebaseu mouel of a funuamental paiticle was piesenteu without any
analysis to see if it can satisfy the known chaiacteiistics of funuamental paiticles. This chaptei
will be uevoteu to testing the iotai mouel of funuamental paiticles foi plausibility. We will fiist
analyze whethei this mouel will appeai to be a point paiticle in collision expeiiments. Then we
will see if the paiticle mouel piouuces the iequiieu eneigy, angulai momentum, anu foices
incluuing the coiiect giavity. Finally the implieu ineitia of the paiticle mouel will be uiscusseu.

Particle Size Problem: Peihaps the biggest objection to the hypothesis pioposeu in chaptei S
is that expeiiments seem to inuicate that funuamental paiticles aie points with no physical
size. Now we will examine whethei the iotai mouel is compatible with the expeiiments that
seem to inuicate a point paiticle.

In one sense, a iotai is only an angulai momentum uistuibance in spacetime. Foi an election,
the stiain piouuceu on spacetime is only about 4 x 1u
2S
. Spatially, this is a stiain of spacetime
compaiable to stietching }upiteis oibit by the iauius of a hyuiogen atom. Tempoially this is
compaiable to ietaiuing the iate of time by one seconu ovei Su,uuu times the age of the
univeise. It is only the incieuibly laige impeuance of spacetime (c
S
u) anu the high oscillation
fiequency that gives this small stiain of spacetime a uetectable physical piesence. Even then,
the oscillations aie not uetectable as waves because the maximum uisplacement of spacetime is
only Planck length anu Planck time.

When we uo uetect the piesence of an election, it exhibits piopeities that aie not explainable
fiom classical physics. Foi example, finuing an election (inteiacting with a wave with
quantizeu angulai momentum) is a piobabilistic event. An election can seem to jump fiom one
location to anothei without tiaveising the space between these two points. This is because the
iotating uipole in spacetime that is an isolateu election is uistiibuteu ovei a ielatively laige
volume with a iauius in the iange of 4 x 1u
1S
m. Inueeu, this is the unceitainty volume ovei
which these countei intuitive inteiactions can occui. The angulai momentum of an election is
quantizeu theiefoie this uistiibuteu uistoition of spacetime seems to inteiact at a point. The
quantizeu angulai momentum piopeity is enfoiceu by the vacuum eneigy fluctuations which
aie in a supeifluiu state as pieviously uiscusseu. The list of counteiintuitive piopeities of an
election is long, but the nonclassical piopeity of inteiest heie is the fact that an election seems
to have no physical size in a collision expeiiment.

6-2
Even though the iotai mouel gives a physical size to funuamental paiticles, it is not the classical
billiaiu ball type of physical size. Foi example, a collision between an election anu a
position (iotai mouel) often iesults in these two iotating uipole waves meiely passing thiough
each othei with the only inteiaction being a slight scatteiing fiom the oiiginal tiajectoiies.
When an election anu position annihilate each in an inteiaction that foims positionium (not a
high speeu collision), about 1u
1u
seconus is iequiieu foi this annihilation (photon emission) to
take place. In a collision at neai light speeu the oveilap time is less than 1u
2u
seconu in the
fiame of iefeience wheie the total momentum is zeio. When the collision eneigy is less than
the about 1 uev, then the scatteiing ciosssection of an electionposition collision uecieases as
the collision eneigy incieases. At highei collision eneigy wheie new funuamental paiticles can
be foimeu the inteiaction ciosssection becomes complex with the foimation of new paiticles.

In a collision between two elections the electiostatic iepulsion can be visualizeu as
momentaiily biinging the two colliuing elections to a halt. What happens to the kinetic eneigy
at the moment of closest appioach. With the iotai mouel the kinetic eneigy of each election is
momentaiily conveiteu into inteinal eneigy of the two elections. This inciease in eneigy
means that the fiequency incieases, the wavelength uecieases, the ciicumfeience uecieases,
anu the quantum iauius uecieases. These changes keep the angulai momentum constant
because the ueciease in iauius offsets the inciease in masseneigy. The quantum iauius R
q

scales with the iotais inteinal eneigy E
i
as: R
q
= cE
i
. At the moment of closest appioach
the two iotais aie actually paitially oveilapping. They also have the smallei iauius anu highei
fiequency appiopiiate foi theii highei eneigy conuition.

Bow uoes this iauius compaie with the paiticle size iesolution limit in a collision expeiiment.
This iesolution limit is set by the unceitainty piinciple x p = 2. We have been ignoiing
uimensionless constants like V, so we will use x p = anu then incluue a single allinclusive
constant k. In a collision between two elections, we have an unceitainty about the momentum
tiansfeiieu at the moment of closest appioach. Is the collision heau on oi a glancing collision.
All we ieally know is the maximum momentum available, so the unceitainty becomes p = mv.
Foi a collision between elections with ultiaielativistic velocity (v = c), the special ielativity
gamma is = E
k
mc
2
wheie E
k
is the ielativistic kinetic eneigy. Also, when is laige, the
momentum is: p = mc. With this infoimation we can solve foi x.

x =
Ap
=

ymc
= k [

mc
[
mc
2
L
k
uimensionless constant k incluueu
x = k
c
L
k

Theiefoie, in a collision between ultiaielativistic iotais, the kinetic eneigy is momentaiily
auueu to the iotais inteinal eneigy (E = mc
2
eneigy) foi a total eneigy of E + E
k
= E
k.
This
means that the quantum iauius momentaiily shiinks to R
q
= cE
k
which matches the
unceitainty iesolution limit of the expeiiment x = cE
k
. It is no coinciuence oi lucky iesult
6-3
that the iesolution of the expeiiment matches the momentaiy size of a iotai. If funuamental
paiticles ieally aie iotais with a piobabilistic inteiaction iauius, then this size must match the
unceitainty in the inteiaction.

The combination of the oveilap anu the ieuuction in R
q
iesults in an expectation sepaiation
uistance that is less than the x unceitainty iesolution of the expeiiment that attempts to
measuie the size of the iotai (paiticle). This is analogous to the unceitainty piinciple saying
that an expeiiment cannot simultaneously measuie the position anu momentum of a paiticle to
bettei than V. Similaily, an expeiiment cannot measuie the size of a funuamental paiticle
because the measuiement piocess intiouuces eneigy that momentaiily uecieases the size of
the paiticle to below the measuiement iesolution (R
q
= cE
i
< x). Theiefoie, the iotai
mouel gives a plausible explanation of why funuamental paiticles always appeai to be point
paiticles in expeiiments that attempt to measuie theii size.

The cuiient uppei limit foi the size of an election is set by an expeiiment using two elections
acceleiateu to a kinetic eneigy of about Su uev. When the iotai mouel of an election
unueigoes a collision, the Su uev kinetic eneigy is tempoiaiily conveiteu to the elections
inteinal eneigy. This momentaiily incieases the elections inteinal eneigy (uipole wave
eneigy) by a factoi of 1uu,uuu anu ieuuces the quantum iauius by a factoi of 1uu,uuu. An
isolateu election has a quantum iauius of about 4 x 1u
1S
m. Bowevei when Su uev of kinetic
eneigy is conveiteu to an elections inteinal eneigy at the moment of closest appioach, this
ieuuces R
q
by a factoi of 1uu,uuu to about 4 x 1u
18
m. Combineu with the ability to paitially
oveilap quantum volumes, the election always has an instantaneous size smallei than the x
iesolution limit of the expeiiment. A Su uev election unueigoing a collision tempoiaiily
becomes much smallei than a pioton (~1u
1S
m) anu can be useu as a piobe of the inteinal
stiuctuie of a pioton.

The iotai mouel of an election also has an auvantage ovei the point paiticle mouel of an
election when it comes to explaining the behavioi of an election in an atom. An election bounu
in an atom appeais to be biggei than the isolateu iotai size. Foi example, an election bounu in
a hyuiogen atom has a uiffeient bounuaiy conuition than an isolateu election. This cieates a
uiffeient stability conuition that iesults in the uipole wave eneigy of the election uistiibuteu
aiounu the nucleolus of an atom in a way that enlaiges the appaient size anu explains the
clouulike quality of an election bounu in an atom.

Equations Demand Size: 0ne of the stiengths of the spacetime mouel of funuamental
paiticles is that it gives a plausible explanation of how the funuamental paiticle (iotai) can
have a physical size equal to the ieuuceu Compton wavelength (equal to R
q
) anu yet also
always appeai to be a point paiticle in collision expeiiments. 0ne of the mysteiies of
quantum mechanics has been that the equations of quantum mechanics yielu an unieasonable
answei of infinity when they incoipoiate the assumption that funuamental paiticles aie point
6-4
paiticles. These equations aie scieaming that this is a wiong staiting assumption. Yet the
equations aie ignoieu because the physical inteipietation of expeiiments is that the
funuamental paiticles must be point paiticles.

Bowevei, this is a failuie of the physical inteipietation of the expeiiments, not a failuie of the
equations. The piocess of ienoimalization useu to eliminate the infinity is actually aujusting
the staiting assumption to give a physical volume to funuamental paiticles. Physicists believe
that expeiiments aie the ultimate iefeiee of a theoiy. 0sually expeiiments aie easy to
inteipiet coiiectly. Bowevei, the physical inteipietation of collision expeiiments always
makes the eiioneous assumption that the colliuing paiticles uo not change any of theii
chaiacteiistics compaieu to the same paiticles not unueigoing a collision. In paiticulai, the
assumption is that the physical size of a funuamental paiticle iemains constant, even if the
collision is ultiaielativistic. Bowevei, wheie is the kinetic eneigy stoieu at the instant when
both paiticles aie stoppeu. It is pioposeu that the collision expeiiments aie giving the coiiect
answei foi this instant but this collision moment cannot be extiapolateu to ueuuce the size of
isolateu paiticles. This is like a selffulfilling piophecy. If you assume point paiticles, then you
can inteipiet the expeiimental iesults to suppoit this mouel.

Stability Mechanism: Bow exactly uoes the spacetime uipole achieve stability. What
pievents the waves fiom simply piopagating in a stiaight line iathei than foiming a iotating
uipole. This question will be auuiesseu latei, but an intiouuctoiy explanation will be given
heie. Chaptei S staiteu by iecounting Eiwin Schiouingeis attempteu to give a wave baseu
explanation to funuamental paiticles. Schiouingei eventually abanuoneu this explanation
because he was unable to explain what pieventeu his wave packet fiom uissipating.

The pioposeu iotai mouel has a single fiequency uipole wave in spacetime that foims a
iotating closeu loop. This uipole wave is still piopagating at the speeu of light. This mouel
achieves a laige eneigy uensity that will be calculateu latei. Bowevei, it also implies a laige
piessuie iequiieu to confine this eneigy. In fact, any concentiation of eneigy uensity
funuamentally implies piessuie. Theiefoie, this pioposeu iotai mouel iequiies some means to
counteiact the piessuie associateu with the eneigy uensity. This is accomplisheu by an
inteiaction with the vacuum eneigy uipole waves in spacetime that exist eveiywheie in
spacetime. This vacuum eneigy possesses a vastly laigei eneigy uensity than any iotai.
Theiefoie the vacuum eneigy exists at a vastly laigei piessuie than is iequiieu to stabilize the
iotai. Theie aie only a few quaiks anu leptons in the stanuaiu mouel. These iepiesent only a
few Compton fiequencies that have achieveu at least paitial stability inteiacting with the
suiiounuing vacuum eneigy uipole waves in spacetime. This explanation will be expanueu
latei.

Rotar Energy Test: Now we aie going to subject the iotai mouel anu the concept of uipole
waves in spacetime to a ciitical test. We will use one of the S waveamplituue equations anu
6-5
attempt to calculate the eneigy of any iotai. We aie not attempting to calculate the eneigy of
specific paiticles. Insteau, we aie checking to see if the concept of uipole waves in spacetime
that aie confineu to a specific volume can piouuce the equivalent masseneigy foi a iotai. Foi
this plausibility test to be successful, inseiting a iotais amplituue, fiequency anu volume into
the waveamplituue equation must piouuce the coiiect eneigy foi a iotai (ignoiing
uimensionless constants neai 1). The equation to be useu is:

E = k B
2

2
Z vc waveamplituue equation expiessing eneigy E in a volume v

We know that the angulai fiequency equals the Compton fiequency: =
c
= cR
q
= mc
2
.
We will also set the amplituue as: B
= L
p
R
q
= T
p
c
. Wheie B
= stiain amplituue in the

quantum volume of a iotai. This amplituue was obtaineu in the last chaptei using the staiting
assumption about the maximum uisplacement of spacetime alloweu by quantum mechanics foi
uipole waves in spacetime.

The volume teim v shoulu be equal to the volume of the iotais quantum volume: v = kR
q
S
. It
is tiue that we aie not auuiessing the question about how unifoimly this volume is filleu, but
this is just a plausibility test anu we aie using the constant k which peimits us to be vague
about this point. Finally, the impeuance teim Z is set equal to the pieviously obtaineu
impeuance of spacetime: Z
s
= c
S
u. We will lump all uimensionless constants into a single
constant k.

E = k B
2

2
Z vc set B = B
= L
p
R
q
=
c
= cR
q
anu Z = Z
s
= c
S
u
E = k _
L
R
q
]
2
_
c
R
q
]
2
[
c
3
G
[
R
q
3
c
= k
L
2
c
4
GR
q
= k [
G
c
3
[
c
4
G
[
mc

E = k mc
2

This impoitant plausibility test is successful. The iotai mouel establishes the famous
ielationship between eneigy anu mass (ineitia). We have shown that an amplituue of
B
= L
p
R
q
, a fiequency of
c
anu a volume of kR
q
S
, togethei piouuce the coiiect eneigy of
E = mc
2
(times a possible constant). The mass in this equation shoulu be thought of as the
ineitia exhibiteu by confineu eneigy ciiculating at the speeu of light. The calculation that was
just maue iepiesents a biiuge between the familiai concept of paiticles exhibiting mass anu the
unfamiliai concept of confineu waves in spacetime that exhibit eneigy anu ineitia.

We aie piesuming that k = 1. We actually have a little bit of flexibility in this iegaiu.
Pieviously we gave an example wheie the uisplacement amplituue was uefineu as the noimal
_ amplituue of a sine wave. It woulu also be possible to uefine the amplituue as the RNS
amplituue oi the peak to peak amplituue. These thiee ways of uefining amplituue all apply to
the same wave. Fuitheimoie, theie may be anothei way of uefining amplituue. I am going to
piesume that some uefinition of amplituue will peimit k = 1.
6-6

It shoulu be emphasizeu that the quantum iauius R
q
is a convenient mathematical
iepiesentation of a iotai mouel, but the iotai uoes not abiuptly stop at a uistance of R
q
. The
iotai mouel is moie complex than this anu pait of the quantum wave that foims the iotai
extenus beyonu the quantum iauius. Foi example, it will be shown latei that the iotais electiic
fielu anu giavity aie the iesult of the iotais wave stiuctuie that extenus fai beyonu the
quantum iauius. Bowevei, the eneigy in the electiic anu giavitational fielus beyonu R
q

contains less than 1% of the iotais total eneigy. The use of R
q
can be thought of as a
convenient mathematical tool to easily iepiesent the entiie iotai in simple calculations.

Angular Momentum Test: The next test of the mouel is to see if the mouel has appioximately
the coiiect angulai momentum. We will builu on the eneigy calculation anu test to see if the
angulai momentum L of this iotai mouel has the same angulai momentum foi all funuamental
paiticles iegaiuless of masseneigy anu fuitheimoie whethei this angulai momentum is equal
to when numeiical factois neai 1 aie ignoieu.

L = pi set: p = momentum = Ec = mc anu i = R
q
= mc;
L = mc(mc) =

Nass cancels anu all masseneigy has the same angulai momentum. It is actually possible to
iationalize an answei closei to V by the following ieasoning. Anothei way of calculating
angulai momentum is to use L = " wheie " is the moment of ineitia. If we only hau eneigy
tiaveling at the speeu of light aiounu a ciicle (a hoop) of iauius R
q
, (foi example, light in a
waveguiue) then we shoulu use the moment of ineitia of a hoop (" = mi
2
). Bowevei, the uipole
wave is uiffuse anu as shown in figuie S2, theie is also a giav fielu filling the centei of the
quantum volume.

In chaptei 8 it will be shown that the eneigy uensity containeu in the stiongest pait of the
iotating giav fielu is exactly the same as the eneigy uensity containeu in the stiongest pait of
the iotating uipole wave. In fact, the giav fielu is a funuamental pait of the uipole wave anu
eneigy is just being tiansfeiieu between these two states. This means that the eneigy uensity
is ielatively evenly uistiibuteu acioss the quantum volume anu the moment of ineitia of a iotai
is most closely appioximately by the moment of ineitia foi a uisk: (" = V mi
2
).

L = " set: " = V mi
2
= V mR
q
2
= cR
q
R
q
= mc
L = (V mR
q
2
) _
c
R
q
] = (V mc) [

mc
note that mass cancels
L = V

This is a much moie complicateu pioblem that can only be solveu accuiately with a moie
auvanceu mouel anu a iigoious analysis. Bowevei, this is a successful plausibility test. The
6-7
pioposeu mouel inheiently incoipoiates angulai momentum into the stiuctuie of a iotai.
Fuitheimoie, the pioposeu mouel explains why paiticles of uiffeient masseneigy all have the
same angulai momentum. A iotai with a ielatively laige masseneigy has a ielatively small
quantum iauius. The combination always piouuces the same angulai momentum.

The stanuaiu mouel assumes that all funuamental paiticles aie viitually point paiticles. Foi
example, stiing theoiy has a one uimensional vibiating stiing that is ioughly Planck length
long. This can be consiueieu a point paiticle. Bowevei, the concept of a point paiticle is
incompatible with a conceptual unueistanuing of how funuamental paiticles can exhibit any
angulai momentum. Theiefoie, stuuents aie tolu that funuamental paiticles possess intiinsic
angulai momentum. If theie is any objection, it is answeieu with a statement that the stuuent
must move beyonu classical physics wheie concepts weie conceptually unueistanuable anu
embiace quantum mechanics with its many countei intuitive concepts. The ieal pioblem
appeais to be that the teachei was giving the stuuent the wiong mouel of a funuamental
paiticle. The spacetime baseu mouel makes quantum mechanics conceptually unueistanuable.

Nolecules also possess quantizeu angulai momentum, but in the case of molecules it is easy to
piove that this quantizeu angulai momentum iesults fiom the physical iotation of the
molecule. Theie aie othei examples of quantizeu angulai momentum involving the iotation of
physical objects such as the quantizeu voitices that foim in supeifluiu liquiu helium. The point
is that the angulai momentum is physical. Theie is no neeu to invoke the abstiact concept of an
object possessing intiinsic angulai momentum in these cases. Something exteinal is
enfoicing this quantization of angulai momentum. The spacetime baseu mouel pioposeu heie
attiibutes this enfoicement to all mattei (funuamental paiticles, molecules, etc.) being
immeiseu in a sea of supeifluiu vacuum eneigy. This spacetime baseu mouel also gives a
conceptually unueistanuable expiation of how a funuamental paiticle such as an election can
possess angulai momentum. The election is a iotating uistuibance in spacetime with a
physical size that gives conceptually unueistanuable angulai momentum. The concept that a
point paiticle can possess angulai momentum is an aumission that the mouel being useu is
inauequate.

Dipole Moment: Not only uoes the pioposeu iotai mouel give the same angulai momentum
to all iotais, the iotai mouel also specifies that all iotais have the same uipole moment u
m
. The
uipole moment of a iotai is the uipole amplituue times the quantum iauius. We will calculate
the value of the uipole moment shaieu by all iotais.

u
m
= B
R
q
= _
um
2
c
[

mc

= _
G
c
3

u
m
= uipole moment B

see explanation below
u
m
= L
p
L
p
= uynamic Planck length

6-8
A uipole maue of two electiically chaigeu paiticles has a uipole moment with units of Coulomb
meteis. Bowevei, a spacetime uipole has a uipole moment with units of just meteis because B

is a uimensionless numbei. Rotais with a laige mass have a laige value of B
, but this is offset

by a small quantum iauius R
q
. Theiefoie, all iotais have the same uipole moment of uynamic
Planck length L
p
.

Quantum Amplitude Equalities: The stiain amplituue B
of the spacetime wave insiue the

quantum volume of a iotai is an impoitant uimensionless numbei foi a iotai that has been
uesignateu with the symbol B
. This symbol was chosen because it is amplituue that affects the

iate of time anu piopei volume with similaiities to giavitational magnituue . The above
calculation useu the substitution that B
= L
p
R
q
, but theie aie seveial othei ways of
expiessing this stiain amplituue.

B
= L
p
R
q
= T
p
c
= 0m
2
c = mm
p
= E
i
E
p
=
c
p
=
R
s
R
q

=
P
c
P
p

E
i
= inteinal eneigy of a iotai (mc
2
eneigy)
R
s
= classical Schwaizschilu iauius R
s
= umc
2

P
c
= ciiculating powei P
c
= E
i

c
=
c
2
(explaineu latei)
The symbols m
p
,
p
, E
p
, anu P
p
aie Planck mass, Planck eneigy anu Planck powei. They aie
uefineu fuithei in the table below.

To help convey the significance of this stiing of equalities, I will use an election foi a numeiical
example. The mass of an election is: m
e
= 9.1u94 x 1u
S1
kg

Electrons Characteristics
R
q
= mc = c
c
= S.8616 x 1u
1S
m quantum iauius
c
= mc
2
= cR
q
=7.76S4 x 1u
2u
s
1
Compton angulai fiequency
E
i
= mc
2
=
c
= 8.1871 x 1u
14
} inteinal eneigy
P
c
= E
i

c
=
c
2
= 6.SS6 x 1u
7
w ciiculating powei (explaineu below)

B
= 0m
2
c = 4.18S x 1u
2S
quantum amplituue
L
p
R
q
= 1.616 x 1u
SS
S.8616 x 1u
1S
= 4.18S x 1u
2S
quantum iauius
c
T
p
=
c
p
= 7.76 x1u
2u
1.8SS x 1u
4S
= 4.18S x 1u
2S
Compton fiequency
mm
p
= 9.1u9 x 1u
S1
2.176 x 1u
8
= 4.18S x 1u
2S
mass
E
i
E
p
= 8.187 x 1u
14
1.9S6 x 1u
9

= 4.18S x 1u
2S
eneigy
R
s
R
q

= (6.76 x 1u
S8
S.86 x 1u
1S
)
12

= 4.18S x 1u
2S
Schwaizschilu iauius
P
c
P
p
= (6.S6 x 1u
7
S.6S x 1u
S2
)
12
= 4.18S x 1u
2S
ciiculating powei
(0
q
0
p
)
14
= (1.42 x 1u
24
4.64 x 1u
11S
)
14
= 4.18S x 1u
2S
eneigy uensity
(A
q
A
p
)
12
= (9.74 x 1u
6
S.S8 x 1u
S1
)
12
= 4.18S x 1u
2S
giav acceleiation
(g
q
A
p
)
1S
= (4.u8 x 1u
16
S.S8 x 1u
S1
)
1S
= 4.18S x 1u
2S
giavitational acceleiation at R
q

6-9

It is amazing that the uimensionless numbei B
that iepiesents the stiain amplituue of a iotai

is ielateu to so many iotai piopeities. These incluue the iotais mass, eneigy, Compton
fiequency, Schwaizschilu iauius, quantum iauius anu ciiculating powei (uefineu below). These
piopeities can also be expiesseu in Planck units. Symbols wiitten in bolu anu unueilineu such
as m anu R
q
will iepiesent values expiesseu in uimensionless Planck units. Foi example
m = mm
p
. 0sing this uesignation, B
has the following equalities:

B
= m =
c
= E
i
= 1R
q
= P
c
12
= A
q
12
= U
q
14
uimensionless iotai constant in Planck units

Each funuamental iotai has a single uimensionless numbei that expiesses all of a iotais
unique piopeities. Angulai momentum anu chaige aie shaieu piopeities. Foi example, an
election, muon anu tauon all have the same angulai momentum anu chaige. The unique values
of quantum stiain amplituue B
foi an election, muon anu the tauon aie:

B
= 4.18 x 1u
2S
elections amplituue, Planck fiequency, mass, eneigy anu inveise size
B
= 8.66 x 1u
21
muons amplituue, Planck fiequency, mass, eneigy anu inveise size
B
= 1.46 x 1u
19
tauons amplituue, Planck fiequency, mass, eneigy anu inveise size

Maximum Amplitude Rotar: 0ut of cuiiosity, lets calculate the mass of the iotai that has the
maximum possible amplituue which is a quantum amplituue of B
= 1.

B
= um
2
c

substitute B
= 1 anu squaie both siues

1 = um
2
c
m = cu = m
p

B

= 1 when the mass equals the Planck mass (m
p
).

Theiefoie, the pioposeu iotai mouel has Planck mass as the natuial basis. Bowevei, B
= 1 not
only iepiesents a iotai with Planck mass, but because of the above equalities, B
= 1 also
iepiesents a iotai with Planck angulai fiequency
p
, anu a iotai with a quantum iauius equal
to Planck length l
p
. uoing even fuithei, a iotai with B
= 1 also has a ciiculating powei

equaling Planck powei P
p
, an inteinal eneigy equal to Planck eneigy E
p
, anu an eneigy uensity
equal to Planck eneigy uensity 0
p
. If theie weie such a thing as a Planck iotai, this pioposeu
iotai mouel woulu have the Planck iotai as the natuial basis. Beie is a table of Planck
conveisions.

6-10
Planck Conversions

l
p
= Planck length l
p
= ct
p
= uc
3
1.616 x 1u
SS
m
m
p
= Planck mass m
p
= cu

2.176 x 1u
8
kg
t
p
= Planck time t
p
= l
p
c = uc
5
S.S91 x 1u
44
s
Q
p
= Planck chaige q
p
= 4
o
c

1.876 x 1u
18
Coulomb
E
p
= Planck eneigy E
p
= m
p
c
2
= c
5
u

1.9S6 x 1u
9
}
p
= Planck angulai fiequency
p
= 1t
p
= c
5
u

1.8SS x 1u
4S
s
1

F
p
= Planck foice F
p
= E
p
l
p
= c
4
u 1.21u x 1u
44
N
P
p
= Planck powei P
p
= E
p
t
p
= c
S
u S.628 x 1u
S2
w
0
p
= Planck eneigy uensity 0
p
= E
p
l
p
S
= c
7
u
2
4.6S6 x 1u
11S
}m
S

"
p
= Planck piessuie "
p
= F
p
l
p
2
= c
7
u
2
4.6S6 x 1u
11S
Nm
2
(= 0
p
)
p
= Planck uensity
p
= m
p
l
p
S
= c
S
u
2
S.1SS x 1u
96
kgm
S

A
p
= Planck acceleiation A
p
= ct
p
= c
7
u

S.S7S x 1u
S1
ms
2

v
p
= Planck voltage v
p
= E
p
Q
p
= c
4
4
o
u 1.u4S x 1u
27
v
Z
p
= Planck impeuance Z
p
= Q
p
2
= 14
o
c 29.98

Planck units aie the natuial units to use foi a mouel of the univeise baseu on the piopeities of
spacetime. Foi example, Planck length is the minimum unit of length in spacetime. Planck time
is the minimum unit of time anu Planck eneigy is the maximum eneigy that spacetime can
incoipoiate into a single uipole wave with quantizeu angulai momentum. When a unit of time,
length, eneigy, etc. is expiesseu in uimensionless Planck units, it iepiesents the iatio of the
paiticulai quantity to the maximum oi minimum that spacetime can suppoit. Special
attention will be given into the significance of Planck foice: F
p
= c
4
u = 1.2 x 1u
44
Newton.
0ne of the many insights obtaineu fiom Einsteins fielu equation is that the univeise has a
limit to the maximum possible foice that can be exeiteu anu this limiting foice is equal to
Planck foice
1
,
2
. (This ignoies a numeiical factoi neai 1.) The equations of geneial ielativity
ueviate fiom Newtonian giavitational physics in stiong giavity paitly because of the
existence of a maximum possible foice which intiouuces nonlineaiity. Theiefoie, geneial
ielativity anu quantum mechanics agiee on the significance of Planck foice. It is often saiu
that Planck units aie the natuial units of the univeise. This is paiticulaily tiue if the univeise
is only spacetime anu we aie attempting to constiuct all mattei, foices anu cosmology out of
spacetime. We woulu expect that expiessing vaiious concepts ielating to paiticles anu foices
in Planck units woulu leau to simplifications anu give impoitant insights.

1
T. }acobson, Theimouynamics of Spacetime: The Einstein Equation of State. Phys. Rev. Lett.
7S, 126u (199S)
2
u. W. uibbons, The Naximum Tension Piinciple in ueneial Relativity. Founu. Phys. S2, 1891 (2uu2)
http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-th/0210109.pdf
6-11

Circulating Power: A iotais inteinal eneigy is confineu eneigy maue of uipole waves in
spacetime that aie moving at the speeu of light. Theiefoie, theie is a specific amount of
ciiculating powei in any iotai. The ciiculating powei (P
c
) in an isolateu iotai is the iotais
inteinal eneigy E
i
times the iotais Compton angulai fiequency
c
. This is the momentaiy
powei that woulu leave the iotais quantum volume if the ciiculating wave (iotating uipole)
uissipateu by all points in the wave tiaveling in stiaight lines. The wave woulu expanu beyonu
the quantum iauius in a time equal to 1.

P
c
= E
i
c
=
c
2
= m
2
c
4
= E
i
2

P
c
= ciiculating powei

An isolateu elections ciiculating powei is about 6S.S6 million watts. (8.2 x 1u
14
}

)
2
This
high ciiculating powei can be unueistoou when it is iealizeu that the elections inteinal eneigy
(8.2 x 1u
14
}

) is multiplieu by the elections Compton angulai fiequency (7.8 x 1u
2u
s
1
). The
concept of ciiculating powei will be impoitant when we consiuei foices. Foi futuie iefeience,
we will calculate the value of ciiculating powei in Planck units by uiviuing conventional powei
by Planck powei (P
p
= c
S
u).

P
c
= P
c
P
p
= (m
2
c
4
)(uc
S
) = um
2
c P
c
= ciiculating powei in Planck units

Characteristics of an Electron: It is veiy useful to have a single table of the iotai
chaiacteiistics anu stanuaiu chaiacteiistics of an election to test concepts. Theiefoie, the
following table is pioviueu heie anu in chaptei 1S which is a compilation of equations anu
uefinitions.

Constants of an Electron

B
= 4.18S4 x 1u
2S
= elections stiain amplituue
R
q
= S.8616 x 1u
1S
m = elections quantum iauius
c
= 7.76S4 x 1u
2u
s
1
= elections Compton angulai fiequency
c
= 1.2SS6 x 1u
2u
Bz = elections Compton fiequency
P
c
= 6.SS6 x 1u
7
w = elections ciiculating powei
F
m
= u.212u1 N = elections maximum foice at uistance of R
q

R
s
= 6.76SS x 1u
S8
m = elections classical Schwaizschilu iauius
0 = E
i
R
q
S
= 1.422 x 1u
24
}m
S
= elections eneigy uensity (cubic)
0 = (S4)E
i
R
q
S
= S.S97 x 1u
2S
}m
S
= elections eneigy uensity (spheiical)
v = R
q
S
= S.7S84 x 1u
S8
m
S
= elections quantum volume (cubic)
A
g
= 9.741S x 1u
6
ms
2
= elections giav acceleiation at centei of quantum volume
m
e
= 9.1u94 x 1u
S1
kg = elections mass
E
i
= 8.1871 x 1u
14
} = elections eneigy
e = 1.6u22 x 1u
19
Coulomb = elections chaige
6-12

Foices

We aie next going to examine the stiong foice, the electiomagnetic foice anu the giavitational
foice between two of the same iotais. The only foice exeiteu by uipole waves in spacetime is
the ielativistic foice (F
i
= P
i
c). Theiefoie, we woulu expect that the foice between paiticles
shoulu be a simple function of the iotais ciiculating powei. Initially, we will examine the
foices exeiteu unuei the simplest conuition foi the iotai mouel of funuamental paiticles. The
foices will be calculateu between two of the same iotais sepaiateu by the iotais natuial unit of
length sepaiateu by R
q
. In latei chapteis we will examine othei uistances, but the spacetime
baseu iotai mouel piesenteu thus fai only is able to uefine the chaiacteiistics at a uistance
equal to the iotais quantum iauius R
q
. It is ieasonable that if the spacetime baseu mouel is
coiiect, then the simplest sepaiation uistance woulu be R
q
, the iotais natuial unit of length.
Recall that the quantum iauius is also equal to the funuamental paiticles ieuuceu Compton
wavelength (R
q
=
c
). Calculations at aibitiaiy uistance involve an auuitional consiueiation of
how waves in the exteinal volume of a iotai fall off with uistance. Initially limiting the
sepaiation uistance just to R
q
(the quantum iauius) involves the fewest assumptions. We know
the stiain amplituue of a iotai at this uistance is: B = B
= T
p
c
= L
p
R
q
. Theiefoie, this
funuamental test conuition will be useu exclusively foi the iemainuei of this chaptei.

Theoretical Maximum Force: We will begin this examination of foices by asking a simple
question. Is theie a theoietical maximum foice that a funuamental iotai with a known eneigy
can geneiate at a paiticulai uistance. This question consiueis only the eneigy of a iotai anu
the uistance. 0thei chaiacteiistics of the iotai will ueteimine whethei the iotai can actually
inteiact anu achieve anything close to the theoietical maximum foice. At this eaily stage of
uevelopment of foices we aie uealing with the ielativistic foice in its simplest foim. Since the
ielativistic foice is only iepulsive, it follows that a simplifieu mouel of the theoietical maximum
foice will uesciibe a iepulsive foice. Latei the mouel will be expanueu anu eventually yielu the
stiong foice which is an attiacting foice with asymptotic fieeuom chaiacteiistics. Foi now we
aie meiely logically following the naiiow path associateu with the staiting assumption.

The stanuaiu mouel uesciibes the stiong foice (the stiong inteiaction) as the exchange of
gluons between quaiks. Theie aie subtleties in this exchange that aie explaineu by invoking
coloi chaige anu quantum chiomouynamics (QCB). We aie staiting fiom fiist piinciples anu
so fai know nothing about gluons, etc. We only know the simplifieu iotai mouel piesenteu so
fai. We have a uipole wave in spacetime that possesses quantizeu angulai momentum anu a
specific amount of eneigy. The uipole wave is piopagating at the speeu of light in a closeu loop
one wavelength in ciicumfeience. This concept uefines a specific iotational fiequency anu a
specific amount of ciiculating powei.

6-13
Maximum Force from Circulating Power: We will fiist use the concept of ciiculating powei
P
c
of a funuamental iotai. Pieviously; it was founu that the iotai mouel implies that eveiy iotai
can be consiueieu to have a ciiculating powei equal to:

P
c
= E
i
c
=
c
2
= c
2
R
q
2
P
c
= ciiculating powei of a iotai insiue R
q

Pieviously we concluueu that the staiting assumption (the univeise is only spacetime) implieu
that theie is only one tiuly funuamental foice the ielativistic foice F
i
= P
i
c. The stiongest
foice that a funuamental iotai can exeit at uistance R
q
will occui if all of a iotais ciiculating
powei is ueflecteu (set P
i
= P
c
). This piesumes two of the same iotais, each with inteinal
eneigy of E
i
. 0nly quaiks aie actually capable of exeiting something close to this maximum
foice, but it is still possible to calculate the theoietical maximum foice that any iotai can
geneiate if all the iotais ciiculating powei is ueflecteu. This is equivalent to saying that some
iotais cannot ueflect all the ciiculating powei at a sepaiation uistance of R
q
, but it is possible to
calculate the maximum foice that woulu be geneiateu if all the ciiculating powei was ueflecteu.
We take the ielativistic foice equation F
i
= P
i
c anu set F
i
= F
m
anu P
i
= P
c
= c
2
R
q
2
.

F
m
= P
c
c = cR
q
2
= m
2
c
S
= E
i
2
c =

B
2
F
p
F
m
= iotais maximum foice at uistance R
q

Latei we will compaie this value of the maximum possible foice at R
q
to the electiostatic foice
at this uistance to see if it is ieasonable. Bowevei, fiist I want to explain a qualification on the
physical inteipietation of this maximum foice F
m
= E
i
2
c. This equation iepiesents the
maximum foice that can be exeiteu if two of the same iotais aie helu stationaiy at a uistance
equal to theii quantum iauius R
q
. If two iotais aie colliuing at ielativistic velocity, then a
gieatei foice can be geneiateu because kinetic eneigy is conveiteu to inciease the iotais
inteinal eneigy E
i
at the instant of collision. This momentaiily incieases the inteinal eneigy E
i

of the colliuing iotais which also momentaiily incieases F
m
,
c
anu P
c
. This inciease in eneigy
also uecieases the iotais quantum iauius R
q
.

Foi example, an election with ielativistic velocity equal to Su uev can tempoiaiily conveit this
kinetic eneigy into inteinal eneigy in a collision iaising the elections inteinal eneigy fiom
~ u.S Nev to Su uev, a factoi of about 1uu,uuu. This woulu momentaiily ueciease the
elections quantum iauius by a factoi of 1u
S
fiom S.86 x 1u
1S
m to S.86 x 1u
18
m. This woulu
also inciease both the ciiculating powei anu the maximum foice by a factoi of 1u
1u
. Theiefoie,
an election unueigoing a collision can exhibit a foice gieatei than the theoietical maximum
foice calculateu assuming an isolateu election (no collision). Tiying to iemove a quaik fiom a
hauion also changes the inteinal eneigy of the quaik anu can affect the binuing foice. This will
be uiscusseu latei.

Maximum Force from the Wave-Amplitude Equation: We will also calculate the maximum
foice using the waveamplituue equation: F = B
2
2
ZAc. We have pieviously useu a similai
6-14
equation to calculate the eneigy in a iotai. Foi that calculation we maue the following
substitutions: B = B
= L
p
R
q
; =
c
= cR
q
; anu v = kR
q
S
. This time we have an aiea teim
A. Since the piesumption is that we have two of the same iotais sepaiateu by R
q
, this means
that the inteiaction aiea woulu be a constant times R
q
2
. (A = kR
q
2
). Theie aie many othei
numeiical factois close to 1 that have been pieviously ignoieu, so we will also ignoie this
constant.

F = B
2
2
ZAc set: B = B
= L
p
R
q
; =
c
= cR
q
; Z = Z
s
= c
S
u; A = R
q
2

F
m
= _
L
p
R
q
]
2
_
c
R
q
]
2
[
c
3
u
[
R
q
2
c
set: L
p
2
= uc
S
;
F
m
=
c
R
q
2
=
L
i
2
c
=
o
c
2
c
=
m
2
c
3
= E
[
2
F
p

In a latei chaptei, two competing veisions of the maximum foice will be shown to make up the
moie complex stiong foice between quaiks. The conuition known as asymptotic fieeuom will
be analyzeu anu shown to iesult fiom competing maximum foices which ieach equilibiium.
Bowevei, a slight uisplacement fiom this equilibiium sepaiation uistance iesults in a net
iestoiing foice which incieases with uisplacement anu can almost ieach the maximum foice.

Coulomb Force: To evaluate the maximum foice it is necessaiy to compaie it to the Coulomb
foice (electiomagnetic foice) that woulu exist between two electiically chaigeu iotais at the
sepaiation uistance of i = R
q
. Theie aie actually two possible values of chaige q that aie
inteiesting anu we will evaluate both of them. 0ne obvious choice is to use elementaiy chaige
e. Bowevei, the othei inteiesting value is Planck chaige q
p
= 4ne
o
c = eo = 1.88 x 1u
18

Coulomb which is about 11.7 times laigei than elementaiy chaige e. Planck chaige is actually
the best choice of a unit of chaige when we aie compaiing foices because Planck chaige
avoius uealing with the fine stiuctuie constant = e
2
4
o
c =
1
1S7
. The fine stiuctuie
constant is known to be the coupling constant ielating to the stiength of the
electiomagnetic inteiaction between a paiticle with chaige e anu a photon. By choosing
Planck chaige we aie setting this coupling constant equal to 1. By eliminating the coupling
constant , we woulu expect that at sepaiation uistance of i = R
q
the electiomagnetic foice
shoulu be equal the maximum foice if the paiticle anu foice mouels uesciibeu thus fai aie
coiiect. The Coulomb foice equation F = q
2
4
o
c will be useu foi this ciitical test. We
will use the foice symbol F
E
to specify that we aie iepiesenting the electiostatic foice
between two Planck chaiges. Theiefoie we will make the following substitutions into the
Coulomb foice equation:
F =
q
2
4ns
c
2

set: F = F
E
, i =
c
= R
q
q = q
p
= 4ne
o
c anu F
m
= cR
q
2

F
E
=
q
p
2
4ns
c
R
q
2
=
c
R
q
2
= F
m

6-15

Theiefoie, this is a spectaculai success. When we use Planck chaige to set the coupling
constant equal to 1 anu i = R
q
, then we obtain the equation that the electiostatic foice equals
the maximum foice F
E
= F
m
.

Any time in the iest of the book that we aie iepiesenting the electiostatic foice geneiateu by
paiticles with elementaiy chaige e, we will use the symbol F
e
. The following is the fiist of these
calculations.

F =
q
2
4ns
c
2

set: F = F
e
i =
c
= R
q
; q = e = e
2
4
o
c anu F
m
= cR
q
2

F
e
=
c
2
4ns
c
R
q
2
=
uc
R
q
2
= F
m

Theiefoie, even using elementaiy chaige e we obtain a connection between the electiostatic
foice anu the maximum foice, but this electiostatic foice is uiminisheu by the fine stiuctuie
constant =
1
1S7
. The fine stiuctuie constant has nevei been able to be mathematically
ueiiveu fiom fiist piinciples. It has been the souice of mysteiy foi geneiations of
theoietical physicists. Theiefoie, we also will meiely accept this mysteiious numbei as a
coupling constant of unknown oiigin.

The ueiivation of giavity fiom staiting assumptions staits on the next page.

6-16

uiavity

Now foi the big question: Can we uevelop the foice of giavity fiom fiist piinciples using the
iotai mouel. Thus fai we have uiscusseu the funuamental uipole wave that can exist in
spacetime. If we aie going to be able to explain all the foices of natuie with only uipole waves
in spacetime, we have to examine the possibility that unuei some ciicumstances a uipole wave
in spacetime may not be peifectly sinusoiual. 0nce again the staiting assumption that the
univeise is only spacetime seives as a wonueiful iestiiction. It keeps us focuseu on examining
only the most basic piopeities of spacetime.

If the universe is only spacetime, we do not have many possible explanations for gravity. In
fact, the only plausible possibility is that spacetime is a nonlinear medium for dipole waves
in spacetime.

Optical Kerr Effect: I see a similaiity between giavity anu a nonlineai optical effect calleu the
optical Keii effect. When light passes thiough any tianspaient mateiial, a nonlineai effect
occuis. Even foi wavelengths foi which the mateiial is tianspaient, theie is a limit to the
maximum intensity (maximum electiic fielu stiength) that can piopagate thiough the mateiial.
This limit iesults in nonlineaiity (uistoition) even foi intensities that aie fai below this limit.
The oscillating electiic fielu of the light piouuces a nonoscillating nonlineai effect which
changes the inuex of iefiaction of the tianspaient mateiial. This nonlineai effect ieuuces the
speeu of light in the tianspaient mateiial in auuition to the noimal ieuuction uue to the
mateiials inuex of iefiaction at zeio intensity. An expiession of the optical Keii effect is given
by the following simplifieu equation that ignoies highei oiuei teims.

n
k
= n
o
+ k
1
2
simplifieu optical Keii effect equation

n
k
= the inuex of iefiaction which incluues the optical Keii effect contiibution
n
o
= the noimal inuex of iefiaction at zeio intensity
k
1
= a nonlineai constant that uepenus on the tianspaient mateiial
= electiic fielu stiength at fiequency

This means that the speeu of light in any tianspaient mateiial has a funuamental teim (n
o
) anu
a seconu oiuei teim (k
1
2
). The seconu oiuei teim uepenus on the squaie of the alteinating
electiic fielu piouuceu by the light.

Even sunlight passing thiough a winuow piouuces a slight nonlineai effect in the glass. When a
high peak powei pulse of lasei light is focuseu in a tianspaient mateiial, the light can ieach
oscillating electiic fielu stiength wheie the optical Keii effect incieases the inuex of iefiaction
6-17
to the extent that the lasei beam is fuithei concentiateu anu confineu to a small filament. This
confinement can be so gieat that the beam is not alloweu to uiveige. This effect is easily seen in
glass anu othei solius, but it has even been uemonstiateu in aii.

While the analogy between the optical Keii effect anu giavity is fai fiom peifect, the point is
that homogeneous mateiials like glass oi aii exhibit a nonlineaiity that scales piopoitional to
the squaie of the wave amplituue. This squaiing piouuces an effect that is always positive. In
the optical Keii effect, the inuex of iefiaction always incieases.

uiavity A Nonlineai Effect: We neeu to ieason to the foice of giavity between two of the
same iotais at uistance R
q
. If the univeise is only spacetime anu if theie is only one tiuly
funuamental foice (the ielativistic foice) then uipole waves in spacetime must also cause
giavity. We aie theiefoie looking foi a mechanism wheieby a iotais ciiculating powei can be
conveiteu into a foice that has only one polaiity anu is vastly weakei than the othei foices.
Theie is ieally only one ieasonable choice. uiavity must be the iesult of spacetime being a
nonlineai meuium foi uipole waves in spacetime.

Fifth Staiting Assumption: Spacetime is a nonlinear medium for dipole waves in spacetime.
This nonlinearity ultimately produces gravity.

The giavitational foice must be the iesult of this nonlineaiity while the othei foices aie a uiiect
(lineai) function of ciiculating powei. The stiain piouuceu by uipole waves in spacetime must
have a lineai teim anu a nonlineai teim.

Stiain = B

sint + (B

sint)
2
= B

sint V B
2
cos2t + V B
2
(bolu foi emphasis)

The lineai teim is (B

sint) anu the nonlineai teim is (B

sint)
2
. Theie aie also highei oiuei
nonlineai teims but these can be ignoieu because B
is a numbei veiy close to zeio anu any

highei poweis of this aie insignificant. The nonlineai teim has been fuithei expanueu into a
weak oscillating teim (B
2
cos2t) anu a nonoscillating teim that is always positive (V B
2
).
It is pioposeu that the stiain in spacetime piouuceu by the nonoscillating teim (B
2
at uistance
R
q
) is iesponsible foi the geneial ielativistic cuivatuie of spacetime which iesults in giavity.

An analysis in chaptei 8 will show how the nonlineai teim (B

sint)
2
leaus to both
giavitational attiaction as well as the giavitational effect on time anu uistance. In this chaptei
we aie going to stait with a simplifieu analysis that concentiates only on the magnituue of the
foice exeiteu by the giavity of a iotai. With this limitation we again aie ueveloping an
oveisimplifieu iepulsive foice with the coiiect magnituue of giavity. This will latei be
impioveu into an attiacting foice that also exhibits the spatial anu tempoial piopeities of
giavity. The actual foice of giavity will be shown in chaptei 8 to iesult fiom a stiain in
spacetime that piouuces an unbalanceu foice on opposite siues of a iotai.
6-18

It is easy to uemonstiate that the nonlineaiity of spacetime gives the coiiect magnituue of the
giavitational foice at uistance R
q
using a calculation that is somewhat oveisimplifieu.
Pieviously we weie using B = B
as the substitution of the wave amplituue foi the maximum

foice anu othei iotai piopeities. To piove that giavity is causeu by the nonlineaiity of
spacetime, we will now make the nonlineai amplituue substitution B = B
2
into the foice
equation: F = kB
2
2
ZAc.

F = kB
2
2
ZAc foi giavity set: B = B
2
= L
p
2
R
q
2
, =
c
, Z = Z
s
= c
S
u, A = kR
q
2

F
g
= B
c
2
Z
s
Ac = _
L
p
4
R
q
4
] _
c
2
R
q
2
] [
c
3
u
[
R
q
2
c
= [
2
u
2
c
6
[
m
2
c
2
2
_
1
R
q
2
] [
c
4
u

F
g
=
um
2
R
q
2
magnituue of the giavitational foice between 2 paiticles of mass m at uistance R
q

Even though this is oveisimplifieu, I finu this calculation veiy exciting! We obtain the
Newtonian giavitational foice equation staiting with iotating uipole waves in spacetime. It
was not necessaiy to make an analogy to acceleiation. This paiticulai calculation was foi two
of the same iotais at a sepaiation uistance of R
q
, but eventually we will be able to bioauen this
to the moie geneial case of any masseneigy at any uistance. Fuitheimoie, the mouel will be
impioveu anu iesult in this being an attiacting foice. To my knowleuge, this is the fiist time
that the giavitational attiaction has evei been calculateu fiom fiist piinciples.

This implies that giavity is ieally a foice anu not the iesult of the geometiy of spacetime. Static
cuiveu spacetime is the iesult of uynamic (oscillating) cuiveu spacetime exhibiting a nonlineai
effect. In chaptei 4 we uesciibeu how the quantum mechanical mouel of spacetime possesses
elasticity, impeuance, eneigy uensity, etc. Intiouucing mattei (uipole waves with quantizeu
angulai momentum) into this homogeneous meuium piouuces uistoition which has both a
lineai anu a nonlineai component. uiavity is the nonlineai component. Fiom the above
calculation it is not haiu to see that eventually we will obtain the Newtonian equation:
F = um
1
m
2
i
2
. Even though this is a successful plausibility calculation, in chaptei 8 it will be
shown to be an oveisimplification that gets the magnituue coiiect but the vectoi wiong.
Auuitional steps will be intiouuceu to obtain the complete pictuie. It shoulu be iecognizeu that
foi single paiticles the Newtonian giavitational equation can be consiueieu exact. ueneial
ielativity uiffeis fiom Newtonian giavity because geneial ielativity incoipoiates nonlineaiities
incluuing a maximum possible foice (Planck foice). While this book uoes not caiiy this mouel
to the stiong giavity limit, it is appeais that a matuie mouel anu iigoious analysis woulu also
be compatible with geneial ielativity.

Review: We have just calculateu a simplifieu veision of Newtons giavitational equation fiom a
set of staiting assumptions. The steps that biought us to this point will be biiefly ievieweu.

6-19
The key assumptions aie:
1) The univeise is only spacetime.
2) Bipole waves in spacetime aie peimitteu by quantum mechanics pioviueu that the
uisplacement of spacetime uoes not exceeu the Planck lengthtime limitation.
S) Eneigy in any foim is funuamentally maue of uipole waves in spacetime piopagating at
the speeu of light (uynamic spacetime).
4) Theie is only one funuamental foice: the ielativistic foice. This foice occuis when
waves in spacetime, piopagating at the speeu of light, aie ueflecteu.
S) Funuamental paiticles aie uipole waves in spacetime that foim a iotating uipole, one
wavelength in ciicumfeience that possesses ciiculating powei.
6) Spacetime is a nonlineai meuium foi uipole waves in spacetime. This nonlineaiity
ultimately piouuces giavity.

Waves in spacetime aie like sounu waves piopagating in the meuium of spacetime. Spacetime
has an impeuance (Z
s
= c
S
u) anu the foice geneiateu by ueflecting waves in spacetime is:
F = B
2
2
Z
s
Ac wheie B is amplituue anu A is aiea. Assumption #6 says that spacetime is a
nonlineai meuium. This nonlineai effect can be consiueieu the souice of a new nonlineai wave
that has stiain amplituue that is the squaie of the amplituue of the funuamental wave
amplituue: B
2
= B
g
= L
p
2
R
q
2
. Inseiting this amplituue into the foice equation above yielus
F
g
= um
2
R
q
2
which is a simplifieu veision of Newtons giavitational equation that assumes
two of the same mass paiticles at uistance R
q
(uimensionless constants neai 1 ignoieu).

Connection Between the Forces and Circulating Power: If the foices of natuie aie causeu by
the inteiaction of waves in spacetime, then theie shoulu be a simple ielationship between the
foice anu the ciiculating powei (P
c
). I pieviously pioposeu that theie is only one tiuly
funuamental foice in natuie the ielativistic foice (F
i
= P
i
c). This is the iepulsive foice
exeiteu when ielativistic powei (powei piopagating at the speeu of light) is ueflecteu
(incluues absoibeu anu ieflecteu). Foi this to appeai to be an attiacting foice this inteiaction
must incluue piessuie (iepulsive foice) exeiteu by vacuum eneigy. This is uiscusseu in
chaptei 8. Bowevei, in all cases a foice geneiateu by a iotai must be ielateu to both the
ciiculating powei anu the quantum iauius of the iotai. Fuitheimoie, since giavity is the iesult
of nonlineaiity, we woulu expect that the giavitational foice woulu be a function of P
c
2
while
the othei foices woulu be a lineai function of P
c
.

We aie theiefoie going to peifoim a ciitical test of the iotai mouel anu the concept of a single
funuamental foice. Theie is no single iotai that exhibits all thiee of the following piopeities:
elementaiy chaige, the stiong foice anu giavity. Quaiks anu the chaigeu leptons only exhibit 2
of the S piopeities. Bowevei, it is possible to calculate the magnituue of these thiee foices as if
they weie possesseu by a single paii of the same iotais sepaiateu by a uistance equal to theii
quantum iauius. We will also be assuming the hypothetical case of two paiticles with Planck
chaige in some of the following calculations.
6-20

This ciitical test will examine whethei theie is an easy to unueistanu ielationship between the
magnituues of the foices (F
m
, F
E
, F
e
, F
g
) anu the ciiculating powei P
c
of the iotai causing the
foice. This compaiison will be uone using the natuial Planck units of foice anu powei (bolu
anu unueilineu inuicates Planck units F
m
, F
E
, F
e
, F
g
, anu P
c
). Initially, all compaiisons will be
maue at the iotais natuial unit of length, its quantum iauius R
q
= c
c
= mc.

Substitutions that will be useu:

i = R
q
=
mc
; F
m
= [
m
2
c
3
; F
p
=
c
4
u
; P
c
= [
m
2
c
4
; P
p
=
c
S
u
;
q
p
2
4ns
c
= c,
c
2
4ns
c
= c;

F
g
=
F
g
P
p
= _
um
2
R
q
2
] [
u
c
4
= um
2
[
m
2
c
2
2
[
u
c
4
= [
u m
2
c
2

F
m
=
P
m
P
p
= [
m
2
c
3
[
u
c
4
=
um
2
c

F
E
=
P
E
P
p
= _
q
p
2
4ns
c
R
q
2
] [
u
c
4
= (c)[
mc

2
[
u
c
4
=
um
2
c

F
e
=
P
c
P
p
= _
c
2
4ns
c
R
q
2
] [
u
c
4
= (c)[
mc

2
[
u
c
4
= [
um
2
c

P
c
=
P
c
P
p
= [
m
2
c
4
[
u
c
S
=
um
2
c

Since all of these aie ielateu to um
2
c, we obtain simple ielationships between foices anu
ciiculating powei when we aie uealing with two of the same iotais with chaige e anu
sepaiateu by a uistance R
q
. Recall that the concept of a single ielativistic foice says that theie
shoulu be an easy to unueistanu ielationship between foice anu ciiculating powei.

F
m
= P
c
F
m
= maximum foice in Planck units (closely ielateu to the stiong foice)
F
E
= P
c
F
E
= electiomagnetic foice in Planck units (Planck chaige q
p
)
F
e
= P
c
F
e
= electiomagnetic foice in Planck units (elementaiy chaige e)
F
g
= P
c
2
F
g
= giavitational foice in Planck units

This is a spectaculai success that stiongly suppoits the spacetime baseu mouel of foices. This
simplification of ielationships occuis at the spacetime baseu mouels funuamental unit of
length (the ieuuceu Compton wavelength). The maximum foice ueflects all of the ciiculating
powei (F
m
= P
c
). The electiomagnetic foice also ueflects all the ciiculating powei if we assume
Planck chaige F
E
= P
c
but elementaiy chaige e only ueflects about
1
1S7
of the ciiculating
powei anu is theiefoie about 1S7 times weakei (F
e
= P
c
). Bowevei, foices F
m
F
E
anu F
e
aie
similai because they all scale lineaily with ciiculating powei (scale with P
c
1
). uiavity is
6-21
uiffeient because it is the iesult of a nonlineai effect anu scales piopoitional to P
c
2
. When
ciiculating powei is expiesseu in Planck units it is always a uimensionless numbei close to
zeio. Theiefoie squaiing this numbei piouuces a numbei even closei to zeio. The weakness
of giavity compaieu to the othei foices is uue to the uiffeience between P
c
anu P
c
2
. The
analysis of giavity will continue in chaptei 8, but giavity is the iesult of spacetime being a
nonlineai meuium that scales with amplituue squaieu which in tuin iesults in a P
c
2
scaling of
the giavitational foice.

We can also ielate the iotais Compton angulai fiequency
c
, eneigy uensity U
q
anu stiain
amplituue B
to the foices between two of the same iotais sepaiateu by uistance R

q
when
teims aie expiesseu in Planck units. Again we show the ielationship to um
2
c.

c
=
c
p
= [
mc
2
_
u
c
S
= _
um
2
c

U
q
= 0
q
0
p
= [
m
4
c
S
3
[
u
2
c
= [
um
2
c

2

B
= L
p
R
q
= _
u
c
3
[
mc
= _
um
2
c

Combining all of these we obtain:

F
g
= F
m
2
= F
E
2
= (F
e
)
2

= P
c
2
=
c
4
= U
q
= B
4

This is one of the most impoitant finuings in this book. It is a seiies of equalities that can be
iewiitten as 28 inuiviuual equations. The simplicity of this seiies of equations is jaw uiopping.
It shows how the giavitational foice is closely ielateu to not only the maximum foice anu the
electiomagnetic foice but also to a iotais Compton angulai fiequency, ciiculating powei,
eneigy uensity anu stiain amplituue. It will be shown latei that the stiong foice is actually the
supeiposition of two vaiiations of the maximum foice. This supeiposition piouuces
asymptotic fieeuom at R
q
but a slight uisplacement fiom this sepaiation piouuces a foice close
to the maximum foice.

}ust to help inteinalize these ielationships, we will use two elections sepaiateu by
R
q
= S.86 x 1u
1S
meteis as illustiation. Reaueis aie inviteu to substitute the following values
of F
m
, F
e
, F
g
, P
c
, E
i
anu B
into the above equations.

6-22

F
g
= F
g
F
p
= (um
2
R
q
2
)(c
4
u)

= S.u7 x 1u
9u

F
m
= F
s
F
p
= (cR
q
2
)(c
4
u) = 1.7S x 1u
4S

F
e
= F
e
F
p
= (e
2
4
o
R
q
2
)(c
4
u)

= 1.28 x 1u
47

P
c
= P
c
P
p
= (c
2
R
q
2
)(c
S
u) = 1.7S x 1u
4S

c
=
c
p
= (mc
2
)(c
S
u)
12
= 4.19 x 1u
2S

U
q
= 0
q
0
p
= (m
4
c
S
S
)(u
2
c
7
) = S.u7 x 1u
9u

B
= (um
2
c)
12
= 4.19 x 1u
2S

Support for the Spacetime Based Model: The ielationships enumeiateu in the multiple
equations F
g
= F
m
2
= F
E
2
= (F
e
)
2

= P
c
2
=
c
4
= U
q
= B
4
make a stiong statement about the
accuiacy of the spacetime baseu mouel of funuamental paiticles. The foices in this equation
assumeu a sepaiation uistance of R
q
=
c
= c
c
. It will also be shown latei that the simple
foice ielationship between funuamental paiticles extenus foi laigei sepaiation uistance when
that uistance is expiesseu in multiples of R
q
. This is the natuial unit of length foi a spacetime
baseu mouel of funuamental paiticles, but this uistance has no significance if foices aie
assumeu to iesult fiom the exchange of viitual photons, gluons anu giavitons. The fact that
the forces have a simple relationship at the separation distance that is the natural unit of
length of the spacetime based model offers strong support for the spacetime based model of
fundamental particles.

Force Equations Between Two Planck Charge Particles: 0ne paiiing of the above multiple
foice equations shoulu be calleu out foi paiticulai attention.

F
g
= F
E
2

This is an amazing ielationship that neeus to be stateu in woius foi full effect. Assuming a
sepaiation uistance of i =
c
= R
q
anu q = q
p
anu Planck units, the giavitational foice equals
the squaie of the electiostatic foice. A numeiical example helps to inteinalize this equation.
Suppose we assume two paiticles, each with the mass of an election (m = m
e
= 9.1 x 1u
S1
kg)
but with Planck chaige (q = q
p
). Then: F
E
= F
E
F
p
= (q
p
2
4
o
R
q
2
)(c
4
u) = 1.7S x 1u
4S
anu:

S.u7 x 1u
9u
= (1.7S x 1u
4S
)
2
(numeiical example illustiates F
g
= F
E
2
)

The equation F
g
= F
E
2
foi two hypothetical Planck chaige paiticles is a cleai example that theie
is a funuamental connection between the giavitational foice anu the electiostatic foice. The
use of Planck chaige iathei than elementaiy chaige e eliminates the coupling constant , anu
effectively sets the coupling constant equal to 1. Anothei way of saying this is that assuming
Planck chaige makes the electiostatic foice equal the maximum foice. Planck chaige is the best
assumption if we want to compaie the electiomagnetic foice to the giavitational foice.

6-23
While the ielationship between the foices is easiest to see when we use Planck units, theie
is anothei way to look at the ielationship between the foices using foice expiesseu using SI
units of Newton. Imagine a log scale of foice iepiesenteu by a hoiizontal line. The laigest
foice fiom geneial ielativity anu the constants of natuie is Planck foice F
p
= 1.21 x 1u
44

Newton. We will place Planck foice at one enu of the log scale line. At the opposite enu of
this line (log scale of foice) we will place the weakest foice in this analysis which is the
giavitational foice F
g
= S.72 x 1u
46
Newton (assuming election mass). Finally we place
the electiomagnetic foice on this scale (assuming Planck chaige). Foi q = q
p
, m = m
e
anu
i =
c
= R
q
the electiomagnetic foice is F
e
= u.212 Newton. This electiomagnetic foice
woulu be positioneu exactly halfway between Planck foice F
p
anu the giavitational foice F
g

on this log scale. The ielationship of the giavitational foice to the electiomagnetic foice is
the same as the ielationship of the electiomagnetic foice to Planck foice. Fiom F
g
= F
e
2
we
obtain:

F
g
F
e
= F
e
F
p

Predictions: When }ames Naxwell ueiiveu the equation: c = _
1
s
c
c
, uiu this equation qualify to
be calleu a pieuiction. 0thei paits of Naxwells equations pieuict pieviously unknown
physical effects, but this equation just shows a pieviously unknown ielationship between c,
o

anu
o
. Still, I am going to say that this equation also maue a pieuiction because the new mouel
being analyzeu by Naxwell gave an unexpecteu connection anu a veiy useful new insight. The
fact that the pieuiction was easy to piove coiiect shoulu not uiminish its status as a pieuiction.
Similaily, the equation F
g
= F
m
2
= F
E
2
= (F
e
)
2

= P
c
2
= U
q
= E
i
4
= B
4
also shows pieviously
unknown ielationships that aie easy to piove coiiect. Befoie this theie was no equation
expiessing a funuamental ielationship between the giavitational foice anu eithei the
electiomagnetic foice oi the stiong foice. This pieuiction came fiom the analysis of a new
mouel, anu suppoits the accuiacy of the mouel.

Gravitational Wave Calculation: We will now move on to anothei plausibility test that can
be peifoimeu on the pioposeu iotai mouel. Recall that uipole waves in spacetime have enough
similaiities to giavitational waves that we can use giavitational wave equations foi analysis.
Bowevei, we have to ignoie uimensionless constants anu inteipiet the iesults appiopiiately
foi uipole waves in spacetime.

Theie is an equation useu to estimate giavitational wave amplituue (B
gw
) at the low intensity
limit wheie nonlineaiities can be ignoieu. This equation can be applieu to the pioposeu iotai
mouel.

B
gw
= k u
2
"c
4
i " = moment of ineitia, = asymmetiy of a iotating object

6-24
This simplifieu equation, woulu noimally be useu to estimate the giavitational wave amplituue
of a iotating iou oi a binaiy stai system. It contains an angulai fiequency teim , the moment
of ineitia (") of the iotating object, the iauius i of the iotating object, anu a mass asymmetiy
teim . Foi example, a spheiically symmetiic object woulu have no asymmetiy ( = u) anu two
equal point masses sepaiateu by 2i woulu have an asymmetiy of = 1. We aie going to
assume that = u anu the uimensionless asymmetiy teim will be incluueu in the allinclusive
constant k. We will next conveit the moment of ineitia teim to angulai momentum.

B
gw
= k u
2
" c
4
i set: " = L, L = angulai momentum, incluueu in k
B
gw
= k u Lc
4
i

The ieason foi conveiting to angulai momentum is because we want to apply this equation to
iotais. We know the angulai momentum of paiticles as L = V . Bowevei, the V in this
angulai momentum is subject to inteipietation as pieviously uiscusseu. The constant,
whatevei its value, will be incluueu in the geneial constant k. The iotai mouel implies that
= u because the uipole coie of a iotai is two lobes iotating at the speeu of light. We will also
lump the eccentiicity teim , into the geneial constant k. We will now calculate the
hypothetical giavitational wave amplituue foi a funuamental iotai.

B
gw
= k u Lc
4
i substitute: =
c
= cR
q
; L = k anu i = R
q

B
gw
= k u _
c
R
q
] _

c
4
R
q
]
B
gw
= k (uc
S
) R
q
2

B
gw
= k L
p
2
R
q
2
= kB
2
we will ignoie the constant k

This is anothei suipiising connection. We take a giavitational wave equation useu in
cosmology anu inseit a iotais angulai momentum V anu Compton fiequency
c.
We then
ueteimine the giavitational wave amplituue (excluuing constant) that woulu exist at a uistance
of R
q
. We obtain the amplituue B
gw
= L
p
2
R
q
2
= B
2
. We pieviously ueteimineu that the
nonlineaiity of spacetime cieates a nonoscillating stiain amplituue equal to B
2
= L
p
2
R
q
2
in
the quantum volume of a iotai. The same amplituue expiession is obtaineu using an entiiely
uiffeient appioach. Pieviously we employeu ieasoning baseu on the quantum mechanical
piopeities of spacetime anu also on spacetime being nonlineai. Now we obtain the same
answei by inseiting iotais piopeities (angulai momentum anu Compton fiequency) into a
giavitational wave equation fiom geneial ielativity.

The above calculation is a success, but it also seems to imply a pioblem. Aie all funuamental
iotais continuously iauiating away theii eneigy as giavitational waves. It is tiue that if any
aibitiaiy value of Compton fiequency oi quantum iauius (R
q
= c
c
) is assumeu, then theie
woulu piobably be iauiateu powei both foi the funuamental wave anu foi the nonlineai wave
with amplituue L
p
2
R
q
2
. Bowevei, it is pioposeu that the funuamental iotais that uo exist
6-25
coiiesponu to special fiequencyamplituue combinations wheie a wave inteiaction occuis that
cancels this iauiateu powei. Even shoit liveu funuamental iotais, such as the tauon (lifetime
= S x 1u
1S
s), aie long liveu compaieu to the lifetime they woulu have if theii ciiculating powei
was iauiateu. Since P
c
= E
i
c
, the time iequiieu to iauiate the iotais inteinal eneigy E
i
woulu
be the inveise of the iotais Compton fiequency. Foi a tauon this woulu be: 1
c
= S x 1u
2S

seconu. The tauons lifetime is about 1u
12
times longei than its 1
c
time anu is consiueieu to
be a semistable paiticle.

Theie aie an infinite numbei of possible fiequencies, amplituues anu configuiations that coulu
hypothetically exist, but uo not exist long enough to be consiueieu funuamental iotais. The
few fiequencies that exist long enough to be consiueieu funuamental iotais have some soit of
wave inteiaction that constiuctively inteifeies to ieinfoice the iotating uipole iotai mouel anu
uestiuctively inteifeies in a way that eliminates iauiateu eneigy. The bottom line is that the
few funuamental iotais that exist belong to the small gioup of fiequencyamplituue
configuiation combinations that uo not iauiate eithei the funuamental uipole wave in
spacetime oi the nonlineai wave associateu with giavity. Even though theie is not continuous
loss of eneigy, some of the iotais eneigy uoes extenu beyonu the quantum volume. It will be
shown that a paiticles giavity anu electiic fielu aie both the iesult stanuing waves geneiateu
by a iotai inteiacting with the vacuum eneigy that suiiounus a iotai. Noie will be saiu about
this in chaptei 8.

Gravitational Wave Radiation: 0ut of cuiiosity, we will calculate how long it woulu take foi
an election to iauiate away its inteinal eneigy if giavitational waves weie being continuously
iauiateu. We will assume a giavitational wave amplituue of B
gw
= L
p
2
R
q
2
anu a iauiation aiea
equal to the elections quantum iauius squaieu. We will use one of the S waveamplituue
equations that ielate the powei in a wave.

P = B
2

2
Z A set B = B
gw
= L
p
2
R
q
2
; =
c
= cR
q
; Z = c
S
u; A = R
q
2

P = _
L
p
2
R
q
2
]
2
_
c
R
q
]
2
[
C
3
u
R
q
2
= _
L
p
R
q
]
4
(
c
S
u
) set c
5
0 = P
p
(Planck Powei)
P = _
L
p
R
q
]
4
P
p
= B
4
P
p

To obtain a physical feel foi the magnituue of this powei, we will examine the giavitational
wave powei that woulu be iauiateu using the piopeities of an election. We know that an
election must have a mechanism that cancels this iauiateu powei.

P = (4.18 x 1u
2S
)
4
x S.6S x 1u
S2
w = 1.1 x 1u
S7
w
t = E
i
P = 8.18 x 1u
14
}1.1 x 1u
S7
w set E
i
= 8.18 x 1u
14
} = elections eneigy
t = 7 x 1u
2S
s = 2 x 1u
16
yeais

6-26
Theiefoie, it woulu take moie than one million times the age of the univeise (2 x 1u
16
yeais)
foi an election to iauiate away its eneigy in giavitational waves. While this is a long time, it
woulu be uetectable because elections in the eaily univeise woulu have moie eneigy
(measuieu locally) than touays elections. If up anu uown quaiks iauiateu away powei as
giavitational waves, they woulu have iauiate away all theii eneigy in a time shoitei than the
age of the univeise because of theii much laigei Compton fiequency
c
. The powei iauiateu as
giavitational waves scales with
c
4
.

If iotais iauiateu eneigy with amplituue equivalent to the funuamental wave amplituue
(B
f
= L
p
i) with no cancelation mechanism fiom vacuum eneigy, then the pictuie changes
completely. If an election iauiateu away its eneigy in a wave at its Compton fiequency anu its
funuamental amplituue, an election woulu iauiate about 6S million watts anu it woulu suivive
foi a time of only 1
c
(~ 1u
2u
seconu). This is mentioneu because it is pioposeu that the few
funuamental iotais that exist have a cancelation mechanism (uiscusseu latei) that pievents
this type of eneigy loss. Stanuing waves iemain in the iotais exteinal volume aftei this
cancelation. Stanuing waves have equal powei flowing in opposite uiiections anu theiefoie uo
not tiansfei eneigy. 0nly tiaveling waves aie continuously tiansfeiiing eneigy.

Inertia: Anothei test of the iotai mouel is whethei it explains the ineitia of funuamental
paiticles. In chaptei 1, we saw how eneigy tiaveling at the speeu of light exhibits ineitia anu
iest mass if it is confineu to a specific volume (if the momentum vectois cancel in a iest fiame
of iefeience). This incluues: confineu light, hypothetical confineu giavitational waves anu
confineu uipole waves in spacetime. The iotai mouel has a uipole wave tiaveling at the speeu
of light in a closeu loop. The tianslational momentum vectois in a stationaiy iotai auu up to
zeio (p = u). This satisfies the conuition of eneigy piopagating at the speeu of light but
confineu to a specific volume. The momentum vectois auu up to zeio, theiefoie this mouel
achieves iest mass anu ineitia as shown in chaptei 1. Nost impoitant, the ineitia of the iotai
mouel exactly matches the ineitia of an equal amount of eneigy piopagating at the speeu of
light but confineu to a limiteu volume.

Fiber Optic Loop: In chaptei 1, we founu that light ciiculating aiounu a ciiculai fibei optic
loop satisfies the conuition of p = u because all momentum vectois cancel. Theiefoie this
ciiculating light exhibits ineitia even though the light is not supeiimposeu like the ieflecting
box example. Foi example, suppose that we acceleiate a fibei optic loop in a uiiection paiallel
to the plane of the loop. Light in uiffeient paits of the loop ieceives uiffeient Bopplei shifts.
Foi example, light tiaveling with a vectoi component in the uiiection of the acceleiation will
inciease in fiequency anu light tiaveling with a vectoi component in the opposite uiiection will
ueciease slightly in fiequency. The iesultant uistiibution of fiequencies aiounu the loop
piouuces the same ineitial foices on the fibei optic loop as the ieflecting box ieceiveu fiom
acceleiating confineu light. Even if the loop is only one wavelength in ciicumfeience, theie
woulu still be the same ineitial foices. If the loop is acceleiateu peipenuiculai to the iotational
6-27
plane, the light woulu exhibit ineitia by exeiting a piessuie uiffeience on opposite siues of the
fibei optic.

The iotating quantum uipole is similai to the example of light in a fibei optic loop, except that
theie is no physical wall confining the eneigy ciiculating at the speeu of light. The inteiaction
with the vacuum eneigy uipole waves in spacetime accomplishes the confinement.

Prediction: No Higgs Field: The explanation of ineitia is an impoitant pait of the pioposeu
iotai mouel. In fact, the staiting assumption (the univeise is only spacetime) ultimately
implies that theie is no Biggs fielu that gives ineitia to all mattei. In one sense, theie is a
similaiity between the Biggs fielu anu the quantum mechanical spacetime mouel pioposeu
heie. Both have veiy laige eneigy uensity that lacks quantizeu angulai momentum. The Biggs
fielu has eneigy uensity of about 1u
46
}m
S
while the quantum mechanical spacetime fielu has
eneigy uensity of about 1u
11S
}m
S
. While theie is a big uiffeience between these two numbeis,
in anothei sense they aie similai because they both vastly exceeu the ciitical eneigy uensity
of the univeise fiom geneial ielativity anu cosmology anu they both have spin of zeio.

Bowevei, theie aie also impoitant uiffeiences. The iotai mouel of funuamental paiticles gives
intiinsic ineitia thiough a mechanism that ultimately uepenus on the speeu of light being
constant. This matches the ineitia of the equivalent eneigy in confineu photons. The Biggs
mechanism gives ineitia to funuamental paiticles that lack ineitia thiough an exteinal
inteiaction. As uiscusseu in chaptei 1, theie is no mechanism to match the ineitia of an
equivalent eneigy of confineu photons. This is a pieviously uniecognizeu flaw in the Biggs
mechanism.

Cuiiently (Septembei 2u12), it was iecently announceu that the LBC expeiiments hau founu a
new funuamental paiticle with eneigy of about 12S uev. Since that is in the bioau eneigy
iange pieviously pieuicteu foi the Biggs boson (between about 11S to 17S uev) the
assumption in the populai piess is that this uiscoveiy is equivalent to uiscoveiing the stanuaiu
mouel Biggs boson which gives ineitia to othei funuamental paiticles. QEB has also been
pieuicting the existence of a funuamental paiticle in this eneigy iange without the iequiiement
that it be a Biggs boson. Bowevei, colliuing a pioton anu an antipioton togethei piouuces a
veiy messy iesult that can inuicate the existence of a new paiticle but not be able to measuie
any of its piopeities. As Bi Tony Weiubeig, fiom the 0niveisity of 0xfoiu saiu, Even at a
ceitainty level of five sigma you'ie veiy fai fiom pioving it's a Biggs paiticle at all, let alone a
stanuaiu mouel Biggs. If the most plausible hypothesis is that it's a Stanuaiu Nouel Biggs, you
have to ask 'what expeiiments can we uo to test that hypothesis'. The answei is to measuie as
much uetail as you can about this paiticle. It's much haiuei to uo these uetaileu measuiements
than just see if theie is something theie.
S

3
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18521327
6-28
Theie aie technical papeis that analyze the types of paiticles that coulu piouuce the iesults
obseiveu at the LBC anu yet not be the stanuaiu mouel Biggs boson with spin of zeio. Theie
aie also uiscussions about builuing a lineai acceleiatoi capable of acceleiating elections anu
positions to 2Su uev (the Inteinational Lineai Acceleiatoi). These collisions woulu piouuce a
much cleanei iesult that coulu actually ueteimine spin anu some othei piopeities of the new
paiticle. In oiuei foi this 12S uev paiticle to be the Stanuaiu Nouel Biggs boson anu not just
some pieviously unknown boson (peihaps spin 2), it must be pioven to be a funuamental
paiticle (not a composite like a pion) that has spin of zeio. Fuitheimoie, it must give mass to
othei funuamental paiticles thiough the existence of a Biggs fielu.
As stateu in chaptei 1, the Biggs mechanism uoes not even iecognize that the ineitia of a
funuamental paiticle such as an election oi muon must piecisely match the ineitia of an equal
amount of eneigy of confineu photons. The iotai mouel piecisely matches this iequiiement
because a iotai is also eneigy piopagating at the speeu of light in a confineu volume iesulting
in zeio momentum (p = u) in a iest fiame. Theiefoie, the pieuiction is that even though a new
funuamental paiticle with eneigy of about 12S uev has been founu, this new paiticle uoes not
have the piopeities iequiieu to foim a Biggs fielu that gives ineitia to othei funuamental
paiticles. The iotai mouel gives the coiiect ineitia to match the inteinal eneigy of funuamental
paiticles. Fuitheimoie, the spacetime baseu mouel of the univeise has spacetime filleu with a
vast eneigy with spin of zeio. It is just not the Biggs fielu.

7-1

Chaptei 7

viitual Paiticles, vacuum Eneigy anu 0nity

Introduction: In the last chaptei we weie on a ioll calculating a simplifieu veision of the
stiong foice, the electiomagnetic foice anu the giavitational foice between two of the same
iotais at a fixeu sepaiation uistance equal to the iotais quantum iauius R
q
. In chaptei 8 we
will impiove the mouel so that these foices exhibit attiaction. We will also extenu the
calculation of the giavitational foice to longei uistances anu incluue multiple iotais. Bowevei,
befoie uoing this it is necessaiy to lay some auuitional giounuwoik. This incluues a
uesciiption of viitual paiticle paiis, vacuum eneigy, asymptotic fieeuom anu a pioposeu
piopeity calleu unity that peimits quantizeu waves to exhibit paiticlelike piopeities.

In cosmology the teims vacuum eneigy anu uaik eneigy aie often consiueieu synonymous.
This book makes a uistinction between these two teims. Baik eneigy is a hypothetical concept
that is iequiieu to fill the gap between the obseiveu eneigy uensity of the univeise anu the
theoietical ciitical eneigy uensity. The appaient acceleiation of the expansion of the
univeise seems to iequiie a souice of uiffuse eneigy uensity (~ 6 x 1u
1u
}m
S
) uistiibuteu
thioughout the univeise that counteiacts giavity. This is completely uiffeient than the veiy
laige eneigy uensity (~ 1u
11S
}m
S
) implieu by the teims vacuum eneigy oi vacuum
fluctuations. Baik eneigy anu the cosmological constant shoulu not be equateu to vacuum
eneigy anu vacuum fluctuations.

Probabilistic Nature of Rotars: In chaptei S figuies S1 anu S2 show the uistoition of
spacetime believeu to be piesent in the quantum volume of a iotai. Figuie S1 shows a uipole
wave in spacetime that has foimeu into a closeu loop, one wavelength in ciicumfeience. This
wave is tiaveling at the speeu of light aiounu the closeu loop. We pieviously calculateu the
angulai momentum of this mouel. This motion is not in a single plane as uepicteu; insteau it is a
chaotic uistoition of spacetime. Placing a iotai in a magnetic fielu can align the spin uiiection
giving an expectation spin uiiection. Bowevei, even then almost all iotation uiiections aie
possible with uiffeient piobabilities. The exception is the opposite spin uiiection to the
expectation uiiection which has a piobability of zeio.

The chaotic natuie of a iotai is uue to the fact that the lobes aie a slight uistoition of eneigetic
spacetime at the limit of causality. This small stiain is below the quantum mechanical limit of
uetection. Foi an election the spatial anu tempoial uistoition piouuceu by the iotating uipole
wave is less than 1 pait in 1u
22
. To a fiist appioximation, the iotai mouel of an election is an
empty vacuum. The uipole lobes of an election aie so close to being homogeneous spacetime
that the iate of time in the two lobes only uiffeis by one seconu in Su,uuu times the age of the
7-2
univeise. The spatial piopeities of the lobes aie so homogeneous that the uistoition is
equivalent to uistoiting a spheie the size of }upiteis oibit by the iauius of a hyuiogen atom.

The ieason that the iotai mouel can achieve the E = mc
2
eneigy of the funuamental paiticles is
the incieuibly laige impeuance of spacetime anu the laige Compton fiequency (~1u
2u
to
1u
2S
Bz) of the funuamental iotais. These lobes aie piopagating in a closeu loop at the speeu
of light anu inteiacting with vacuum eneigy so they aie appioximately confineu to a volume.
Bowevei, finuing the paiticle means inteiacting with this incieuibly weak uistoition of
spacetime in a way that a quantizeu unit of angulai momentum is tiansfeiieu. This is a
piobabilistic event that can happen ovei a substantial volume that scales with R
q
.
Fuitheimoie, the chaotic natuie of the iotai stiuctuie peimits the iotating uipole wave to
uisappeai fiom one quantum volume anu iefoim in an aujacent location that was pieviously
pait of the iotais exteinal volume. The iotating uipole can also be visualizeu as a iotating iate
of time giauient as uepicteu in figuie S2.

Virtual Particle Pairs: The teim viitual paiticle is commonly applieu in two uiffeient ways.
Fiist, theie aie the viitual paiticles that accoiuing to the commonly accepteu physics theoiy
aie the caiiieis of foices. Foi example, viitual photons supposeuly caiiy the electiomagnetic
foice. The othei type of viitual paiticles is the viitual paiticle paiis that aie continuously being
cieateu anu annihilateu in a vacuum. These viitual paiticle paiis aie an integial pait of
quantum electiouynamics QEB anu quantum chiomouynamics QCB. The incieuible accuiacy
achieveu by QEB calculations is only possible by incluuing all of the significant effects anu
contiibutions of viitual paiticle foimation anu annihilation on the pioblem being calculateu.
The spacetime baseu mouel pioposeu heie explains foices as an inteiaction of uipole waves in
spacetime incluuing the uipole waves of vacuum eneigy. Theiefoie theie is no neeu foi the
type of viitual paiticles that aie supposeuly the caiiieis of foices anu they uo not exist in this
mouel. Bowevei, the viitual paiticle paiis that aie continuously being cieateu anu annihilateu
aie pait of the spacetime baseu mouel. In ueveloping a conceptually unueistanuable
uesciiption of the stiuctuie of these viitual paiticle paiis we aie guiueu by the staiting
assumptions pieviously enumeiateu. In fact, the staiting assumptions aie so iestiictive that
only one uesciiption seems plausible.

A viitual paiticle paii is a countei iotating matteiantimattei paii. Countei iotating means
that the quantizeu angulai momentum is eliminateu (zeio spin). Foi an instant the pioposeu
viitual paiticle mouel is stiaineu spacetime that looks geneially similai to the two uipole lobes
uepicteu in figuies S1 anu S2. Bowevei, the lobes aie not iotating. Such lobe paiis woulu
foim ianuomly out of the uipole waves that aie iesponsible foi vacuum eneigy. If we make an
analogy to waves on watei, then a viitual paiticle paii is a wave maximum anu minimum
sepaiateu by a uistance compaiable to twice the quantum iauius (uiametei = 2 R
q
) of the iotai
being simulateu. Appaiently spacetime has a iesonance at conuitions that coiiesponu to the
foimation of viitual paiticle paiis that coiiesponu to ieal matteiantimattei paiis such as
7-3
electionposition paiis of muonantimuon paiis. Theiefoie these fiequencies aie piefeiieu
ovei ianuom fiequencies. These wave stiuctuies foim anu uisappeai fiom the uipole waves
that foim vacuum eneigy. Fuitheimoie, all fiames of iefeience have the same uensity of
viitual paiticle paiis.

When such a shape foims, it momentaiily can look like a paiticleantipaiticle paii such as an
electionposition paii oi a muonantimuon paii. Bowevei, this ueception is quickly ievealeu.
Foi example, with a ieal electionposition paii, the two iotais shoulu countei iotate 1 iauian
each (2 iauians total) in a time of 1
c
= mc
2
= 1.S x 1u
21
s. This means that a ieal
electionposition paii woulu countei iotate by a total of one iauian in a time inteival of
t = V mc
2
= 12
c
. The two ianuomly foimeu lobes woulu uissipate into wavelets in a
similai time peiiou. This is the same lifetime given to viitual paiticle paiis by the unceitainty
piinciple.

E t = V
t =
2AL
=
2mc
2
set
1
o
c
=
mc
2

t =
1
2o
c

Theiefoie, the unceitainty piinciple is uesciibing the time iequiieu foi this mouel of a viitual
paiticle paii to ieveal itself anu uissipate into othei ianuom uipole waves. It is pioposeu that
all aspects of the unceitainty piinciple coiiesponu to conceptually unueistanuable effects
iesulting fiom a uipole wave in the spacetime baseu explanation of the univeise.

vacuum Eneigy Revisiteu

Chaptei 4 laiu the giounuwoik foi a uesciiption of vacuum eneigy, but now that the iotai
mouel anu the ielativistic foice have been intiouuceu theie aie a few auuitional insights into
vacuum eneigy that will be mentioneu.

Rotar Model Requires Vacuum Pressure: Recall in chaptei 4 the point was maue that
eneigy uensity (0) has the same units as piessuie (" ) when both aie expiesseu in
uimensional analysis teims of length, mass anu time. I aigue that eneigy uensity always
implies piessuie. This position is not helu by the stanuaiu mouel oi stiing theoiy which
assumes paiticles can possess infinite eneigy uensity (no volume) without being
conceineu about the implieu infinite piessuie. Bowevei, it is easiei to see that eneigy
7-4
piopagating at the speeu of light in a limiteu volume (confineu photons oi the iotai mouel)
always implies piessuie. The eneigy uensity of a iotais quantum volume (0
q
) exeits a
piessuie that will be uesignateu as "
q
. Ignoiing numeiical factois neai 1, the eneigy uensity
anu piessuie of this volume is:

0
q
= "
q
=
L
i
R
q
3
=
L
i
4
c
3
3
=
o
c
4
c
3
=
m
4
c
S
3
= B
4
0
p
= B

4
"
q

It is also possible to ueteimine both eneigy uensity anu piessuie using one of the S
waveamplituue equations: 0 = " = kB
2
2
Zc. 0sing the substitution: B
2
= B
2
= (T
p
c
)
2
=
(uc
S
)
c
2
anu pievious substitutions we obtain the same answei as the above equation fiom
the waveamplituue equation:

u
q
= "
q
=
H
2
o
c
2
z
s
c
= [
uo
c
2
c
S

c
2
[
c
3
u
[
1
c
=
o
c
4
c
3
=
L
i
R
q
3

Foi example, an election has: E
i
= 8.19 x 1u
14
} anu R
q
= S.86 x 1u
1S
m. Theiefoie, if
0
q
= E
i
R
q
S
then the iotai mouel of an election has eneigy uensity of about 1u
24
}m
S
. This
mouel woulu then have inteinal piessuie of ioughly 1u
24
Nm
2
. vacuum eneigy is iequiieu to
stabilize anu confine this eneigy uensitypiessuie. Theiefoie, vacuum eneigy must exceeu this
eneigy uensitypiessuie. If it takes 1u
24
Nm
2
to stabilize an election with eneigy of 8 x 1u
14
},
how much piessuie uoes it take to stabilize the highest eneigy paiticle. The most eneigetic
paiticle that has been expeiimentally obseiveu is the top quaik with eneigy of: E
i
= Sx1u
8
}.
0sing E
i
4
c
S
S
the eneigy uensity of vacuum eneigy must exceeu about 1u
4S
}m
S
anu the
piessuie must exceeu 1u
4S
Nm
2
. This iepiesents a lowei limit foi the eneigy uensity of
vacuum eneigy. These piessuies aie easily accommouateu by the spacetime baseu mouel of
vacuum eneigy.

The high eneigy uensity of vacuum eneigy iequiieu by the spacetime baseu mouel pioposeu
heie shoulu not be suipiising since a laige vacuum eneigy uensity is also iequiieu foi the
foimation of viitual paiticle paiis anu many othei opeiations of QEB anu QCB. In fact, even the
hypothetical Biggs fielu (not pait of the spacetime baseu mouel) also iequiies a veiy high
vacuum eneigy uensity. This eneigy uensity uepenus on the eneigy of the Biggs boson but the
implieu eneigy uensity is ioughly 1u
46
}m
S
. This is mentioneu to illustiate that the concept of
a Biggs fielu also challenges the cosmological ciitical eneigy uensity numbei.

Astionomical measuiements inuicate that the univeise has aveiage eneigy uensity of only
about 1u
9
}m
S
(the ciitical uensity). Bowevei, this is pioposeu to be only the eneigy uensity
of the uipole waves that possesses angulai momentum such as iotais anu photons. The vastly
laigei poition of the univeises eneigy (uipole waves) uoes not possess angulai momentum
anu only inteiacts with oui obseivable univeise thiough quantum mechanics. This eneigy
7-5
uensity is as homogeneous anu isotiopic as quantum mechanics allows. It uoes not piouuce
the same giavitational effects as eneigy that possesses angulai momentum.

The iotai mouel of a funuamental paiticle has a finite volume. The eneigy uensity of a
funuamental paiticle implies a piessuie that must be containeu to achieve stability. vacuum
eneigy can exeit this piessuie without itself neeuing to be containeu by a still laigei piessuie
vessel. We uo not know whethei the univeise is infinitely laige oi just vastly laigei than oui
obseivable poition of the univeise. In eithei case, the vacuum eneigypiessuie in oui
obseivable poition of the univeise has nowheie to go. It is in equilibiium with the iest of the
obseivable univeise. 0ne inauequacy of both the stanuaiu mouel anu stiing theoiy is that
theie funuamental paiticles have eneigy but no volume. If eneigy uensity is absolutely
equivalent to piessuie, what mechanism contains the infinite piessuie of a paiticle with no
volume.

Rotars in Superfluid Vacuum Energy: If I wave my hanu thiough spacetime, I am not awaie
of any inteiaction with the vast eneigy uensity of spacetime. Theie is no iesistance; theiefoie
it is haiu to visualize spacetime as having momentum oi being a veiy stiff elastic meuium.
Bowevei, it is necessaiy to iemembei that the funuamental paiticles that make up my hanu aie
meiely quantizeu euuies that can easily piopagate thiough the sea of vacuum fluctuations
without encounteiing any iesistance oi leaving a wake. Theie is no new compiession of
spacetime. It is only when we intiouuce a new wave in spacetime such as a giavitational wave
that we aie attempting to intiouuce a net compiession anu uisplacement of the uipole waves
that fill spacetime. Spacetime has a bulk mouulus but this bulk mouulus only ieveals itself to a
wave in spacetime that is physically intiouucing a compiession anu expansion of spacetime. A
unit of quantizeu angulai momentum can fieely piopagate thiough the sea of uipole waves that
foims spacetime without iesistance.

Bowevei, if a iotai possessing quantizeu angulai momentum encounteis anothei iotai with
quantizeu angulai momentum, then this is entiiely uiffeient. Even though these two iotais aie
also just uistoitions of spacetime, the quantizeu angulai momentum peimits them to exceeu
the homogeneous eneigy uensity of vacuum eneigy. This staits a chain of inteiactions with
vacuum eneigypiessuie that ultimately iesult in the foices of natuie. Foi example, iotais can
coalesce into massive bouies ianging fiom hauions to galaxies. These aie islanus of
concentiateu eneigy in a sea of supeifluiu vacuum eneigy that was pieviously homogeneous.
Each iotai incieases the eneigy uensity at a specific location causing a uistuibance we know as
cuiveu spacetime. All othei neaiby iotais now expeiience an eneigy uensity giauient which
iesults in a giavitational inteiaction between iotais (paiticles). The othei foices aie the iesult
of similai inteiactions as will be explaineu latei. Chapteis 1S anu 14 will uiscuss fuithei why
the eneigy uensity of spacetime uoes not foim a black hole.

7-6
Spacetime: The New Ether? If the univeise is only spacetime, it shoulu not be suipiising that
spacetime is ultimately iesponsible foi all of physics. The uesciiption of spacetime offeieu heie
is a combination of the eneigetic vacuum fluctuations uesciibeu by quantum mechanics anu the
geneial ielativistic uesciiption wheie spacetime can be cuiveu anu time is the fouith
uimension. 0ltimately eneigetic spacetime even peifoims the functions pieviously attiibuteu
to the ethei. Bowevei, spacetime is much moie subtle than the antiquateu uesciiption of the
ethei. Theie is no uetectable motion ielative to spacetime because spacetime is a sea of
eneigetic waves which aie always foiming new wavelets anu all of this is piopagating
chaotically at the speeu of light. Also, the
S
uepenuence of the spectial eneigy uensity means
that the haimonic oscillatois of spacetime aie a peifect Loientz invaiiant meuium. Bopplei
shifts aie offset so the no ielative motion is uetectable.

Funuamental paiticles uo not uiag spacetime the way that the ethei was piesumeu to be
uiaggeu by mass. Insteau, funuamental paiticles aie quantizeu voitices in supeifluiu
spacetime. These voitices fieely piopagate thiough eneigetic spacetime without impaiting
ineitia oi leaving a wake. In chaptei 11 it will be pioposeu that photons aie a uistuibance in
eneigetic spacetime caiiying quantizeu angulai momentum. While this has similaiities to
waves piopagating in the ethei, theie also aie impoitant uiffeiences. The piopei speeu of light
is constant eveiywheie because all funuamental paiticles anu foices aie maue of eneigetic
spacetime. These all scale in a way that keeps the piopei speeu of light constant (eveiy
location anu eveiy uiiection). This means that theie is no uetectable motion ielative to
spacetime.

Stability of a Paiticle Naue of Waves

Schrodingers Wave Packet: Pieviously it was mentioneu that about 1926 Schiouingei
attempteu to explain paiticles as consisting only of a wave packet. Schiouingeis wave packet
hau many fiequencies that, when auueu togethei (Fouiiei tiansfoim), piouuceu a
concentiateu wave. This was Schiouingeis wave baseu mouel of a paiticle. Be was attackeu
foi this iuea by othei scientists. The pioblem was that these many uiffeient fiequencies coulu
only tempoiaiily auu togethei to foim a concentiateu wave at a single location that acts like a
paiticle. Anothei way of saying this is that Schiouingeis confluence of waves can momentaiily
cieate the eneigy uensity of a paiticle, but this implies a piessuie. Schiouingei was unable to
explain what pieventeu the wave packet fiom uissipating anu he eventually abanuoneu this
iuea.

7-7
Radiated Power by Unstable Rotars: The amplituue of the iotai wave within the quantum
volume (at uistance R
q
) has been given as B
= L
p
R
q
. A simple extiapolation of this amplituue
to uistances beyonu R
q
woulu iesult in a funuamental wave amplituue of B
f
= L
p
i wheie
uistance i is gieatei than R
q
. Rotating uipoles of any type attempt to iauiate away theii eneigy.
It is pioposeu that the few Compton fiequencies that actually foim iotais, a type of iesonance
is foimeu that offsets the uipole iauiation. Foi any funuamental iotai that actually exists theie
must be a wave cancelation that uestioys the wave with amplituue B
f
= L
p
i anu leaves only
iesiuual stanuing waves as eviuence of the battle that is taking place. Without some foim of
cancelation in the exteinal volume, we woulu expect a iotai to iauiate eneigy into the exteinal
volume with amplituue that uecieases with 1i at a fiequency equal to the iotais Compton
angulai fiequency
c
. To calculate the hypothetical iauiateu powei that woulu occui fiom
amplituue B
f
at fiequency
c
we will use one of the S waveamplituue equations: P = B
2
2
ZA.
This equation contains A which is the iauiating aiea. It is not necessaiy to assume a uistance
of R
q
foi this calculation. We can imagine a spheiical shell with aibitiaiy iauius i. Theiefoie,
we only neeu to calculate the powei that passes thiough this shell. At uistance i the suiface
aiea A of this imaginaiy spheiical shell with iauius i is: A = ki
2
.

P = B
2

2
Z A set B = B
f
= L
p
i, Z = c
S
u anu A = ki
2
(ignoie k)
P = [
L
p
c
2
[
c
3
u
r
2
= [
u
c
3

c
2
[
c
3
u
=
c
2
= P
c

P = P
c
iauiateu powei = iotais ciiculating powei P
c
=
c
2
= E
i

c

Theiefoie, a 1i amplituue uistiibution means that the iauiateu powei is equal to the iotais
full ciiculating powei P
c
= E
i

c
. At this iauiateu powei, all the iotais inteinal eneigy E
i
is
iauiateu away in a time peiiou of only 1
c
. If an election iauiateu powei at this iate, it woulu
be iauiating about 6S million watts anu have a lifetime of less than 1u
2u
seconus. Any
stiuctuie that is iauiating away its inteinal eneigy in a time peiiou of only 1 has absolutely
no stability. In fact, it lasts as long as the unceitainty piinciple pieuicts foi eneigy unceitainty
E. If a iotai suivives foi a time peiiou longei than 1, this means that theie must be some
mechanism foi ieuucing the wave amplituue in the exteinal volume fiom B
f
= L
p
i.

Wave Cancelation: Beie is the pictuie that I have foi the stability of a iotai. It is not a
complete pictuie, but it is sufficiently complete that I finu it plausible when combineu with the
bouy of othei infoimation containeu in this book. Imagine a iotating uipole wave in spacetime
that is one wavelength in ciicumfeience. It is a single fiequency, so iauiation fiom this wave
attempts to fill the univeise. Powei woulu have to be continuously supplieu to this iotating
uipole. In this case, the outgoing wave is acting exactly as woulu be expecteu foi a single
fiequency wave expanuing fiom a souice. This woulu piouuce peifect monochiomatic
iauiation, limiteu only by the Fouiiei tiansfoim of the finite emission time. Since a stable iotai
is not continuously emitting eneigy, theie must be a new souice of offsetting waves.

7-8
This cancelation of waves in the exteinal volume uoes not mean that all tiaces of wave eneigy
have been eliminateu. A veiy impoitant pait of the iotai mouel is that the uestiuctive
inteifeience is incomplete. Stanuing waves (oscillations wheie noues anu antinoues aie
stationaiy) aie left behinu. These stanuing waves inteiact with vacuum eneigy in a way that
also piouuces nonoscillating stiains in spacetime. Two examples of these iesiuual
nonoscillating stiains aie electiic fielus (chaptei 9) anu cuiveu spacetime. In paiticulai,
cuiveu spacetime iesults in a static iate of time giauient anu a nonEucliuian spatial uistoition
(uiscusseu in chaptei 8).

Tiaveling waves imply that powei is being tiansfeiieu in the uiiection of the wave
piopagation. Stanuing waves oi a static iate of time giauient implies that no powei is being
tiansfeiieu. Theiefoie, the pioposeu uestiuctive inteifeience has eliminateu the powei uiain
fiom the iotai, but the iemaining stanuing waves anu giauients aie the eviuence that a
uestiuctive inteifeience battle is going on. Stanuing waves have eneigy, so this pictuie implies
that a small poition of the iotais eneigy is uistiibuteu outsiue the quantum volume. This
eneigy is iesponsible foi the iotais electiic anu giavitational fielus.

The vacuum eneigy waves piopagating towaius the coie (wavelets) aie ietuining the iauiateu
powei to the iotating uipole coie. These ietuining waves must have the coiiect phase to
constiuctively inteifeie with the iotating uipole. 0ut of the infinite possible combinations of
fiequency, amplituue anu angulai momentum, only the election, muon anu tauon have
fiequencyamplituue combinations to suivive as isolateu iotais (implies iest mass). The
quaiks only finu stability in paiis oi tiiplets. As pieviously stateu, each chaigeu lepton has a
single uimensionless numbei that expiesses all its unique chaiacteiistics in uimensionless
Planck units.

Examining Alternative Particle Models: It is pioposeu that eneigy uensity in any foim
geneiates piessuie. Any competing paiticle mouel must be able to explain wheie the foice
comes fiom to holu togethei a paiticle of a given eneigy uensity. Foi example, a pioton with
iauius 8.8 x 1u
16
m anu 1.S x 1u
1u
} eneigy implies a minimum piessuie of 1u
S4
Nm
2
if the
eneigy is unifoimly uistiibuteu in this volume. If some of the eneigy is in the foim of thiee
point paiticle quaiks, then infinite piessuie is attempting to uissipate the paiticles eneigy. In
eithei case an explanation must be pioposeu as to why the implieu piessuie geneiateu by the
eneigy uensity of a pioton (oi othei paiticle) uoes not iesult in iapiu uispeisal of eneigy.
Paiticles in stiing theoiy aie vibiating one uimensional stiings that in some cases have a length
compaiable to Planck length. The lack of tiansveise uimensions iesults in zeio volume anu
infinite piessuie. Auvocates of stiing theoiy usually uo not even peimit a uiscussion about the
stiuctuie of a stiing. The answei often given is that stiings aie postulateu to be the most basic
builuing blocks of the univeise. Theiefoie it is not faii to inquiie into the stiuctuie of a stiing
because this implies something moie funuamental. Bowevei, that iesponse is only acceptable
to people who believe in stiing theoiy. If the veiy existence of stiings is being calleu into
7-9
question compaieu to an alteinative explanation, then it is faii to test both explanations as to
whethei they have a ieasonable explanation foi the containment of the eneigy uensity of
funuamental paiticles.

Attraction and Repulsion: The conventional explanation foi action at a uistance is that the
foices of natuie aie the iesult of the exchange of viitual paiticles. This explanation is
conceptually unueistanuable when it is applieu to two paiticles which iepel each othei such as
two elections. It is possible to imagine viitual photons piopagating between two elections.
Each viitual photon caiiies a small amount of momentum theiefoie multiple viitual photons
togethei piouuce what appeais to be a continuous iepulsive foice. Bowevei, even foi
iepulsion theie is the question: Bow uo viitual photons finu a uistant point paiticle. Is theie a
homing mechanism oi aie theie almost an infinite numbei of viitual photons exploiing eveiy
possible location.

When the concept of viitual photon exchange is fiist intiouuceu to stuuents, the next question
is usually Bow uoes the exchange of viitual photons cieate attiaction. The answei usually
incluues mention of the unceitainty piinciple, Feynman uiagiams, anu mathematical
abstiactions. These answeis still aie unsatisfying, but the stuuent ieluctantly auopts the iuea
that it is necessaiy to move beyonu classical physics with its conceptually unueistanuable
answeis anu accept the countei intuitive explanations of quantum mechanics. This book
attempts to biing conceptually unueistanuable iueas to quantum mechanics. The subject of
action at a uistance, especially attiaction, is a piime example of an aiea that neeus an impioveu
explanation.

Theie is veiy little wiggle ioom foi action at a uistance if we stait with the assumption that
the univeise is only spacetime. This iestiiction leaus to the concept that theie is only one foice:
the ielativistic foice F
i
= P
i
c. This is the foice impaiteu by powei tiaveling at the speeu of
light. This leaus to a suipiising iealization that the ielativistic foice is only iepulsive.

The same way that photon piessuie is only iepulsive, waves in spacetime tiaveling at the speeu
of light can only piouuce a iepulsive foice. What appeais to be an attiacting foice is actually a
iepulsive foice exeiteu by the vacuum eneigypiessuie. Each iotai iequiies vacuum eneigy to
exeit a laige piessuie to stabilize the iotai. Pieviously we calculateu the piessuie iequiieu to
stabilize a iotai is: " = m
4
c
S
S
anu applying this piessuie ovei an aiea of kR
q
2
piouuces a
foice equal to the iotais maximum foice (F
m
= m
2
c
S
) ignoiing uimensionless constants neai
1. If we mentally uiviue a iotai into two hemispheies, vacuum eneigy is exeiting the iotais
maximum foice F
m
to keep those two hemispheies togethei. This is the same foice iequiieu to
ueflect a iotais ciiculating powei P
c
c = "R
q
2
= F
m
. Even leptons which uo not feel the stiong
foice still expeiience a foice equal to the maximum foice F
m
exeiteu by the piessuie associateu
with vacuum eneigy. In chaptei 8 it will be shown latei that this foice exeiteu by vacuum
eneigy can be unbalanceu anu can appeai to be attiaction.
7-10

This maximum foice was fiist calculateu assuming that the iotais full ciiculating powei is
ueflecteu. The agent that is accomplishing this ueflection must be an exteinal iepulsive foice.
Now we see that the vacuum eneigy is exeiting this iequiieu foice on the iotai. In equilibiium,
the compiession foice exeiteu by vacuum eneigy neeus to balance the outwaiu foice exeiteu
when a iotais ciiculating powei is confineu (ueflecteu). Theiefoie, it is ieasonable that the
foice exeiteu by vacuum eneigy neeus to equal the iotais maximum foice.

Asymptotic Freedom: The stiong foice is an attiacting foice which has the piopeity of
allowing quaiks bounu in hauions to fieely migiate within the natuial uimensions of the
hauion as if theie is no foice acting on them. Bowevei, if theie is an attempt to iemove a quaik
fiom the hauion (inciease the natuial sepaiation), then a foice of attiaction appeais anu
iesists incieasing this sepaiation uistance. Fuitheimoie, this attiacting foice incieases with
uistance. An attempt to iemove a quaik fiom a hauion against this incieasing foice of
attiaction piouuces a new meson iathei than a fiee quaik. 0nce the new meson is foimeu the
attiacting foice uiops to neai zeio anu the meson can be iemoveu. Theiefoie the stiong foice
has a foice chaiacteiistic that seems countei intuitive.

The stiong foice also is iesponsible foi binuing piotons anu neutions togethei in the nucleus of
an atom. The attiaction between nucleons causeu by the stiong foice is substantially laigei
than the electiomagnetic foice geneiateu by the piotons attempting to iepel each othei. It is
estimateu that the stiong foice is at least 1uu times gieatei (peihaps 1 times gieatei) than
the electiomagnetic foice at a uistance compaiable to the iauius of a pioton (~1u
1S
m).

Pieviously in chaptei 6 we calculateu that the pioposeu wave mouel inuicateu that two quaiks
shoulu iepel each othei with a foice equal to the iotais maximum foice at a sepaiation
uistance equal to R
q
. Bowevei, this iepulsion is only one of two foices acting on quaiks when
they aie bounu togethei in a hauion. The quaik is also inteiacting with vacuum eneigy in a way
that vacuum eneigy is exeiting a laige piessuie on the quaik. An isolateu election has
symmetiical vacuum eneigy piessuie exeiteu on the spheiical quantum volume. Bowevei, a
quaik bounu in a hauion uoes not have symmetiical piessuie. A featuie that makes piotons
anu neutions stable is that theie is an inteiaction between aujacent quaiks which cancels the
piessuie noimally exeiteu by vacuum eneigy on the pait of the quaik that is neaiest its
neighboi quaik. The iemaining piessuie applieu ovei the iemaining poition of the quaik
exeits a foice equal to the quaiks maximum foice F
m
(pieviously calculateu F
m
= "
q
R
q
2
).

This unbalanceu piessuie pushes the quaiks togethei so it appeais to be a foice of attiaction
(pseuuoattiaction). 0ltimately equilibiium is ieacheu wheie the iepulsive foice between the
two quaiks is equal to the maximum foice F
m
anu this also equals the vacuum eneigy foice that
pushes the quaiks togethei. Any attempt to eithei inciease oi ueciease the sepaiation woulu
iesult in a laige foice attempting to ietuin the quaiks to the sepaiation wheie the opposing
7-11
foices balance. This equilibiium is pioposeu to cieate the conuition known as asymptotic
fieeuom.

A collision that attempts to iemove a quaik fiom a hauion incieases the sepaiation between
quaiks beyonu the equilibiium position. The iepulsive foice exeiteu by the othei iotai iapiuly
uecieases as the sepaiation is incieaseu. Woik is being uone anu it appeais as if the pseuuo
attiaction exeiteu by vacuum eneigypiessuie iemains constant as the quaiks aie sepaiateu.
The ueciease in the iepulsive foice exeiteu by the othei iotai combineu with a ielatively
constant pseuuoattiaction foice iesults in a net foice that appeais to inciease with uistance.
The stiong foice is pioposeu to be the net foice that iesults fiom the two opposing foices. This
net foice (the stiong foice) appioaches the maximum foice as the sepaiation incieases.

This subject will be uiscusseu fuithei in chaptei 12. All that is impoitant foi a compaiison of
foices is that the magnituue of the stiong foice appioaches the maximum foice as quaiks aie
sepaiateu. Foi example, the up anu uown quaiks that foim an isolateu pioton woulu have a
maximum foice of ioughly 8u,uuu N. This maximum foice is obtaineu fiom F
m
= m
2
c
S
wheie
the mass is appioximately
1
S
the piotons mass. The spacetime baseu mouel explains foices
without exchange paiticles. Theiefoie actions cuiiently asciibeu to gluons aie ieplaceu by
wave inteiactions between iotais anu vacuum eneigy. The woik uone sepaiating quaiks
incieases the eneigy of the quaiks (iotais) anu eventually the extia eneigy foims a new
meson.

Casimir Effect Similarity: This explanation foi attiaction (unbalanceu piessuie fiom vacuum
eneigy) has some similaiities to the explanation foi the Casimii effect. Pieviously it was
mentioneu that the ianuom waves in vacuum eneigy aie cieating all combinations anu these
incluue spacetime waves that appeai to be zeio point electiomagnetic iauiation. When two
metal plates aie biought close togethei, these conuuctive plates excluue electiomagnetic waves
with wavelengths laigei than the gap between the metal plates. These excluueu
wavelengthsfiequencies aie still piesent on the opposite siue of the metal plates. This slightly
loweis the piessuie exeiteu by the uipole waves in spacetime (vacuum eneigy) between the
two plates compaieu to the piessuie exeiteu on the outsiue of the metal plates wheie no waves
aie excluueu. Piactical consiueiations such as suiface smoothness, electiical conuuctivity anu
metallic cut off fiequency all seive to uegiaue the effect fiom the theoietical peifoimance. The
Casimii effect has been expeiimentally veiifieu to within about S% accuiacy. Assuming an
iueal electiically conuuctive suiface, the theoietical piessuie " geneiateu by the Casimii effect
with gap size of i is:

" = (k) ci
4
Casimii Piessuie " foi paiallel metal plates sepaiateu by i

This shoulu be compaieu to the piessuie " exeiteu by vacuum eneigy on a iotai with quantum
iauius R
q
:
7-12

" = (k) cR
q
4
" = piessuie exeiteu by vacuum eneigy on iotai with iauius R
q

It can be seen that these aie the same foim if gap size i is equateu to quantum iauius R
q
anu
the constant is ignoieu.

The point of this is that even electrostatic attraction or the strong force has a similarity to
the Casimir effect. The reasoning is that all of these attractions are the result of reducing
the pressure exerted by vacuum energy on one side of an object more than the pressure
exerted on the opposite side of the object.

This pioposal makes attiaction conceptually unueistanuable. Theie is only one funuamental
foice anu this foice is only iepulsive. We live in a sea of vacuum eneigy. It is like a fish that
lives at gieat uepth in the ocean. The fish is subject to gieat piessuie, but the fish happily goes
about its life without iealizing that theie is any piessuie. 0nly if something happens to cieate
an imbalance of piessuie uoes the gieat piessuie become eviuent. Even then, anything that
loweis the piessuie on one siue of an object appeais to be cieating an attiaction. The foice is
ueliveieu by what appeais to be a featuieless enviionment (watei foi the fishes anu vacuum
foi us). uiavitational attiaction will be uiscusseu in the next chaptei.

0nity Bypothesis

The wavepaiticle uuality is peihaps the most basic mysteiy of quantum mechanics. Both
photons anu paiticles exhibit piopeities that sometimes iequiie a wave explanation anu
sometimes iequiie a paiticle explanation. It is possible to imagine a point paiticle that has a
peicentage of its eneigy as a wave suiiounuing the point paiticle. Bowevei, the expeiiments
seem to inuicate that sometimes theie aie 1uu% paiticle piopeities anu othei times theie aie
1uu% wave piopeities. These aie such uiffeient concepts that they seem mutually exclusive.

Touays physics puts the piimaiy emphasis on the paiticle inteipietation. The waves aie
consiueieu to be a piopeity of paiticles iathei than paiticlelike inteiactions being the
piopeity of quantizeu waves. Not only aie the leptons anu quaiks vieweu as paiticles, but
photons, giavitons anu gluons aie also consiueieu paiticles. The foices of natuie aie
consiueieu to be caiiieu by exchange paiticles. The wave piopeities of all paiticles aie
iecognizeu, but the paiticle piopeities aie consiueieu paiamount.

Ny backgiounu is laseis anu optics. In this fielu, the wave piopeities of light aie consiueieu
paiamount. The paiticle piopeities of photons aie impoitant, but these paiticle piopeities aie
7-13
seconuaiy to the wave piopeities when uesigning optics oi laseis. It is easiest to think of a
photon as a quantizeu wave iathei than a paiticle that possesses wave piopeities. In this
pictuie, a photon is a quantizeu wave that is uistiibuteu ovei a volume when the photon is in
flight. Absoiption of a photon by an atom is easiest to pictuie as the quantizeu wave collapsing
into the absoibing atom. Fiom this backgiounu, theie is a pieuisposition to quantizeu waves
iathei than paiticles. Baving aumitteu my pieuisposition towaius waves, I will stait my attack
on the concept that photons have paiticle piopeities by asseiting the following:

There are no experiments that prove that photons have particle properties. All the
experiments like the photoelectric effect and atomic photon absorption merely prove that a
photon possesses quantized energy. Even Compton scattering will be shown in chapter 11
to have a wave explanation.

It is a common misconception to equate quantization with a paiticle. Bowevei, if spacetime is
visualizeu as the eneigetic spacetime of quantum mechanics, anu if these vacuum fluctuations
have supeifluiu piopeities, then angulai momentum must appeai as quantizeu units. This
quantizeu angulai momentum has as a bypiouuct that eneigy possessing angulai momentum
also comes in quantizeu units. It has been pioposeu eailiei that cuiiently only about 1 pait in
1u
12u
of all the eneigy in the univeise possesses quantizeu angulai momentum. Eneigy that
possesses quantizeu angulai momentum is the only eneigy with which we anu oui instiuments
can inteiact. A photon can caiiy any eneigy up to Planck eneigy, but it always caiiies of
quantizeu angulai momentum (oibital angulai momentum can auu multiples of , but this is a
special case). If we can only inteiact with quantizeu angulai momentum, then eveiything we
inteiact with will be foiceu to possess quantizeu eneigy. Waves with quantizeu angulai
momentum will appeai to have paiticlelike piopeities.

We aie amazeu by the appaient mysteiy of the quantum mechanical piopeities of paiticles anu
photons. Bowevei, we must iemembei that we aie only inteiacting with the minute pait of the
eneigy in the univeise that possesses angulai momentum. This minute pait of the total eneigy
of the univeise must follow the iules of quantizeu eneigy tiansfei. These iules aie enfoiceu by
the vast sea of vacuum eneigy in the supeifluiu state that suiiounus us anu fills the univeise.
Foi example, a molecule isolateu in a vacuum can only iotate at a funuamental iotational iate
oi at integei multiples of this funuamental iotational iate. These quantizeu changes in eneigy
aie associateu with quantizeu changes in angulai momentum. This mysteiy of quantum
mechanics becomes conceptually unueistanuable when it is iealizeu that the molecule ieally is
not isolateu. It lives in a sea of supeifluiu vacuum eneigy that must isolate pockets of angulai
momentum.

Enfoicing this quantization of angulai momentum iequiies that a unit of eneigy with quantizeu
angulai momentum must be able to collapse fastei than the speeu of light. Is theie any
expeiimental pioof that fastei than light action can occui. Next, we will attempt to explain how
7-14
quantizeu waves in spacetime can exhibit paiticlelike piopeities. This explanation staits with
entanglement.

Entanglement Unity Connection: Entanglement occuis when two oi moie photons oi
paiticles inteiact in a way that theii quantum states can only be uesciibeu with iefeience to
each othei. Sepaiating these entangleu photons oi paiticles uoes not bieak the quantum
connection. Theiefoie, measuiing a quantum piopeity of one object affects the quantizeu state
of the seconu entangleu object. This effect happens instantly, even at a laige sepaiation
uistance. The existence of entanglement has been pioven in many uiffeient expeiiments.

If entanglement pioviues an instantaneous iesponse between two entangleu paiticles oi
photons, is it not ieasonable that theie shoulu also be a similai effect within a single uipole
wave with quantizeu angulai momentum. Chapteis 11 anu 14 will offei auuitional insights
into entanglement anu the supei luminal communication. Foi now we will meiely accept
entanglement as an expeiimentally pioven effect anu examine the implications of its pioposeu
close ielative, unity. A puiely spacetime wave mouel of funuamental paiticles must explain
how a wave that is uistiibuteu ovei a volume can exhibit paiticlelike piopeities some of the
time. If a wave is envisioneu as being uivisible into smallei paits like a sounu wave, then it is
impossible foi such a wave to exhibit paiticlelike piopeities. Bowevei, a iotai is a uipole
wave in spacetime that is caiiying a quantizeu amount of angulai momentum in a sea of
vacuum eneigy that lacks angulai momentum. This type of wave can change its eneigy in a
collision, but it always must caiiy the assigneu quantizeu angulai momentum of V oi
(iotai oi photon).

It is tiue that I am not giving a conceptually unueistanuable explanation of why a supeifluiu
cannot possess angulai momentum anu why any angulai momentum that is piesent in the
supeifluiu is bioken into quantizeu units. This is an expeiimentally obseiveu piopeity of
supeifluiu liquiu helium anu I believe that theie is a theoietical explanation foi the effect in
liquiu helium. Bowevei, I must aumit that I uo not have a conceptually unueistanuable
explanation foi this when it is ieuuceu to waves in spacetime. (This is a goou pioject foi
someone else.) Bowevei, if we assume quantizeu angulai momentum exists, then it is easy to
see that a wave caiiying quantizeu angulai momentum must iesponu as a unit to a
peituibation. In a collision with anothei quantizeu wave, the wave with quantizeu angulai
momentum must inteiact as a unit to piecisely pieseive the angulai momentum.

The preservation of quantized angular momentum requires that the quantized wave
possess faster than speed of light internal communication. This is the proposed property
called unity. The property of unity gives particle-like properties to a wave carrying
quantized angular momentum.

7-15
The piopeities of spacetime ueteimine the size (V ) of the quantizeu angulai momentum. If
we accept this as a given, then the piopeity of unity must be a component of any mouel of
paiticles baseu only on waves. Some events such as the emission of a photon fiom an atom
occuis ovei a long enough peiiou of time that theie is enough time foi the quantizeu wave to
iesponu without the neeu to invoke supei luminal communication (uiscusseu latei). Bowevei,
othei events such as the collision of two iotais at ielativistic speeu iequiies that the iotai
iesponu in a time peiiou fastei than iequiieu foi speeu of light communication acioss the
physical size of the iotais quantum volume. The exteinal volume of a iotai iesponus
uiffeiently anu will be uiscusseu latei.

Natuie is capable of supei luminal communication as uemonstiateu by the many expeiiments
that piove the existence of entanglement. The same way that it is not possible to senu a
message fastei than the speeu of light using entanglement, it also is not possible to senu a
message fastei than the speeu of light when a quantizeu wave iesponus to a peituibation as a
single unit. This is meiely an inteinal housekeeping function. The entiie quantizeu wave (with
quantizeu angulai momentum) must iesponu as if it is one entangleu unit.

Assume that a iotai is the uipole wave mouel pieviously uesciibeu. It is not possible to
inteiact with just 1% of a quantizeu uipole. It is not possible to tiansfei less than of angulai
momentum. Eithei 1uu% of the quantum volume iesponus to the inteiaction oi none of the
quantum volume iesponus. If theie is a tiansfei of angulai momentum, it always occuis in
quantizeu units of . The communication within a single quantizeu quantum volume woulu be
instantaneous, just like the iesponse involving two entangleu paiticles. In fact, the iesponse
within a single quantizeu wave shoulu be bettei than when two photons oi two paiticles aie
entangleu.

Sixth Staiting Assumption: A wave in spacetime with quantized angular momentum
responds to a perturbation as a single unit. This superluminal internal communication
gives the quantized wave, particle-like properties.

0nity is pioposeu to be the piopeity iesponsible foi the mysteiious wavepaiticle uuality
piesent eveiywheie in natuie. Eveiy physical entity in the univeise is maue of uipole waves in
spacetime. 0nity peimits these waves to iesponu with paiticlelike piopeities, but the
iesponse exhibits a piobabilistic chaiacteiistics. Recall the incieuibly small uistoition of
spacetime that foims a funuamental iotai. Finuing a paiticle somewheie within a quantizeu
uipole wave is ieally unity causing the quantizeu wave to inteiact with a piobe (anothei wave)
in a way that appeais to exhibit paiticlelike piopeities at a single location. The paiticlelike
piopeities of a quantizeu wave can exhibit uiscontinuous jumps because inteiacting with the
quantizeu wave can happen at any pait of the volume containing the quantizeu wave. The
inteiaction anu the appaient location of the inteiaction is a piobabilistic event.

7-16
Collapse of the Wave Function: A collapse of the wave function in quantum mechanics is
pioposeu to be ielateu to the piopeity of unity. Bowevei, this connection is complicateu by the
fact that often the mathematical expiession of a wave function incluues bounuaiy conuitions
not encounteieu by isolateu iotais. Foi example, a paiticle in a box oi an election bounu in
an atom both have iestiictive bounuaiy conuitions that change the uistiibution of spacetime
waves compaieu to a isolateu iotai. These aie moie complicateu conuitions that will be
uiscusseu latei.

In quantum mechanics, the physical inteipietation of the collapse of the wave function is
liteially that the piobabilistic wave piopeities of a point paiticle uisappeai (collapse) when the
paiticle is founu. The physical inteipietation of unity is that a iotais wave piopeities iemain
aftei it is founu. The uistiibuteu wave of a iotai just iesponus to a piobe (anothei wave) as a
quantizeu unit.

Since the iotai is uistiibuteu ovei a volume, theie is inteinal communication within the iotai
that occuis fastei than the speeu of light. Theiefoie, the iotai iesponus to a peituibation as if
it was concentiateu at a single location. 0nity allows funuamental iotais to iesponu to a
ielativistic collision by momentaiily shiinking the iauius of the iotating uipole as a single
cohesive entity. This ieuuction in quantum iauius happens fastei than the speeu of light, so it
is impossible to uetect a funuamental paiticles size using infeiences fiom collisions. In a
collision, the angulai momentum iemains constant, but the fiequency anu eneigy inciease as
the iauius uecieases. The quantizeu wave appeais to be a point concentiation of masseneigy
that uiscontinuously changes location. Theie is just no liteial collapse of waves into a point
paiticle.

The chaiacteiistic of unity is the final peace of the puzzle iequiieu foi funuamental iotais to
appeai to be point paiticles. In expeiiments that attempt to measuie the size of the
funuamental iotais, the iesolution of the expeiiment uepenus on the eneigy of the collision.
Imagine two iotais colliuing at ielativistic velocity. In the inteiaction, the kinetic eneigy is
tempoiaiily conveiteu to inteinal eneigy of the two iotais. In oiuei to pieseive the angulai
momentum of the iotai, it is necessaiy foi the iotai to ieuuce its quantum iauius fiom the size
chaiacteiistic of an isolateu iotai to the size appiopiiate foi a iotai that has absoibeu extia
eneigy. This tempoiaiy size ieuuction gives the eneigetic iotai a quantum iauius compaiable
to the iesolution limit of the collision expeiiment. Not only uoes the iotai ieuuce the size of R
q

in a collision, but this ieuuction happens fastei than the speeu of light. The entiie eneigy in the
quantum volume ieacts as a unit, so the ineitia appeais to oiiginate fiom a point. The location
of that point is piobabilistic, so it can appeai that a iotai moves in uiscontinuous jumps. Latei
we will auuiess the question of the small amount of a iotais eneigy that is exteinal to the
quantum volume anu iesponus uiffeiently.

7-17
Partial Explanation of Unity: The following paitial explanation of unity is offeieu foi iotais
that exhibit iest mass. 0nity within photons will be uiscusseu latei. It is hopeu that otheis can
impiove on this paitial explanation.

All iotais with iest mass aie pioposeu to be quantizeu waves ciiculating at the speeu of light in
a confineu volume. Even though the ciiculation happens in a limiteu volume, the fact iemains
that these waves uo not expeiience time oi uistance. Theie is a funuamental uiffeience
between the way we peiceive the univeise (S spatial uimensions plus time) anu the way
quantizeu waves tiaveling at the speeu of light peiceive the univeise. They live in a zeio
uimensional univeise. Bipole waves in spacetime consiuei the univeise to be a single point.

It shoulu not be suipiising that we finu many alien chaiacteiistics when we tiansfei fiom the 4
uimensional macioscopic peispective into the zeio uimensional quantum peispective. Within
a quantizeu wave ciiculating at the speeu of light theie is no time anu no uistance. This gives
iise to both the pioposeu piopeity of unity anu to entanglement. Since the iotai peiceives that
theie aie no spatial uimensions, an inteiaction with the iotai cannot take place with only a
small poition of the iotai. It is all oi nothing.

In this book I have attempteu to make quantum mechanical opeiations conceptually
unueistanuable. The above explanation of unity anu entanglement is ieally only a paitial
explanation. In chaptei 11 a mouel of two entangleu photons will make entanglement moie
unueistanuable. In the cosmology chapteis 1S anu 14 a new pictuie of the univeise will be
offeieu which will fuithei impiove the explanation of unity anu entanglement.

7-18


8-1
Chaptei 8

Analysis of uiavitational Attiaction

In chaptei 6, the ieauei was askeu to tempoiaiily consiuei all foices to be iepulsive. This was
a simplification which alloweu the calculations in chaptei 6 to pioceeu without auuiessing the
moie complicateu subject of attiaction. In chaptei 7, vacuum eneigypiessuie was intiouuceu
as an essential consiueiation in the geneiation of all foices, but especially foices that piouuce
attiaction. In this chaptei we aie going to attempt to give a conceptually unueistanuable
explanation foi the foice of attiaction exeiteu by giavity when a bouy is helu stationaiy
ielative to anothei bouy.

Physical Interpretation of General Relativity: Einsteins geneial ielativity has passeu
numeious expeiimental anu mathematical tests. This mathematical success has convinceu
most physicists to accept the physical inteipietation usually associateu with these equations.
Bowevei, the most obvious pioblem with the physical inteipietation is examineu in the
following quotes. The fiist is fiom B. Baisch of the Califoinia Institute of Physics anu
Astiophysics.

The mathematical foimulation of geneial ielativity iepiesents spacetime as
cuiveu uue to the piesence of mattei. ueometiouynamics meiely tells you what
geouesic a fieely moving object will follow. But if you constiain an object to follow
some uiffeient path (oi not to move at all), geometiouynamics uoes not tell you
how oi why a foice aiises. Logically you winu up having to assume that a foice
aiises because when you ueviate fiom a geouesic you aie acceleiating, but that is
exactly what you aie tiying to explain in the fiist place: Why uoes a foice aiise
when you acceleiate. This meiely takes you in a logical full ciicle.

Talking about cuiveu spacetime, the book Pushing uiavity (N. R. Euwaius) states:

Logically, a small paiticle at iest on a cuiveu manifolu woulu have no ieason to enu
its iest unless a foice acteu on it. Bowevei successful this geometiic inteipietation
may be as a mathematical mouel, it lacks physics anu a causal mechanism.

ueneial ielativity uoes not explain why masseneigy cuives spacetime oi why theie is a foice
when an object is pieventeu fiom falling fieely in a giavitational fielu. If iestiaining an object
fiom following a geouesic is the equivalent of acceleiation, then appaiently the giavitational
foice is intimately tieu to the pseuuo foice geneiateu when a mass is acceleiateu. In the
stanuaiu mouel, paiticles possess no intiinsic ineitia. They gain ineitia fiom an inteiaction
with the Biggs fielu. Is the Biggs fielu also necessaiy to geneiate a giavitational foice when a
8-2
paiticle without intiinsic ineitia is pieventeu fiom following the geouesic. Is the Biggs fielu
always acceleiating towaius a mass in an enuless flow that attempts to sweep along a
stationaiy paiticle. The stanuaiu mouel uoes not incluue giavity. Is giavity a foice.

The point of these questions is to show that theie aie logical pioblems with the physical mouel
noimally associateu with geneial ielativity. The equations of geneial ielativity accuiately
uesciibe giavity on a macioscopic scale. Bowevei, these equations aie silent as to the physical
inteipietation, especially at a scale (spatial oi tempoial) wheie quantum mechanics takes ovei.

Gravitational Nonlinearity Examined: Pieviously we ieasoneu that spacetime must be a
nonlineai meuium foi waves in spacetime anu giavity is the iesult of this nonlineaiity. At
uistance R
q
fiom a iotai we calculateu the giavitational foice using one of the S wave
amplituue equations F = B
2
2
ZAc. In this calculation we substituteu B = B
2
= (L
p
R
q
)
2
=
(T
p
c
)
2
. Also the angulai fiequency is equal to the iotais Compton fiequency =
c
. At
uistance R
q
of two of the same iotais we obtaineu F = um
2
R
q
2
. This is the coiiect magnituue
of the giavitational foice between two iotais of mass m, but theie aie two pioblems. Fiist: the
equation F = B
2
2
ZAc is foi a tiaveling wave stiiking a suiface. This tiaveling wave implies
the iauiation of powei that is not happening. Seconu: a wave in spacetime tiaveling at the
speeu of light geneiates a iepulsive foice if it inteiacts in a way that the wave is ueflecteu oi
absoibeu. uiavity is obviously an attiactive foice. We have the magnituue of the foice coiiect,
but the mouel must be iefineu so that theie is no loss of powei anu so that the foice is an
attiaction.

Theie aie seveial steps involveu, anu it is piobably uesiiable to begin with a biief ieview.
Recall that theie aie two types of amplituue teims foi waves in spacetime: uisplacement
amplituue anu stiain amplituue. The maximum uisplacement of spacetime alloweu by
quantum mechanics is a spatial uisplacement of Planck length oi a tempoial uisplacement of
Planck time. Since these aie oscillation amplituues, we sometimes use the teim uynamic
Planck length L
p
oi uynamic Planck time T
p
. As pieviously explaineu, these uistoitions of
spacetime piouuce a stiain in spacetime. The stiain is a uimensionless numbei equivalent to
ll oi tt. In this case ll = L
p
R
q
anu tt = T
p
c
.

In chaptei S we imagineu a hypothetical peifect clock placeu at a point on the quantum ciicle
of a iotai as illustiateu in figuie S1. This is the imaginaiy ciicle with iauius equal to the
quantum iauius R
q
. This clock (heieaftei calleu the uipole clock with time
u
) was compaieu
to the time on anothei clock that we calleu the cooiuinate clock (with time t
c
). This
cooiuinate clock is measuiing the iate of time if theie was no spacetime uipole piesent. It is
also possible to think of the cooiuinate clock as locateu fai enough fiom the iotating uipole that
it uoes not feel any significant time fluctuations. Figuie SS shows the uiffeience in the
inuicateu time t =
u
t
c
. The uipole clock speeus up anu slows uown ielative to the
cooiuinate clock anu the maximum uiffeience is uynamic Planck time T
p
. Theiefoie T
p
is the
8-3
tempoial uisplacement amplituue. Theie is also spatial uisplacement amplituue that is equal to
uynamic Planck length L
p
. The stiain of spacetime piouuceu by these uisplacements of
spacetime is uepicteu in figuie S4. Within the quantum volume, the stiain of spacetime is
uesignateu by the stiain amplituue B
= T
p
c
= L
p
R
q
. This is equivalent to the maximum slope
of the sine wave which occuis at the zeio ciossing points in figuie SS.

Nonlinear Effects: The above ieview now has biought us to the point wheie we can ask an
inteiesting question: Boes the uipole clock always ietuin to peifect synchionization with the
cooiuinate clock at the completion of each cycle. In othei woius, uoes the uipole clock show a
net loss of time compaieu to the cooiuinate clock. If spacetime has no nonlineaiity then the
clocks woulu iemain substantially synchionizeu. Bowevei, if theie is nonlineaiity, the uipole
clock woulu slowly lose time.

As pieviously explaineu, the stiain of spacetime (instantaneous slope in figuie SS) has a lineai
component anu a nonlineai component. The pioposeu spacetime stiain equation foi a point on
the euge of the iotating uipole is:

Stiain = B

sint + (B

sint)
2
(highei oiuei teims ignoieu)

The lineai component is B

sint anu the nonlineai component is (B

sint)
2
. Theie woulu
also be highei oiuei teims wheie B
is iaiseu to highei poweis, but these woulu be so small

that they woulu be unuetectable anu will be ignoieu. This nonlineai component can be
expanueu:

(B

sint)
2
= B
2

sin
2
t = V B
2
V B
2
cos2t

8-4

Figuie 81 plots the lineai component (B

sint) anu the nonlineai component (B

sint)
2

sepaiately. It can be seen that the nonlineai component is a smallei amplituue because B
< 1
anu squaiing this piouuces a smallei numbei. Also the nonlineai component is at twice the
fiequency of the lineai component. Nost impoitantly, the nonlineai component is always
positive. Naking an electiical analogy, this can be thought of as if the nonlineai wave has an AC
component anu a BC component. It is obvious that when the lineai anu nonlineai waves aie
auueu togethei, the sum will piouuce an unsymmetiical wave that is biaseu in the positive
uiiection.

It was necessaiy to use some aitistic license in oiuei to illustiate these concepts in figuie 81.
Foi funuamental iotais the value of B
is ioughly in the iange of 1u

2u
. This means that
B
2
= 1u
4u
anu theiefoie B
is appioximately 1u
2u
times laigei than B
2
. It woulu be
impossible to see the plot of B
2
sin
2
t without aitificially incieasing this ielative amplituue.
Theiefoie, the assumeu value in this figuie is B
= u.2. In this case the uiffeience between B

anu B
2
is only a factoi of S iathei than a factoi of ioughly 1u
2u
. Theiefoie, foi funuamental
iotais it is necessaiy to mentally ueciease the amplituue of the nonlineai wave by ioughly a
factoi of ioughly 1u
2u
.

8-5

FIGURE 8-2
Strain
Coordinate
Time
H sin sin
2
H +H
2
H
0
H
H +H
2
8-6
When we auu the two waves togethei we obtain the plot in figuie 82. Because of the aitistic
license, it is visually obvious that this is an unsymmetiical wave. Theie is a laigei aiea unuei
the positive poition of the wave than the aiea unuei the negative poition of the wave. The
peak amplituue foi the positive poition is B
+ B
2
while the negative poition has peak
negative amplituue of: B
+ B
2
. If this was a plot of electiical cuiient, we woulu say that this
unsymmetiical wave hau a BC bias on an AC cuiient. To use the analogy fuithei, it is as if the
nonlineaiity causes spacetime to have the equivalent of a small BC bias in its stiess.

The uipole clock uoes not ietuin to synchionization with the cooiuinate clock each cycle.
Figuie 8S attempts to illustiate this with a gieatly exaggeiateu plot of the uiffeience between
the cooiuinate clock anu the uipole clock. The X axis of this figuie is time as inuicateu on the
cooiuinate clock while the Y axis is the uiffeience between the cooiuinate clock anu the uipole
clock (t ). If the two clocks ian at exactly the same iate of time, the plot woulu be a stiaight
line along the X axis. Noimally this plot foi a few cycles shoulu look like a sine wave similai to
figuie SS. Bowevei, the puipose of figuie 8S is to illustiate that ovei time the cooiuinate
clock pulls aheau of the uipole clock (oi the uipole clock loses time). Theiefoie, foi puiposes of
illustiation, this effect of the accumulateu time uiffeience has been exaggeiateu by a factoi of
ioughly 1u
22
.

The unsymmetiical stiain plot in figuie 82 piouuces a net loss of time on the uipole clock
ielative to the cooiuinate clock. In the fiist quaitei cycle of figuie 8S, the cooiuinate clock falls
behinu the uipole clock by an amount appioximately equal to Planck time. This occuis when
the fast lobe of the iotating uipole passes the uipole clock fiist. Bowevei, with each cycle, the
cooiuinate clock gains a small amount of time on the uipole clock. The amount of time gaineu
pei cycle is illustiateu by the gap labeleu Single cycle time loss. This is equal to T
p
2
c
which
is about 2.2 x 1u
66
s foi an election.

The point of figuie 8S is to illustiate the contiibution of the nonlineai effect. The nonlineai
wave with stiain of B
2
sin
2
t at uistance R
q
piouuces the contiibution that causes the net loss
of time foi the uipole clock (gain of time foi the cooiuinate clock). This contiibution is shown
as the wavy line labeleu nonlineai component. The aveiage slope of this line is equal to the
giavitational magnituue foi the quantum volume which has been uesignateu as B
2
=
q
. Foi
an election this slope is about 1.7S x 1u
4S
which means that it takes about Su seconus foi the
cooiuinate clock to have a net time gain of Planck time ovei the uipole clock. This takes about
4 x 1u
21
cycles iathei than 4 cycles as illustiateu in figuie 8S. If we subtiacteu the nonlineai
wave component fiom figuie 8S, we woulu be left with a sine wave with amplituue of T
p
.

The slope on this nonlineai wave component is B
2
at uistance R
q
which is obtaineu fiom the
stiain equation:

B

sint + (B

sint)
2
= B

sint V B
2
cos2t + H
2

8-7

The impoitant pait has been maue bolu foi emphasis.

Connection to the Gravitational Magnitude : The BC equivalent teim (nonoscillating
teim) is V B
2
. We have been ignoiing uimensionless constants thioughout this book, so we
will ignoie the V anu concentiate on B
2
. This is the squaie of a iotais stiain amplituue at
uistance R
q
.

B
2
=
L
p
2
R
q
2
= T
p
2
c
2
=
um
2
c
=
q
wheie
q
= at a iotais R
q

B
2
=
q

Theiefoie, the equivalent of a BC bias teim fiom the nonlineai wave component (B
2
) is equal
to the giavitational magnituue of the iotai at uistance R
q
. This equality makes use of the
appioximation pieviously uiscusseu: 1 -_1
2um
c
2
R
=
um
c
2

Foi a single election at uistance R
q
, this appioximation is accuiate to bettei than one pait in
1u
44
. Foi many of the moie massive iotais the appioximation is accuiate to ioughly one pait in
1u
4u
. Theiefoie this appioximation is tieateu as being exact when we aie uealing with the
giavity of single iotais. Anothei equality foi is:

= 1
d:
Jt
=
dt J
dt
appioximation valiu when ut >> (ut u)

ut = (ut u)

The appioximation of = (ut u)ut is also viitually exact foi a single iotai anu it will be
tieateu as exact. Since ut is the iate of time on the cooiuinate clock anu u is the iate of time on
the uipole clock, we have B
2
= (ut u)ut anu the time uilation has been tieu to the nonlineai
teim B
2
at uistance R
q
fiom a iotai.

Non-Linear Effects in the External Volume: At uistance gieatei than R
q
fiom a single iotai,
the nonoscillating stiain amplituue will ueciease in a way that matches up to B
2
when i = R
q
.
Since we know that B
2
=
q
at the uistance of the quantum iauius, the connection to the
giavitational magnituue has been establisheu. 0ui knowleuge of as a function of mass anu
uistance ( = umc
2
i) can be useu to ueteimine how the non oscillating stiain amplituue
uecieases with uistance.

=
um
c
2
= [
um
2
c
[

mc
set: [
um
2
c
= B
2
; [

mc
= R
q
B
= L
p
R
q

8-8

= B
2
[
R
q
= B
2
J non oscillating teim (the stiain amplituue) in the exteinal volume

The teim iR
q
will be useu numeious times in the iemainuei of this book both in the
explanation of giavity anu latei in the explanation of the electiomagnetic foice. When we move
into the exteinal volume of a iotai, it will be shown that eveiything becomes veiy simple if we
expiess uistance fiom a iotai as a uimensionless numbei J equal to the numbei of quantum
iauius units R
q
(ieuuceu Compton wavelengths
c
). Theiefoie the uefinition of J is:

J =
R
q
=
x
c
=
rmc

Theiefoie, the nonoscillating amplituue (stiain amplituue) associateu with giavity scales as
B
2
(R
q
i) = B
2
J. While we assumeu a connection between the giavitational magnituue
anu the nonlineai stiain amplituue B
2
to obtain this ielationship, the fact that the equation is
so physically ieasonable can be useu to suppoit a causal connection between giavitational
magnituue anu nonoscillating stiain amplituue. We know that waves of all types with
wavelength that emit into 4 steiiauians ueciease amplituue piopoitional to i. Since
c
= 2R
q
, (wheie
c
equals Compton wavelength) it is ieasonable that the nonoscillating
stiain amplituue woulu scale piopoitional to R
q
i = 1J. The giavitational magnituue of a
iotai also scales piopoitional to B
2
because this is the nonlineai component of the quantum
volume stiain amplituue B
. Recall that spacetime is a nonlineai meuium foi Planck amplituue

waves in spacetime anu the nonlineaiity is piopoitional to amplituue squaieu. Theiefoie, it
appeais as if the iotai mouel anu othei pioposals offeieu heie give a ieasonable anu
conceptually unueistanuable explanation foi cuiveu spacetime. Recall that:

=
dt
d:
=
dL
JR

= 1
J
dt
= 1
dR
dL

Oscillating Component of Gravity: Theie is pioposeu to be anothei iesiuual giavitational
effect that has not been obseiveu because it is oscillating anu too weak. In figuie 8S the
nonlineai wave component is shown as a wavy line labeleu nonlineai component. We can
inteiact with the nonoscillating pait of this line iesponsible foi giavity, but theie is also a
iesiuual nonlineai oscillating component. At uistance R
q
this oscillating component has
amplituue B
2
anu fiequency 2
c
. What happens to this oscillating component beyonu R
q
in
the exteinal volume. We know that the few fiequencies that foim stable anu semi stable iotais
exist at iesonances with the vacuum fluctuations of spacetime which eliminate eneigy loss. If
the amplituue of the oscillating component was B
2
J, then theie woulu be continuous
iauiation of eneigy. Eneigetic composite paiticles such as piotons oi neutions woulu iauiate
8-9
away all theii eneigy in a few million yeais. In the chaptei 1u an analogy will be maue to the
eneigy uensity of a iotais electiic fielu. The amplituue teim foi the oscillating component of
giavity will then be pioposeu to scale as B
2
J
2
. This woulu be an extiemely small amplituue
anu fuitheimoie it is a stanuing wave that uoes not iauiate eneigy.

Summary: Since we neeu to biing togethei seveial uiffeient components to achieve
giavitational attiaction, we will uo anothei ieview. This time we will emphasize the iole of
vacuum eneigy, ciiculating powei, the canceling wave anu nonoscillating stiain in spacetime.

A iotai is a iotating spacetime uipole immeiseu in a sea of vacuum eneigy which is equivalent
to a vacuum piessuie. This vacuum eneigypiessuie is maue up of veiy high eneigy uensity
(> 1u
46
}m
S
) uipole waves in spacetime that lack angulai momentum. The iotai also has a
high eneigy uensity that is attempting to iauiate away eneigy at the iate of the iotais
ciiculating powei. The iotai suivives because it exists at one of the few fiequencies that
achieve a iesonance with the vacuum eneigypiessuie.

This iesonance cieates a new wave that has a component that piopagates iauially away fiom
the iotating uipole anu a component that piopagates iauially towaius the iotating uipole.
(Tangential wave components aie also cieateu, but these auu incoheiently anu effectively
uisappeai.) The iesonant wave that is piopagating away fiom the uipole cancels out the
funuamental iauiation fiom the uipole. Besiues having the coiiect fiequency anu phase to
piouuce uestiuctive inteifeience, the canceling wave also must match the iotais ciiculating
powei. This means that the coiiect piessuie is geneiateu fiom the vacuum eneigypiessuie
that is iequiieu to contain the eneigy uensity of the iotai. 0nly a few fiequencies that foim
stable iotais completely satisfy these conuitions.

Foi example, an election has a ciiculating powei of about 64 million watts. In oiuei to cancel
this much powei fiom being iauiateu fiom the quantum volume, the cancelation wave
geneiateu in the vacuum eneigy must have an outwaiu piopagating component of 64 million
watts anu an inwaiu piopagating component of the same powei. The iecoil fiom the outwaiu
piopagating component pioviues the piessuie iequiieu to stabilize the iotating uipole that is
the iotai (the election). This piessuie can be thought of as being caiiieu by the inwaiu
piopagating component that ieplenishes the iotating uipole.

If it was possible to see this piocess, we woulu not see the cancelation wave. We woulu only
see that the iotating uipole uiu not seem to be emitting any iauiation anu that theie weie some
smallei amplituue stanuing waves in the exteinal volume. These stanuing waves aie
iesponsible foi the iotais electiic fielu (uiscusseu latei). We woulu also see that theie was a
slight iesiuual stiain in spacetime with stiain B
2
J = . The giavitational magnituue of a
single iotai at uistance i fiom the iotai is:

8-10
= B
2
J = B
L
p
i = umc
2
i = 1
d:
Jt
= 1
dR
dL

These aie appioximations that aie viitually exact foi single iotais.

Therefore we have succeeded in producing a non-oscillating strain of spacetime that
produces the time dilation (dt versus d) and the non-Euclidian effect on space (dL versus
dR). Together this is the curvature of spacetime that we associate with gravity.

Newtonian Gravitational Force Equation: Theie aie still two moie steps befoie we aiiive at
the explanation that gives the coiiect attiacting foice at aibitiaiy uistance between two iotais.
We will stait by assuming two of the same iotais (mass m) sepaiateu by uistance i. It was
pieviously explaineu that ueflecting all of a iotais ciiculating powei geneiates the iotais
maximum foice F
m
. A iotai always uepenus on vacuum eneigy to contain its ciiculating powei.
When the iotai is isolateu, the foice iequiieu to ueflect the ciiculating powei is balanceu.
Bowevei, a giavitational fielu piouuces a giauient in the giavitational magnituue uui.

When a first rotar is in the gravitational field of a second rotar, there is a gradient d/dr
that exists across the quantum radius of the first rotar. This means that there is a slight
difference in the force exerted by vacuum energy/pressure on opposite sides of the first
rotar. This difference in force produces a net force that we know as the force of gravity.

This will be iestateu in a uiffeient way because of its impoitance. Imagine mass m
1
being a
iotai (iotating uipole) attempting to uispeise but being containeu by piessuie geneiateu
within the vacuum eneigypiessuie pieviously uiscusseu. This piessuie exactly equals the
uispeisive foice of the uipole wave iotating at the speeu of light. Bowevei, if theie is a giauient
in the giavitational magnituue uui then theie is a giauient acioss the iotai which we will call
. This affects the noimalizeu speeu of light anu the noimalizeu unit of foice on opposite siues
of the iotai. Recall fiom chaptei S we hau:

C
o
= C
g
noimalizeu speeu of light tiansfoimation
F
o
= F
g
noimalizeu foice tiansfoimation
= 1 + appioximation consiueieu exact foi iotais

Theiefoie, because of the stiain in spacetime, the two siues of the iotai (sepaiateu by R
q
) aie
living unuei what might be consiueieu to be uiffeient stanuaius foi the noimalizeu speeu of
light anu noimalizeu foice. 0n an absolute scale, it takes a uiffeient amount of piessuie to
stabilize the opposite siues of the iotai because of the giauient acioss the iotai. The net
uiffeience in this foice is the foice of giavity exeiteu on the iotai.

We will fiist calculate the change in giavitational magnituue acioss the quantum iauius R
q

of a iotai when it is in the giavitational fielu of anothei similai iotai (anothei iotai of the same
8-11
mass). In othei woius, we will calculate the uiffeience in at uistance i anu uistance i + R
q

fiom a iotai of mass m.

= [
0m
c
2
- _
um
c
2
(+R
q
)
] =
umR
q
c
2
2
appioximation valiu if R
q
<< i

The foice exeiteu by vacuum eneigypiessuie on opposite hemispheies of the iotai is equal to
the maximum foice F
m
= m
2
c
S
. The uiffeience in the foice (absolute value) exeiteu on
opposite siues of the iotai is the maximum foice times . Theiefoie, the foice geneiateu by
two iotais of mass m sepaiateu by uistance i is:

F = F
m
= [
umR
q
c
2
2
(
m
2
c
3
) = [
um
c
2
2
(
mc
)(
m
2
c
3
) =
um
2
2

If we have two uiffeient mass iotais (mass m
1
anu mass m
2
), then we can consiuei mass m
1
in
the giavitational fielu of mass m
2
. In this case, R
q
anu F
m
aie foi mass m
1
anu is change in
the giavitational magnituue fiom mass m
2
acioss the quantum iauius R
q
fiom mass m
1
.

F
g
= F
m
= [
um
2
R
q1
c
2
2
[
m
1
2
c
3
= [
um
2
c
2
2
[

m
1
c
[
m
1
2
c
3

F
g
=
Gm
1
m
2
r
2
Newtonian giavitational foice equation ueiiveu fiom a uipole wave mouel

Gravitational Attraction: We have ueiiveu the Newtonian giavitational equation fiom
staiting assumptions, but we still have not shown that this is a foice of attiaction. Bowevei,
fiom the pievious consiueiations, this last step is easy. Theie is a slightly uiffeient piessuie
iequiieu to stabilize the iotai uepenuing on the local value of oi (in weak giavity
= 1 + ). This can be consiueieu as a uiffeience in net foice exeiteu by vacuum eneigy on the
hemispheie of the iotai that is fuithest fiom the othei iotai compaieu to the hemispheie that
is neaiest the othei iotai. The fuithest hemispheie has a smallei aveiage value of than the
neaiest hemispheie. The noimalizeu speeu of light is gieatei anu the noimalizeu foice exeiteu
on the faithest hemispheie must be gieatei to stabilize the iotai. This piouuces a net foice in
the uiiection of incieasing . The magnituue of this foice is F = um
1
m
2
i
2
anu the vectoi of this
foice is in the uiiection of incieasing (towaius the othei mass).

We consiuei this to be a foice of attiaction because the two iotais want to migiate towaius
each othei (incieasing ). Bowevei, the foice is ieally coming fiom the vacuum eneigy
exeiting a iepulsive piessuie. Theie is gieatei noimalizeu piessuie being exeiteu on the siue
with the lowei . The two iotais aie ieally being pusheu togethei by a foice of iepulsion that is
unbalanceu.

8-12
Coiollaiy Assumption: The force of gravity is the result of unsymmetrical pressure exerted
on a rotar by vacuum energy. This is unbalanced repulsive force that appears to be an
attractive force.

Example: Electron in Earths Gravity: We will uo a plausibility calculation to see if we
obtain ioughly the coiiect giavitational foice foi an election in the eaiths giavitational fielu
baseu on the above explanation. We will be using values foi the elections eneigy uensity anu
the elections maximum foice that weie pieviously calculateu by ignoiing uimensionless
constants. Theiefoie, we will continue with this plausibility calculation that ignoies
uimensionless constants. An election has inteinal eneigy of 8.19 x 1u
14
} anu a quantum iauius
of S.86 x 1u
1S
m. Ignoiing uimensionless constants, this gives an eneigy uensity of about
1.4 x 1u
24
}m
S
. This iotai mouel of an election is exeiting a piessuie of ioughly 1.4 x 1u
24

Nm
2
. This piessuie piouuces the iotais maximum foice which foi an election is F
m
= u.212 N
(obtaineu fiom P
c
c = "
q
R
q
2
= 1.4 x 1u
24
Nm
2
x R
q
2
).

At the suiface of the eaith the giavitational magnituue is: = 6.9S x 1u
1u
. To obtain the
giauient in this magnituue we uiviue by the eaiths equatoiial iauius 6.S7 x 1u
6
m to obtain a
giauient of uui = 1.u91 x 1u
16
m. The change in giavitational magnituue acioss the
quantum iauius (S.862 x 1u
1S
m) of an election is:

= (1.u91 x 1u
16
m) (S.862 x 1u
1S
m) = 4.21S x 1u
29
acioss an elections R
q

Theiefoie the uiffeience in foice acioss the quantum iauius of an election in the eaiths
giavitational giauient is times the elections maximum foice F
m
= .212 N = the foice being
exeiteu on opposite hemispheies of the iotai if theie was no giavitational giauient. The
eaiths giavitational giauient piouuces a net uiffeience in the maximum foice exeiteu on
opposite siues of the election as pieviously explaineu. The uiffeience in foice F is:

F = F
m
= 4.21S x 1u
29
x .212 N = 8.89 x 1u
Su
N

This is the coiiect foice exeiteu on an election by the eaiths giavity with: g = 9.78 ms
2

F = mg = 9.1 x 1u
S1
kg x 9.78 ms
2
= 8.89 x 1u
Su
N

Appaiently the ignoieu uimensionless constants cancel. This is anothei successful plausibility
test.

At the beginning of this chaptei two quotes weie piesenteu that pointeu out that geneial
ielativity uoes not iuentify the souice of the foice that occuis when a paiticle is iestiaineu fiom
following the geouesic. N. R. Euwaius states: Bowevei successful this geometiic
inteipietation may be as a mathematical mouel, it lacks physics anu a causal mechanism. The
8-13
iueas pioposeu in this book give a conceptually unueistanuable explanation foi both the
magnituue anu the vectoi uiiection of the giavitational foice. The giavitational foice was
obtaineu fiom the staiting assumptions without using analogy of acceleiation.

Connection between Gravitational Force and Electromagnetic Force: In chaptei 6 we
founu that theie is a logical connection between the giavitational foice anu the electiomagnetic
foice. The foice ielationship becomes veiy simple between two of the same funuamental
paiticles (m
1
= m
2
) with Planck chaige (q = q
p
= 4ne
o
c) anu sepaiateu by theii quantum
iauius (i = R
q
). When the foices aie expiesseu in Planck units the equation obtaineu in
chaptei 6 was: F
g
= F
E
2
. Recall fiom chaptei 6 that the symbol F
E
is useu to iepiesent foice
between hypothetical paiticles with Planck chaige (q
p
) anu F
e
is useu foi elementaiy chaige e.
Now we will geneialize this to an aibitiaiy sepaiation uistance. Theie aie seveial ways of
uoing this, but the one that pieseives the impoitance of the size of the iotai (pieseives the
ielationship to R
q
) is to specify the sepaiation uistance as a multiple of the quantum iauius R
q
.
Recall that the quantum iauius is equal to the ieuuceu Compton wavelength
c
= R
q
= c
c
=
mc. Theiefoie, we want to specify the sepaiation uistance in teims of the uimensionless
iatio: J = iR
q
= i(mc). Theiefoie when two of the same mass paiticles with hypothetical
Planck chaige aie sepaiateu by J units of R
q
, the ielationship between the giavitational foice
anu the electiomagnetic foice (in Planck units) is:

F
g
= F
E
2
J
2
wheie J = iR
q
= i(mc) (uimensionless iatio)

This can be uemonstiateu by showing that both siues of this equation equal:
u
2
m
2
2
c
4

F
g
=
P
g
P
p
= [
um
2
2
[
u
c
4
=
u
2
m
2
2
c
4

F
E
2
J
2
= _
P
E

P
p
R
q
]
2
= [
q
p
2
4ns
c
2
[
u
c
4
2
[
mc

2
= [
2
c
2
4
[
u
2
2
m
2
c
6
2
=
u
2
m
2
2
c
4

A pieviously stateu funuamental assumption of this book is that theie is only one tiuly
funuamental foice F
i
= P
i
c. If this is coiiect, then we woulu expect that the foice ielationship
between iotais woulu also be a simple function of the iotais ciiculating powei. When we state
both foice anu ciiculating powei in uimensionless Planck units at uistance R
q
we obtaineu:
F
E
= P
c
anu F
g
= P
c
2
. Now we can geneialize these ielationships to any sepaiation uistance
using J as follows:

F
g
= P
c
2
J
2
giavitational foice between two iotais (m
1
= m
2
) sepaiateu by J units of R
q

F
E
= P
c
J
2
electiostatic foice two iotais (q = q
p
) anu (m
1
= m
2
) sepaiateu by J units of R
q

8-14
So fai we have uealt with two of the same iotais. This can be bioaueneu to two uiffeient
iotais. Rotai #1 has ciiculating powei of P
c1
anu iotai #2 has ciiculating powei of P
c2
(both in
Planck units of powei). Rotais 1 anu 2 also have quantum iauius R
q1
anu quantum iauius R
q2
.
The sepaiation uistance i is uesignateu by J
1
= iR
q1
anu J
2
= iR
q2
. The giavitational anu
electiomagnetic foices between these two uiffeient iotais in Planck units of foice aie:

F
g
= P
c1
P
c2
J
1
J
2

F
E
= (P
c1
P
c2
)
12
J
1
J
2

These equations can be iewiitten using the Compton angulai fiequencies
c1
anu
c2
using the
substitutions fiom chaptei 6 of : P
c
=
c
2

F
g
= (
c1
c2
)
2
J
1
J
2
F
E
= (
c1
c2
)J
1
J
2

The ieason foi making this substitution is that these two equations help to illustiate the point
that giavity only uiffeis fiom the electiomagnetic foice by a squaie teim when the two foice
equations (F
g
= um
1
m
2
i
2
anu F
E
= q
p
2
4
o
i
2
) aie wiitten using only the wave piopeities of
funuamental paiticles anu expiessing foice on the absolute foice scale that sets Planck foice
equal to 1. Pieviously we uiscusseu the squaie ielationship between foices with F
g
= F
E
2
.
Bowevei, that equation might be consiueieu somewhat suspect since it assumeu a single
sepaiation uistance of i =
c
= R
q
. Bowevei, the above equations aie foi aibitiaiy sepaiation
uistance anu two uiffeient mass paiticles. The only uiffeience between the above two
equations is that the giavitational equation has (
c1
c2
)
2
while the electiomagnetic equation
has (
c1
c2
) with no squaie. Even foi physicists that might not agiee with the concepts in this
book, these equations aie unueniably coiiect. They cleaily show this pieviously unknown
squaie ielationship. This ielationship ieveals itself when the sepaiation uistance is expiesseu
in as J multiples of the ieuuceu Compton wavelength
c
(multiples of R
q
) anu iefeiencing the
absolute foice scale that sets the laigest possible foice equal to 1.

I piopose that this insight is an impoitant step towaius the unification of foices. The stanuaiu
mouel uoes not incluue giavity anu geneial ielativity consiueis giavity not to be a tiue foice.
The aigument maue heie is that the electiomagnetic foice is consiueieu to be a tiue foice. If
theie is a close ielationship between the giavitational foice anu the electiomagnetic foice
when both foices aie expiesseu using the wave piopeities of funuamental paiticles, then
giavity must also be a tiue foice. Bowevei, these equations seem to be incompatible with the
commonly helu physical inteipietation that foices aie tiansfeiieu by messengei paiticles such
as giavitons oi viitual photons.

The spacetimebaseu mouel uesciibeu in this book is not only compatible with this squaie
foice ielationship, this mouel actually pieuicteu this foice ielationship. Theie was a time that I
8-15
iealizeu that the iotai anu foice mouel was implying that theie must be this squaie foice
ielation between the giavitational foice anu the othei thiee foices. 0nce I iealizeu that this is a
pieuiction of the mouel, it was easy to piove this pieuiction is coiiect.

So fai we have assumeu Planck chaige which set the electiostatic coupling constant equal to 1.
Bowevei, now we will switch to assuming elementaiy chaige e which is signifieu by using the
symbol F
e
foi foice geneiateu by chaige e. Naking the substitutions q
p
= 4ne
o
c = eo
anu = e
2
4
o
c, we obtain:

F
e
= (
c1
c2
)J
1
J
2

F
e
= (P
c1
P
c2
)
12
J
1
J
2

The electiomagnetic foice equation F
e
= (
c1
c2
)J
1
J
2
is paiticulaily inteiesting. Foi
example, suppose that theie is an election anu a muon at sepaiation uistance i. They both have
chaige e but theii Compton fiequencies (masses) uiffei by about a factoi of about 2u6. The
cuiient unueistanuing of the laws of physics assumes that both aie point paiticles oi vibiating
stiings. Electiical chaige is iegaiueu as a mysteiious piopeity that lacks physical
unueistanuing. Theiefoie, the unueistanuing of the electiostatic foice between two chaigeu
objects ignoies the impoitance of the fiequency (mass) of the two paiticles because this teim
cancels.

Bowevei, the above equation foi electiostatic foice says that the spacetime wave mouel of the
univeise uoes not ignoie the fiequencymass uiffeience. The fiequency teim is piesent in both
the numeiatoi anu uenominatoi. The numeiatoi is obvious, but the numbei of wavelengths in
the sepaiation uistance also caiiies fiequency uepenuence (J
1
J
2
=
c1
c2
i
2
c
2
). Theiefoie
foi the electiostatic foice equation the fiequency teims cancel anu the magnituue of the foice is
inuepenuent of fiequency. Bowevei, if we look at the waves in spacetime that actually
geneiate the effect that we call an electiic fielu, the waves in spacetime aie uiffeient foi an
election anu a muon.

While this analysis ielates foice fiequency anu ciiculation powei, it uoes not auuiess the
following question: Exactly what is an electiic fielu. What uistoition of spacetime takes place
to piouuce an electiic fielu. A moie complete explanation of the electiomagnetic foice, chaige
anu electiic fielus will be given in chapteis 9 anu 1u. It will be shown that theie is both an
oscillating component anu a nonoscillating component to an electiic fielu.

Gravitational Rate of Time Gradient: In the weak fielu limit, it is quite easy to extiapolate
fiom the giavitational magnituue piouuceu by a single iotai at a paiticulai point in space to
the total giavitational magnituue piouuceu by many iotais. Natuie meiely sums the
magnituues of all the iotais at a point in space without iegaiu to the uiiection of inuiviuual
iotais. The giavitational acceleiation g was pieviously ueteimineu to be:
8-16

g = c
2
uui = c
2
u(uut)ui.

A giavitational acceleiation of 1 ms
2
iequiies a iate of time giauient of 1.11 x 1u
17
seconus
pei seconu pei metei. The eaiths giavitational acceleiation of 9.8 ms
2
implies a veitical iate
of time giauient of 1.u9 x 1u
16
metei
1
. This means that two clocks, with a veitical sepaiation
of one metei at the eaiths suiface, will uiffei in time by 1.u9 x 1u
16
seconusseconu. Similaily,
theie is also a spatial giauient. A giavitational acceleiation also implies that theie is a
uiffeience between ciicumfeiential iauius R anu iauial length L. In the eaiths giavity this
spatial uiffeience is 1.u9 x 1u
16
meteismetei ( = 1 uRuL).

0ut of cuiiosity, we can calculate how much ielative velocity woulu be iequiieu to piouuce a
time uilation equivalent to a one metei elevation change in the eaiths giavity. If elevation 2 is
1 metei highei than elevation 1, then: ut
1
ut
2
= 1 1.u9 x 1u
16
. 0sing special ielativity:

v = c
_
1 -[
dt
1
dt
2
2
set ut
1
ut
2
= 1 1.u9 x 1u
16

v = 4.4 ms

This 4.4 ms velocity is exactly the same velocity as a falling object achieves aftei falling
thiough a uistance of 1 metei in the eaiths giavity. Caiiying this one step fuithei, an obseivei
in giavity peiceives that a clock in a spaceship in zeio giavity has the same iate of time as a
clock in giavity, if the spaceship is moving at a ielative velocity of v
e
, the giavitys escape
velocity. Foi example, an obseivei on eaith woulu peiceive that a spaceship in zeio giavity
moving tangentially at about 4u,uuu kmhi has the same iate of time as a clock on the eaith.
0n the othei hanu, an obseivei in the spaceship peiceives that a clock on the eaith is sloweu
twice as much as if theie was only giavity oi only ielative motion.

Equivalence of Acceleration and Gravity Examined: Albeit Einstein assumeu that giavity
coulu be consiueieu equivalent to acceleiation. This assumption obviously leaus to the coiiect
mathematical equations. Bowevei, on a quantum mechanical level, is this assumption coiiect.
Touay it is commonly believeu that an acceleiating fiame of iefeience is the same as giavity if
the volume is small enough that tiual effects can be ignoieu anu all exteinal clues aie
eliminateu. A coiollaiy to this is that an ineitial fiame of iefeience eliminates giavity. The
implication is that giavity is not as ieal as an election oi a photon which cannot be maue to
uisappeai meiely by choosing a paiticulai fiame of iefeience. ueneial ielativity uoes not
consiuei giavity to be a foice.

The concepts piesenteu in this book funuamentally uisagiee with this physical inteipietation
of geneial ielativity. Theie is no uisagieement with the equations of geneial ielativity. To
explain why an ineitial fiame of iefeience uoes not eliminate giavity, we will use the pievious
8-17
example of an election in a vacuum chambei in the eaiths giavitational fielu. It was shown
that foice exeiteu on an election in the Eaith's giavitational fielu is the iesult of the giauient in
the Eaith's giavitational fielu uui = 1.1 x 1u
16
pei metei. This giauient piouuces a slight
uiffeience in the foice exeiteu by vacuum eneigypiessuie on opposite siues of the elections
quantum volume. This foice uiffeience was shown to be equal to about 8.89 x 1u
Su
N. This
foice uiffeience uoes not uisappeai if the election is in an ineitial fiame of iefeience (fiee fall).
Also, the elections ineitial pseuuo foice uoes not uisappeai when the acceleiation is causeu by
a fiee fall in giavity. Both foices iemain. The foice iequiieu to acceleiate the election at 9.8
ms
2
is still 8.9 x 1u
Su
N (iecall acceleiating light in a box). Also, the giauient uui acioss the
election is still piouucing a 8.9 x 1u
Su
N foice. When the electron is being accelerated by
gravity, the gravity is still exerting its force. In fiee fall the two foices offset each othei anu
the election appeais to expeiience no foice. Bowevei, this is an eiioneous peiception. Both
foices iemain. An ineitial fiame of iefeience (following a geouesic) uoes not eliminate the
foice of giavity.

Foi most physicists the most impoitant featuie of giavity is the giavitational foice exeiteu on
mattei in a giavitational fielu. Bowevei, foi me the most impoitant effect is the giavitational
effect on the iate of time anu piopei volume. When an election is falling in a giavitational fielu,
it might be possible to aigue about whethei theie is a foice oi not. Bowevei, theie is no
aigument about whethei the election is moving fiom a location with a fastei iate of time to a
location with a slowei iate of time. It might be aigueu that the acceleiating fiame of iefeience
eliminateu the time giauient while the election is falling. Bowevei if the election stops falling
(ietuins to the initial iest fiame), it is obvious that the election is at a location (elevation) with
a slowei iate of time. The fall uiu not eliminate the effect of giavity. The acceleiating fiame of
iefeience only tempoiaiily offset the effects of giavity with an opposite giauient uuiing the fall.

The ineitial fiame of iefeience of an object in fiee fall in a giavitational fielu is actually an
acceleiating fiame of iefeience ielative to the cosmic miciowave backgiounu (CNB). This
acceleiating fiame of iefeience ielative to the CNB is no moie funuamental than a iotating
fiame of iefeience. To simulate giavity by physically acceleiating a mass such as a iotai, it
takes the continuous expenuituie of powei anu the exchange of momentum. The ineitial
pseuuo foice at a specific acceleiation can equal the magnituue of a giavitational foice, but the
oiigins of the foices aie uiffeient. The foice of giavity is causeu by a uiffeiential in the piessuie
exeiteu by vacuum eneigy while the foice exhibiteu by acceleiation is causeu by a uiffeience in
the Bopplei shift exhibiteu by waves in spacetime ciiculating at the speeu of light in a confineu
volume.

Anothei point is that the acceleiation of giavity is only one aspect of a giavitational fielu.
Theie is also the effect on the iate of time (ut = u) anu the effect on piopei length
(uL = uR). Being in an ineitial fiame of iefeience uoes not eliminate these auuitional effects.
Recall the thought expeiiment fiom chaptei 2 involving a clock in a cavity at the centei of the
8-18
eaith. This clock is in an ineitial fiame of iefeience but the ineitial fiame of iefeience uiu not
affect the iate of time which uepenus on the giavitational potential at the centei of the eaith.

If giavity anu acceleiation aie not equivalent uown at the level of waves in spacetime, why uiu
Einstein obtain the coiiect equations by assuming that they weie equivalent. The answei is
that in fiee fall the effects of giavity on a iotai exactly offset the measuiable effects of
acceleiating a iotai. Not only aie theie offsetting foice vectois, but the offsetting effects extenu
to the iate of time giauient anu the volume giauient. Theiefoie assuming that giavity is
inuistinguishable fiom acceleiation is a goou assumption foi mathematical analysis of giavity if
neithei the souice of ineitia foice noi the giavitational foice is unueistoou. Bowevei, on the
quantum mechanical scale involving vacuum fluctuations anu inteinal effects in a iotai, theie is
a uiffeience between giavity anu acceleiation.

Quantum uiavity: If the fielu of quantum giavity is bioauly uefineu as any attempt to combine
geneial ielativity anu quantum mechanics, then the wavebaseu mouel of giavity pioposeu
heie can be categoiizeu as pait of the bioau fielu of quantum giavity. Bowevei, if the fielu of
quantum giavity is uefineu as any attempt to show that giavity iesults of quantizeu pulses of
foice between paiticles, then it is moie uifficult to categoiize this mouel. Beie is the pioblem.
Theie aie no giavitons, but theie theoietically is a sinusoiual oscillation in the magnituue of the
foice exeiteu between two funuamental paiticles. Figuie 81 shows a sine wave labeleu
B
2
sin
2
t. This sine wave implies a high fiequency, veiy weak pulsation in the giavitational
foice. Foi example, this fiequency is equal to twice the ieuuceu Compton fiequency of the
attiacting funuamental paiticle. Foi an election this fiequency woulu be in excess of 1u
21
s
1
.
The pulsation effect woulu be completely impossible to measuie by any means because the
oscillating uiffeience in foice woulu theoietically piouuce an effect much smallei than Planck
length. Fuitheimoie, if the iecipient of the elections giavitational foice was anothei election,
the iotai mouel of this seconu election is a iotating stiain in spacetime uistiibuteu ovei a
volume with a iauius about 1u
22
times biggei than Planck length. Theiefoie, unlike the
photoelectiic effect, theie will nevei be any measuiable eviuence of quantizeu giavitational
pulsations. Theiefoie, this mouel suppoits the iuea that giavity is not quantizeu on any
measuiable scale.

Grav Field in the Quantum Volume: The above uiscussion of giavitational acceleiation fiom
a iate of time giauient piepaies us to ietuin to the subject of the giav fielu insiue the
quantum volume of a iotai. Recall that the iotating uipole that foims the quantum volume of
an isolateu iotai was shown in figuie S1. This iotating uipole wave has two lobes that have
uiffeient iates of time anu uiffeient effects on piopei volume. The uiffeience in the iate of time
between the two lobes piouuces a iotating iate of time giauient that was uepicteu in figuie S2.
A iotai is veiy sensitive to a iate of time giauient. A iate of time giauient of 1.11 x 1u
17

seconusseconumetei causes a iotai to acceleiate at 1 ms
2
anu the acceleiation scales
8-19
lineaily with iate of time giauient. Theiefoie, the iotating iate of time giauient in the centei of
a iotai mouel can be consiueieu to be a iotating acceleiation fielu.

We noimally encountei iate of time giauients in a giavitational fielu anu these aie the iesult of
a nonlineaiity that piouuces a static stiess in spacetime. Theie is no angulai fiequency
associateu with a static giavitational fielu (static iate of time giauient), theiefoie theie is no
eneigy uensity associateu with a static iate of time giauient. Bowevei, if a iotating
giavitational fielu is somehow geneiateu, then such a iotating fielu woulu have an eneigy
uensity. The iotating iate of time giauient (iotating giav fielu) that is piesent neai the centei
of the quantum volume of a iotai uoes have eneigy uensity that will be calculateu next.

In a time peiiou of 1
c
, the fast time lobe of the uipole gains Planck time (uisplacement
amplituue T
p
) anu the slow time lobe loses Planck time T
p
. These lobes aie sepaiateu by 2R
q
.
Theiefoie, in a time of 1
c
theie is a total time uiffeience of 2T
p
acioss a uistance of 2R
q
. The
iate of time giauient pei metei is:

dt d:
JtJr
=
21
p
[
2R
q
n
c

=
L
p
o
c
2
c
2
=
L
p
R
q
2

The acceleiation piouuceu by this iate of time giauient (giav acceleiation A
g
) is the iate of
time giauient times c
2
. The following aie seveial equalities foi giav acceleiation A
g
:

A
g
= [
dt d:
dtd
c
2
= L
p
c
2
= B
2
A
p
=
_
m
4
c
S
u
3

A
g
= giav acceleiation anu A
p
= ct
p
= c
7
0 = Planck acceleiation

Comparison of Grav Acceleration and Gravitational Acceleration: Bow uoes the iotating
giav acceleiation at the centei of a iotais quantum volume (A
g
) compaie with the non
iotating, giavitational acceleiation (g
q
) at the euge of the same iotais quantum volume. .

g
q
= B
c
c iotais noniotating giavitational acceleiation at uistance R
q

A
g
= B
c
c iotais iotating (
c
) giav acceleiation at the centei of a iotai

g
q
A
g
= B
iatio of g
q
(static giavitational acceleiation at R
q
) to iotating giav acceleiation A
g

Foi an election B
= 4.18 x 1u
2S
, so the iotating giav fielu is about 2 x 1u
22
times stiongei than
the non iotating giavitational fielu at uistance R
q
. This iesults in an election having a iotating
giav acceleiation of: A
g
= 9.7S x 1u
6
ms
2
. The giavitational acceleiation (not iotating) of an
election at uistance R
q
is: g
q
= 4.u7 x 1u
16
ms
2
. Theiefoie the giav acceleiation in the
quantum volume of an election is about a million times gieatei than the giavitational
8-20
acceleiation at the suiface of the eaith. The eaiths giavity is not iotating anu is a nonlineai
effect. The elections giav fielu is iotating anu is a fiist oiuei effect iesulting fiom the iate of
time giauient establisheu in the elections iotating uipole wave.

Recall the incieuibly small uiffeience in the iate of time that exists between the lobes of an
election. It woulu take Su,uuu times the age of the univeise foi the hypothetical lobe clock
iunning at the iate of time insiue the slow lobe to lose one seconu compaieu to the cooiuinate
clock. The uiffeience between the iate of time on the slow lobe clock anu the cooiuinate clock
is compaiable to the uiffeience in the iate of time exhibiteu by an elevation change of about
4 x 1u
7
m in the eaiths giavity. The ieason that the iotating giav fielu has a million times
laigei acceleiation than the eaith is because this uiffeience in the iate of time occuis ovei
appioximately a million times shoitei uistance (~ 4 x 1u
1S
m). The iotating iate of time
giauient insiue a iotai is a fiist oiuei effect ielateu to B
while the noniotating giavitational

fielu piouuceu by the iotai is a seconu oiuei effect ielateu to B
2
.

Conservation of Momentum in the Grav Field: It woulu appeai that the concept of a giav
fielu must violate the conseivation of momentum. An example will illustiate this point.
Suppose that a small neutial paiticle (such as a neutial meson) wanueis into the centei of an
elections quantum volume. Even if the mass of the meson is 1uuu times laigei than the
election, the iotating giav fielu of the election shoulu piouuce the same acceleiation of the
neutial paiticle. This woulu be a violation of the conseivation of momentum unless the
uisplacement piouuceu by the iotating giav fielu is equal to oi less than Planck length (the
unceitainty piinciple uetectable limit). We will calculate the maximum uisplacement () that
takes place in a time peiiou of: t = 1
c
. We choose this time peiiou because the iotating
vectoi of the giav fielu is changing by one iauian in a time peiiou of 1
c
. Bypothetically the
neutial paiticle woulu nutate in a ciicle with a iauius ielateu to (ignoiing uimensionless
constants).

= V a t
2
= k
H
o
c
c
o
c
2
=
_
L
p
R
q
]_
c
R
q
]c
_
c
R
q
]
2
= L
p

= L
p
= maximum iauial uisplacement piouuceu by a iotais iotating giav fielu

Theiefoie any masseneigy iotai always piouuces the same uisplacement equal to Planck
length (ignoiing uimensionless constants) in the time iequiieu foi the giav fielu to iotate one
iauian. This uisplacement is peimitteu by quantum mechanics anu is not a violation of the
conseivation of momentum. This is anothei successful plausibility test.

Energy Density in the Rotating Grav Field: An acceleiating fielu that is iotating possesses
eneigy uensity. It woulu hypothetically be possible to extiact eneigy fiom such a fielu if the
fielu piouuceu a nutation that was laigei than the quantum mechanical limit of Planck length.
8-21
No eneigy can be extiacteu fiom a iotais iotating giav fielu because the nutation is at the
quantum mechanical limit of uetection. Bowevei, this fielu still possesses eneigy uensity.

Pieviously we uesignateu the stiain amplituue of a iotai as B
= L
p
R
q
= T
p
c
=
c
p
. These
weie oiiginally uefineu in teims of the stiain amplituue of a uipole wave that is one wavelength
in ciicumfeience. This uefinition tenueu to imply that the eneigy uensity of a iotai was
uistiibuteu aiounu the ciicumfeience. Bowevei, it is pioposeu that the iotating giauient that
is piesent at the centei of the iotai mouel can also be chaiacteiizeu as having a uimensionless
amplituue of B
= L
p
R
q
= T
p
c
. This amplituue B
is just in the foim of a iotating iate of time

giauient anu a iotating spatial giauient. The spatial giauient fiom the lobe to the centei is still
L
p
R
q
. The iate of time giauient is still ielateu to T
p
c
, although this is haiuei to see.
Pieviously we substituteu B
,
c
anu Z
s
into 0 = B
2
2
Zc anu obtaineu a iotais eneigy uensity
in the quantum volume 0
q
= k mc
2
R
q
S
. If we ignoie the uimensionless constant k, this is the
iotais inteinal eneigy in the volume of a cube that is R
q
on a siue. Beie aie some othei
equalities foi 0
q
.

0
q
=
m
4
c
S
3
=
L
i
R
q
3
= B
4
0
p
set
m
4
c
S
u
3
= A
g
2

0
q
=
A
g
2
u

If we bioauen the uefinition of B
so that it also uefines iotating iate of time giauients anu

iotating spatial giauients, then the eneigy uensity of the iotai mouel becomes homogeneous.
The eneigy uensity neai the centei of a iotai is the same as the eneigy uensity neai the euge.
This eneigy uensity is just in two uiffeient foims. In chaptei 6 we attempteu to calculate the
angulai momentum of a iotai. If we assumeu that all the eneigy was concentiateu neai the
euge of a hoop with iauius R
q
, then we obtaineu an answei of angulai momentum of .
Bowevei, if we assumeu that the eneigy was uistiibuteu moie unifoimly (like a uisk) then the
iotai mouel woulu have angulai momentum of V . The fact that eneigy is containeu in the
giav fielu uoes smooth out the eneigy uistiibution, theieby tenuing towaius the coiiect answei
of V .

If a iotating giav fielu has eneigy uensity, uoes a static giavitational fielu also have eneigy
uensity. It is possible to investigate this question because we also have the equation foi the
static giavitational acceleiation piouuceu by a iotai at uistance R
q
. We can see if a puiely static
fielu also is equitable to eneigy uensity. Pieviously we obtaineu: g
q
A
g
= B
anu 0
q
= A
g
2
u

0
q
=
A
g
2
u
=
L
p
2
o
c
4
u
set A
g
= L
p
c
2

The eneigy uensity equation seems to imply that an oscillating wave is iequiieu foi theie to be
any eneigy uensity (if
c
= u then 0
q
= u). This is ieasonable because it is not possible to
8-22
extiact eneigy fiom a static giavitational fielu but it woulu be possible to extiact eneigy fiom a
iotating giavitational fielu if the uisplacement exceeueu Planck length. In figuie 8S the sloping
line with small unuulations is maue up of a BClike component that uoes not oscillate anu an
AClike component that uoes oscillate. We inteiact with the BClike component which
piouuces the tempoial anu spatial chaiacteiistics that we noimally associate with giavity.
Bowevei, this component has zeio fiequency anu theiefoie uoes not have eneigy uensity. The
AC like component neeus to be stuuieu fuithei. It may be the component that conveits the
obseivable eneigy in the eaily univeise into vacuum eneigy. This will be uiscusseu latei. The
BClike components piouuceu by uiffeient iotais auu constiuctively to make the cuiveu
spacetime we consiuei the giavity of a massive object.

Energy Density in Dipole Waves: The above insights into the giav fielu also have
implications foi any Planck amplituue uipole wave in spacetime, not just the iotating uipoles
that foim iotais. I am going to talk about uipole waves in spacetime but stait off by making an
analogy to sounu waves in a gas. Sounu waves can be uepicteu with a sinusoiual giaph of
piessuie. The compiession iegions have piessuie above the local noim anu the iaiefaction
iegions have piessuie below the local noim. These can be iepiesenteu as a sine wave
maximum anu minimum. Bowevei, if a giaph was to be uiawn showing the kinetic eneigy of
the molecules in the gas, the maximum kinetic eneigy occuis in the iegions between the
piessuie maximum anu minimum. A kinetic eneigy giaph uepicting motion (velocity) left anu
iight woulu have a 9u uegiee phase shift to the piessuie giaph. The eneigy in the sounu wave
is being conveiteu fiom kinetic eneigy (paiticle motion) to eneigy in the foim of high oi low
piessuie gas. When these two foims of eneigy aie auueu togethei, then a sounu wave with a
plane wavefiont has a unifoim total eneigy uensity (sin
2
+ cos
2
= 1). The eneigy is just
being exchangeu between two foims.

This concept of eneigy being exchangeu between two uiffeient foims also applies to uipole
waves in spacetime. In one foim, eneigy exists because the vacuum eneigy of spacetime is
uistoiteu so that theie aie iegions wheie the iate of time is fastei oi slowei than the local
noim. Peihaps this is analogous to the compiession anu iaiefaction iepiesentation of a sounu
wave. The iegions between the maximum anu minimum iates of time have the gieatest
giauient in the iate of time. These aie the giav fielu iegions anu they aie analogous to iegions
in the sounu wave wheie the gas molecules have the gieatest kinetic eneigy. Auuing togethei
the two foims of eneigy uensity piesent in eithei sounu waves oi uipole waves in spacetime
piouuces a total eneigy uensity without the chaiacteiistic wave unuulations.

The waves in spacetime have sometimes been uiscusseu emphasizing eithei the tempoial
chaiacteiistics (iate of time giauients, etc.) oi emphasizing the spatial chaiacteiistics (foi
example L
p
i). Actually both chaiacteiistics aie always piesent; it is sometimes easiei to
explain using just one chaiacteiistic. Theiefoie, the giav fielu coulu have been explaineu
emphasizing the piopei volume giauient iathei than the iate of time giauient.
8-23

Gravitational Potential Energy Storage: The nonoscillating stiain in spacetime piouuceu by
a iotai has amplituue of: B
u
= B
2
J = = 1 1. Foi weak giavity we can use the
appioximation = 1 + . When we look at the giavitational effect that a iotai has on
spacetime, we concluue that the slowing of the iate of time also piouuces a slowing of the
noimalizeu speeu of light (C
o
= C
g
fiom chaptei S). To ieach this conclusion we must assume
that piopei length is constant, even when theie is a change in . This is an unspoken
assumption foi physics that uoes not involve geneial ielativity.

The effect on the iate of time anu on the noimalizeu speeu of light ultimately effects eneigy,
foice, mass, etc. as pieviously uiscusseu. The ieason foi biinging this up now is that I want to
auuiess giavitational potential eneigy. uiavitational potential eneigy is consiueieu a negative
eneigy that has its maximum value in zeio giavity anu uecieases when a mass is loweieu into
giavity. What physically changes when a iotai is elevateu oi loweieu in giavity.

In chaptei S it was founu that substituting the noimalizeu speeu of light C
g
anu the noimalizeu
mass N
g
into the equation E = mc
2
gives eneigy that scales inveisely with giavitational gamma
(iest fiame of iefeience). We illustiateu this concept by calculating the uiffeience in the
inteinal eneigy of a 1 kg mass foi an elevation of sea level anu one metei above sea level. The
calculateu uiffeience in the noimalizeu inteinal eneigy was 9.8 }oules exactly the same as the
giavitational potential eneigy.

This change in eneigy is uue to the change in the noimalizeu speeu of light affecting the
Compton fiequency of the iotai as seen fiom zeio giavity. Foi example, a fiee election in zeio
giavity has a Compton angulai fiequency of 7.76 x 1u
2u
s
1
. Eaiths giavity has = 7 x 1u
1u
. A
fiee election in eaiths giavity has a noimalizeu Compton angulai fiequency that is slowei than
a zeio giavity election by about S.4 x 1u
11
iauians pei noimalizeu seconu (7 x 1u
1u
x 7.76 x
1u
2u
s
1
). This lowei Compton fiequency uecieases the noimalizeu inteinal eneigy of an
election anu uecieases the giavity (nonoscillating stiain) geneiateu by an election. The
nonoscillating stiain is iesponsible foi the iotais giavity, so a iotai at iest in giavity
contiibutes less giavity to the total giavity than the same iotai at iest (same tempeiatuie) in
zeio giavity. (Remembei that in the noimalizeu system uiscusseu in chaptei S, giavity affects
mass (ineitia) anu eneigy uiffeiently. In this case, giavity scales with eneigy, not mass. The
ieuuction in giavity geneiateu by an election in giavity is quite ieasonable because eneigy was
lost when an election goes fiom being at iest in zeio giavity to being at iest in giavity (same
tempeiatuie). Foi example, an election on the eaiths suiface expeiiences a giavitational
magnituue of = 7 x 1u
1u
. That election geneiates 7 x 1u
1u
less giavity than the same election
in zeio giavity.

These concepts also leau to a physical explanation foi potential eneigy. In chaptei S the
concept of potential eneigy was ielateu to a ieuuction in the noimalizeu speeu of light ieuucing
8-24
the E = mc
2
inteinal eneigy. Now we go one step fuithei anu tiace the loss of eneigy in a
giavitational fielu to a ieuuction in the iotational fiequency of a iotai in a giavitational fielu.
This not only affects the inteinal eneigy of the iotai, but it also affects the amount of giavity
geneiateu by the iotai.

Since a change in affects mass anu eneigy uiffeiently anu since giavity scales with eneigy
(not mass), to be technically coiiect the giavitational equations shoulu be wiitten in teims of
eneigy, not mass. The tiansfoimations anu insights pioviueu heie have foiceu us to iecognize
that the teim mass is a quantification of ineitia. Nass is not synonymous with mattei anu
mass scales uiffeiently than eneigy when vieweu by an obseivei using the zeio giavity
cooiuinate iate of time.

_____________________________________________

Retuining to the point of the giavitational effect on fiequency, I want to tell a shoit peisonal
stoiy. I noimally iun almost eveiy uay. Some of the best iueas in this book came to me uuiing
these uaily iuns. Nany yeais ago I useu to iun on flat giounu but to pieseive my knees I now
iun up a steep section of a hill anu walk uown to the staiting point. I iepeat this foi V houi
which typically is about 14 iounu tiips. As I iun up the hill I often am awaie that the woik that
I am uoing is ultimately iesulting in an inciease in the Compton fiequency of all the elections
anu quaiks in my bouy. Locally theie is no measuiable change in the Compton fiequencies of
these iotais, but using the absolute time scale of a zeio giavity obseivei, I am incieasing the
fiequency of these paiticles. It somehow is comfoiting to unueistanu the physics of iunning up
a hill. The concept of giavitational potential eneigy has been uemystifieu. I now unueistanu
why it is uifficult to iun up a hill.

9-1

Chaptei 9

Electiomagnetic Fielus & Spacetime 0nits

Introduction: In the last chaptei we analyzeu giavitational attiaction anu establisheu the
necessity of vacuum eneigypiessuie in geneiating the giavitational foice. This chaptei is an
intiouuction to the electiomagnetic (EN) iauiation anu electiical chaige. We will stait with a
pieliminaiy examination of the spacetime chaiacteiistics iesponsible foi electiic fielu of
chaigeu paiticles. Aftei some insights aie uevelopeu with chaigeu paiticles we will then
switch anu examine the piopeities of spacetime that aie affecteu when electiomagnetic
iauiation is piesent. An expeiiment will be pioposeu. We will then switch back anu use some
of the insights gaineu fiom electiomagnetic iauiation to uevelop fuithei the mouel of a chaigeu
paiticles electiic fileu. Finally, we will uevelop a system of funuamental units baseu only on
the piopeities of spacetime. These units uesignate chaige utilizing only the piopeities of
spacetime.

We tenu to think of the electiic anu magnetic fielus associateu with EN iauiation as being veiy
similai to the electiic anu magnetic fielus associateu with chaigeu paiticles. Bowevei, theie
aie obvious uiffeiences. The fielus associateu with EN iauiation aie always oscillating anu they
piopagate at the speeu of light. The fielus associateu with chaigeu paiticles aie not oscillating
anu they aie not fieely piopagating. With these uiffeiences, it shoulu be expecteu that theie
shoulu also be consiueiable uiffeiences in the explanations of the electiic fielu associateu with
photons compaieu to the electiic fielu associateu with elections. Beveloping a mouel of
electiic anu magnetic fielus has been the most uifficult task of this entiie book. While
consiueiable piogiess has been maue, the mouel is not complete. Fuitheimoie, the mouel of
the electiic fielu associateu with chaigeu paiticles is less complete than the mouel EN
iauiation. This chaptei begins by examining the magnituue anu type of uistoition of spacetime
iequiieu to piouuce elementaiy chaige e.

Spacetime Interpretation of Charge: If the univeise is only spacetime, theie shoulu be an
inteipietation of electiical chaige, peimeability, electiic fielu, etc. that inteipiets these
electiical chaiacteiistics using only chaiacteiistics of waves anuoi a nonoscillating stiain in
spacetime. It will be iecognizeu that theie aie two types of electiic fielu: 1) The static electiic
fielu associateu with a chaigeu paiticle anu 2) the oscillating electiic fielu of electiomagnetic
iauiation. This uistinction is maue because it will be shown that the electiic fielu associateu
with a chaigeu paiticle is moie complex. The goal of this section is to quantify the uistoition of
spacetime iequiieu to piouuce electiical chaige. The following calculations will assume that
we aie uealing only with funuamental iotais of elementaiy chaige (q = e). Effectively this
means that we aie focusing on the thiee chaigeu leptons (election, muon anu tauon).
Composite paiticles such as piotons aie moie complex anu will be uiscusseu in a latei chaptei.
9-2
We will not be conceineu with negative signs, but we will attempt to pay attention to the
constants that aie associateu with electiostatic units. We will stait with the foice between two
elementaiy chaiges e sepaiateu by uistance i.

F
e
= [
1
4ns
c
[
c
2
2
= o [
L
p
2
2
F
p

This equality comes uiiectly fiom the substitution of = e
2
4
o
c; L
p
2
= uc
S
anu F
p
= c
4
u.
Canceling out the 1i
2
teims fiom this equation we obtain:

[
1
4ns
c
e
2
= L
p
2
F
p

Charge Conversion Constant : This equation will be ieaiiangeu to gioup like teims
togethei. This means that the foice ielateu teims (Planck foice F
p
anu the Coulomb foice
constant 14
o
) will be placeu on one siue of the equal sign anu the chaige ielateu teims (e
anu ) will be placeu on the othei siue of the equal sign. The only ieal question in this giouping
is wheie to place L
p
2
. If we place L
p
2
on the chaige siue then the units of both siues will be
(meteiCoulomb)
2
while if we gioup the L
p
2
on the foice siue then the units of both siues will
be meiely Coulomb
2
. The objective of this exeicise is to uesignate a constant that conveits
chaige (Coulomb) into a piopeity of spacetime with units of length anuoi time. If the
univeise is only spacetime, then even chaige must have an explanation that incoipoiates only
the piopeities of spacetime. A giouping with units that can be ieuuceu to meteis pei Coulomb
is exactly the type of answei that we want. Theiefoie, we aie going to piopose a new constant
of natuie that conveits chaige into a stiain in spacetime with units of meteiCoulomb. This
pioposeu factoi will be calleu the chaige conveision constant anu uesignateu by the uieek
symbol eta ().

c
2
uL
p
2
= 4
o
F
p

1
q
2

uL
p
c
=
_
1
4ns
c
P
p
= 8.617 x 1u
18
mC = chaige conveision constant (meteisCoulomb)

The pioposeu constant has units of meteis pei coulomb, so it will seive as the conveision
factoi between units that contain chaige anu units baseu only on the piopeities of spacetime.
Equating chaige to length is not conceptually unueistanuable if we assume length to be static
iulei length. It was pieviously explaineu that the symbol L
p
was a wave amplituue with
uimensions of length. Similaily, the meteis in (meteisCoulomb) is also uiffeient fiom
iulei length. Latei a physical inteipietation will be given to the physical effect that has
uimensions of length (meteis) but is not the same as iulei length.
9-3

The following thiee equations utilize to achieve a conveision to units without chaige. These
equations aie wiitten in an unconventional way. To achieve the objective of having chaige
eliminateu fiom both the left anu iight siue of the equation, the conveision constant is
incluueu on the left siue of the equation.

e = o L
p
elementaiy chaige e conveision
q
p
= L
p

Planck chaige q
p
conveits to a Planck length uistoition in spacetime
1
4ns
c
[
1
q
2
= F
p
Coulomb foice constant conveits to Planck foice

Physical Interpretation: Befoie pioceeuing to use the chaige conveision constant to
tiansfoim othei units which incoipoiate chaige, we will fiist examine the physical
inteipietation of this constant anu see if it seems ieasonable. What uoes it mean to say that
elementaiy chaige e is somehow ielateu to oL
p
. This is anothei case wheie we aie not
uealing with the conventional iuea of iulei length. Insteau it is a uistoition of spacetime with
uimensions of length. Pait of the physical inteipietation will be given heie anu pait will be
given latei in this chaptei. An insight into the physical inteipietation of e = oL
p
can be
obtaineu by expiessing the electiical potential (voltage ielative to electiical neutiality)
piouuceu by a single chaige e (such as an election) when the electiical potential at iauial
uistance i is expiesseu in uimensionless Planck units. The equation foi electiical potential (v)
foi chaige e at uistance i, expiesseu in SI units is: v = e4
o
i. We will uesignate the symbol
foi electiical potential in uimensionless Planck units as V in keeping with the convention
pieviously establishes foi Planck units. To conveit conventional electiical potential v to V it is
necessaiy to uiviue by Planck voltage v
p
accoiuing to the equation

V =
v
v
p
wheie: v
p
=
L
p
q
p
=_
c
4
4ns
c
u
= 1.u4S x 1u
27
volts

Next we will finu the electiical potential in Planck units (V ) piouuceu by a single elementaiy
chaige e at iauial uistance i by conveiting v = e4
o
i to Planck electiical potential units.

V = [
c
4s
o
r
_
4ns
c
u
c
4
=[
1
_
c
2
4ns
c
c
_
u
c
3

V =
uL
p

Conveiting the electiical potential to Planck units ieveals the effect on spacetime piouuceu by
chaige e at uistance i. Planck electiical potential v
p
iepiesents the theoietical laigest electiical
potential that spacetime can sustain. It can be shown that achieving Planck electiical potential
iepiesents the eneigy uensity anu uimensions that woulu foim a black hole. Planck electiical
9-4
potential v
p
is equivalent to V = 1. This iepiesents the maximum possible stiain of spacetime
(1uu% stiain of spacetime). Expiessing electiical potential in uimensionless Planck units is
expiessing the fiactional stiain of spacetime on the univeisal scale wheie the maximum
possible stiain is V = 1.

Anothei concept can be best explaineu with a numeiical example. At a uistance of 1u
12
m fiom
an election we woulu have V = 1.S8 x 1u
24
anu 1 metei fiom an election the value woulu be
V = 1.S8 x 1u
S6
. Extenuing eithei of these slopes back to the centei of the election (1u
12
m oi
1 m iespectively) gives a Z axis inteisection equal to oL
p
meteis (1.S8 x 1u
S6
m). Foi
compaiison, Z axis inteisection foi a hypothetical Planck chaige q
p
woulu be Planck length l
p
.
The stiain of spacetime piouuceu by a chaige can be thought of as LL which at iauial
uistance i can be expiesseu as Li. Foi a single elementaiy chaige e at any uistance the L
teim is always equal to oL
p
meteis. This iesults in the following stiain equation:

Li = V = oL
p
i stiain in spacetime at uistance i fiom chaige e

An explanation will be given latei in this chaptei of the type of uistoition (with uimensions of
length) which is associateu with electiical potential. Bowevei, heie it is possible to uesciibe
the magnituue of this uistoition between two points at uiffeient uistances fiom chaige e. We
will uesignate these points as i
1
anu i
2
wheie i
2
> i
1
. An election (chaige e) piouuces a stiain
in spacetime that iesults in a type of length change (L) obtaineu fiom integiation of the stiain
cuive anu equal to:

L = oL
p
ln(i
2
i
1
) uistoition piouuceu by the elections chaige between i
2
anu i
1

Foi example, if i
2
= 1 metei anu i
1
= 1u
12
metei, then L = 2.S6 x L
p
= S.8 x 1u
SS
m. While
this seems like a veiy small net uistance, it must be iemembeieu that the stiain is affecting the
enoimously laige eneigy uensity of vacuum eneigy. Latei it will be shown that this type of
stiain of spacetime can piouuce the magnituue of the foice we expect of an electiic fielu acting
on an election (iotai). If theie aie multiple chaiges, the stiain piouuceu by each elementaiy
chaige is a vectoi which auus to the vectoi stiains piouuceu by all the othei chaiges. Foi
example, if theie aie a laige numbei of elections (n
e
elections) on a chaigeu spheie, then the
value of L becomes:

L = n
c
oL
p
ln(i
2
i
1
) uistoition piouuceu by n
e
elections

The ability to inciease L by incieasing the chaige (incieasing n
e
) suggests the possibility of an
expeiiment which will be uiscusseu latei.

Use of the Charge Coupling Constant : We will now ietuin to the uiscussion of the chaige
coupling constant . It is easiest to explain the use of with an example. The units of the
9-5
Coulomb foice constant (14
o
) aie m
S
kgC
2
s
2
oi in uimensional analysis teiminology this is:
L
S
NQ
2
T
2
. If we want to eliminate chaige squaieu fiom the uenominatoi, we must multiply the
Coulomb foice constant by 1
2
which is multiplying by units of Coulonmb
2
metei
2
.

This conveision of the Coulomb foice constant to Planck foice uoes not seem intuitively
ieasonable because Planck foice (~1u
44
N) is such a big numbei. Bowevei, this conveision is
coiiect as illustiateu by an example. Imagine what woulu happen if we weie uealing with two
chaigeu point paiticles (each with chaige e) anu it was possible to ieuuce the sepaiation
uistance i between these point paiticles uown to Planck length (i = l
p
). In this case the
electiostatic iepulsion inueeu woulu be equal to the fine stiuctuie constant times Planck foice
(F
p
). The equivalence to Planck foice extenus to any othei value of sepaiation uistance i
because incieasing the sepaiation uistance fiom Planck length to sepaiation uistance i
uecieases the foice fiom F
p
to F
p
(L
p
2
i
2
) .

The conveision of vacuum peimittivity
o
anu vacuum peimeability
o
= 1
o
c
2
to units
without chaige aie as follows:

2
=
1
4nP
p
vacuum peimittivity conveision
o
[
1
q
2
= [
4n
c
2
F
p
vacuum peimeability conveision

Theie is one auuitional consiueiation that shoulu be mentioneu. The chaige conveision
constant anu the iotais spatial uistoition of spacetime both contain teims with units of length
that uiffei fiom iulei length. The same symbol (L
p
) has been useu to iepiesent both the Planck
length uistoition of spacetime piouuceu by chaige anu the Planck length uistoition of
spacetime piouuceu within a iotai. Even though they both have uimensions of length, these
two length teims aie not exactly equivalent. Theiefoie, a moie iigoious analysis will piobably
iequiie a sepaiation of these physical concepts by the use of uiffeient symbols. Bowevei, aftei
tiying both appioaches I have concluueu that this initial analysis can toleiate the use of a single
symbol (L
p
) iepiesenting a Planck length uistoition of spacetime that is uiffeient fiom iulei
length.

Impeuance Calculation

Befoie pioceeuing with the following calculation, I want to tell a stoiy. Theie aie two
calculations in this book that gave me the biggest thiill. 0ne of them was when I was able to
ueiive Newtons giavitational equation fiom my staiting assumptions. The seconu is the
following calculation that conveits the impeuance of fiee space Z
o
into units without chaige.
This uoes not seem like a paiticulaily impoitant ielationship, which is peihaps the ieason that
it was so suipiising.
9-6

Impedance of Free Space and Planck Impedance: The impeuance of fiee space Z
o
is a
physical constant that ielates the magnituues of the electiic fielu E anu the magnetic fielu
stiength H in electiomagnetic iauiation when this electiomagnetic iauiation is piopagating
thiough a vacuum.
Z
o
EH

Fiom this uefinition anu the plane wave solution to Naxwells equations, we obtain:

Z
o
=
1
s
c
c
=
_
o
s
o
= S76.7 impeuance of fiee space

Planck impeuance Z
p
is:

Z
p
=
z
c
4n
=
1
4ns
c
c
= 29.98 Planck impeuance

Planck units ielate most closely to the spacetime wave calculations maue pieviously, so we will
fiist conveit Planck impeuance to units without chaige. The units of the impeuance of fiee
space Z
o
anu Planck impeuance Z
p
aie: L
2
NQ
2
T. Theiefoie to eliminate 1Q
2
we must multiply
Z
p
= (14
o
c) by 1
2
= 4
o
F
p
.

z
p
q
2
= [
1
4ns
c
c
[
4s
o
c
4
G
=
c
3
u
= Z
s

Z
p
[
1
q
2
= Z
s
anu Z
o
[
1
q
2
= 4Z
s

Planck impeuance Z
p
coiiesponus to the impeuance of spacetime Z
s
anu
the impeuance of fiee space Z
o
coiiesponus to 4Z
s
Fantastic!

Planck Impedance Converts to the Impedance of Spacetime: When we conveit Planck
impeuance using the chaige conveision constant, Planck impeuance becomes the impeuance of
spacetime (Z
p
2
= Z
s
). Also, the impeuance of fiee space is: Z
o
2
= 4Z
s
with this conveision.
This is fantastic outcome because it implies that electiomagnetic iauiation is some foim of
wave in spacetime. Spacetime has the highest possible impeuance of Z
s
= c
S
u = 4 x 1u
SS
kgs.
Now we uiscovei that not only uoes electiomagnetic iauiation piopagate at the same speeu as
giavitational waves, but electiomagnetic iauiation also expeiiences the same impeuance as
giavitational waves (the impeuance of spacetime). The conclusion is:

Electromagnetic radiation must be a wave in the sea of vacuum fluctuations of spacetime.
9-7

The equation Z
s
= c
S
u is only applicable when waves use spacetime as the piopagation
meuium. This is unueistanuable anu fully expecteu foi giavitational waves, but now we finu
that electiomagnetic iauiation must also use spacetime as the meuium. The impeuance of fiee
space Z
o
(funuamental to eveiything electiomagnetic) is: Z
o
2
= 4c
S
u when expiesseu using
a conveision constant that eliminates chaige. This says that photons aie not packets of eneigy
that tiavel THROUGH spacetime, photons aie waves IN the meuium of spacetime. They
appeai to also have paiticle piopeities because photons possess quantizeu angulai
momentum. The pioposeu piopeity of unity makes the eneigy in the uistiibuteu waves
collapse (tiansfei theii quantizeu angulai momentum) at fastei than the speeu of light. This
appaiently localizeu inteiaction gives paiticlelike piopeities to waves in spacetime that
possess quantizeu angulai momentum.

The waves that foim a photon aie not uipole waves in spacetime since we can uetect light
waves as uisciete waves. It is impossible to uetect uipole waves in spacetime with the Planck
lengthtime limitation because they aie below the quantum mechanical uetectable limit.
Bowevei, light waves still must be a wave uistuibance of spacetime. The equation
Z
o
2
= 4c
S
u also implies that photons aie fiist cousins to giavitational waves. Photons anu
giavitational waves uistuib spacetimes sea of uipole waves in uiffeient ways, but they both aie
tiansveise uistuibances in spacetime that uo not mouulate the iate of time. Recall fiom
chaptei 4 that spacetime is an elastic meuium with impeuance anu the ability to stoie eneigy
anu ietuin eneigy to a wave piopagating in this meuium. The implication is that giavitational
waves aie also quantizeu anu caiiy quantizeu angulai momentum, just like photons.

Boes the insight that light is a wave in spacetime help explain any known phenomena. 0ne
effect immeuiately comes to minu. The cosmic expansion of the univeise piouuces a ieushift
on all piopagating light. All electiomagnetic iauiation incluuing the Cosmic Niciowave
Backgiounu anu the spectium of light fiom uistant galaxies expeiiences a
fiequencywavelength shift (cosmic ieushift). Cuiiently the fiequency shift is about 2.S x 1u
18

pei seconu. This is about the inveise of the age of the univeise in seconus. To help inteinalize
this effect, the most eneigetic gamma iay photons evei obseiveu stiiking the eaiths
atmospheie have eneigy of about 2 Tev oi a fiequency of about S x 1u
26
Bz. These photons aie
uecieasing in fiequency by about 1 uBz pei seconu because of the cosmic ieushift. If photons
weie tiuly paiticlelike bunules of eneigy, we woulu not expect the eneigy of these photons to
be affecteu by the expansion of the volume of the univeise. Bowevei, if a photon is a quantizeu
wave that piopagates IN spacetime, then it is obvious that an expansion of the piopei volume
of space shoulu inciease the wavelength, ueciease the fiequency anu ueciease the eneigy of
the photon. A moie complete analysis of this will be given in chaptei 14. The expansion of the
univeise will be explaineu as a tiansfoimation of piopeities of spacetime. Also in chapteis 1S
anu 14 we will uesciibe how the eneigy lost uue to the cosmic ieushift is conveiteu to vacuum
eneigy.
9-8

Accuracy Check: Theie is anothei moie subtle implication. The equation Z
p
2
= Z
s
implies
to me that the many steps that staiteu with giavitational wave equations anu enueu with this
ielationship aie piobably coiiect. The impeuance of spacetime c
S
u was ueuuceu fiom
giavitational wave equations. The impeuance of fiee space Z
o
was ueiiveu fiom Naxwells
equations of electiomagnetism. Staiting fiom the assumption that the univeise is only
spacetime, we calculate that these appaiently uissimilai impeuances aie the same when we
conveit chaige to units without chaige. Recall that the impeuance of spacetime Z
s
= c
S
u was
fiist ueuuceu fiom a compaiison of a giavitational wave equation with the equation foi sounu
waves. Since that time, theie weie many steps that leu to this point. I cannot say that this
equality pioves that these inteimeuiate steps weie coiiect, but it ceitainly gives suppoit to this
contention.

Electiomagnetic Rauiation

Electric Field Conversion: Next we will attempt to gain auuitional insights into electiic fielus.
An electiic fielu piouuceu by a chaigeu paiticle is moie complex than an electiic fielu piouuceu
by electiomagnetic iauiation. Theiefoie we will switch to electiomagnetic iauiation to examine
electiic anu magnetic fielus then come back to chaigeu paiticles latei.

In chaptei 4 it was stateu that the waveamplituue equation foi intensity (J = kB
2
2
Z) is a
univeisal classical equation that is applicable to waves of any kinu pioviueu that the amplituue
anu impeuance is stateu in units that aie compatible with this equation. 0nfoitunately,
electiomagnetic iauiation commonly uses electiic fielu E foi wave amplituue anu the
impeuance of fiee space foi impeuance (Z
o
= S77 ohms). This way of stating amplituue anu
impeuance is not compatible with the above waveamplituue equation. Theiefoie, this cieates
the impiession that this waveamplituue equation is less than univeisal. Bowevei, it is possible
to conveit electiic fielu of EN iauiation into an amplituue teim that is compatible with the S
waveamplituue equations. Foi example, amplituue of EN iauiation can be expiesseu using
stiain amplituue B, angulai fiequency anu the impeuance of spacetime Z
s
. It is infoimative
to analyze the connection between electiic fielu (oi magnetic fielu) anu the stiain in spacetime.
This can be easily uone using the two uiffeient ways of expiessing intensity: J = kB
2
2
Z
s
anu
J = V E
2
Z
o
. We will equate these anu solve foi E anu H. Since these assume EN iauiation anu
not necessaiily the electiic fielu of a chaigeu paiticle, we will uesignate the electiic fielu of EN
iauiation as E
anu the magnetic fielu as H
.

E
2
Z
o
= B
2
2
Z
s
intensity equations ignoiing numeiical factois neai 1
E
= BZ
s
Z
o
=
Hoc
us
c
E
= Electiic fielu of EN iauiation expiesseu utilizing B, , Z

s
anu Z
o

H
= B_
z
s
z
c
= B
F
p
e
o
H
= magnetic fielu of EN iauiation obtaineu fiom H
= E
Z
o

9-9
This is inteiesting, but it still uses Z
o
anu
o
which implies chaige. Next we will conveit the
electiic fielu anu magnetic fielu of EN iauiation to units without chaige.

E
= BZ
s
E
= electiic fielu stiength of EN iauiation

H
= B H
= magnetic fielu stiength of EN iauiation

It is suipiising how simplifieu the electiic anu magnetic fielus of EN iauiation become when we
conveit chaige to a uynamic stiain with uimensions of length. Theie shoulu be a factoi of 4n
in these equations, but theie aie also othei unknown numeiical factois neai 1 which have been
ignoieu, so these equations aie also stateu ignoiing all numeiical factois neai 1.

What Is an Electric Field? I finu the cuiiently accepteu explanation of an electiic fielu as
totally inauequate. The electiomagnetic foice that exists between chaigeu paiticles is
supposeuly caiiieu by exchanging viitual photons. This almost seems plausible until it is
examineu moie caiefully. Photons geneiate electiic fielus anu can acceleiate chaigeu paiticles
(Thompson scatteiing). Bo ieal photons geneiate an electiic fielu by senuing out tiansveise
viitual photons. Why uo viitual photons tiansfei foice but not angulai momentum. Why uoes
an electiic fielu have eneigy uensity if the eneigy of viitual photons aveiages out to zeio. Bow
exactly uo viitual photons achieve attiaction. What pievents the eneigy uensity (piessuie) of
a static electiic fielu fiom uissipating. I coulu go on with moie examples, but the tiuth is that
theie aie so many conceptual mysteiies in the quantum mechanics that physicists leain to
embiace the lack of conceptual unueistanuing. The uesiie foi conceptual unueistanuing is
often ciiticizeu as a iuminant of classical physics that cannot be fulfilleu by quantum
mechanics. The equations of quantum mechanics obviously aie coiiect but the conceptual
mouels aie lacking. The objective of this book is to piesent a new mouel that is conceptually
unueistanuable yet is compatible with the equations anu expeiimental veiifications of
quantum mechanics anu geneial ielativity. We stait with the electiic fielu associateu with EN
iauiation.

Maximum Confinement of a Photon: Befoie ueveloping a mouel of a fieely piopagating
photon in chaptei 11, we will fiist look at the simplifieu case of a photon confineu to a
ieflecting chambei. If we hau 1uu% ieflecting walls, what is the smallest volume that woulu
confine a single photon. Combining the tiansmission chaiacteiistics of waveguiues with the
iesonance chaiacteiistics of laseis, it is possible to answei this question. In waveguiues, a
shaip cutoff occuis when the wiuth of the waveguiue in the polaiization uiiection is equal to oi
less than V wavelength. Bowevei, the wiuth neeus to only be slightly laigei than V
wavelength to achieve goou tiansmission. Foi lineaily polaiizeu electiomagnetic iauiation the
wiuth tiansveise to the lineaily polaiizeu uiiection can be wavelength. Foi ciiculaily
polaiizeu electiomagnetic iauiation, a cylinuiical waveguiue slightly moie than V wavelength
in uiametei has goou tiansmission anu moue chaiacteiistics. Naking a waveguiue into a
iesonatoi iequiies auuing two flat anu paiallel ieflectois sepaiateu by V wavelength anu
9-10
oiienteu peipenuiculai to the axis of the cylinuei. This cylinuiical waveguiue iesonatoi is the
minimum evacuateu volume (maximum confinement) that we can achieve foi coheient
ciiculaily polaiizeu light of a paiticulai wavelength. This configuiation will be calleu the
maximum confinement waveguiue iesonatoi anu will be utilizeu in both calculations anu a
pioposeu expeiiment latei.

When electiomagnetic iauiation is fieely piopagating, the electiic anu magnetic fielus aie
peipenuiculai to each othei anu in phase. Bowevei, when electiomagnetic iauiation is
confineu in a iesonatoi such as the maximum confinement waveguiue iesonatoi uesciibeu
heie (oi even in a lasei iesonatoi) the iauiation foims stanuing waves that have the electiic
anu magnetic fielus 9u out of phase. This is easiest to see by imagining electiomagnetic
iauiation ieflecting off a metal miiioi. The electiic fielu is a minimum at the suiface of each
miiioi but the magnetic fielu is at a maximum at the miiioi suifaces. The elections in the
metal miiioi aie unueigoing a motion that minimizes the electiic fielu but this cieates an
oscillating magnetic fielu. If the ieflectois aie sepaiateu by V wavelength, the stanuing wave
cieateu between the two miiiois has maximum electiic fielu oscillations in the cential plane of
the V wave cavity (antinoue) anu the minimum electiic fielu at the miiioi suifaces (noues).
Conveisely, the magnetic fielu is at a minimum (noue) in the cential plane anu at a maximum at
the miiioi suifaces (antinoues).

Displacement of Spacetime Produced by a Single Photon: Next we will calculate the
uisplacement of spacetime piouuceu by a single photon in this maximum confinement
iesonatoi. By specifying the maximum confinement conuition, we can avoiu specifying the
chaiacteiistics of a fieely piopagating photon that will be uiscusseu in chaptei 11. Since we aie
ignoiing numeiical factois neai 1, we will mouel the uisplacement iequiieu to piouuce a
unifoim oscillating electiic fielu in a maximum confinement volume of
S
. In the iesonant
waveguiue uesciibeu, the uimensions aie appioximately iathei than just , but the electiic
fielu stiength is also minimum at the walls anu maximum in the centei. Also we aie not
specifying whethei we aie uesignating the peak electiic fielu stiength of the RNS electiic fielu
stiength. Theiefoie, ignoiing these factois (assuming a volume of
S
), the eneigy uensity of a
single photon with eneigy anu unifoim eneigy uensity in a volume of
S
we have:

0 =
S
= c
4
=
4
c
S
= (L
p
)
4
0
p
.

To finu the uisplacement amplituue of spacetime iequiieu to piouuce this eneigy uensity, we
will equate 0 =
4
c
S
with 0 = B
2
2
Z
s
c anu solve foi L in B = L.

0 =
o
4
c
3
=
H
2
o
2
z
s
c
= [
AL
2
o
2
c
2

2
[
c
3
u
[
1
c
=
AL
2
o
4
u
solve foi L
L = _
u
c
3
= L
p

9-11

The equation L = L
p
is foi a single photon in volume
S
. Theiefoie this calculation piesumes a
total path length of (ignoiing numeiical factois neai 1). A total path length of (the
uiametei of the maximum confinement waveguiue) is within the alloweu iange, especially
since the electiic fielu is maximizeu ovei the cential . Since photons aie bosons anu many
photons can occupy the same volume, we will next calculate the uisplacement of spacetime
iequiieu if many coheient photons (same fiequency anu phase) aie intiouuceu into the
volume
S
. In this calculation we will use n
y
as the numbei of photons occupying the volume.
Theiefoie 0 = n
y
S
= n
y
4
c
S
.

0 =
AL
2
o
4
u
=
n
y
o
4
c
3
Solve foi L

L =
n
y
L
p

The equation L =
n
y
L
p
is the oscillating uisplacement of spacetime foi n
y
photons in the
maximum confinement pieviously uiscusseu. This value of L is ovei uistance , theiefoie the
stiain in spacetime piouuceu by n
y
coheient photons in maximum confinement is:

AL
L
=
n
y
L
p
x
stiain piouuceu by n
coheient photons in maximum confinement

The equation L =
n
y
L
p
is veiy ievealing. It is not possible to uetect both the wave
piopeities anu paiticle piopeities of a single photon because that woulu be attempting to
uetect a uisplacement of Planck length. Refeiences in chaptei 4 showeu that it is funuamentally
impossible (uevice inuepenuent) to uetect a uisplacement of spacetime equal to oi less than
Planck length. It is theoietically possible to uetect the wave piopeities of many photons
(n
y
>> 1 photons) because many coheient photons piouuces L >> L
p
. Now we can
conceptually unueistanu this effect.

Comparison of Electric Fields: Pieviously it was calculateu the value of L foi n
e
elections
on a chaigeu spheie. We now have an equation foi the value of L piouuceu by n
y
photons in
the maximum confinement. Compaiing these equations we have:

L = n
c
oL
p
ln(i
2
i
1
) uisplacement of spacetime piouuceu by n
e
elections between i
2
anu i
1

L =
n
y
L
p
uisplacement of spacetime piouuceu by n
photons in volume
S
ovei uistance

0pon initial examination it appeais as if theie must be a uiffeience between the L piouuceu
by photons anu elections foi equal electiic fielus. The L effect fiom photons scales with the
squaie ioot of the numbei of photons
n
y
while the L piouuceu by elections is lineai with n
e

9-12
but contains the factoi of o. The calculation is not shown heie, but if we assume a vacuum
capacitoi with a volume equal to the
S
volume of the maximum confinement cavity, it woiks
out that equal electiic fielus piouuce equal values of L (ignoiing numeiical factois neai 1).

Similarity to Gravitational Waves: We pieviously leaineu that Planck impeuance Z
p
is the
same as the impeuance of spacetime Z
s
when we use the chaige conveision constant . This
conveision constant anu a waveamplituue equation also give that n
y
photons in the maximum
confinement conuition gives the oscillating stiain in spacetime equal to
n
y
L
p
x
. This implies
that electiomagnetic waves aie veiy similai to giavitational waves. While giavitational waves
appeai to be completely uissimilai to electiomagnetic waves, they must be fiist cousins. Both
aie tiansveise waves that piopagate at the speeu of light thiough the meuium of the vacuum
eneigy that is spacetime. They both expeiience the same impeuance theiefoie electiomagnetic
waves must also be waves in spacetime. The quantum mechanical uesciiption of spacetime is
vacuum fluctuations with Planck lengthtime uisplacements at all fiequencies up to Planck
fiequency. This uesciiption of spacetime has a high eneigy uensity. Spacetime has elasticity
anu veiy laige impeuance. Waves in spacetime piopagate at the speeu of light but the
uisplacement of spacetime is veiy small because spacetime also has an incieuibly laige bulk
mouulus. A single photon in maximum confinement (volume
S
) only affects spacetime by a
Planck length uisplacement ovei a uistance of .

0ne of the biggest uiffeiences is that positive anu negative electiically chaigeu paiticles aie
available to geneiate electiomagnetic iauiation. uiavitational waves can only be geneiateu by
paiticles that have a single polaiity (only positive mass) theiefoie only quauiupole
giavitational waves aie possible. Bowevei, if we aie attempting to unueistanu the physics of
electiomagnetic iauiation piopagating in spacetime the uiffeiences in geneiation aie not too
impoitant.

A giavitational wave is a tiansveise wave that causes a spheiical volume to become a
tiansveise oscillating ellipsoiu. If we fieeze this ellipsoiu foi a moment theie is an axis that
incieases the uistance between points anu an oithogonal axis that uecieases the uistance
between points. Bowevei, theie is no pointing vectoi that uistinguishes between opposite
uiiections along eithei of these two axes. The effect on spacetime by giavitational waves is
symmetiical (ieveisible). This effect can be thought of as a uiffeience between the cooiuinate
speeu of light anu the piopei speeu of light along the two axes. We inteipiet this uiffeience as
a change in the uistance between points because we assume that the piopei speeu of light is
constant. Also, all physical objects (metei sticks, pioton iauius, etc.) scale theii size with
piopei length which in tuin scales with the piopei speeu of light. This is unueistanuable fiom
the pioposeu spacetime baseu mouel of the univeise because all mattei anu foices aie
ultimately uipole waves in spacetime which scale with the piopei speeu of light.

9-13
Electromagnetic Pointing Vectors: Electiomagnetic iauiation has tiansveise oscillating
electiic anu magnetic fielus. If we imagine fieezing the wave, the electiic fielu has a specific
vectoi uiiection which by convention we say points away fiom positive anu towaius negative
anu the magnetic fielu by convention points fiom Noith to South. Theiefoie one uiffeience
between an electiomagnetic wave anu a giavitational wave is that the electiomagnetic wave
piouuces an unsymmetiical tiansveise wave (electiic anu magnetic pointing vectois) while the
giavitational wave is a symmetiical tiansveise wave. We can also uesignate the unsymmetiical
effect on spacetime piouuceu by EN iauiation as polaiizeu spacetime. Both EN iauiation
anu giavitational waves uo not mouulate eithei the iate of time oi piopei volume. The
impeuance of fiee space (associateu with electiomagnetic iauiation) is the same as the
impeuance of spacetime (associateu with giavitational waves) when chaige is conveiteu to a
length uistoition of spacetime. Theiefoie electiomagnetic waves aie also waves in the vacuum
fluctuations of spacetime.

If we aie going to explain electiomagnetic fielus using only the piopeities of spacetime, it is
necessaiy to incoipoiate into the explanation a nonieveisible (polaiizeu) effect that uoes not
piouuce an oscillation of eithei piopei volume oi the iate of time. Coming up with a mouel
that fits all the iequiiements foi electiomagnetic iauiation has been one of the most uifficult
tasks of this enueavoi. In paiticulai, it was uifficult to 1) initially iecognize that the solution
must involve polaiizeu spacetime, 2) to finu a mouel that woulu geneiate the coiiect foice S)
not mouulate piopei volume anu 4) iesult in the unsymmetiical (polaiizeu) chaiacteiistics
iequiieu foi an electiic fielu. Foi example, theie must be a physical uiffeience between the
positive electiic fielu uiiection anu the negative electiic fielu uiiection (the opposite uiiection).
This iequiies asymmetiy in the wave mouel of electiic anu magnetic fielus. This asymmetiy
necessitates the consiueiation of an unconventional solution.

It is proposed that an electric field is a distortion of one spatial dimension of spacetime that
results in a slight asymmetric speed of light in opposite propagation directions. This
produces a one way distance between points measured by light propagation time in the
positive electric field direction that is different than the light propagation time between the
points measured in the negative electric field direction. There is no net proper volume
change or no net rate of time change because the round trip time between the points is
unchanged.

While this pioposal was uevelopeu by examining the electiic fielu of a confineu photon, it
applies equally to the electiic fielu piouuceu by a chaigeu paiticle. Bowevei, the electiic fielu
piouuceu by a chaigeu paiticle is moie complex than the electiic fielu piouuceu by a confineu
photon. In chaptei 11 it will be pioposeu that that the chaigeu paiticle not only has a non
oscillating stiain that we know as the paiticles electiic fielu, but theie is also an stanuing wave
that is oscillating at the iotais Compton fiequency. It is the inteiaction of this oscillating
9-14
stanuing wave with vacuum eneigy that piouuces the non oscillating stiain (the paiticles
electiic fielu).

Similaiity to uiavitational Waves: Electiomagnetic iauiation is a fiist cousin of a giavitational
wave. They both aie tiansveise waves that piopagate at the speeu of light in the meuium of
spacetime. They both expeiience the same impeuance of spacetime (Z
s
= c
S
u). Anothei way
of saying this is that they both piopagate as a quantizeu angulai momentum uistuibance in the
supeifluiu uipole waves that is spacetime. Theiefoie, what is the key uiffeience. A
giavitational wave piouuces an oscillating uistoition of the two spatial uimensions tiansveise
to the piopagating uiiection. A spheiical volume becomes an oscillating ellipsoiu with one
tiansveise uimension elongating while the oithogonal tiansveise uimension contiacts. Theie
is no change in the net volume.

The electiic fielu uiiection of electiomagnetic iauiation is pioposeu to uistoit only one
tiansveise uimension. This is easiei to visualize if we imagine a static electiic fileu foi
example, the electiic fielu between two paiallel plates of a vacuum capacitoi. Polaiizeu
spacetime is spacetime that has a uiffeient piopeity in opposite piopagation uiiections.
Fuitheimoie, we know that the polaiization effect cannot piouuce a net change in piopei
volume. A giavitational wave meets this iequiiement because the inciease in one uimension is
offset by a ueciease in the oithogonal tiansveise uimension. An electiic fielu is similai, except
simplei. The uimensional inciease anu ueciease happens in the same uimension. 0ne
piopagation uiiection expeiiences the inciease while the opposite piopagation uimension
expeiiences the ueciease. The iounu tiip piopagation time (iounu tiip uistance) is unchangeu.

A magnetic fielu is a special ielativity effect of looking at this spatial uistoition fiom a moving
fiame of iefeience. If we aie moving peipenuiculai to the electiic fielu of a paiallel plate
capacitoi, we expeiience a Loientz tiansfoimation of this spatial uistoition. I must aumit that I
have not conceptually giaspeu exactly what this Loientz tiansfoimation looks like fiom a
moving fiame of iefeience, but theie is no uoubt that a magnetic fielu is meiely a Loientz
tiansfoimation of an electiic fielu. Nathematically it is easy, but conceptually it is moie
uifficult to visualize.

Note to Reader: The following section on the Signac effect was wiitten at an eailiei time. I
cuiiently have some uoubts about this connection. It is still one of seveial possible
explanations; theiefoie it has not been eliminateu. 0n the othei hanu, I can imagine othei
possible explanations also.

Angular Momentum and the Signac Effect: The concept that theie can be an asymmetiy in
spacetime that causes two uiffeient piopagation times (uistances) between points (uepenuing
on piopagation uiiection) initially seems unappealing. Bowevei, an example will show that
this is possible if angulai momentum is involveu. Befoie giving the specializeu example, we
9-15
will fiist ieview the stanuaiu Signac effect wheie a iing inteifeiometei is iotateu. Lasei light
piopagates aiounu opposite uiiections of the iing inteifeiometei anu the iotation of the iing
inteifeiometei piouuces a shift in an inteifeience fiinge. The usual way of explaining this is to
auopt a non iotating fiame of iefeience anu look at the motion of the optics (especially the
inteifeiometeis beam splittei) in the time iequiieu foi one iounu tiip.

Now we will uo a thought expeiiment using a uiffeient example. Suppose that theie was a
stationaiy waveguiue that foims a closeu loop. Insiue this waveguiue we place a souice of
electiomagnetic (EN) iauiation that can also act as a uetectoi (heieaftei known as the
souiceuetectoi). A pulse of EN iauiation is emitteu in a way that equal amounts piopagate
both clockwise anu counteiclockwise aiounu the loop anu ietuins to the location of the
souiceuetectoi. If the souiceuetectoi is stationaiy, then the uetectoi measuies a
simultaneous aiiival of the clockwise anu counteiclockwise pulses. Bowevei, assume that the
souiceuetectoi is moving geneially along the local waveguiue axis. Then the uetectoi will
measuie a uiffeience in the aiiival times of the clockwise anu counteiclockwise piopagation
uiiections. This example uiffeis fiom the stanuaiu Signac effect iing inteifeiometei because
theie is no iotating iing inteifeiometei. In fact, the motion of the souiceuetectoi can be
entiiely lineai in the time iequiieu foi the EN pulse to tiaveise the waveguiue. The waveguiue
coulu have a stiaight section oi the motion coulu simply be lineai foi the shoit time iequiieu
foi a iounu tiip. In eithei case theie is no mechanical component that is unueigoing a iotation.

It is pioposeu that this thought expeiiment ieveals an impoitant chaiacteiistic iequiieu to
unueistanu the Signac effect anu peihaps is also impoitant in the explanation of electiic anu
magnetic fielus. The waveguiue foices the EN iauiation to piopagate aiounu a loop (an
appioximate ciicle). This is not the noimal chaiacteiistic of fieely piopagating EN iauiation.
The appioximately ciiculai waveguiue foices the EN iauiation to take a path which imposes
angulai momentum on the EN iauiation. A foice is exeiteu on the wall of the waveguiue by the
clockwise anu counteiclockwise piopagating EN pulses. If the souiceieceivei is moving
ielative to the waveguiue, then the waveguiue peiceives a uiffeient fiequency, uiffeient foice
anu uiffeient angulai momentum foi the clockwise pulse compaieu to the counteiclockwise
pulse.

The moving souiceuetectoi uoes not see any uiffeience in fiequency because theie aie
offsetting Bopplei shifts at emission anu uetection. Bowevei, even a lineaily moving
souiceuetectoi uoes peiceive uiffeient aiiival times foi the two uiiections. Fiom the fiame of
iefeience of the souiceuetectoi, this can be inteipieteu as a uiffeience in the path length foi
the two piopagation uiiections. A uiffeience in path length foi opposite piopagation uiiections
implies a peiceiveu uiffeience in the piopei speeu of light foi opposite uiiections. The fact that
the waveguiue is not in the same fiame of iefeience as the souiceuetectoi means that the
ieceiveu fiequency fiom each uiiection is uiffeient than the emitteu fiequency. 0ne uiiection
is ieushifteu anu the othei uiiection is blue shifteu. This peiceiveu ieublue shift means that
9-16
theie is also uiffeient angulai momentum foi the EN iauiation in opposite piopagation
uiiections. The point of this example is to illustiate that theie aie situations wheie it is
possible to peiceive two uiffeient path lengths (two uiffeient speeus of light) foi EN iauiation.
These situations aie also accompanieu by a uiffeience in the peiceiveu angulai momentum.

Both photons anu iotais possess angulai momentum. The angulai momentum of a iotai is
confineu by the sea of vacuum fluctuations that exhibit supeifluiu piopeities. Theiefoie the
vacuum fluctuations ueflect anu confine the eneigy that possesses angulai momentum. This
has similaiities to the waveguiue ueflecting anu confining the EN iauiation. The mouel has not
been woikeu out to the point that a cleai uesciiption can be given, but it is possible to quantify
the magnituue of the effect anu to suggest an expeiiment that might piove the effect anu
fuithei claiify the mouel.

Proposed Experiment Using Photons: Eailiei in this chaptei a maximum confinement
iesonant waveguiue was uesciibeu. Biiefly this cavity was a ieflecting cylinuiical cavity
slightly moie than V wavelength in uiametei with flat ieflective suifaces sepaiateu by V
wavelength oiienteu peipenuiculai to the cylinuiical axis. This cavity will confine ciiculaily
polaiizeu photons in the minimum iesonant volume. When a stanuing EN wave is set up in this
cavity, the maximum iotating electiic fielu stiength woulu be in the cential plane that is half
way between the flat ieflectois. A stanuing EN wave has the electiic anu magnetic fielus 9u
out of phase. This is uiffeient than a tiaveling EN wave which has these two fielus in phase.
Theiefoie, the iotating stanuing wave that foims in this cavity woulu have the magnetic fielu
minimizeu in the cential plane wheie the electiic fielu is maximum.

It is hypothetically possible to uetect a peiiouic path length change in a plane peipenuiculai to
the cylinuiical axis pioviueu that theie aie a laige numbei of photons iesonating in the cavity.
We pieviously calculateu that a single photon in this maximum confinement cavity woulu
piouuce uisplacement amplituue equal to uynamic Planck length acioss the uistance of
(ignoiing a numeiical factoi neai 1). It is impossible to uetect this shoit a path length change
but many coheient photons (n
photons) piouuce uisplacement amplituue of
n
y
L
p
which is
theoietically uetectable if n
y
>> 1. If this is coiiect, then it shoulu be possible to chaiacteiize
the uisplacement of spacetime piouuceu by the electiic fielu anu the magnetic fielu using two
beams of light piopagating in opposite uiiections peipenuiculai to the miciowave iauiation.
We will uiscuss the effect of a magnetic fielu on spacetime latei, so foi now we will only uiscuss
the effect of the iotating electiic fielu. The iotating electiic fielu shoulu piouuce an
unsymmetiical uisplacement (opposite sign foi opposite uiiections) of n
y
L
p
anu this effect
woulu be maximum in the centei of the cavity.

To uetect this effect, countei piopagating lasei beams wounu piopagate thiough the cential
plane of the iesonant miciowave cavity. The path length that these beams expeiience shoulu
be mouulateu by the electiic fielu of the iotating iauio wave. At any instant in time one
9-17
uiiection woulu be expeiiencing an elongation in the optical path length of the piobe lasei
beam while the opposite uiiection woulu expeiience a ueciease in the optical path length. This
effect woulu then ieveise eveiy half cycle of the iauio wave. If the beams aie combineu in a
beam splittei aftei a single pass thiough the chambei, then the two combineu output beams
shoulu exhibit a slight amplituue mouulation at eithei the fiequency of the iauio wave oi twice
the fiequency of the iauio wave uepenuing on the phase ielationship of the two lasei beams.
The two output beams exiting the measuiement inteifeiometei woulu be amplituue mouulateu
18u out of phase. To inciease the stiength of the mouulation, it woulu be uesiiable to have the
lasei beams make multiple passes thiough the chambei. This is possible pioviueu that the
optical path is chosen such that the effect is auuitive.

An example will be given of a hypothetical expeiiment. Suppose we assume a maximum
confinement iesonant cavity is constiucteu foi a iauio wave with a ieuuceu wavelength of
= 1m (angulai fiequency of = S x 1u
8
s
1
). This cavity woulu have a V wavelength
uimension of meteis anu iesonate at about 48 NBz. If we ignoie numeiical factois neai 1, we
can say that the cential volume containing the stiongest electiic fielu has volume of
S
= 1 m
S
.
If a single photon at the iesonant fiequency is placeu into the cavity, then the pioposeu
uiffeience in the optical path length between two lasei beams piopagating in opposite
uiiections acioss the wiuth of the cavity one time woulu be equal to about Planck length. At
this fiequency a single photon has eneigy of S x 1u
26
}oules.

Nany coheient photons (n
photons) woulu piouuce a path length uiffeience between the

opposite piopagating beams appioximately equal to
n
y
L
p
. Foi example, suppose that the
iesonant cavity hau a Q of 1u,uuu. Then peihaps it is possible to obtain a confineu iauio wave
with a total shoit teim eneigy of Su,uuu }oules in this cavity. At a fiequency of 48 NBz this
woulu be 1u
Su
photons anu the single pass oscillating path length change woulu be about 1u
1S

times gieatei than Planck length (~ 1u
2u
m). Nultiple passes (H passes) coulu achieve a path
length uiffeience of about 1u
1S
x L
p
x H meteis. Foi example, the LIu0 expeiiment cuiiently
attempting to uetect giavitational waves uses a FabiyPeiot inteifeiometei that achieves a
sensitivity equivalent to H = 7,uuu.

If the cavity hau a uiametei exactly equal to V wavelength of the iauio wave, then this
ciiculaily polaiizeu iauio wave woulu iotate 18u in the time iequiieu foi the lasei beam to
piopagate once acioss the cavity. Since the uiametei neeus to be slightly laigei than V
wavelength, this means that one of seveial possible piovisions must be maue to keep multiple
passes of the lasei beam in phase with the iotating iauio wave to achieve an auuitive effect.

The hypothetical expeiiment uesciibeu heie inuicates that it is theoietically possible to uetect
an effect because the uisplacement of spacetime is much biggei than the theoietical uetectable
limit of Planck length. Bowevei, theie is a question of whethei cuiient technology is capable of
uetecting the small uisplacement uesciibeu heie. Foi example, the single pass uisplacement of
9-18
ioughly 1u
2u
metei is less than the single pass uetectable limit of the LIu0 expeiiment. The
expeiiment suggesteu heie is intenueu to stimulate iueas peihaps leauing to a bettei
expeiiment.

Experiment Using Particle Accelerators: The pievious expeiiment suggesteu to uetect the
polaiization of spacetime piouuceu by the electiic fielu of EN iauiation involveu a hypothetical
expeiiment that woulu iequiie the constiuction of a specializeu RF iesonant cavity. It shoulu
also be possible to uevise an expeiiment which useu an electiic fielu geneiateu by chaigeu
paiticles iathei than photons. In the simplest case, imagine a paiallel plate vacuum capacitoi
which consists of two paiallel plates sepaiateu by uistance L
1
wheie the plates have
uimensions laigei than L
1
. If the electiical potential uiffeience between these two plates in
Planck units is v, then it can be shown that ignoiing numeiical factois neai 1, the stiain LL
1

anu the value of L between the two plates is:

LL
1
= V LL
1
= the stiain in spacetime between two chaigeu plates sepaiateu by L
1

L = V L
1
L = uiffeience in one way optical path length between two chaigeu plates

A lineai paiticle acceleiatoi is essentially a seiies of capacitois with an axial boie anu phaseu
electiical potential. A lineai acceleiatoi capable of acceleiating elections to neai the speeu of
light coulu be aujusteu to geneiate an electiic fielu that piopagateu exactly at the speeu of light.
This coulu pioviue a constant electiic fielu on a shoit poition of a lasei beam piopagating in
the boie of the paiticle acceleiatoi. Inteifeiing this beam with anothei beam that uoes not
expeiience the electiic fielu coulu theoietically piouuce a uetectable signal that woulu be an
amplituue mouulation of the two output beams of the mixing inteifeiometei. The value of L is
not just a function of the total electiical potential accumulateu along the length of the
acceleiatoi, it is also a function of the effective capacitoi spacing of each segment of the
acceleiatoi. The total change in path length piouuceu by the entiie length of the acceleiatoi
(uesignateu L
tot
) shoulu be consiueieu as the sum of the change in path lengths piouuceu by
the many capacitoi sections, each with spacing L
1
. Theiefoie the value of the path length
change is L = V L
1
but in this case V is the total acceleiatoi electiical potential but L
1
is the
effective length of each of the capacitoi segments iathei than being the total length of the
acceleiatoi.

Magnetic Field Experiment: Theie must also be an effect on spacetime causeu by a magnetic
fielu anu this effect might be easiei to uetect than the effect causeu by an electiic fielu.
Bowevei, cuiiently I am not confiuent in pieuicting what the effect woulu be anu the
magnituue of the effect. The most likely effect woulu be that the L causeu by a magnetic fielu
woulu be a uiffeience in the optical path length between two oithogonal ciiculaily polaiizeu
beams of light piopagating paiallel to the magnetic fielu vectoi. This woulu piouuce a iotation
of the plane of polaiization of lineaily polaiizeu light since lineaily polaiizeu light can be
thought of as consisting of equal paits of the two countei iotating ciiculai polaiizations.
9-19
Fuitheimoie, this effect woulu be auuitive when a beam of lineaily polaiizeu light is ieflecteu
to piopagate in the opposite uiiection. An auuitive effect occuis because ieflection ieveises
the iotation of ciiculaily polaiizeu light. I am confiuent in the pieuiction about an electiic
fielus effect on spacetime because in the next chaptei it will be show that this stiain in
spacetime piouuces the coiiect magnituue of foice on a iotai with chaige e. Bowevei, theie
cuiiently is no such confoimation of the effect of a magnetic fielu.

Prediction: Implied Energy Density Limit: When I fiist uevelopeu the equations foi the
amplituue piouuceu by electiomagnetic iauiation, I quickly iealizeu that theie was implieu
in these equations a maximum eneigy uensity that any given fiequency of electiomagnetic
iauiation can achieve. This theoietical maximum eneigy uensity woulu occui when the mouel
uemanus 1uu% mouulation of the piopeities of spacetime. The implieu pieuiction was that it
shoulu be impossible to exceeu this 1uu% mouulation conuition which woulu occui when
L = 1 at a fiequency of = c. Foitunately, this pieuiction coulu be easily pioven coiiect
without an expeiiment. Beie is the ieasoning.

Recall that we aie loosely uefining a volume of
S
by ignoiing numeiical constants neai 1. We
will stait with the pieviously ueteimineu equation: L = nL
p
. We will uesignate n
c
as the
ciitical numbei of photons at fiequency iequiieu to theoietically achieve 1uu% mouulation
at wavelength . This conuition occuis at L = 1 oi L = . This ciitical numbei of photons
in volume
S
has a ciitical amount of eneigy of E
c
. Theiefoie we will analyze the ciitical eneigy
E
c
in volume
S
to see if theie is any obvious ieason pieventing electiomagnetic iauiation fiom
exceeuing the implieu limit that woulu achieve 1uu% mouulation (achieve L = .)

n
c
=
L
c
o
=
L
c
x
c
set L
2
= n
c
L
p
2

L
2
= n
c
L
p
2
= [
L
c
x
c
[
u
c
3
set L =
=
uL
c
c
4
=
0m
c
2
= R
s
wheie R
s
= the classical Schwaizschilu iauius foi eneigy of
L
c
c
2

Theiefoie, this is a successful test of the pieuiction that the spacetime mouel of
electiomagnetic iauiation has a maximum eneigy uensity that occuis at 1uu% mouulation of
spacetime foi a paiticulai wavelength. The conuition iequiieu to have L = is impossible to
exceeu because this eneigy uensity also piouuces a black hole with Schwaizschilu iauius
R
s
= . This is a fantastic insight that offeis stiong suppoit foi the spacetime baseu mouel of the
univeise. Nevei befoie has a theoiy given an insight into the mechanics involveu in the
piouuction of a black hole. Cuiveu spacetime uoes not CA0SE a black hole. Both cuiveu
spacetime anu a black hole aie explaineu by the spacetime baseu mouel of the univeise.

Comparison of Models: As a paiting gestuie, I just want to stanu back anu compaie the
pioposeu spacetime baseu mouel of a static electiomagnetic fielu to the cuiiently accepteu
9-20
stanuaiu mouel. In the stanuaiu mouel all foice is conveyeu by messengei paiticles. The
electiomagnetic foice is conveyeu by viitual photons which aie not to be confuseu with viitual
photon paiis (see chaptei 7).

viitual photons supposeuly have the piopeity that they cannot be uetecteu. This piopeity
seems to imply that they aie not falsifiable. Bowevei, a static electiic fielu anu a static magnetic
fielu both have eneigy uensity. This is a ieal effect that implies some physical chaiacteiistics
that can be testeu. A thought expeiiment will be uesciibeu that illustiates a uifficulty foi the
viitual photon concept. Suppose that the magnetic fielu of a stai equals the eaiths magnetic
fielu stiength (~S x 1u
S
Tesla) at a uistance of S x 1u
9
m fiom the stai. Theiefoie, at this
uistance any foice exeiteu by the magnetic fielu takes about 1u seconus to be communicateu
back to the stai. Now at this uistance, suppose that theie is a squaie loop of wiie that is one
metei on each siue. Fuitheimoie, suppose that two of the 4 siues aie paiallel to the magnetic
fielu anu two of the 4 siues aie peipenuiculai to the magnetic fielu. If a cuiient flows in this
wiie, a Loientz foice will be exeiteu on the two peipenuiculai sections of wiie (one metei
each) anu a net toique will be exeiteu on the loop because the foices aie in opposite uiiections.

Theoietically, any cuiient can be maue to flow in the loop of wiie up to Planck cuiient which is
about S.S x 1u
2S
amps. Foi example, a cuiient of 2 million amps woulu exeit a 1,uuu Newton
foice on each of the two wiie sections that aie peipenuiculai to the magnetic fielu. If the
cuiient flow is staiteu quickly, then all the toique exeiteu on the wiie loop is being exeiteu by
a limiteu volume of the magnetic fielu. Recall that it takes 1u seconus to tiansfei this toique to
the stai. The eneigy uensity of a S x 1u
S
Tesla magnetic fielu is only 1u
S
}m
S
. Theiefoie, if the
cuiient staiteu ovei S x 1u
8
seconus, the maximum volume that coulu be accesseu at speeu of
light communication woulu be in the vicinity of 1,uuu m
S
anu theiefoie the eneigy in the
magnetic fielu accessible in S x 1u
8
seconus is about 1 }oule. It takes about S x 1u
11
watts of
viitual photons to exeit a foice of 1,uuu N. If this foice was being exeiteu by ieal photons, it
woulu iequiie the momentum of about 1u,uuu } of photons exeiteu ovei S x 1u
8
seconus. Bow
uo the hypothetical viitual photons in 1,uuu m
S
achieve this foice. Caiiying this thought
expeiiment to an extieme; Planck cuiient woulu geneiate a foice of about 1u
22
N on each of the
two wiie sections without communicating toique to the stai.

Peihaps auuitional chaiacteiistics can be auueu to the viitual photon mouel to give an
explanation. Bowevei, the point is that the spacetime baseu mouel of the univeise easily
explains the geneiation of even the 1u
22
Newton foice. The magnetic fielu is causing the
vacuum eneigypiessuie to be polaiizeu. The magnetic fielu is a tiansfoimation of the
pieviously explaineu electiic fielu. The maximum foice that this mechanism can exeit is equal
to Planck foice which is about 1u
44
N. This foice is possible because we aie living in a sea of
vacuum eneigy with eneigy uensity of about 1u
11S
}m
S
which exeits a piessuie of about 1u
11S

Nm
2
.

9-21

Spacetime 0nits

In the next chaptei we will tiy to combine the insights gaineu fiom chaigeu paiticles anu fiom
electiomagnetic iauiation to give a conceptually unueistanuable mouel of the exteinal volume
of chaigeu iotais. The last step in this chaptei is to builu on the insights that weie gaineu in
the exeicise that eliminateu chaige as a unit. Eliminating chaige anu ieplacing this with a
stiain in spacetime is a step towaius ueveloping units baseu on the piopeities of spacetime.
Bowevei, this step uoes not take the ieal plunge. It is necessaiy to eliminate mass as the
funuamental unit anu uevelop units baseu only on the piopeities of spacetime. Even though
length anu time aie ielateu to spacetime, the metei anu seconu aie human constiucts. Planck
units have always been consiueieu the most funuamental of units since they aie not human
constiucts. It has been saiu that if aliens attempteu to communicate with us, they woulu use
Planck units because these units aie ueiiveu fiom the constants of natuie. What coulu be moie
funuamental than a system of units baseu on , u anu c.

If the univeise is only spacetime, it shoulu be possible to expiess constants anu units such as
kilogiam, Newton anu Coulomb using only the funuamental piopeities of spacetime. This
spacetime conveision is not paiticulaily convenient to use, anu it is closely ielateu to Planck
units. Bowevei, it is veiy infoimative to see how common units can be constiucteu out of the
piopeities of spacetime. In paiticulai, it is impoitant to giasp the iuea that mass is not a
funuamental unit when we look at the univeise fiom the stanupoint of spacetime being
funuamental. Nass is a measuiement of ineitia anu ineitia is a chaiacteiistic of eneigy
tiaveling at the speeu of light in a confineu volume. Beflecting eneigy tiaveling at the speeu of
light causes momentum tiansfei. This is the souice of all foices incluuing the pseuuofoice of
ineitia. The goal is to expiess eveiything, incluuing mass, in teims of the piopeities of
spacetime.

We will stait the seaich foi spacetime units by looking at one of the S waveamplituue
equations pieviously uesciibeu.

0 = B
2

2
Zc equation giving the eneigy uensity in a wave

When we apply this waveamplituue equation to spacetime, it shoulu be easy to expiess this
equation if we use the funuamental piopeities of spacetime. The fiist obvious canuiuate foi a
funuamental piopeity of spacetime is Z the impeuance of spacetime (Z
s
= c
S
u). Anothei
canuiuate is c, the speeu of light, but this is not as ceitain as Z
s
.

9-22
0thei canuiuates foi being funuamental units of spacetime must be containeu in the amplituue
teim B. We know that a geneial expiession of the maximum peimitteu uipole wave in
spacetime is: B
max
= L
p
= T
p
. This is the maximum stiain amplituue which in tuin is
uictateu by the maximum uisplacement amplituue of spacetime: uynamic Planck length L
p
anu
uynamic Planck time T
p
. It is pioposeu that uynamic Planck length L
p
anu uynamic Planck time
T
p
aie both funuamental piopeities of spacetime. They aie auueu to oui list making a total of
foui canuiuates. Theiefoie, the foui canuiuates aie Z
s
, L
p
, T
p
anu c. We ieally only neeu thiee
teims to expiess eveiything in the univeise, theiefoie theie aie thiee possible combinations of
thiee teims that coulu seive as the basic units of spacetime. These aie: 1) T
p
, L
p
, Z
s
; 2) c, L
p
, Z
s
;
anu S) c, T
p
, Z
s

All of these combinations have auvantages anu uisauvantages. I will use the combination of:
c, T
p
, Z
s
, as the units of spacetime. Aftei woiking with the uiffeient combinations I finu this
combination the most intuitive. Foi example, the speeu of light anu the impeuance of
spacetime seem to belong togethei. The unit of Planck time becomes the quantizeu heaitbeat
of the univeise. While woiking to uevelop the mouel of electiic fielu anu chaige, this
combination is somehow easiei to visualize. Recall that the impeuance of spacetime is Planck
mass uiviueu by Planck time. (Z
s
= N
p
T
p
). Theiefoie all conventional units can be expiesseu
using these S piopeities of spacetime. Bowevei, the use of c, T
p
, anu Z
s
gives answeis that
coiiesponu to Planck units which aie not convenient foi eveiyuay use.

To illustiate how these spacetime units woik, the unit of foice has uimensional analysis units of
NLT
2
anu conventional units of kg ms
2
. The spacetime units of foice aie cZ
s
. Bowevei, these
units specify Planck foice (~1.2 x 1u
44
N) which is the laigest foice spacetime can exeit. Foi
anothei example, to specify the giavitational constant u using conventional units it is necessaiy
to incluue a constant (6.67S x 1u
11
) anu the units of m
S
kg s
2
. With spacetime units the
giavitational constant is equal to 1 anu the units of the giavitational constant aie c
S
Z
s
. The
spacetime units tieat chaige as a stiain of spacetime with units of length. The following table
gives vaiious conveisions into spacetime units.

Tempeiatuie is not incluueu in this list because the uefinition of Planck tempeiatuie incluues
the Boltzmann constant. Tempeiatuie, in its most funuamental foim, is meiely a convenient
way of expiessing the aveiage kinetic eneigy of a gioup of atoms oi molecules. In this case,
tempeiatuie anu eneigy woulu have the same uefinition in a spacetime conveision.

9-23

Tiansfoimation into Spacetime 0nits

Name Spacetime Conveision
elementaiy chaige e = o cT
p

impeuance of fiee space Z
o
(1
2
)

= 4 Z
s

speeu of light c = c
Plancks constant = c
2
T
p
2
Z
s

giavitational constant u = c
S
Z
s

o
)(1
2
) = cZ
s

peimeability of fiee space (
o
4)(1
2
) = Z
s
c

Tiansfoimation of Planck 0nits into Spacetime 0nits
Planck 0nits Stanuaiu Conveision Spacetime Conveision
Planck length l
p
= 0 c
3
l
p
= cT
p

Planck mass m
p
= c0 m
p
= Z
s
T
p

Planck fiequency
p
= c
5
0
p
= 1T
p

Planck impeuance Z
p
= 14
o
c Z
p
(1
2
) = Z
s

Planck chaige q
p
= 4
o
c

q
p
= cT
p

Planck eneigy E
p
= c
5
u E
p
= c
2
T
p
Z
s

Planck foice F
p
= c
4
u F
p
= cZ
s

Planck powei P
p
= c
S
u P
p
= c
2
Z
s

Planck eneigy uensity 0
p
= c
7
u
2
0
p
= Z
s
cT
p
2

We have long ago founu the optimum ways of expiessing conveision constants that simplify
calculations. Insteau, this exeicise is intenueu to illustiate how the piopeities of spacetime can
be manipulateu to piouuce familiai constants anu units of physics. It may be uifficult foi the
ieauei to imagine physics without mass oi eneigy being a funuamental unit. Bowevei, the
maximum foice that spacetime can suppoit is cT
p
anu the maximum quantizeu mass is T
p
Z
s
.
Nass anu eneigy aie a quantification of piopeities of spacetime. This change in peispective
has a gieat ueal of appeal once it is inteinalizeu.

While it is possible to expiess all the units of physics using only the piopeities of spacetime
(c, T
p
anu Z
s
), it will be shown in chaptei 14 that it is necessaiy to auu an auuitional
uimensionless uesignation (
u
) that specifies the changing piopeities of spacetime as the
univeise ages. It will be pioposeu that the expansion of the piopei volume of the univeise is
actually the iesult of spacetime unueigoing a tiansfoimation that can be chaiacteiizeu as a
change of
u
. This tiansfoimation staiteu with the Big Bang anu continues touay. The symbol
9-24
u
uesignates the uegiee of tiansfoimation that has taken place since the Big Bang. Bowevei,
the value of
u
also ieflects the change in spacetime biought about by local giavitational fielus.

The Universe Is Only Spacetime 2012 john@onlyspacetime.com 10-1

Chaptei 1u

Rotais Exteinal volume

External Volume of an Electron (Conventional Model): Befoie piesenting the spacetime
baseu mouel of the exteinal volume of a funuamental paiticle, we will fiist look at the
competition. The conventional mouel of an election is a point paiticle (oi vibiating stiing with
no volume) suiiounueu by an electiic anu magnetic fielu. The eneigy uensity of a macioscopic
electiic fielu fiom elementaiy chaige e is: 0 = (18)(ci
4
). The eneigy exteinal to a given
iauial uistance i is: E
ext
= (18
o
)(e
2
i) = V(ci). This eneigy uensity shows that an
elections electiic fielu is a ieal physical entity. An inteiaction with an elections electiic fielu
uoes not exhibit any uelay that woulu occui if messengei paiticles hau to be sent out by an
election. In chaptei 9 an example was given involving the magnetic fielu of a stai. This
example cleaily illustiates the inauequacy of the exchange of viitual photon messengei
paiticles to explain the electiomagnetic foice. In this chaptei we will uevelop fuithei the
spacetime baseu explanation of electiic anu magnetic fielus.

If the elections iauius is less than the classical iauius of an election (~ 1u
1S
m) then theie is
an auuitional pioblem with the point paiticle mouel because a smallei iauius makes the eneigy
in the electiic fielu exceeu the total eneigy of the election. Foi example, if a paiticle oi the
vibiating stiing was consiueieu to be containeu in a volume with a iauius of Planck length, then
the eneigy in the suiiounuing electiic fielu woulu be about 1u
7
}. This pioblem is usually
ignoieu by saying that the election has an intiinsic electiic fielu associateu with elementaiy
chaige e. If we aie attempting to give conceptually unueistanuable explanations of quantum
mechanics using the piopeities of spacetime, then we uo not have the luxuiy of being able to
ignoie such pioblems. It is even necessaiy to uesciibe chaige anu electiic fielu in teims of the
piopeities of spacetime.

External Volume of a Rotar: A iotai has pieviously been uesciibeu as a unit of quantizeu
angulai momentum in a sea of vacuum fluctuations. These vacuum fluctuations have
supeifluiu piopeities as pieviously uesciibeu. The vacuum fluctuations cannot possess
angulai momentum anu theiefoie any angulai momentum must be isolateu into quantizeu
units just like supeifluiu liquiu helium isolates angulai momentum into quantizeu voitices.
The quantum volume of a iotai possesses the angulai momentum anu this volume is not in
the supeifluiu state. While the vacuum fluctuations suiiounuing a iotai avoiu possessing
angulai momentum, the suiiounuing volume is still affecteu by the piesence of a iotai
(quantizeu angulai momentum) in its miust. The iotai piouuces uistuibances in the volume
exteinal to the iotai which slightly affect the sea of vacuum fluctuations that suiiounu a iotai.
This chaptei will examine the stanuing waves anu static stiain piouuceu in the volume
suiiounuing a iotai. These effects aie iesponsible foi not only the iotais giavitational anu
electiomagnetic fielus but also numeious othei effects incluuing ue Bioglie waves anu
Compton scatteiing.

The piobability of inteiacting with a iotai (finuing a paiticle) uoes not enu at the euge of the
quantum volume. The euge of the quantum volume is mathematically significant because it
allows us to chaiacteiize piopeities anu uimensions, but the pioposeu quantum mechanical
natuie of a iotai is not bounu by oui convention. Theie is pait of a iotai that extenus fai
beyonu the quantum iauius R
q
. These will be shown to be both oscillating stanuing waves anu
static stiains uistiibuteu acioss the sea of vacuum fluctuations that aie pait of spacetime. The
volume beyonu the quantum iauius will be calleu the exteinal volume. This exteinal volume
is still consiueieu to be pait of the iotai but it has uiffeient chaiacteiistics than the quantum
volume.

The uipole wave in spacetime iesponsible foi a iotai has pieviously been uesciibeu as iotating
at its Compton angulai fiequency anu possessing amplituue of: B
= L
p
R
q
= T
p
c
. It was also
pioposeu that the iotai is attempting to iauiate away its eneigy into the exteinal volume (the
sea of vacuum fluctuations). The amplituue of this attempteu iauiation has been uesignateu
the funuamental amplituue B
f
. This funuamental amplituue uecieases with uistance i such
that the hypothetical amplituue woulu be: B
f
= L
p
i = cT
p
i. If theie weie no offsetting effects,
this amplituue woulu iauiate away a iotais full eneigy in a time of 1
c
which is typically in
the iange of 1u
21
to 1u
2S
s. This is the same as having no stability. The few iotai fiequencies
that aie stable oi semistable must piouuce an inteiaction with vacuum eneigy that geneiates
a new wave that cancels eneigy loss but leaves oscillating stanuing waves. Foi example, an
election has long teim stability theiefoie the piobability of eneigy loss is zeio. Bowevei, this
uoes not mean that all of the eneigy of an election is confineu to its quantum volume. Theie is
a battle going on in the exteinal volume between the attempteu emission anu the cancelation
waves. The iesiuual effects that exist in the elections exteinal volume aie iesponsible foi the
elections giavity anu the elections electiicmagnetic fielus.

Gravitational and Electromagnetic Strain Amplitudes: In chapteis 6 anu 8 it was shown
that giavity is the iesult of spacetime being a nonlineai meuium foi uipole waves in spacetime.
While theie is cancelation of the funuamental wave emission, the nonlineai effects iemain fiom
the battle. This iesults in a nonoscillating stiain in spacetime with stiain amplituue
(giavitational magnituue) of B
u
= = B
2
J wheie J is the uimensionless iatio: J = iR
q
.
This numbei uesignates uistance fiom a iotai as a multiple of the iotais quantum iauius R
q

which is the iotais natuial unit of length. It was shown in chaptei 8 that this combination
ultimately iesults in the Newtonian giavitational equation F
g
= um
1
m
2
i
2
. Theie was also a
pioposeu oscillating component of giavity that will be uiscusseu fuithei heie. It will be shown
that this oscillating giavitational component in the exteinal volume iesults in eneigy exteinal
to R
q
that is in the iange of 1u
4u
times smallei than a iotais inteinal eneigy theiefoie it is
unuetectable.

As befoie, the simplest example useu foi illustiation in this chaptei is a single isolateu
funuamental paiticle with elementaiy chaige e. 0nly elections, muons anu tauons meet this
ciiteiion. To fuithei simplify the semantics it is easiest to use elections in examples.
Theiefoie, this chaptei will attempt to uesciibe the exteinal volume of an election. 0nce this is
uone theie will be some uiscussion of the exteinal volume of piotons, neutions, etc.

As pieviously stateu, unueistanuing the connection between electiic fielus (magnetic fielus)
anu uipole waves in spacetime has been the most uifficult task in ueveloping the spacetime
baseu mouel of the univeise. Fuitheimoie, the most uifficult component of this explanation
has been moueling the electiic fielu of a iotai. In chaptei 9 we concluueu that an election anu
othei chaigeu leptons with chaige e piouuce a non oscillating stiain in spacetime. At uistance i
this stiain coiiesponus to the uimensionless Planck electiical potential V = o L
p
i. Bowevei,
so fai it is not cleai how this non oscillating stiain is piouuceu. The bieakthiough occuiieu
with the iealization that giavity has an oscillating component (figuie 81) anu a static
component. 0n close examination it was founu that the electiic fielu piouuceu by a chaigeu
paiticle such as an election must also have an oscillating component anu a static component.
Theiefoie a giavitational fielu has two stiain components (one oscillating anu one static) while
the electiicmagnetic fielu also has two stiain components (one oscillating anu one static). The
static component of a giavitational fielu has alieauy been uiscusseu in chapteis 6 anu 8. This
chaptei will concentiate the iemaining thiee components

The mouel assumes that the electiic fileu piouuceu by an isolateu election possesses the
classical eneigy uensity exteinal to the quantum volume wheie i > R
q
. Theie is no continuous
loss of the elections eneigy, so these exteinal oscillations must be stanuing waves that iemain
aftei the pioposeu cancelation that must take place to eliminate emission of eneigy at
fiequency
c
anu amplituue B
f
= L
p
i. In oiuei foi the stanuing waves to achieve the eneigy
uensity of the electiic fielu, it is necessaiy foi some pait of the elections eneigy to iesiue
outsiue uistance R
q
. We will calculate the oscillating stanuing wave amplituue uistiibution
iequiieu to achieve this eneigy uensity.

0 = (V)
o
E
2
eneigy uensity in an electiic fielu E of a single election
E = (14
o
) ei
2
electiic fielu piouuceu by a paiticle with chaige e
0 =
uc
8n
4
substitution incluuing c = [
c
2
4ns
c

We also have 0 = B
2

2
Z
s
c fiom the S waveamplituue equations. Theiefoie we can set these
two eneigy uensity equations equal to each othei anu ignoie uimensionless constants.

B
2

2
Z
s
c = ci
4
substitute Z
s
= c
S
u anu = cR
q
, then solve foi B
B
2
= (uc
S
) R
q
2
i
4
set uc
S
= L
p
2
; B = B
e
anu J = iR
q

B
e
=

uL
p
R
q
2

= _
uL
p
R
q
] [
R
q

2
= o
H
J
2

B
e
= oscillating (stanuing wave) amplituue component of the electiic fielu at fiequency
c

Note that the uiffeient Compton fiequencies of an election anu a muon aie absoibeu into the
B
anu J teims which both have a fiequency uepenuence (B
= L
p
R
q
=
c
p
anu J = iR
q

= i
c
c) While this oscillating amplituue B
e
gives the coiiect eneigy uensity, these stanuing
waves uo not uiiectly convey foice between chaigeu iotais. If the oscillating component was
iesponsible foi electiostatic foice, this woulu imply that oscillating eneigy in the exteinal
volume was piopagating anu eneigy woulu be continuously iauiateu. The stanuing waves in a
iotais exteinal volume uo not uiiectly geneiate foices. Bowevei, they aie inuiiectly
iesponsible foi the foices between iotais. Beie is the pictuie that has emeigeu aftei lengthy
examination.

A iotai is attempting to iauiate away its eneigy to the suiiounuing sea of vacuum eneigy. The
few funuamental paiticles that aie stable exist at one of the few special fiequencies that
geneiate canceling waves in vacuum eneigy eliminate the loss of eneigy. Even though the loss
of eneigy is eliminateu, theie aie foui iesiuual effects that show that a battle has taken place.
These 4 iesiuual effects aie ieally combineu, but foi analysis it is convenient to sepaiate them
into component paits.

1) Theie aie stanuing waves (associateu with the electiic fileu) iemaining in the vacuum
eneigy that suiiounus the iotai. These stanuing waves aie at the iotais Compton
fiequency
c
anu have the oscillating amplituue B
e
= o B
J
2
.
2) Theie is nonoscillating stiain in spacetime iesponsible foi giavity anu pieviously
uiscusseu in chapteis 6 anu 8. This stiain has been uesignateu as the giavitational
magnituue , but to make a uesignation B
u
in keeping with othei amplituue teims we
will also uesignate the nonoscillating teim as B
u
= = B
2
J
2
.
S) Theie is an oscillating nonlineai effect associateu with giavity anu illustiateu in figuie
8S as the small amplituue waves on the line uesignateu nonlineai component. This
oscillating component of giavity has pieviously been shown to have amplituue of B
2
at
uistance R
q
. It will be pioposeu that this giavitational oscillating teim exteinal to R
q
has
amplituue B
g
= B
2
J
2
.
4) It is pioposeu that theie is a nonoscillating teim associateu with the electiic fielu with
amplituue B
E
= o B
J = V. Beie is the ieasoning.

In the last chaptei it was ueteimineu that a single photon in maximum confinement (in volume
S
) woulu piouuce a uisplacement of L
p
acioss a uistance of . The uimensionless stiain
amplituue of this woulu be B
= L
p
. It was pioposeu that to piouuce the uiiectionality
iequiieu by an electiic fielu, this amplituue woulu have to imply polaiizeu spacetime that
piouuces an unsymmetiical time iequiieu foi light to piopagate towaius anu away fiom the
election (opposite electiic fielu uiiections).

Now imagine a single election piesent in a iauio wave with a fiequency of 1 NBz. The election
feels the effect of the oscillating electiic fielu piouuceu by the iauio wave anu unueigoes a
1 NBz oscillating uisplacement. The election has a Compton fiequency in excess of 1u
2u
Bz so
the uiffeience in fiequency is moie than a factoi of 1u
14
. The point is that the iauio wave woulu
change its electiic fielu so slowly on the elections time scale that it can be consiueieu almost
like a static electiic fielu. The foice exeiteu on the election by the iauio waves electiic fielu
woulu appeai to be almost constant on the time scale of the election. The electiic fielu
piouuceu by a chaigeu paiticle must also have a non oscillating component if we extiapolate
the iauio wave inteiaction to a fiequency appioaching zeio. If two elections (oi an election
anu a muon) aie iepelling each othei, we shoulu not expect the inteiaction to be taking place
between two iapiuly oscillating waves at the iespective Compton fiequencies ~ 1u
2u
to 1u
22
Bz.
The electiic fielu associateu with an election oi muon must also have a nonoscillating
component that is equivalent to an infinitely low fiequency electiomagnetic wave. It will be
shown that the non oscillating stiain of B
E
= o B
J between iotais with chaige e.

The pictuie that emeiges is that both the giavity of an election anu the electiic fielu of an
election possess an oscillating component anu a non oscillating component. The following
apply only to the S chaigeu leptons because these equations assume a single isolateu iotai with
chaige e. This table iepeats infoimation but it is piesenteu in a way to show the similaiities
anu uiffeiences between these 4 types of amplituues.

B
e
= o
H
J
2
B
e
= electiomagnetic stanuing wave amplituue oscillating at
c

B
E
= o
H
J
= V B
E
= electiomagnetic nonoscillating stiain amplituue
B
g
=
H
2
J
2
B
g
= giavitational stanuing wave amplituue oscillating at 2
c

B
u
=
H
2
J
= B
u
= giavitational nonoscillating stiain amplituue

The intiouuction of B
e
, B
E
, B
g
anu B
u
is meiely a case of giving new symbol uesignations to the
concepts pieviously uiscusseu. We just ueiiveu B
e
= oB
J
2
as the amplituue iequiieu to
piouuce the eneigy uensity of an electiic fielu associateu with eneigy uensity 0 = (V)
o
E
2

(numeiical constant V is ignoieu). In chaptei 8 we uevelopeu B
u
= = B
2
J as the non
oscillating amplituue iequiieu to piouuce the giavitational fielu of a iotai. B
e
is the symbol
given to the non oscillating stiain uevelopeu in chaptei 9. Finally B
g
is the symbol given to the
oscillating component of giavity pieviously uiscusseu anu uepicteu in figuies 81 anu 8S.

Non-Oscillating Strain Amplitude H
E
: The pioposeu electiomagnetic nonoscillating stiain
amplituue B
E
is iesponsible foi what we consiuei to be the electiic fielu of chaigeu leptons such
as an election oi muon. The stiain B
E
= o B
J looks similai to the funuamental amplituue

B
f
= B
J which is the theoietical oscillating stiain amplituue that is being canceleu in the
iotais that aie stable enough to be consiueieu funuamental paiticles. Bowevei, theie aie
seveial key uiffeiences. Fiist is the obvious uiffeience of o which ieuuces the amplituue by a
factoi of about 11.7 at any given value of J. Seconu, B
E
is a nonoscillating stiain while B
f
is a
hypothetical oscillating amplituue at fiequency
c
that is attempting to iauiate away the iotais
eneigy.

The thiiu uiffeience is associateu with the fact that the type of uisplacement of spacetime
associateu with electiic fielus is uiffeient fiom the type of uisplacement of spacetime piouuceu
by uipole waves in spacetime with theii Planck lengthtime limitation. This was uiscusseu in
the last chaptei. It was pioposeu that electiic anu magnetic fielus imply that theie is a physical
uiffeience in the positive electiic fielu uiiection anu the negative electiic fielu uiiection. This
unsymmetiical chaiacteiistic was associateu with a slight uiffeience in the piopei speeu of
light that iesults in a slight uiffeience in the one way uistance between points which is the
same as saying a slight uiffeience in the one way tiavel time foi light piopagation between two
points.

Electrostatic Force Calculation: We will next check to see if the nonoscillating stiain
amplituue B
E
gives the coiiect electiostatic foice between two chaigeu leptons (two elections).
When we calculateu the giavitational foice on a iotai piouuceu by anothei iotai cieating the
nonoscillating stiain B
u
= B
2
J, we calculateu the implieu uiffeience in the iate of time
acioss the iauius of a iotai anu conveiteu this to the uiffeience in giavitational magnituue
acioss the iotai. This was necessaiy because foi foice geneiation it is only the giauient in oi
that is impoitant, not the absolute value.

The pioposeu chaiacteiistic of an electiic fielu is uiffeient in the sense that the uiffeience is
between opposite uiiections, not the giauient acioss a iotai. In fact, the uiffeience acioss the
wiuth of a iotai is insignificant compaieu to the uiffeience between opposite uiiections at the
aveiage location of the iotai feeling the foice. Imagine the iotai mouel piesenteu in chaptei S
iotating in otheiwise homogeneous spacetime. Now imagine this iotai iotating in polaiizeu
spacetime wheie theie is a uiffeience in the time iequiieu foi speeu of light piopagation in
opposite uiiections acioss the iotai. The stiain in spacetime piouucing this effect is static, but
the inteiaction with the iotai is uynamic. The inteiaction occuis at a fiequency equal to
c
anu
the inteiaction mouulates the iotai at amplituue of B
E
=oB
J = v. This in tuin affects the

inteiaction with vacuum eneigypiessuie suiiounuing the iotai. This cieates a piessuie
imbalance that can appeai to be eithei attiaction oi iepulsion. The magnituue of the foice is:

F =
H
2
o
2
z
s
A
c

set B
2
=
H
2
J
2
= _
L
p
2
R
q
2
] [
R
q
2
2
= [
u
c
3
2
; =
c
R
q
; Z
s
=
c
3
u
; A = R
q
2

F = [
u
c
3
2
_
c
2
R
q
2
] [
c
3
G
[
R
q
2
c
= [
c
2
= [
c
2
4ns
c
c
[
c
2
=
c
2
4ns
c
2
Success!

This explanation is fai fiom complete. Foi example, theie is no explanation foi the uiffeience
between a foice of attiaction anu iepulsion. Also, theie is no explanation foi the uiffeience
between an election anu a position. Bowevei, the explanations offeieu heie uo make a fiist
step towaius ueveloping a physically unueistanuable explanation of electiic anu magnetic
fielus. The stanuaiu appioach is to meiely accept the existence of mysteiious fielus with no
attempt to finu an unueilying causality.

Electric Field Cancelation: The nonoscillating component of the electiic fielu piouuceu by
an election uoes not have any inheient eneigy uensity. 0nly the oscillating component
possesses eneigy uensity (oscillating at
c
). These two components of the electiic fielu aie
connecteu so it is not possible to have an electiic fielu without any eneigy uensity. Bowevei, it
is possible to cancel out the nonoscillating stiain of an electiic fielu anu leave only neutial
stanuing waves by biinging oppositely chaigeu paiticles togethei. Foi example, at a sufficient
uistance fiom eithei a hyuiogen atom oi a neution theie is almost no electiic fielu. This occuis
because theie is almost complete cancelation of the nonoscillating stiains that foims the
uetectable poition of the electiic fielu. The oscillating component (stanuing wave component)
is pioposeu to iemain even if theie is cancelation of the uetectable electiic fielu. This
iemaining oscillating component is pioposeu to be iesponsible foi ue Bioglie waves anu othei
quantum mechanical effects that we associate with the wave piopeities of paiticles.

The ieason foi saying that the oscillating component iemains even when opposite chaiges
cancel the uetectable electiic fielu is because all composite paiticles exhibit ue Bioglie waves.
Foi example neutions anu even Bucky balls (C
6u
) exhibit wave piopeities beyonu theii
physical size. These wave piopeities aie exhibiteu when they aie passeu thiough a uouble slit
expeiiment. The waves imply a fiequency auuition of the component paits. Foi example, a
neution has ue Bioglie wave chaiacteiistics of a paiticle with iest eneigy of 9S9.6 Nev iathei
than the fiequencies of the S component quaiks that foim the neution. Theiefoie the bonuing
piocess must incluue some unknown mechanism foi fiequency auuition of component paits.
We will not speculate on this any fuithei since this chaptei is piimaiily about the exteinal
volume of the S chaigeu leptons anu about the elections exteinal volume in paiticulai.

Energy in the External Volume: The elections eneigy uensity exteinal to the quantum
volume (exteinal to R
q
) is: 0 = c8i
4
. The total eneigy in the exteinal volume (E
ext
) of a
chaigeu leptons electiic fielu is:

E
ext
= V e
2
4
o
i set: e
2
4
o
= c anu i = R
q
= cE
i

E
ext
= V cE
i
c = V E
i

Theiefoie, the eneigy in the exteinal volume causeu by the oscillating component of the
electiic fielu is equal to 2 of the chaigeu leptons total eneigy oi ioughly u.4% of the total
eneigy of the chaigeu lepton. Bauions uo not have a fixeu peicentage of theii eneigy exteinal
to theii iauius but even a neution has some of its eneigy exteinal to its iauius. The thiee
quaiks that foim a neution have auuitionsubtiaction of the static stiain components of the
quaiks electiic fielus. A shoit uistance fiom the neution theie is effectively chaige cancelation.
Bowevei, this is the non oscillating component of the electiic fielu that iesults in vectoi
auuition oi subtiaction. The oscillating pait is pioposeu to iemain anu piouuce stanuing
waves in the neutions exteinal volume. These stanuing waves become the neutions ue
Bioglie waves when the neution is obseiveu in a moving fiame of iefeience. Foi example, a
neution piouuces a uiffiaction pattein when it is passeu thiough a uouble slit expeiiment. The
implieu fiequency is equal to the sum of the fiequencies of the thiee quaiks. No effoit has been
expenueu to uevelop a mouel of fiequency auuition in hauions anu othei composite paiticles.

A muon anu an election both have the same chaige anu same fiaction of theii total eneigy in
theii exteinal volumes. Bowevei, a muon has about 2uu total times moie eneigy anu 2uu
times smallei iauius. Almost all of the muons extia exteinal eneigy is containeu in the small
uiffeience between the quantum volume of a muon anu the quantum volume of an election. At
a uistance laigei than the elections quantum iauius, they both geneiate the same electiostatic
foice because they both geneiate the same non oscillating stiain in space. This can be shown
by the following:

B
E
= o
H
J
=
o _
L
R
q
] [
R
q
r
=
o
L
p
This is the same foi all iotais with chaige e

The equation B
E
= oL
p
i has lost all teims which ielate to a specific Compton fiequency oi a
specific quantum iauius size. Theiefoie the nonoscillating stiain (the uetectable electiic
fielu) piouuceu by a muon is exactly the same as the nonoscillating stiain piouuceu by an
election. The oscillating components of an election anu muon ietain theii fiequency
uepenuence but these oscillating components aie only uetectable as ue Bioglie waves anu
othei quantum mechanical wave chaiacteiistics.

Internal Electric Field: Even though this chaptei is about the exteinal volume of a iotai, we
aie going to take a biief uiveision anu talk about the extension of the non oscillating stiain of
the electiic fielu into the inteiioi of a leptons quantum volume. If iotais aie slight uistoitions
of spacetime that can paitially oveilap, uoes the electiic fielu (the non oscillating stiain)
continue to inciease insiue the iotais quantum iauius. The pioblem is that when two
elections colliue ielativistically, the iepulsion foice exceeus the foice that coulu be geneiateu if
the electiic fielu enueu at the suiface of the quantum volume. In chaptei 9 it was ueteimineu
that the stiain in spacetime piouuceu by chaige e at uistance i is: LL = V = oL
p
i . I
suspect that this equation changes giauually when i < R
q
if only because of the unceitainty of
uesignating the location to specify as the cential location to seive as the point wheie i = u.
Bowevei, the point is that the stiain can continue to inciease into the inteinal volume of a iotai
such as an election. Theiefoie, theie is no ieason why colliuing two election togethei shoulu
ieveal any inteinal stiuctuie. The stiain in spacetime, anu theiefoie the iepulsive foice
continues to inciease as the two elections oveilap. Fuitheimoie, the collision of two iotais
causes both iotais to conveit the kinetic eneigy to inteinal eneigy. Foi example, colliuing two
elections with kinetic eneigy of Su uev causes both elections to momentaiily gain 1uu,uuu
times theii oiiginal eneigy anu shiink by a factoi of 1uu,uuu at the point of closest appioach.
This ueciease in size peimits combineu with the stiain equation (LL = V = oL
p
i) peimits
an election to appeai to be a point paiticle in ielativistic collisions.

Accelerating Charged Leptons: We will now ietuin to the exteinal volume uiscussion anu
focus on the electiomagnetic piopeities (tempoiaiily ignoie the giavitational effects). The
exteinal volume of a nonacceleiating, isolateu election is a combination of stanuing waves at
fiequency
c
with oscillating amplituue B
e
= o B
J
2
anu a nonoscillating stiain of
spacetime with amplituue B
E
= o B
J. Pieviously the eneigy in a iotais exteinal volume

was calculateu at E
ext
= V E
i
. To be piecise, this is the limiting case of an isolateu iotai that
has not inteiacteu with anything foi an infinitely long time. In this iuealizeu case a iotais
exteinal volume has hau sufficient time at speeu of light communication to become fully
establisheu. In piactice, the extent of a iotais exteinal volume (its unuistuibeu electiic fielu)
is limiteu by the length of time an isolateu election has iemaineu unuistuibeu in a conuition
that uoes not iauiate electiomagnetic iauiation.

Theiefoie what is commonly consiueieu to be the electiic fielu of a paiticle can be consiueieu
pait of the iotais exteinal volume. Bowevei, in a laigei sense both the electiic fielu
piouuceu by the iotai anu inueeu the iotai itself aie just stiains in the sea of vacuum eneigy of
spacetime. In chaptei 4 it was saiu that theie was only one tiuly funuamental fielu since all
fielus aie just uiffeient uistoitions of vacuum eneigyfluctuations. Keeping this in minu, we
will use the teim electiic fielu to inuicate the uistuibance in vacuum eneigy that iesults in
electiomagnetism. The pait of a iotais exteinal volume that piouuces the electiomagnetic
uistuibance has speeu of light communication back to the iotais quantum volume. In chaptei
9 a thought expeiiment involving the magnetic fielu of a stai illustiateu the fact that a magnetic
fielu has the ability to exeit a foice befoie communication is establisheu back to the souice of
the fielu (the stai). Similaily, an elections electiic fielu (spacetime uistuibance) can inteiact
befoie communication is establisheu back to the election (fiame of iefeience uepenuent).

Theie is an obvious objection to the concept that an elections exteinal volume can extenu
many meteis fiom the quantum volume. This objection is that acceleiating an election woulu
bieak contact (at speeu of light) with a uistant pait of the exteinal volume theieby abanuoning
a small pait of an elections stiuctuie anu eneigy. Bowevei, iathei than being a uefect, this is
actually a stiength of this concept because it pioviues a mechanism foi the emission of
electiomagnetic iauiation (a photon with a quantizeu unit of angulai momentum) when an
election is acceleiateu. The acceleiation intiouuces a mouulation ( > u) into what was
pieviously a static stiain ( = u). Also, a poition of the stanuing wave eneigy in the exteinal
volume loses contact when the quantum volume. The eneigy abanuoneu by the acceleiation is
conveiteu to the eneigy of the photon that is foimeu when an election is acceleiateu. The
acceleiation initially intiouuces a uistoition into the waves of the iotais exteinal volume. This
uistoition both launches a photon anu gives eneigy to ieestablish the lost poition of the
exteinal volume. Chaptei 11 will uiscuss fieely piopagating photons in moie uetail.

Anothei test of an elections uistiibuteu eneigy is whethei a test can be ueviseu that
uistinguishes between the iotai mouel with its uistiibuteu eneigy anu the cuiiently accepteu
mouel of a chaigeu point paiticle. It takes time to measuie eneigy oi ineitia. The moie
accuiate the measuiement neeus to be, the moie time is iequiieu. This allows time foi the
eneigy in the exteinal volume to communicate its piesence at the speeu of light anu auu to the
total eneigy oi ineitia of the election. It is possible to uo a plausibility calculation to see if it
woulu evei be possible to uo an expeiiment that woulu give a uiffeient answei foi the iotai
mouel of an election compaieu to a point paiticle mouel of an election which has all of its
eneigy localizeu but also expeiiences a ietaiuation as pait of the emission of a photon.

The eneigy in an elections electiic fielu exteinal to iauius i is: E
E
= c2i. This is eneigy that
is in the foim of stanuing waves exteinal to the elections quantum volume. Fiom the
unceitainty piinciple (2 = Et), it is possible to calculate the integiation time t that woulu
be iequiieu to uetect an eneigy unceitainty of E = E
E
.

E
E
=
oc
2
set
2
= Et
E
E
= [
uc
Et set E
E
= E
t =
oc
= 1S7
c

Theiefoie, it woulu take an integiation time 1S7 times longei than the time ic to uetect this
eneigy uisciepancy. Bowevei, this is 1S7 times longei than it takes foi the uisciepancy to be
coiiecteu to a uegiee that is unuetectable. Theiefoie, a mouel of an election with the pioposeu
uistiibution of eneigy in the exteinal volume is inuistinguishable fiom a point paiticle.

Chaotic Waves: The tiansition fiom the quantum volume to the exteinal volume of a iotai is
actually ill uefineu because the quantum volume has a chaotic, piobabilistic quality. The
iotating uipole in spacetime is at the limit of causality. The quantum volume is attempting to
iauiate its full eneigy in a time of 1
c
. A funuamental amplituue of B
f
= R
q
i is actually
attempting to caiiying away the full eneigy. It is only the ietuin wave geneiateu in vacuum
eneigy that is somehow canceling this emission. Bowevei, the chaotic piocess at the limit of
causality can ieconstiuct the iotai (ieconstiuct the quantizeu angulai momentum) at a
uiffeient location uesciibeu by the unceitainty piinciple. Also a uouble slit expeiiment can
inteifeie with the noimal ieconstiuction anu iesult in the iotai (angulai momentum) being
ieconstiucteu on the othei siue of the uouble slit. This will be uiscusseu latei.

The point is that all of the quantum mechanical properties which seem mysterious for a
point particle become conceptually understandable if a particle is a vortex of quantized
angular momentum in a sea of vacuum fluctuations.

We have pieviously uiscusseu that iotais (any type) must satisfy a soliton conuition in
spacetime. This means that the few funuamental paiticles that exist must exhibit a
combination of chaiacteiistics that offset the tiemenuous emission of uipole waves in
spacetime that leave the vicinity of the quantum volume. The few leptons anu hauions that
exist somehow achieve a soliton conuition wheie the emission is offset by the geneiation of
waves in vacuum eneigy that effectively cancel the emission fiom the iotais iotating uipole
coie.

Model of the External Volume: Figuie 1u1 is a simplifieu iepiesentation of the stanuing
uipole waves that suiiounu a iotai. Recall that the iotai is attempting to iauiate away its
eneigy anu emits uipole waves with fiequency
c
anu amplituue B
f
= L
p
i. The few iotais that
aie stable oi semistable must foim a iesonance with the suiiounuing vacuum eneigy that
eliminates the eneigy loss but leaves both stanuing waves anu nonoscillating stiains in
spacetime as pieviously uiscusseu. All the figuies in this chaptei ueal with the stanuing waves
associateu with the oscillating pait of the electiic fielu. These stanuing waves have amplituue
B
e
= L
p
J
2
anu angulai fiequency
c
. Figuie 1u1 is the fiist in this seiies of figuies anu this
figuie has been gieatly simplifieu compaieu to an actual iotai. The iotating uipole has been
ieplaceu by a simple monopole souice of waves. In fact, we will use a monopole emittei foi the
fiist seiies of figuies because the initial illustiations aie easiei to unueistanu without the
auueu complexity of a iotating uipole souice. The figuies will latei be illustiateu using a uipole
souice when this souice becomes impoitant to the illustiation.

Initially we will imagine that figuie 1u1 iepiesents sounu waves being emitteu by a monopole
emittei of sounu waves at the centei ciicle anu being ieflecteu by a spheiical ieflectoi outsiue
of the aiea shown in the figuie. The inteiaction between the emitteu anu ieflecteu waves foims
the stanuing waves uepicteu in figuie 1u1 anu subsequent figuies. An acoustic monopole
emittei can be thought of as a spheie that expanus anu contiacts its iauius at an acoustic
fiequency.

Figuie 1u1 shows a moment in time. The blue iegions can iepiesent iegions of maximum
acoustic piessuie anu the yellow iegions can iepiesent iegions of minimum acoustic piessuie.
A half cycle latei the stanuing waves will ieveise anu iegions that pieviously hau maximum
piessuie will have minimum piessuie. The black iegions between the yellow anu blue iegions
woulu be the wave nulls in this iepiesentation, but theie is anothei way of uepicting this
stanuing sounu wave.

The black iegions have the maximum piessuie giauient. This means that the black iegions
have the maximum kinetic eneigy of the acoustic meuium. Theiefoie, theie is anothei way of
iepiesenting the stanuing acoustic wave wheie we emphasize the kinetic eneigy of molecules.
In this type of iepiesentation the black iegions woulu be uepicteu as iegions of maximum
kinetic eneigy, not the nulls shown above. In fact the eneigy in the stanuing acoustic wave is
just being tiansfeiieu between eneigy in compiessioniaiefaction anu kinetic eneigy.

We will now switch to consiueiing figuie 1u1 as iepiesenting stanuing waves in spacetime.
The vacuum fluctuations that foim spacetime have a vastly laigei eneigy uensity than the
eneigy uensity of a iotai. As pieviously uiscusseu, the piessuie of vacuum eneigy is stabilizing
the iotai anu exeiting the necessaiy piessuie to confine the eneigy uensity of the iotai. Figuie
1u1 iepiesents a moment in time wheie the uistuibance causeu by the piesence of the iotai
iesults in stanuing waves in the suiiounuing vacuum eneigy. These stanuing waves fluctuate
both the iate of time anu piopei volume. Regions of fast time aie shown in blue anu iegions of
slow time aie shown in yellow. A half cycle latei the fast anu slow time iegions will ieveise.
The black iegions between yellow anu blue have the maximum giauient in the iate of time.
These iegions aie equivalent to the giav fielu pieviously explaineu. }ust like the stanuing sounu
wave, theie ieally aie no nulls in the stanuing wave in spacetime. The iegions of fluctuating
iate of time have the same eneigy uensity as the iegions of maximum giav fielu (maximum iate
of time giauient). The total wave eneigy is constant (sin
2
+ cos
2
= 1).

Wavelets: All uipole waves in spacetime aie pioposeu to have piopagation chaiacteiistics that
aie similai to the Buygens Piinciple in optics. The Buygens piinciple assumes that eveiy point
on an auvancing wavefiont of an electiomagnetic wave is the souice of a new uistuibance. The
electiomagnetic wave may be iegaiueu as the sum of these seconuaiy waves (calleu
wavelets). Reflection, uiffiaction anu iefiaction aie explaineu by assuming that all paits of an
electiomagnetic wave aie the souice of these new wavelets. The suiface that is tangent to any
locust of constant phase of wavelets can be useu to ueteimine the futuie position of the wave.

As oiiginally foimulateu by Chiistiaan Buygens, the Buygens Piinciple iequiieu that the
wavelets aie hemispheiical anu only iauiate into the foiwaiu hemispheiical uiiection of the
piopagation vectoi. A mouification of this was maue by uustav Kiichhoff wheie the wavelets
emit into an amplituue uistiibution of cos
2
(2). This uistiibution has maximum amplituue in
the foiwaiu uiiection anu zeio amplituue in the ieveise uiiection. The iesult is the classical
BuygensFiesnelKiichhoff piinciple that accuiately uesciibes uiffiaction, ieflection anu
iefiaction. This will be uiscusseu in moie uetail in chaptei 11.


It is pioposeu that the few fiequencies that foim iotais inteiact with vacuum eneigy in a way
that allows them to emit wavelets that piopagate into a complete spheiical pattein as shown in
Figuie 1u2. With this hypothesis the cos
2
(2) amplituue uistiibution of the wavelets of light
is not shaieu by the wavelets of vacuum eneigy that stabilizes iotais. The conuitions that
stabilize iotais iequiie that both a foiwaiu piopagating wave anu an equal backwaius
piopagating wave be foimeu in the exteinal volume. This is accomplisheu if each wavelet
piopagates into a spheiical uistuibance pattein as shown in figuie 1u2. These spheiical
wavelets auu togethei to piouuce the next geneiation of uipole waves in spacetime. This
iesults in wavefionts piopagating in both the foiwaiu anu backwaiu iauial uiiections. These
new wavefionts aie labeleu inwaiu piopagating anu outwaiu piopagating. In the tangential
uiiection theie is incoheient auuition that piouuces cancellation. If the eneigy flow is equal in
both uiiections, the iesult is stanuing waves in the exteinal volume of a iotai. Stanuing waves
aie oscillating waves that have fixeu iegions of noues anu antinoues. They possess eneigy, but
theie is no continuous eneigy uiain.

Path Integial: A key point heie is that the wavelets of uipole waves in spacetime exploie all
possible paths between two points. Fuitheimoie, the amplituue at any point is the coheient
sum (amplituue anu phase) of these waves. The intensity at any point is the squaie of the
amplituue sum. This concept gives a physical inteipietation to the path integial opeiation of
quantum electiouynamics. It is a stietch to explain how point paiticles exploie all possible
paths between events, but waves in spacetime that foim new wavelets intiinsically accomplish
this task. Again, this pioposeu spacetime baseu explanation makes quantum mechanical
opeiations conceptually unueistanuable while the point paiticle mouel has numeious
mysteiies.

This explanation that involves backwaius piopagating waves sounus goou, but theie is a
pioblem. If this was the only mechanism stabilizing a iotai, the iesiuual stanuing waves woulu
be much laigei than the calculateu amplituue of B
e
=

o L
p
J
2
iequiieu foi the stanuing wave
pait of the electiic fielu. Theie appeais to be an auuitional unknown mechanism geneiateu in
vacuum eneigy that foims a wave that pioviues auuitional cancelation. These stanuing waves
iemain even when the nonoscillating component of the electiic fielu has been canceleu. If
otheis choose to mouel these stanuing waves, it shoulu be noteu that accuiate moueling of the
Buygens Piinciple in optics iequiies that the moueling must be uone in thiee spatial
uimensions
1
. If the Buygenss Piinciple is moueleu in only 2 spatial uimensions, theie is
incomplete cancelation of waves that uo not contiibute to a wavefiont.

de Broglie Waves: In chaptei 1 it was shown that a lasei contains light tiaveling in opposite
uiiections. When the waves in this lasei aie obseiveu fiom a stationaiy fiame of iefeience, the
biuiiectional light foims stanuing waves. In othei woius, the stanuing waves aie stationaiy
ielative to the lasei miiiois. When the lasei is tianslateu ielative to an obseivei, the stanuing
light waves aie still stationaiy ielative to the moving miiiois, but the moving fiame of
iefeience means that the obseivei sees the light being Bopplei shifteu up in fiequency in the
uiiection of tiavel anu being Bopplei shifteu uown in fiequency in the opposite uiiection. The
supeiposition of these two Bopplei shifteu beams of light piouuces what appeais to be a
moving envelope of waves.

1
http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath242/kmath242.htm


Figuie 11 shows the moving envelope of waves anu moving lasei miiiois. An analogy is
pioposeu to be piesent when a iotai is obseiveu in a moving fiame of iefeience. It is uesiiable
to examine the ue Bioglie waves of a iotai in gieatei uetail. Figuie 1uS is similai to Figuie
1u 1, but theie aie two uiffeiences. Fiist, Figuie 1uS shows waves piopagating only away
fiom the monopole souice (aiiows pointing away fiom the souice). Seconu, Figuie 1uS shows
the monopole souice moving uownwaiu ielative to the obseivei. The combination of these
two factois piouuces the Bopplei wave pattein shown. Figuie 1u4 also has a uownwaius
moving fiame of iefeience, but the uiffeience is that only waves piopagating towaius the
souice (inwaiu piopagation) aie shown (aiiows pointing towaius the souice).

The wavelets pieviously shown in figuie 1u2 means that waves aie simultaneously
piopagating both towaius the souice anu away fiom the souice. This means that a moving
souice will piouuce a wave pattein that is a supeiposition of figuies 1uS anu 1u4. When we
auu these two patteins togethei we obtain the iesult shown in Figuie 1uS. It is suipiising to
see that we obtain a lineai wave pattein fiom the supeiposition of spheiical waves in a moving
fiame of iefeience. These aie the iotais ue Bioglie waves. They have all the coiiect
chaiacteiistics coiiect ue Bioglie wavelength, coiiect ue Bioglie phase velocity anu the
coiiect ue Bioglie gioup velocity. Noving the iotai mouel piouuces the iotai equivalent of ue
Bioglie waves.

This figuie is not static. Not only is theie tianslation ielative to the obseivei, but the uaik
inteifeience fiinges aie moving at a speeu fastei than the speeu of light. Foi example, if the
iotai mouel is moving at 1% of the speeu of light ielative to an obseivei, then the inteifeience
pattein is moving in the same uiiection as the ielative motion, but at 1uu times the speeu of
light (w
u
= c
2
v). Also notice that theie is a phase shift going acioss the uaik inteifeience
pattein. This is iepiesenteu by a ieveisal of coloi following a wave acioss the uaik ue Bioglie
null.

Figuie 1uS makes no attempt to show that the amplituue uecieases with iauial uistance fiom
the souice. Figuie 1u6 is a Suimensional giaphical iepiesentation of Figuie 1uS with the
auueu featuie of a 1i amplituue uepenuence. The actual amplituue shoulu fall off
piopoitional to 1i
2
, but this shaip ueciease in amplituue makes it uifficult to see the ue
Bioglie mouulation wave.


Strain Amplitude Graph: It is easiest to explain the ue Bioglie mouulation wave using Figuie
1u7. This figuie is a giaph of the waves in figuie 1uS (iauial ciosssection). In figuie 1u7,
the high fiequency waves aie uesignateu as uipole waves in spacetime. When a iotai is
stationaiy ielative to the obseivei, then all the uipole waves in spacetime have equal
amplituue. At this stationaiy conuition the fiequency of these waves is the iotais Compton
fiequency (~ 1u
2u
Bz foi an election) anu the wavelength of these waves is the iotais
Compton wavelength
c
. When the iotai is moving ielative to the obseivei, then the iotais ue
Bioglie wave appeais. This is just the mouulation envelope that iesults fiom the uiffeient
Bopplei shift foi waves piopagating away fiom the iotais quantum volume anu towaius the
quantum volume.

Figuie 1u7 shows a giaphical iepiesentation of the iotais ue Bioglie wavelength
u
. This
giaph plots stiain amplituue veisus iauial uistance i. 0nly a shoit iauial segment is shown.
Theie shoulu be a iauial ueciease in amplituue, but the shoit iauial uistance uepicteu uoes not
show this ueciease in amplituue. In the exteinal volume of a iotai the funuamental tiaveling
wave with amplituue L
p
i has been canceleu leaving behinu the stanuing wave iesponsible foi
the iotais electiic chaige with amplituue of B
e
= o B
J
2
. The nonlineai effect iesponsible
foi the oscillating poition of giavity is too small to be shown. Theiefoie, the Y axis of this giaph
is the stiain amplituue B
e
. The maximum value of B
e
is the value given by the equation
B
e
= o B
J
2
= o

L
p
R
q
i
2
.

To give an iuea of scale, the appioximate Compton wavelength
c
is shown. An elections
Compton wavelength is about 2.4S x 1u
12
m. The ue Bioglie wavelength
u
uepenus on ielative
velocity (v) anu is illustiateu as being appioximately 2u times longei than the Compton
wavelength in this example. Theiefoie, the ue Bioglie wavelength woulu be appioximately
S x 1u
11
m in this example. The Compton wavelength
c
anu the ue Bioglie wavelength
u
aie
ielateu as follows:
c
= (vc)
u
(appioximation v << c). Theiefoie, this figuie illustiates the ue
Bioglie wave pattein if an election is tiaveling at about S% the speeu of light (
u
= 2u
c
in this
figuie).

The Y axis of this giaph is stiain amplituue which can be expiesseu eithei as a spatial stiain
(meteismetei) oi as a tempoial stiain (seconusseconu). Both ways of expiessing this give
the same uimensionless numbei foi a specific point in space anu instant in time. Suppose oui
obseivation point at a paiticulai instant is one miciometei (1u
6
meteis) fiom an election that
is moving past us at S% the speeu of light. We can then quantify the stiain amplituue uepicteu
in Figuie 1u7. 0sing B
e
= o B
J
2
=

o L
p
R
q
i
2
anu substituting i = 1u
6
m anu
R
q
= S.86 x 1u
1S
m foi an election, we obtain: B
e
= S.S x 1u
S7
. This is the maximum value of B
e

above anu below the zeio stiain line (the x axis).

It is possible to calculate the uisplacement of spacetime iequiieu to piouuce this amount of
uimensionless stiain. This stiain exists ovei appioximately one iauian of the wave which is a
uistance equal to R
q
. Foi an election R
q
= S.86 x 1u
1S
m theiefoie B
e
x R
q
= 2 x 1u
49
m.
Theiefoie, the spatial uisplacement of spacetime (uisplacement amplituue) which causes the
stiain amplituue illustiateu heie is smallei than Planck length by a factoi of about 1u
14
. If we
woulu have chosen to woik in the tempoial uomain we woulu obtain the same uimensionless
stiain which coulu be thought of as seconusseconu. The tempoial uisplacement amplituue
causing this stiain woulu then be B
e
c
= 6.8 x 1u
S8
s. This is smallei than Planck time anu the
uiffeience is again a factoi of about 1u
14
.

Function: It is not obvious in figuie 1u7 but theie is a 18u uegiee ( iauian) phase shift
between each ue Bioglie lobe. Theiefoie one complete ue Bioglie wavelength incluues two
lobes as shown. This 18u uegiee phase shift between lobes is a funuamental piopeity of
stanuing waves vieweu fiom a moving fiame of iefeience. This phase shift gives iise to the ue
Bioglie wave inteipietation shown in figuie 1u7. Peihaps most impoitant, the wave
designated de Broglie wave envelope is really the moving rotars function. It is
sometimes saiu that the function has no physical inteipietation. Bowevei, figuie 1u7 is the
pioposeu physical inteipietation of the quantum mechanical function. This is anothei
example of how the pioposeu spacetime baseu mouel makes quantum mechanical mysteiies
conceptually unueistanuable.

Relativistic Contraction: Above it was stateu that
c
illustiateu in figuie 1u7 is
appioximately equal to the iotais Compton wavelength. The ieason that this is not exact is
that this figuie uepicts a moving iotai anu theie is ielativistic length contiaction in the
Compton wavelength. If the iotai was stationaiy, theie woulu be no ue Bioglie wave
mouulation envelope anu the uipole waves woulu be exactly equal to the Compton wavelength.

The ieason foi biinging up this point is that it is possible to see the physical cause of ielativistic
length contiaction when theie is ielative motion. A moving iotai has waves that aie Bopplei
shiftei up in fiequency anu Bopplei shifteu uown in fiequency as pieviously explaineu. When
these Bopplei shifteu waves aie combineu, the iesultant wave has a shoitei wavelength than
the oiiginal wavelength without Bopplei shifts. This was pioven mathematically in Appenuix A
at the enu of chaptei 1. This analysis applies equally to stanuing waves in a moving lasei cavity
oi to stanuing waves in the exteinal volume of a iotai. The combination of the two Bopplei
shifts in the two oppositely piopagating waves piouuces a net ueciease in the Compton
wavelength by a factoi of:
_
1 v
2
c
2
. This is pioposeu to be the souice of ielativistic
contiaction. A moving metei stick will appeai to ueciease in length because all the waves that
make up the metei stick ueciease theii wavelength because of this effect.

Rotating Dipole Model: We will now attempt to give a ciuue mouel of the stanuing waves
piesent in the exteinal volume of iotating spacetime uipole. An accuiate mouel of this
iequiies high level computei moueling. It involves moueling a laige numbei of wavelets that
aie auueu togethei anu then become the souice of new wavelets that foim the next geneiation.
This piocess is iepeateu a laige numbei of times. This task is beyonu the scope of this book.
Fuitheimoie, the simplest moueling woulu piobably make no uistinction between the infinite
numbei of fiequencies that uo not foim stable iotais anu the few fiequencies with the unusual
chaiacteiistics that combine to foim stable iotais. Also, how uo we hanule the chaotic spin
uistiibution chaiacteiistics of spin V paiticles. The following moueling is a best guess mouel
of the exteinal volume of an election. This can then seive as a staiting point foi otheis that can
impiove on this mouel.

Befoie attempting to mouel the exteinal volume of iotais, it is uesiiable to fiist uesciibe the
chaotic spin piopeities exhibiteu by isolateu iotais. Because a iotai is at the limit of causality, it
shoulu not be a suipiise that a iotai has piobabilistic chaiacteiistics. The uisplacement of
spacetime is so small that uipole waves in spacetime uo not violate the conseivation of
momentum. Recall the examples given pieviously compaiing the minute volume anu iate of
time changes iequiieu to foim an elections spacetime uipole. (expanuing the iauius of
}upiteis oibit by a hyuiogen atom oi slowing the iate of time by seveial micioseconus ovei the
age of the univeise.)


Figuie 1u8 shows a plot in spheiical cooiuinates of the piobability of spin being oiienteu in
the uiiection . This spin uiiection piobability is piopoitional to cos
2
(2). Suppose that we
concentiate not on the spin uiiection, but on the axis of spin. Figuie 1u8 specifies the
expectation axis anu an aibitiaiy axis. The point of this is to show that a iotai can have a
spheiical uistiibution aveiageu ovei time even though the iotai has an expectation spin
uiiection. The iotating uipole shown in figuie S1 woulu not have a spheiical uistiibution if the
axis of iotation weie fixeu. Bowevei, figuie 1u8 shows that the piobability of spin uiiection is
such that all axis oiientations aie equally piobable. In othei woius, the expectation axis shown
in figuie 1u8 is the same length as the aibitiaiy axis when opposite spin piobabilities aie
auueu togethei. If we consiuei the length of the spin axis piobability as , then we have:

= cos
2
(2) + cos
2
|( + ) 2] = cos
2
(2) + sin
2
(2) = 1

With this being saiu, we will simplify the moueling by looking at the equatoiial plane of the
expectation iotation axis. Foi example, the expectation axis can be set by placing an election in
a magnetic fielu. This is the simplest to mouel anu one step bettei than assuming a monopole
emittei.

Figuie 1u9 shows a iotating uipole uesignateu iotating uipole lobes. The two lobes uepicteu
iepiesent the two uipole lobes uiscusseu anu uepicteu in chaptei S. When the lobes move
aiounu the imaginaiy ciicle at the speeu of light, any uistuibance piopagating away fiom these
lobes at the speeu of light anu foims the outwaiu piopagating Aichimeues spiials shown. This
simplifieu uesciiption uoes ignoie the fact that eveiy pait of the wave foims new wavelets, but
we will pioceeu with this uesciiption anu attempt to incluue wavelets latei.

Foi uiscussion, we will initially assume that the soliu lines iepiesent iegions wheie the iate of
time is fastei than noimal anu the uasheu lines iepiesent iegions wheie the iate of time is
slowei than noimal. Since the iate of time affects all S spatial uiiections equally, these waves
aie neithei longituuinal noi tiansveise. They aie simply time waves. Besiues affecting the iate
of time, these waves also iepiesent a spatial uistoition.

So fai, we have ignoieu the fact that the mouel calls foi eveiy point on the wavefiont to be the
souice of a new wavelet. An extiemely simplifieu mouel takes the outgoing wave pattein
shown in figuie 1u9 anu geneiate the backwaius piopagating waves by assuming that the
outwaiu piopagating waves aie ieflecteu off a concentiic spheiical ieflectoi. These ieflecteu
waves then piopagate back towaius the iotating uipole. This makes anothei paii of
Aichimeues spiials that in a static image aie the miiioi image of figuie 1u9. They have the
same iotational uiiection when vieweu fiom the peispective of figuie 1u9, but they aie
piopagating inwaiu.

When the outgoing waves anu incoming waves aie auueu togethei we obtain an inteifeience
pattein shown in Figuie 1u1u. This is a snapshot. The actual pattein is iotating at the same
iate as the iotating uipole (the Compton fiequency). Foi an election, this image woulu iotate
about 1.24 x 1u
2u
ievolutions pei seconu. This is cuiiently the best iepiesentation of an
isolateu iotai such as an isolateu election. We aie assuming a stationaiy fiame of iefeience foi
Figuie 1u1u (no ue Bioglie waves supeiimposeu). Note that theie is a 18u uegiee phase
change at the uestiuctive inteifeience bai (black bai) that goes acioss the centei of this figuie.
This phase change can be seen because theie is a ieveisal of coloi (yellow to blue oi blue to
yellow) at this iegion of uestiuctive inteifeience.

Even though this figuie was maue using some questionable simplifications, it is a ieasonable
fiist attempt. The amplituue of the waves shoulu uiop off with a 1i
2
ueciease in amplituue
fiom the centei. Foi illustiation puiposes, this figuie uepicts unifoim iauial wave amplituue.
The ieauei shoulu mentally aujust foi the iauial ueciease in amplituue.


Conservation of Angular Momentum: Figuie 1u1u looks similai to a iotating uisk, but this
is the wiong inteipietation. Theie is no violation of the conseivation of angulai momentum as
this pattein enlaiges. This is best explaineu by ietuining to figuie 1u9. We will assume that all
of the eneigy anu angulai momentum staits off in the iegion uesignateu iotating uipole lobes.
If some eneigy leaves this iegion, its outwaiu piopagation follows the Aichimeues spiial
pattein shown in figuie 1u9. This is the pattein that maintains constant total angulai
momentum.

Pioving this statement woulu iepiesent a substantial uiveision, but one biief point suppoits
this contention. Figuie 1u9 shows an aiiow uiawn peipenuiculai to the Aichimeues spiial in
the fai fielu of the spiial pattein. In the limit of the fai fielu the piojection of this peipenuiculai
line back towaius the centei iesults in the piojecteu line being tangent to the imaginaiy ciicle
with iauius of R
q
. This implies a conseivation of the angulai momentum foi eneigy that leaves
this ciicle. The pattein shown in figuie 1u1u is a supei position of two Aichimeues spiial
patteins, both of which can be shown to inuiviuually exhibit conseivation of angulai
momentum. The iotating pattein in figuie 1u1u has a tangential speeu fastei than the speeu
of light foi any iauial uistance gieatei than i = R
q
. This is peimitteu because this is just an
inteifeience effect that can move fastei than the speeu of light.

In Figuie 1u11 we aie looking at this same pattein of figuie 1u1u fiom a moving fiame of
iefeience. To obtain this pictuie we auueu togethei the Bopplei shiftei outgoing anu incoming
wave patteins. This is similai to auuing togethei Figuies 1uS anu 1u4 to get figuie 1uS. To
obtain figuie 1u11 we auueu togethei Bopplei shifteu outgoing anu incoming Aichimeues
spiials iathei than the concentiic ciicles. Like figuie 1uS, Figuie 1u11 is a snapshot of a
moving inteifeience pattein. The inteifeience pattein woulu be moving fastei than the speeu
of light as pieviously explaineu foi Figuie 1uS. In fact, the ue Bioglie wavelength anu
tianslation speeu is the same whethei we mouel a monopole souice oi a uipole souice
pioviueu that we assume the same Compton fiequency.

Figuie 1u11 is actually a laige spiial pattein, but the spiial chaiacteiistic is only obvious neai
the centei of the figuie. The exact centei of figuie 1u11 that is the initiation of the spiial is not
an accuiate illustiation of the pattein that woulu be piouuceu by a iotai. Figuie 1u9
illustiates that the spiial uoes not extenu to the exact centei. Insteau, theie is a tiansition to
the quantum volume that is iepiesenteu by a ciicle with iauius R
q
. Figuie 1u11 was uiawn
with the two spiials (inwaiu anu outwaiu piopagating) extenuing all the way to the centei.
Theiefoie, a moie iealistic veision of figuie 1u11 woulu have a tiansition to black ovei the
centei ~ 1 wavelength.

Compton Scattering: In 19uS Albeit Einsteins publisheu a papei on the photoelectiic effect.
This papei suggesteu that light exhibits paiticlelike piopeities. At the time light was
consiueieu to be only a wave phenomenon. In the eaily 192us, the paiticlelike piopeities of
light was still being uebateu. Bowevei, uebate effectively enueu with the obseivation by
Aithui Compton of the scatteiing of xiay photons by elections (calleu Compton scatteiing).
The scatteieu xiay photons exhibit a ueciease in fiequency that is a function of scatteiing
angle. The inuiviuual elections also exhibit iecoil when they scattei an xiay photon. The
ueciease in the fiequency of the scatteieu photon coiiesponus to the eneigy tiansfeiieu to the
iecoiling election. A simple Bopplei shift of waves ieflecting off the moving election uoes not
coiiesponu to the coiiect fiequency shift. All of this is peifectly explaineu by the mouel that
assumes that photons aie paiticles with eneigy that is a function of fiequency. When a photon
(point paiticle) colliues with an election (point paiticle) theie is momentum tiansfei anu
eneigy tiansfei between these paiticles. The inteiaction is nicely uesciibeu by Comptons
equations anu he ieceiveu the 1927 Nobel Piize in physics foi this woik.

The physics community has univeisally auopteu the wavepaiticle photon mouel. Photons
cleaily have wave piopeities, but Compton scatteiing, the photoelectiic effect anu othei
expeiiments also seem to iequiie a paiticle explanation. The wavepaiticle uesciiption of both
photons anu paiticles woiks well, but the conceptual unueistanuing of this has puzzleu
geneiations of physics stuuents.

Schrodinger Article on the Compton Effect: Since this book pioposes that funuamental
paiticles aie uipole waves in spacetime, it woulu be helpful to suppoit this contention by
offeiing a plausible explanation foi Compton scatteiing using the pioposeu spacetime baseu
mouel of both elections anu photons. As I was woiking on this explanation, I assumeu that no
one hau been successful in pioposing a puiely wave baseu explanation foi Compton scatteiing.
To my suipiise, I uiscoveieu that in 1927 Eiwin Schiouingei hau publisheu a technical papei
titleu The Compton Effect
2
. This aiticle is available in Schiouingeis book Wave Nechanics
which has hau multiple euitions in English. Schiouingei uiu not conceive of waves in spacetime
oi a iotai mouel, but he uiu piopose a plausible wave explanation foi Compton scatteiing. Bis
pioposeu explanation involveu an elections ue Bioglie waves inteiacting with light waves to
piouuce the coiiect scattei chaiacteiistics foi both the light anu the election. In this aiticle,
Schiouingei useu some antiquateu teiminology such as the phiase an ethei wave to uesciibe
light, but his point is valiu. A biief uesciiption of his concept will be given heie.

Schiouingei lookeu at the collision as if it was a continuous piocess. In this case foui waves aie
piesent anu continuously inteiacting. These foui waves aie 1) the elections ue Bioglie wave
befoie the inteiaction 2) the elections ue Bioglie wave aftei the inteiaction S) the light wave
befoie the inteiaction anu 4) the light wave aftei the inteiaction. Schiouingei founu that the
two supeiimposeu ue Bioglie waves combineu to make a wave that he calleu a wave of
electiical uensity. This combineu wave hau the peifect peiiouicity to ieflect the inciuent light
beam anu cieate a ieflecteu beam with the coiiect fiequency shift anu scattei angle. The two

2
Annalen der Physik (4), vol 82
supeiimposeu light waves (inciuent anu scatteieu) piouuce an inteifeience pattein that
matches the inteifeience pattein piouuceu by the two supeiimposeu ue Bioglie waves.

Schiouingei maue an analogy between Compton scatteiing anu light inteiacting with sounu
waves (Biillouin scatteiing). Sounu waves piouuce a peiiouic change in the inuex of iefiaction
of an acoustic meuium. Light waves piopagating in an acoustic meuium can ieflect off the
sounu wave (peiiouic change in the inuex of iefiaction). The maximum ieflection is obtaineu if
the following equation is satisfieu: = 2 sin

Wheie: = light wavelength, = acoustic wavelength anu = the angle between the light
piopagation uiiection anu a plane paiallel to the acoustic waves.

This equation woulu be exact if the acoustic wave was stationaiy. Since the acoustic wave has a
speeu much less than the speeu of light, the conuition of a stationaiy acoustic wave is
appioximately met. Bowevei, ielativistic coiiections woulu be iequiieu if the sounu wave
piopagateu at a significant fiaction of the speeu of light. The equation coiiesponus to the
Biagg law (fiist oiuei) anu becomes exact when the acoustic waves aie stationaiy. When the
acoustic speeu of sounu is taken into consiueiation, then it appeais as if the light waves aie
ieflecting off a moving multi layei uielectiic miiioi. Theie is a fiequency shift in the ieflecteu
light anu the angle of inciuence uoes not equal the angle of ieflection because the miiioi is
moving.

Schiouingei consiueieu the supeiposition of the two sets of an elections ue Bioglie waves
(befoie anu aftei the inteiaction) to iesult in a wave of electiical uensity that coulu inteiact
with light. Beie aie Schiouingeis tianslateu woius:

Accoiuing to the hypothesis of wave mechanics, which up to now has pioven
tiustwoithy, it is not the function itself, but the squaie of the absolute value that
is given a physical meaning, namely, uensity of electiicity. A single wave
theiefoie piouuces a uensity uistiibution which is constant in both space anu time.
If howevei, we supeiimpose two such waves, we see that a wave of electiical
uensity aiises fiom the combination

Now it is this uensity wave that takes the place of the sounu wave of Biillouins
papei. If we assume that a light wave is ieflecteu fiom it as fiom a moving miiioi,
(subject to the fulfillment of Biagg's law) then we shall show that oui foui waves
(two waves anu the inciuent anu ieflecteu light waves) stanu exactly in the
Compton ielationship.

As all the foui waves aie invaiiant with iespect to Loientz tiansfoimation, we can
biing the uensity wave to iest by means of such a tiansfoimation. Biaggs
ielationship holus exactly if uenotes the wavelength of the light wave, that of the
uensity wave anu the glancing angle. It can be put in the foim: 2hsin = h

Vector Diagrams: I will elaboiate on Schiouingeis point that it is possible to biing the two
inteiacting ue Bioglie waves into a stationaiy fiame of iefeience by a Loientz tiansfoimation.
Noimally Compton scatteiing involves an inciuent photon stiiking a stationaiy election. The
momentum tiansfei piouuces a iecoiling (moving) election anu ieuuces the eneigy of the
scatteieu photon compaieu to the inciuent photon.

Figuie 1u12 shows a vectoi uiagiam that uepicts this noimal Compton scatteiing conuition.
This uiagiam shows the momentum vectoi of both the inciuent anu the scatteieu photons. It
also shows the elections momentum vectoi aftei the Compton scatteiing. All of these aie
commonly incluueu in Compton scatteiing uiagiams, but figuie 1u12 incluues two auuitional
featuies. Fiist, the elections momentum befoie scatteiing is uesignateu (momentum = u).
Seconuly, theie is a momentum vectoi uesignateu half the elections momentum aftei
scatteiing. This vectoi shoulu be supeiimposeu on the paiallel vectoi but it has been
uisplaceu slightly foi claiity.

The ieason foi the auuitional uesignations of the elections momentum befoie scatteiing anu
half the elections momentum aftei scatteiing is that these uesignations will help explain the
fiame of iefeience useu foi Figuie 1u1S. In figuie 1u1S, we auopt a fiame of iefeience that is
iequiieu to have the election moving with the opposite momentum as the vectoi uesignateu
half the elections momentum aftei scatteiing. If the scatteieu elections velocity is non
ielativistic, then the moving fiame of iefeience is simply half the scatteieu elections speeu anu
the opposite vectoi uiiection as shown in figuie 1u1S. In this fiame of iefeience, the election
is moving at velocity +v befoie scatteiing anu is moving at velocity v aftei the scatteiing (the
same speeu but opposite uiiection). This is the fiame of iefeience uesciibeu by Schiouingei as
the Loientz tiansfoimation that biings the uensity wave to iest. The supeiposition of the
elections ue Bioglie waves befoie anu aftei the inteiaction iesults in a stationaiy (but
oscillating) ue Bioglie wave pattein.

It is veiy easy to analyze Compton scatteiing fiom this fiame of iefeience. Theie is momentum
tiansfei between the photon anu the election, but theie is no eneigy tiansfeiieu. In this zeio
eneigy tiansfei fiame of iefeience, the election momentum moving towaius the oiigin (befoie
scatteiing the photon) is the same magnituue but opposite uiiection as the election
momentum moving away fiom the oiigin (aftei scatteiing the photon). The ieveisal in
uiiection is the momentum tiansfeiieu to the photon. The supeiposition of the two sets of the
elections ue Bioglie waves piouuces a stationaiy stanuing wave pattein (uensity wave) with
peiiouicity of
u
= mv. This stationaiy wave pattein effectively ieflects a photon without
any change in fiequency. Also, the angle of inciuence equals the angle of ieflection just like
ieflection fiom a stationaiy miiioi.

All Compton scatteiing events involving an initially stationaiy election can be lookeu at as a
special case of the zeio eneigy tiansfei Compton scatteiing wheie the fiame of iefeience has
been aujusteu (Loientz tiansfoimation) so that the election is initially stationaiy. 0nce we
unueistanu a scatteiing event in this simplest fiame of iefeience, we can easily switch back to
the commonly useu fiame of iefeience uepicteu in figuie 1u12. The fiequency shift anu angle
change is simply the iesult of ieflecting off a moving multi layei uielectiic miiioi.

Figuie 1uS shows a iotai mouel in a moving fiame of iefeience. This figuie uepicts an instant
in time. The laige black hoiizontal fiinges aie moving in the uiiection of tianslation at a
velocity of w
u
= c
2
v. This says that the inteifeience fiinges aie always moving fastei than the
speeu of light. When we supeiimpose two iotai mouels moving at the same speeu but in
opposite uiiections, we again obtain an instantaneous pictuie similai to figuie 1uS. Bowevei,
the supeiposition of opposite moving waves iesults in the ue Bioglie waves becoming
stationaiy. This can be visualizeu as the high fiequency waves (yellow anu blue waves) in
figuie 1uS being stanuing waves which aie oscillating at a fiequency of appioximately 1u
2u
Bz.

Function: The envelope of these waves is a wave that is pioposeu to be Schiouingeis
function. Squaiing this gives the piobability of finuing the election in aieas of gieatest
oscillation amplituue. Schiouingei calls these aieas of gieatest oscillation waves of electiical
uensity. Since these waves aie pioposeu to be uipole waves in spacetime oscillating at the
elections Compton fiequency, it is easy to see why the squaie of these waves iepiesents the
piobability of finuing an election.

Schiouingei aigues that when light inteiacts with stationaiy waves (ue Bioglie waves) they
iepiesent the equivalent of a uensity vaiiation that can ieflect light. 0nce again, his tianslateu
woius aie:

A single wave theiefoie piouuces a uensity uistiibution which is constant in both
space anu time. If howevei, we supeiimpose two such waves, we see that a wave
of electiical uensity aiises fiom the combination

Now it is this uensity wave that takes the place of the sounu wave of Biillouins
papei. If we assume that a light wave is ieflecteu fiom it as fiom a moving miiioi,
(subject to the fulfillment of Biagg's law) then we shall show that oui foui waves
(two waves anu the inciuent anu ieflecteu light waves) stanu exactly in the
Compton ielationship.

Noie will be saiu about the physical explanation of the function in chaptei 12. Foi now we
will attempt to illustiate Schiouingeis iuea of Compton scatteiing with the next two figuies.
Figuie 1u14 sets the stage by illustiating the wave piopeities of light ieflecting off a miiioi
(fiozen in time). The beam of waves enteis fiom the left, ieflects off the miiioi anu leaves to
the iight. The aiea of oveilap between the inciuent anu ieflecteu beams is the aiea wheie a
stanuing wave pattein is cieateu. This stanuing wave pattein has stanuing wave nulls which in
this figuie aie hoiizontal banus paiallel to the miiioi suiface wheie theie is no electiic fielu
oscillation. The antinoue banus aie also illustiateu anu these aie iegions of maximum electiic
fielu oscillation. Foi example, if the light wave is lineaily polaiizeu with the electiic fielu vectoi
oscillating peipenuiculai to the plane of the illustiation, then the blue iegions might be
consiueieu iegions wheie the electiic fielu momentaiily is pointing towaius the ieauei anu the
yellow iegions might be consiueieu iegions wheie the electiic fielu vectoi is momentaiily
pointing away fiom the ieauei. If time was alloweu to piogiess foiwaiu, these blue anu yellow
iegions in the stanuing wave woulu move fiom left to iight. The noue planes woulu iemain
unchangeu.

Now figuie 1u1S iepiesents the combination of figuies 1u14 anu 1uS. In this case only the
stanuing wave poition of figuie 1u14 is illustiateu, so the ieauei must imagine that the
inciuent beam is coming in fiom the uppei left anu the ieflecteu beam is leaving to the uppei
iight. Also the lowei poition of figuie 1u1S iepiesents the supeiposition of an election befoie
anu aftei the scatteiing. We aie using the zeio eneigy tiansfei fiame of iefeience, so the ue
Bioglie wave pattein woulu appeai stationaiy. The conuitions that piouuce Compton
scatteiing iesult in a peifect match between the spacing of the stanuing wave antinoues of the
light beam anu the stanuing wave antinoues of the election. It is as if the light beam is
ieflecting off a multi layei uielectiic ieflectoi.

If we moveu to a uiffeient fiame of iefeience wheie we woulu peiceive some eneigy tiansfei
between the light anu the election, then the angle of inciuence woulu not equal the angle of
ieflection anu the wavelength of the ieflecteu beam woulu be uiffeient than the wavelength of
the inciuent beam. In the above uesciiption, some aitistic license has been taken both in the
illustiation anu the choice of woius. We shoulu ieally be talking about the scattei of a single
photon fiom a single election. The wave amplituue shoulu not be unifoim anu numeious othei
coiiections.

This spacetime wave explanation of Compton scatteiing is pioposeu to actually be bettei than
the paiticle baseu explanation because seveial quantum mechanical mysteiies aie also
explaineu by the spacetime wave explanation. Foi example, the spacetime wave explanation
has the wave mouel of an election going fiom its initial velocity to its final velocity without
acceleiating thiough all the inteimeuiate velocities. An explanation of Compton scatteiing
involving the stanuaiu point paiticle mouel of an election woulu seem to imply that the
election unueigoes acceleiation as it tiansitions thiough inteimeuiate velocities. This concept
of inteimeuiate velocities is not consistent with the quantum mechanical uesciiption.

Also, Schiouingei inuicateu that his function hau no physical meaning; it only gaineu physical
meaning when it was squaieu to give the piobability of finuing a paiticle. I have given a
pioposeu physical meaning to the function. It is the wave envelope shown in figuie 1u7 anu
uepicteu in figuie 1uS. The envelope ( function) is unuetectable because it is an inteifeience
effect with noues anu antinoues of uipole waves in spacetime with an inteifeience pattein that
piopagates fastei than the speeu of light. 0nly when theie is an inteiaction between two such
envelopes of waves uoes the piopagation slow uown to a speeu less than the speeu of light (as
uepicteu in figuie 1u1S). Squaiing this then gives the piobability of finuing the paiticle.

Plausibility, Not Proof: To successfully complete this Compton scatteiing analysis, it woulu
be necessaiy to show that this supeiposition of the elections waves in spacetime (two
uiffeient velocities) piouuces a peiiouic change in the piopei speeu of light. Fuitheimoie, it
woulu also be necessaiy to chaiacteiize a photon using waves in spacetime anu show that the
combination of these mouels piouuces the coiiect scattei piobability.

While I have pioposeu explanations that contain the elements iequiieu in this explanation, I
cannot conclusively show that the effects on the speeu of light aie sufficient to accomplish
Compton scatteiing. It is hopeu that otheis might be able to complete this task. Schiouingei
has shown that a wave explanation of Compton scatteiing is plausible. I show that the iotai
mouel in a moving fiame of iefeience is plausibly equivalent to Schiouingeis function
waves. Theiefoie, this will be ueclaieu a successful plausibility test even though it is a long way
fiom being conclusively pioven.

Double Slit Experiment: Anothei plausibility test of the iotai mouel is to see if this mouel
piouuces a uiffiaction pattein chaiacteiistic of senuing an election (oi othei paiticle) thiough
a uouble slit. The uiffiaction pattein piouuceu by senuing a stieam of elections thiough a
uouble slit has long been offeieu as pioof that an election exhibits wavepaiticle uuality. Even
befoie woiking on the iueas expiesseu in this book, I always founu the implications of the
uouble slit uiffiaction expeiiment to be a pioblem foi the wavepaiticle uuality explanation.
If an election is also a point paiticle, then the point paiticle must have passeu thiough only one
of the two slits. Even if some wave piopeities of the paiticle exploieu the othei slit, it seems as
if the uiffiaction pattein shoulu imply an unequal illumination of the two slits. A laige
inequality of illumination shoulu gieatly ieuuce the visibility of the uiffiaction nulls. Insteau,
the uiffiaction pattein piouuceu by elections implies that the election possesses only wave
piopeities as it passes thiough both slits equally anu simultaneously. I finu it fai easiei to
conceptually unueistanu how the iotai mouel of an election can possess paiticlelike
piopeities than unueistanu the contiauictions of wavepaiticle uuality. Imagine an election as
a unit of quantizeu angulai momentum with a specific iotational fiequency existing in a sea of
vacuum eneigy. With this mouel it is possible to see how this quantizeu angulai momentum
coulu possibly ieassemble itself on the othei siue of a uouble slit. It woulu have passeu
thiough both slits anu woulu exhibit the uouble slit uiffiaction pattein.

The following explanation will continue to use an election as an example, but this also applies
to composite paiticles such as neutions oi molecules. The ieasoning about neutions anu othei
composite paiticles will be uiscusseu latei in the chaptei about hauions.

The uiffiaction pattein piouuceu by light of wavelength passing thiough a single slit of wiuth
u
1
piouuces a wellknown single slit uiffiaction pattein. The single slit intensity piofile can be
calculateu fiom the Fiaunhofei uiffiaction integial. In geneial, the uouble slit uiffiaction
pattein can be thought of as a supeiposition of the single slit uiffiaction pattein on the
uiffiaction pattein foi two coheient naiiow (< ) line souices of light sepaiateu by the uouble
slit sepaiation uistance u
2
.

Beie we aie only going to uo a gieatly simplifieu veision that can illustiate some
inteipietations of the wave patteins that will be obtaineu in a uouble slit simulation. In this
simplification, we stait with the mouel of a moving iotai such as shown in figuie 1uS.
Symmetiical poitions of the exteinal volume of a iotai aie piesumeu to pass thiough both slits
symmetiically anu become two new souices of waves. Foi simplification the emission pattein
fiom each slit is spheiical. An actual slit wiuth woulu intiouuce an auuitional intensity
uistiibution supeiimposeu on this spheiical emission pattein. The key uiffeience between this
mouel anu a stanuaiu uouble slit expeiiment with light is that the waves emanating fiom both
slits in this mouel have the biuiiectional piopagation chaiacteiistics (ue Bioglie waves) of a
moving iotai. This means that we aie inteifeiing 4 sets of waves (2 countei piopagating waves
fiom each slit).


Figuie 1u16 shows the iesult of the coheient inteiaction of these 4 waves. The two slits aie
iuentifieu as souice 1 anu souice 2. The iesultant inteifeience pattein is similai to what
might be expecteu fiom light passing thiough uouble slits, but theie aie some key uiffeiences.
Fiist, the thiee uaik hoiizontal banus aie the iesult of the ue Bioglie waves anu aie similai to
the banus shown in figuie 1uS. These banus woulu be moving at fastei than the speeu of light
(w
m
= c
2
v) anu woulu not be in the pattein piouuceu by light. Seconuly, the blue anu yellow
wave iepiesentations woulu be alteinating coloi (uipole polaiity) at the elections Compton
fiequency. Thiiu, these blue anu yellow wave iepiesentations woulu be piopagating away
fiom the slits at the elections piopagation speeu (u
u
= v) anu not at the speeu of light as woulu
occui with light. Fouith, it is impossible to uetect the fine wave pattein iepiesenteu by the
blue anu yellow waves. These have uisplacement amplituues less than Planck lengthtime anu
aie unuetectable as uisciete waves. They aie at the elections Compton fiequency anu the
squaie of the time aveiageu waves iepiesent the piobability of finuing the election.

When a moving election encounteis a uouble slit, it no longei is an isolateu election. The
mouel must change to ieflect the changeu bounuaiy conuitions. Paits of the quantizeu wave
that is the election pass thiough both slits anu paits of the election encountei the mattei
(othei waves in spacetime) that foims the blocking aieas. Whethei oi not the election (iotai)
iefoims on the othei siue of the uouble slit is a piobability. Even though most of the uipole
wave is blockeu (peihaps 99%), appaiently the iemaining 1% has a piobability of
ieconstiucting the entiie uipole wave on the othei siue of the uouble slit. If it uoes iefoim, it
has new chaiacteiistics imposeu by the inteiaction with the mattei (waves) that suiiounus the
uouble slit openings. Theie aie new bounuaiy conuitions that aie expiesseu as the iauial
inteifeience pattein shown in Figuie 1u16.

Oscillating Component of Gravity: Nost of this chaptei was spent uesciibing the pait of the
exteinal volume associateu with the oscillating anu non oscillating components associateu with
the electiic fielu. Chapteis 6 anu 8 weie spent on giavity which is actually uesciibing the non
oscillating stiain in spacetime causeu by spacetime being a nonlineai meuium foi uipole waves
in spacetime. The iemaining component is the pioposeu oscillating component of giavity.
Touay, this is an extiemely weak effect because the amplituue of this oscillating component is
B
g
= B
2
J
2
= L
p
2
i
2
. 0bviously, L
p
2
i
2
is an extiemely small numbei foi any value of i
encounteieu touay. Bowevei, at the beginning of the Big Bang this oscillating component of
giavity was veiy impoitant anu piouuceu all the vacuum eneigy (vacuum fluctuations) piesent
in the univeise touay. This will be uiscusseu fuithei in chapteis 1S anu 14 which ueal with
cosmology.


11-1

Chaptei 11

Photons

Photons: In chaptei 9 we examineu the simplifieu case of photons confineu to a ieflecting
cavity. When we ieuuceu the uimensions of the cavity to the minimum size that woulu suppoit
electiomagnetic iauiation of a paiticulai wavelength, we calleu this conuition maximum
confinement. Equations foi the electiic anu magnetic fielu weie uevelopeu foi this maximum
confinement conuition. In this chaptei we will uevelop a mouel of a fieely piopagating photon.
This mouel will be incomplete, but hopefully this attempt at ueveloping such a mouel will
encouiage otheis to impiove on this mouel.

It is commonly aigueu that photons cannot just be waves because the photoelectiic effect
uemonstiates that all the eneigy of a photon is tiansfeiieu to a single election in an absoibing
atom. This concentiation of eneigy can eject an election fiom the suiface of the photoelectiic
mateiial. The ieasoning is that if a photon was a wave, then the wave woulu uistiibute the
photons eneigy evenly ovei a suiface anu no single election woulu ieceive the eneigy iequiieu
to eject an election fiom a suiface. This ieasoning assumes that the waves of a photon aie
similai to eithei a sounu wave oi peihaps a wave in the ethei. A sounu wave in aii foi example
piouuces an oscillating uisplacement of many molecules. When a sounu wave in aii stiikes a
soliu suiface, it is ieally many inuiviuual molecules stiiking the suiface inuepenuently. The
eneigy of the sounu wave is uistiibuteu ovei the suiface. Similaily, if light is imagineu as a
wave in an omnipiesent fluiu calleu the ethei, then waves in the ethei woulu be evenly
uistiibuteu ovei a suiface anu an election woulu not be ejecteu fiom the suiface.

Bowevei, since a photon has quantizeu angulai momentum, it is impossible to uistiibute
quantizeu angulai momentum to multiple locations. All the quantizeu angulai momentum
(anu eneigy) is uepositeu at a single location. This uoes not iequiie a paiticle explanation; it
only iequiies quantization of angulai momentum. Fuitheimoie, the photoelectiic effect is low
eneigy Compton scatteiing. In chaptei 1u it was shown that Compton scatteiing has a
plausible wave explanation. Even though the photoelectiic mateiial has a suiface woik
function, the basic Compton scattei wave inteiaction is the same. The wave chaiacteiistics of
the photon anu the election can eject the election fiom the suiface.

How Big Is a Photon? The stanuaiu explanation foi a photons piopeities is to claim that a
photon exhibits wavepaiticle uuality. 0f couise, this is not a conceptually unueistanuable
explanation; it is meiely a name. In a uouble slit expeiiment, a photon seems to have the ability
to pass thiough both slits simultaneously. This implies that a photon has a physical wiuth. A
photon also seems to have a physical length that is a function of the photons spectial wiuth.
Foi example, a iubiuium atom has a spectial line calleu the B
1
tiansition. When a iubiuium
11-2
atom goes thiough this tiansition, it emits a photon ovei about 26 ns. This implies that this
photon has a length of about 8 meteis. Fuitheimoie, the spectial line wiuth of this iubiuium
tiansition has a banuwiuth that also implies a wave packet with this physical length using a
Fouiiei tiansfoim. This is not just an 8 metei unceitainty in the location of the photon; it is an
actual wave that is 8 meteis long. The hypei fine tiansition of cesium 1SS that is useu in
atomic clocks emits at a miciowave fiequency of about 9.2 x 1u
9
Bz. This emission fiequency is
stable to bettei than one pait in 1u
1S
. This implies that the emitteu photon is continuously
emitteu ovei about 1uuu seconus anu the length of the photon is about S x 1u
11
m. At the
opposite extieme, the iecoiu foi the shoitest pulse of lasei light (in teims of appioaching the
theoietical limit) is a meie 1.S cycles pei pulse. The cuiient iecoiu foi the shoitest pulse of
lasei light is about 8 x 1u
17
seconus but that pulse containeu seveial cycles anu haimonics of a
shoit wavelength.

The emission of a photon by an atom is often uepicteu as if it is an instantaneous event.
Bowevei, this is known to be incoiiect
1
because theie is a time uepenuence of the wave
function in a quantum tiansition. Expeiimental measuiements have been maue of samples
unueigoing spectioscopic tiansitions. These expeiiments confiim that theie aie no
instantaneous quantum jumps. Insteau, the electiic anu magnetic piopeities unueigo a smooth
anu continuous tiansition occuiiing ovei the lifetime of an exciteu state.

Theie is a veiy goou papei titleu Bow a Photon is Cieateu oi Absoibeu
2
that is also available
online
S
. This online veision has two goou animations showing the oscillations of a hyuiogen
atom uuiing the emission of a photon. This papei shows that theie is an often ignoieu
tiansition peiiou iequiieu foi the emission oi absoiption of eneigy in a tiansition between
eneigy levels. Theie aie numeious expeiimental obseivations that confiim that photons aie
emitteu oi absoibeu ovei a time peiiou coiiesponuing to the inveise banuwiuth. Quoting fiom
the above aiticle:

The fiist expeiimental measuiements of bulk samples unueigoing spectioscopic
tiansitions weie obtaineu fiom nucleai magnetic iesonance obseivations of the
tiansition nutation effect
4
anu spin echoes
S
,
6
using coheient iauiation piouuceu by a
single iauio fiequency oscillatoi. Noie iecently, the analogous tiansition nutation
effect
7
,
8
anu so calleu photon echoes
9
,
1u
,
11
have been obseiveu in moleculai

1
Macomber, J. D. The Dynamics of Spectroscopic Transition; John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1976.
2
Henderson, G J. Chem. Educ. 1979, 56, 631-634
3
http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/JCEWWW/Articles/DynaPub/DynaPub.html
4
Torrey, H. C. Phys. Rev. 76, 1059 (1949).
5
Hahn, E. L. Phys. Rev. 77, 297 (l950).
6
Hahn, E. L. Phys. Rev. 30, 580 (l950).
7
Tang, C. L.; Statz, H. Appl. Phys. Lett. 10, 145 (1967).
8
Hocker, G. B.; Tang, C. L. Phys. Rev. 184, 356 (1969).
9
Kurnit, N. A.; Abella, I. D.; Hartmann, S. R. Phys. Rev. Lett. 13, 567 (1964).
10
Abella, I. D.; Kurnit, N. A.; Hartmann, S. R. Phys. Rev. 141, 391 (1966).
11-3
spectia using pulseu coheient lasei iauiation. These expeiiments confiim that
theie is no quantum jumps in the nonstationaiy state; iathei theie aie smooth,
continuous peiiouic changes in the magnetic anu electiical piopeities of the system
unueigoing a tiansition.

An election bounu in an atom possesses less eneigy than an isolateu election. Foi example,
1S.6 ev of eneigy is ieleaseu when an isolateu election combines with a pioton to foim a
hyuiogen atom in the giounu state. The binuing eneigy can be consiueieu to be a negative
foim of eneigy which means that binuing ieleases eneigy anu bieaking a bonu iequiies eneigy.
The iotai mouel of funuamental paiticles says that an isolateu election is a iotating uipole in
spacetime with a iotational fiequency of about 1.24 x 1u
2u
Bz. When an election anu pioton
combine to foim a hyuiogen atom in the giounu state, a photon is ieleaseu with a fiequency of
about S.S x 1u
1S
Bz (~1S.6 ev). Accoiuing to the iotai mouel, the eneigy ieleaseu when a
hyuiogen atom foims comes fiom the election losing eneigy anu ieuucing its Compton
fiequency by about S.S x 1u
1S
Bz. The oscillations of the election clouu shown in the above
animation can be thought of as the inteiaction between the election in two uiffeient eneigy
states (two uiffeient fiequencies) inteifeiing with itself. These oscillations cieate waves in
spacetime that iemove this eneigy at the fiequency of the oscillations. These waves aie
pioposeu to be the photon.

In chaptei 9 it was shown that a photon was not an eneigy packet tiaveling TBR00uB
spacetime, but a wave tiaveling IN the meuium of spacetime. Now we will uevelop the mouel
of a photon fuithei baseu on waves piopagating within the vacuum fluctuations of spacetime.
These waves will be shown to be uistiibuteu ovei a substantial volume of spacetime. Cleaily
such a stiuctuie cannot be visualizeu as a point paiticle. It only exhibits paiticlelike
piopeities because it possesses quantizeu angulai momentum combineu with the piopeity of
unity. This combination gives waves in spacetime with quantizeu spin the ability to act as a
unit anu tiansfei theii eneigy anu quantizeu spin to a single iotai. The name photon is not
ieally appiopiiate since the suffix on was coineu specifically to imply paiticle piopeities.
Bowevei, the name photon is flexible enough that it can aujust to a quantizeu wave
explanation. Theiefoie no attempt will be maue to ieplace the woiu photon.

Vacuum Energy Versus the Ether: The ethei was once believeu to be an omnipiesent fluiu
with a single fiame of iefeience that seiveu as the piopagation meuium foi light waves. The
concept of the ethei implieu that it shoulu be possible to uetect eviuence of the eaiths motion
ielative to the ethei. This ielative motion woulu piouuce a shift in inteifeience fiinges in the
Nichelson Noiley expeiiment. This anu numeious moie iecent expeiiments have confiimeu
that theie is no eviuence that any such ielative motion exists. With this expeiimental eviuence,
the concept of the ethei has been abanuoneu. This backgiounu makes the following seem like a
iauical pioposal:

11
Hartmann, S. A. Sci. Amer. 218, 32 (1968).
11-4

Electromagnetic radiation is a wave disturbance with quantized angular momentum that
propagates in the medium of the vacuum fluctuations of spacetime.

This sounus like I am meiely substituting the teim vacuum fluctuations foi ethei. Bowevei,
theie is a big uiffeience. The piopeities of the vacuum fluctuations aie such that it is
impossible to uetect any motion ielative to these fluctuations. Recall that vacuum eneigy
(vacuum fluctuations) is a sea of uipole waves in spacetime that lack angulai momentum.
These waves aie alieauy piopagating at the speeu of light. Eveiy pait of a wave becomes the
souice of a new wavelet so spacetime becomes a sea of uipole wave uistoitions that aie
ieaiianging themselves at the speeu of light. As pieviously explaineu, these chaotic waves that
lack angulai momentum make the quantum mechanical veision of a vacuum. They aie
iesponsible foi the appeaiance of viitual paiticle paiis, the unceitainty piinciple, the Casimii
effect, the Lamb shift, etc.

It is impossible to uetect motion ielative to these waves in spacetime. Chaptei 7 uiscusseu the
subject of spectial eneigy uensity in vacuum eneigy. That uiscussion is iepeateu heie because
it takes on new meaning when applieu to uetecting motion ielative to vacuum eneigy.

In quantum fielu theoiy, spacetime is visualizeu as consisting of fielus. Eveiy point
in spacetime is tieateu like a quantizeu haimonic oscillatoi. The lowest quantum
mechanical eneigy level of each oscillatoi is E = V . This concept leaus to a
spectial eneigy uensity ()u that is:

()u = k [
o
3
c
3
u

If spacetime is filleu with oveilapping uipole waves in spacetime that aie capable of
foiming the equivalent of viitual paiticle paiis at all fiequencies (not just
fiequencies coiiesponuing to funuamental paiticles), then the spectial eneigy
uensity woulu be this same equation.

S
uepenuence of spectial eneigy uensity is unique in as
much as motion thiough this spectial uistiibution uoes not piouuce a uetectable
Bopplei shift. It is a Loientz invaiiant ianuom fielu. Any paiticulai spectial
component unueigoes a Bopplei shift, but othei components compensate so that all
components taken togethei uo not exhibit a Bopplei shift. It shoulu also be noteu
that neithei cosmological expansion noi giavity alteis this spectium.
12

12
Puthoff, H.E. Phys. Rev. A Volume 40, p.4857, 1989 Errata in Phys. Rev A volume 44, p. 3385, 1991 See also
New Scientist, volume 124, p.36, Dec. 2, 1089

11-5

Theiefoie, vacuum eneigy has completely uiffeient piopeities than the ethei which is thought
of as an omnipiesent fluiu which has a specific fiame of iefeience. It is impossible to uetect
motion ielative to the vacuum eneigy. It is maue of uipole wavelets that aie continuously
foiming new wavelets anu piopagating at the speeu of light. vacuum eneigy has no uefinable
fiame of iefeience. The expeiiments attempting to uetect the ethei neithei piove noi uispiove
the pioposal that electiomagnetic iauiation piopagates in vacuum eneigy.

Pieviously it was speculateu that vacuum eneigy is similai to a supei fluiu. The supei fluiu
vacuum fluctuations of spacetime uo not possess angulai momentum on the laige scale. Any
angulai momentum is isolateu into quantizeu units. The funuamental paiticles aie isolateu
into iotais with angulai momentum of V . The bosons such as photons have angulai
momentum of . These quantizeu angulai momentum uistuibances in spacetime, aie not
confineu to a specific location like the iotai mouel. Insteau the quantizeu angulai momentum
of a photon is uistiibuteu into an expanuing wave that will be uesciibeu in this chaptei. When
a photon is absoibeu, the uistuibance with quantizeu angulai momentum woulu collapse anu
tiansfei the angulai momentum to the absoibing bouy (iotais).

A Photon Is Not a Dipole Wave in Spacetime: A photon cannot be a quantizeu uipole wave
in spacetime. A uipole wave cieates an oscillating iate of time giauient. A iate of time giauient
is capable of acceleiating any mattei, even a neutial paiticle such as a neution. To pievent a
violation of the conseivation of momentum, uipole waves in spacetime aie limiteu to a
maximum uisplacement of spacetime of Planck length anu Planck time as pieviously uesciibeu.
A focuseu lasei beam woulu easily violate this iestiiction. Recall that iotais have this quantum
mechanical limit of Planck length anu Planck time. Theiefoie, the maximum eneigy uensity foi
a uipole wave in spacetime is equal to the eneigy uensity of the quantum volume of a iotai
(0
q
). This knowleuge can be conveiteu to a maximum intensity (J) foi a uipole wave in
spacetime with ieuuceu wavelength since J = 0c foi iauiation piopagating at the speeu of
light. Fiom pievious calculations of iotais, we know that the eneigy uensity in the quantum
volume of a iotai is: 0
q
= c
4
. This eneigy uensity then sets an uppei limit to the maximum
intensity that coulu be achieveu at the focus of a lasei beam if photons weie uipole waves in
spacetime. 0sing J = 0c, the maximum intensity of electiomagnetic iauiation that woulu
violate the conseivation of momentum if photons weie uipole waves in spacetime is:
J
max
= c
2
4
.

The maximum intensity allowable foi a lasei beam with a wavelength of about 1u
6
m (ieuuceu
wavelength = 1.6 x 1u
7
m) woulu be about 1u
1u
wm
2
(1u
4
wcm
2
). Intensities in excess of
1u
2u
wcm
2
have been achieveu at the focus of a pulseu lasei at this appioximate wavelength,
so a photon is uefinitely not a piopagating uipole wave in spacetime. A mouel will be
uevelopeu that is a wave in the space uimensions of spacetime without affecting the iate of
time. uiavitational waves can also have uisplacement amplituue that exceeus uynamic Planck
11-6
length L
p
because they also uo not cause a uisplacement of the iate of time. (They also aie not
uipole waves in spacetime.)

Waves in Vacuum Energy: So fai we have talkeu about waves in the abstiact. What aie the
waves of a photon maue of. They aie not piopagating uipole waves in spacetime but the
pioposeu answei is that they aie a piopagating uistuibance in the uipole waves that foim
vacuum eneigy. In chaptei 9 the pioposal was maue that an electiic fielu is a stiain in
spacetime wheie the piopei speeu of light is slightly uiffeient foi opposite uiiections. This
piouuces the unsymmetiical effects associateu with piopagation in the positive oi negative
electiic fielu uiiection. This iesults in the one way uistance between points being slightly
uiffeient foi opposite polaiity uiiections. Foi example, if theie is an electiic fielu piesent, then
the time iequiieu to go fiom point A to point B is longei than the time iequiieu to go fiom
point B to point A. Bowevei, the iounu tiip time is the same as expecteu fiom the speeu of
light. This means that theie is no change in piopei volume anu no change in the iate of time. A
single photon in maximum confinement hau a uiffeience in path length ovei a uistance of of
L
p
anu n photons in maximum confinement piouuceu a path length uiffeience of: nI
p
. This
explains why it is impossible to measuie the wave piopeities of a single photon but it is
possible to measuie the wave piopeities of many photons (foi example, the electiic fielu of a
iauio wave).

The mouel of a single photon woulu be a wave possessing quantizeu angulai momentum that
piopagates in vacuum eneigy. The uipole waves that foim vacuum eneigy cannot possess
angulai momentum, so a uistuibance caiiying quantizeu angulai momentum woulu be like a
piopagating phase tiansition that causes a specific fiequency anu volume to momentaiily lose
its supeifluiu piopeities. Such a wave woulu momentaiily be giving a uistiibuteu angulai
momentum to vacuum eneigy. Appaiently this uistuibance is a tiansveise wave that possesses
the polaiization chaiacteiistics we noimally associate with a photon. Such a wave in vacuum
eneigy woulu piopagate at the speeu of light foi all fiames of iefeience. Fuitheimoie, the
impeuance of fiee space (Z
o
) associateu with electiomagnetic iauiation is equitable to the
impeuance of spacetime Z
o
2
= 4Z
s
= 4c
S
u.

Electron-Positron Annihilation Thought Experiment: We aie going to uevelop the photon
mouel fuithei using a thought expeiiment. In this thought expeiiment we will look at the two
entangleu photons piouuceu by annihilation of an electionposition paii. This might seem like
an exotic way of piouucing a paii of photons, but it actually is the simplest case to examine
because unlike atomic emission oi Compton scatteiing, no paiticles iemain aftei the
annihilation to caiiy away momentum.

We aie assuming that we stait with an electionposition paii with antipaiallel spin. This foim
of positionium typically has a lifetime of about 1u
1u
seconus anu usually uecays into two
entangleu photons with antipaiallel spins. We will assume this noimal two photon uecay.
11-7
These two gamma iay photons have opposite spins anu opposite momentum vectois.
Bowevei, the spins anu momentum vectois aie only uefineu when the fiist photon is uetecteu.
Each photon has S11,uuu ev of eneigy, so the fiequency anu wavelength of each photon
matches the Compton fiequency anu Compton wavelength of the annihilateu iotais.

The conventional pictuie of this annihilation is the emission of two photons which have both
paiticle anu wave piopeities. The paiticle piopeities imply a packet of eneigy that can be
founu somewheie within the unceitainty volume uefineu by the uecay time anu spin
oiientation of the electionposition paii. This conventional pictuie has the two entangleu
photons with opposite momentum, but the momentum uiiections aie not set until the fiist
photon is absoibeu. At that moment the momentum anu polaiization of the seconu entangleu
photon has been ueteimineu. 0ne countei intuitive pait of this mouel is that the infoimation
about momentum anu polaiization must somehow be communicateu to the suiviving photon
when the fiist of the two entangleu photons is absoibeu.

Even if the two entangleu photons aie sepaiateu by a uistance of one lightyeai, they still
somehow aie in instantaneous communication. If one of the photons happens to inteiact with
a polaiizei of any oiientation oi ellipticity, the othei photon instantly becomes the oithogonal
polaiization. Nany logical questions aiise fiom this pictuie. Bow uo the two photons keep
tiack of each othei. What type of communication signal is sent out when one photon
encounteis a polaiizei. Bow uoes this communication happen fastei than the speeu of light. I
piopose that the ieason that this explanation is impossible to conceptually unueistanu is
because it is the wiong pictuie of a photon.

Electron-Positron Annihilation The Quantized Wave Model: We will now iestate this
inteiaction using the photon anu iotai mouels that incoipoiate uistiibuteu waves in spacetime.
Suppose that we use the iotai mouel of an election anu a position with opposite (antipaiallel)
spins that aie initially fai apait compaieu to uistance R
q
. Both iotais have a Compton angulai
fiequency of about 7.76 x 1u
2u
s
1
oi a fiequency of 1.2S x 1u
2u
Bz. If these two iotais move
towaius each othei, it means that they woulu both peiceive the othei to be Bopplei shifteu anu
the two fiequencies woulu not be exactly the same. Since these two iotais aie going to
eventually emit two entangleu photons of the same fiequency, we will piesume that the
foimation of positionium incluues some type of synchionization of these two fiequencies.

What will happen when we biing togethei an election anu a position. It appeais as if this
inteiaction uestabilizes both iotais. The iotai mouel of an isolateu election pioposes that an
election is stable because theie is a type of iesonance between the elections iotating uipole
wave anu the suiiounuing vacuum eneigy. Recall that the election has a quantum amplituue of
B
= 4.18 x 1u
2S
. This uimensionless numbei is also the elections fiequency, eneigy, mass,
inveise quantum iauius, etc. in Planck units. This fiequency anu amplituue achieves a
11-8
iesonance in vacuum eneigy that cancels the loss of powei anu piouuces constiuctive
inteifeience with the iotating uipole coie.

The lifetime of positionium with antipaiallel spins has been calculateu
1S
fiom QEB as:
= 2m
e
c
2
S
= 2
c
S
= 1.2S x 1u
1u
s. This calculateu lifetime agiees with expeiimentally
measuieu lifetime. The annihilation of positionium with antipaiallel spins usually piouuces
two entangleu gamma iay photons. These two photons have the same fiequency, wavelength
anu eneigy as the election anu position in the iest fiame. Since the electionposition paii hau
antipaiallel spins, the two entangleu photons also have a combineu spin of zeio.

Photon Model of Annihilation: Now the mouel of this annihilation using waves in spacetime
will be piesenteu. The election anu position both have a Compton angulai fiequency of
7.76 x 1u
2u
s
1
. When these two iotais annihilate each othei the stabilization mechanism with
vacuum eneigy is uestioyeu. The cancellation wave foimeu in vacuum eneigy no longei
pievents the uissipation of the elections anu positions eneigy. Waves in spacetime at the
electionposition Compton fiequency piopagate away fiom the site of the annihilation at the
speeu of light. These piopagating waves aie two entangleu photons that iesult fiom the
annihilation. The waves aie piopagating in the meuium of the vacuum fluctuations that aie an
essential chaiacteiistic of spacetime. As pieviously ueteimineu, the impeuance anu bulk
mouulus encounteieu by these waves coiiesponus to the impeuance of spacetime (Z
s
= c
S
u)
anu the bulk mouulus of spacetime K
s
= F
p
2
. The speeu of this wave piopagation is equal to c
which was pieviously calculateu fiom the inteiactive eneigy uensity of spacetime anu the
impeuance of spacetime.

Figuie 111 shows this annihilation event. At the centei of this figuie, a small volume of space
is labeleu as the location of the annihilation of the electionposition paii. This figuie shows the
iesults of this annihilation some time aftei the annihilation takes place. This is a cioss
sectional view of the waves in spacetime that aie the two entangleu photons. Symmetiically
aiounu the annihilation volume theie is now a spheiical shell of waves in spacetime with the
iauius incieasing at the speeu of light.

The waves in this shell have an angulai fiequency of 7.76 x 1u
2u
s
1
which is also the elections
Compton angulai fiequency. Since theie is no fiequency change between the electionposition
anu the photons emitteu, the annihilation event can be consiueieu meiely the uestabilization of
the vacuum eneigy cancelation waves that weie keeping the elections eneigy confineu. The
time iequiieu foi annihilation was 1.2S x 1u
1u
s so this amounts to about 1.S x 1u
1u
cycles
(wavelengths) foiming a shell of waves with a thickness of about S.8 cm. Figuie 111 shows
multiple concentiic ciicles to convey the iuea that the expanuing shell contains many

13
http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/hep-ph/pdf/0310/0310099v1.pdf

11-9
wavelengths. Also the entangleu spheiical shell of waves has zeio net spin since this example
assumeu that the election anu position hau antipaiallel spin.

Entanglement: Suppose that the spheiical shell of two entangleu photons (piopagating in the
vacuum fluctuations of spacetime) expanus into what might be calleu empty space to a iauius
of one lightyeai. Really this space is filleu with a sea of vacuum eneigy anu the waves aie a
uistuibance in this vacuum eneigy. At this point, suppose that a small poition of the wave shell
encounteis an absoibing object that we will geneiically call an absoibing paiticle. Bowevei, it
coulu be an atom oi othei gioup of iotais. To make the absoiption inteiesting, we will
piesume that the absoibing mateiial has a stiong absoiption piefeience foi clockwise ciiculai
polaiization at the fiequency of the two entangleu photons. This absoibing mateiial is
illustiateu in figuie 111 as a point labeleu paiticle piioi to absoibing one of the two
entangleu photons. The absoibing paiticle (oi gioup of iotais) is capable of absoibing
quantizeu angulai momentum of . Bowevei, the spheiical shell of waves is two entangleu
photons that weie geneiateu when the election anu position (both spacetime uipoles) weie
annihilateu. The absoibing mateiial cannot inteiact with only a small peicentage of the
quantizeu wave. The quantizeu angulai momentum tiansfeiieu must be eithei oi nothing.

Now it gets inteiesting. Any inteiaction must be with a complete photon (quantizeu eneigy
anu angulai momentum). In this case, this means that the inteiaction is between the absoibing
11-10
mateiial anu one of the two entangleu photons that togethei maue up the entiie spheiical
wavefiont, one lightyeai in iauius. The inteiaction cannot be with both photons because the
two photons have a total spin of zeio. Theie appeais to be a piohibition against eneigy
tiansfei without an accompanying spin tiansfei.

If theie is absoiption, then the pioposeu piopeity of unity causes one of the two entangleu
photons to collapse. All of the eneigy (S11,uuu ev), all the angulai momentum ( of clockwise
ciiculai polaiization) anu all the momentum (~ 2.7 x 1u
22
kg ms) of the single photon is
uepositeu into the absoibing mateiial. Even if the absoiption happens ovei a finite absoiption
time that is compaiable to a finite emission time (foi example, seveial nanoseconus), the entiie
quantizeu wave eneigy, uistiibuteu ovei one lightyeai iauius, must collapse in this shoit time.

The uetails of how photons aie pioposeu to collapse will be uiscusseu latei when we ueal with
the eventual absoiption of the seconu of the two entangleu photons. The collapse of the fiist of
the two entangleu photons iemoves fiom the spheiical shell all of the wave chaiacteiistics
necessaiy to make a ciiculaily polaiizeu photon with clockwise angulai momentum. This
incluues not only spin anu eneigy, but the collapse also impaits momentum of ~ 2.7 x 1u
22
kg
ms. with an accuiately uefineu momentum vectoi that will be uiscusseu latei.

What iemains in the spheiical shell of waves aie pioposeu to be all the chaiacteiistics iequiieu
to make a photon with the oithogonal polaiization (counteiclockwise spin) anu the opposite
momentum vectoi which is not quite piecisely uefineu. This implies that the seconu photon
can only impait the opposite momentum anu opposite ciiculai polaiization when it is
eventually absoibeu. The photon that was absoibeu must be the inveise of the photon that
iemains since the two entangleu photons oiiginally foimeu a unifoim amplituue shell of waves.
Theiefoie, to obtain a uesciiption of both photons we will examine the iemaining photon.
11-11

Single Photon Model: Figuie 112 shows the pioposeu mouel of the suiviving photon aftei
the othei entangleu photon pieviously uiscusseu was absoibeu anu collapseu into the
absoibing paiticle. In othei woius, figuie 112 shows a slightly latei time than figuie 111. In
figuie 112 the envelope of waves has expanueu past the paiticle that absoibeu the othei
entangleu photon. This paiticle is shown neai the bottom of the figuie. Compaie the placement
of this paiticle to the placement shown in figuie 111.

The majoi visible uiffeience between figuies 111 anu 112 is that the ciicle iepiesenting the
envelope of waves is now shown with uiffeient shauing ianging fiom black (highest amplituue)
at the top of the figuie thiough shaues of giay to white (lowest amplituue) at the bottom of the
figuie. The waves aie still piesent but the waves aie not shown in figuie 112 because the
emphasis in 112 is the amplituue of these waves.

The amplituue uistiibution foi the waves in the iemaining photon is pioposeu to be the same
as the amplituue uistiibution of the wavelets in the BuygensFiesnelKiichhoff piinciple.
Recall that the BuygensFiesnel piinciple accuiately mouels uiffiaction of an optical wave by
assuming that all points on an auvancing wavefiont become the souice of a new wave calleu a
wavelet. Coheiently auuing togethei these seconuaiy waves (incluuing phase) foims a new
wavefiont. This piinciple was peifecteu by uustav Kiichhoff when he auueu an amplituue
uistiibution to the waves that foimeu each new wavelet that pieventeu backwaius piopagation
towaius the souice anu impioveu the accuiacy. Pieviously the wavelets weie meiely
11-12
consiueieu to be limiteu to the foiwaiu hemispheie. This aibitiaiy limitation woikeu well foi
most applications, but Kiichhoffs auuition peifecteu the piinciple foi all cases. The amplituue
uistiibution foimulateu by Kiichhoff is calleu the obliquity factoi K(). It can be expiesseu
eithei in Caitesian oi spheiical cooiuinates. The spheiical cooiuinate iepiesentation is:
K() = cos
2
(2).

A single photon is pioposeu to have the same amplituue uistiibution as the wavelets iequiieu
foi the BuygensFiesnelKiichhoff piinciple. The shauing of the envelope of waves in figuie
112 has this uistiibution. Bowevei, figuie 11S is a giaphical iepiesentation of the amplituue
uistiibution of the suiviving photon. The absoibeu photon woulu have hau the inveise of this
amplituue uistiibution which is the same as inveiting figuie 11S. Auuing these two
uistiibutions togethei piouuces the unifoim uistiibution of the oiiginal entangleu paii of
photons (sin
2
(2) + cos
2
(2) = 1).

Photons Momentum: We now aie going to ietuin to figuie 112 to auuiess the question of
the momentum of a single photon. Recall that the thought expeiiment that geneiateu this
figuie piesumeu that the two entangleu photons expanueu in a vacuum to the iauius of one
light yeai when finally one of the two photons was absoibeu by the paiticle shown in figuie 11
2. These assumptions mean that the momentum vectoi foi the suiviving photon must be veiy
well uefineu. The oiiginal annihilation of the electionposition paii hau an unceitainty
volume that can be calculateu knowing the mass of the electionposition paii (~ 1.82 x 1u
Su

kg) anu the lifetime (~1.2S x 1u
1u
s) to give an emission unceitainty iauius x =t2m = 6 x
11-13
1u
8
m. Also the paiticle that absoibeu the fiist photon coulu have been pait of a uetectoi that
coulu specify the location of the absoiption to a iauius much smallei than the 6 x 1u
8
m
unceitainty of the emission. Theiefoie the unceitainty in the emission uominates anu we can
ignoie the unceitainty in uefining the absoiption location.

Since these two unceitainty volumes aie sepaiateu by one light yeai (~ 1u
16
m), this means
that that the momentum vectoi unceitainty angle of the single photon in this example is about
6 x 1u
24
iauians (6 x 1u
8
m1u
16
m). The suiviving photon must have the opposite
momentum, so at the moment the fiist photon is absoibeu, we know a gieat ueal about the
alloweu volume wheie the seconu photon can possibly be absoibeu in the futuie. The ieason
foi this exeicise is that the mouel of a single photon must be capable of this momentum
accuiacy.

In figuie 112 the envelope of waves shoulu be pictuieu as being one light yeai in iauius. This
figuie also shows an angulai spieau uesignateu momentum unceitainty angle which foi this
example is about 6 x 1u
24
iauians. Bow is it possible foi this wave stiuctuie to possess this
naiiow a momentum unceitainty. }ust looking at the figuie, it seems as if the suiviving single
photon coulu be absoibeu by an absoibing paiticle locateu in almost any uiiection aiounu the
expanuing shell of waves (except peihaps the zeio amplituue uiiection). The iequiiement of a
well uefineu momentum helps us uefine the mouel anu helps to uefine the way that photons
collapse.

11-14

Collapse of a Single Photon: Figuie 114 shows the eventual absoiption of the suiviving
photon. The absoibing bouy is uesignateu anu it must lie within the volume limiteu in wiuth by
the momentum unceitainty angle. Also the absoibing bouy must be locateu within the
thickness of the envelope of waves uuiing the absoiption. The collapse of the single photons
eneigy anu angulai momentum is uepicteu by the aiiows shown in figuie 114. These aiiows
inuicate that the collapse pioceeus along the ciicumfeiential ioute uefineu by the envelope of
waves.

This has a gieat ueal of appeal. The momentum tiansfeiieu to the absoibing bouy can only
have a iauial vectoi ielative to the emission unceitainty volume. It woulu be a violation of the
conseivation of momentum foi theie to be a tangential vectoi component that is laigei than
the unceitainty limit. This means that the only volume of the photons wave stiuctuie capable
of inteiacting with mattei is iestiicteu to the small volume bounueu by the momentum
unceitainty angle. This is the only volume wheie the collapse is sufficiently symmetiical to
pievent the tiansfei of substantial tiansveise momentum. Theie must be offsetting tiansveise
momentum components on eithei siue of the absoibing bouy so that the collapse is balanceu
anu iesults in the coiiect net momentum.

Next, we aie going to examine whethei the photon stiuctuie pioposeu heie is capable of
collapsing to a volume as small as woulu be iequiieu to satisfy the momentum unceitainty
angle which is about 6 x 1u
24
iauians. If the seconu photon was absoibeu shoitly aftei the time
of the fiist photon absoiption, then the shell of waves woulu be about the same size which was
postulateu to be 1 light yeai in iauius (~1u
16
m in iauius). The waves aie uistiibuteu ovei a
uiametei of about 2 light yeais (~ 2 x 1u
16
m) anu the wavelength piouuceu by the annihilation
of an electionposition paii is = 2.4 x 1u
12
m. If we meiely calculate the uiffiaction limit of
this combination of apeituie size anu wavelength we obtain a B unceitainty angle
(uiveigence angle) of 2.4 x 1u
28
iauians. Theiefoie this wave stiuctuie can easily satisfy the
iequiiement of collapsing to a volume equivalent to 6 x 1u
24
iauians unceitainty. In fact, this
photon mouel shoulu always collapse to an aiea about one wavelength in ciicumfeience.

Limits on Absorption: The poition of the single photon that lies outsiue the momentum
unceitainty volume cannot inteiact with mattei. A speculative answei says that these waves
can pass thiough mattei without being absoibeu oi affecteu. In the figuies 111 to 114 we
caiefully avoiueu the question of the waves encounteiing othei mattei by postulating
piopagation in an empty vacuum. Bowevei, the waves exteinal to the momentum unceitainty
angle may meiely pass thiough mattei without any inteiaction. Recall that mattei is maue of
iotais that aie just empty spacetime that is veiy slightly stiaineu. (ioughly 1 pait in 1u
2u
foi an
up quaik). If a uistuibance in vacuum eneigy is incapable of tiansfeiiing angulai momentum
because it is outsiue of the momentum unceitainty volume, then this poition of a photon
shoulu be moie ineit than a neutiino anu shoulu easily pass thiough mattei.
11-15

Unity Connection: The ciicumfeiential collapse shown in figuie 114 is the pioposeu piopeity
of unity at woik. This pioposeu piopeity peimits fastei than the speeu of light communication
anu collapse within a single quantizeu wave in spacetime. In chaptei 14 a speculative
mechanism will be pioposeu foi fastei than the speeu of light communication within a single
quantizeu wave. Bowevei, supeiluminal communication is an expeiimentally establisheu
piopeity of entanglement anu it is quite ieasonable that a single photon woulu also possess
this same capability even if an explanation is not cuiiently available. The supeiluminal collapse
of a photon shown in figuie 114 is symmetiically balanceu anu uoes not involve the tiansfei of
any infoimation oi exteinal momentum. The momentum that is tiansfeiieu is entiiely within
the single photon. While the collapse is fastei than the speeu of light, it is not instantaneous. It
piobably iequiies a time of at least 2 which is a minimum of one cycle of the photon.

It is also cleai that theie is no mysteiy how the photon mouel can caiiy angulai momentum.
The shell of waves must be pictuieu as a S uimension spheiical shell. The waves that make up
a ciiculaily polaiizeu photon woulu have a phase piogiession that ciiculates the spheiical shell
at a fiequency equal to the photons fiequency. The spatial uistiibution of this shell of waves
makes it easy to see how it is possible foi this photon mouel to caiiy angulai momentum anu
tiansfei the angulai momentum when the wave stiuctuie collapses. It is not cleai how the
conventional mouel of a photon tiansfeis angulai momentum.

Photon Emission from a Single Atom: In the thought expeiiment involving the annihilation of
an electionposition paii theie was no iemaining mattei to iemove momentum anu
complicate the analysis. We will next auuiess the emission of a photon by a single atom. If a
pioton anu an election combineu to foim a hyuiogen atom, the eneigy of the photon emitteu
woulu be about 1S.6 ev. The emission of this eneigy woulu cause the hyuiogen atom to iecoil
with a velocity of about 4 ms. Bypothetically, it is possible to ueteimine the uiiection of the
photons momentum by monitoiing the motion of the election anu pioton piioi to foiming the
hyuiogen atom anu by monitoiing the iecoil of the hyuiogen atom aftei the emission of the
photon. Theie is unceitainty in making these measuiements, but the accuiacy in ueteimining
the uiiection of the photons momentum incieases with time. The photon has the opposite
momentum of the iecoiling hyuiogen atom. The fuithei the iecoiling hyuiogen atom tiavels
befoie its position is uetecteu, the moie accuiate that the momentum vectoi of the iecoiling
hyuiogen atom can be ueteimineu.

The photon is caiiying the opposite momentum vectoi as the iecoiling hyuiogen atom to
within the limits of the unceitainty piinciple. I claim that not only uoes oui ability to measuie
the momentum vectoi of the iecoiling hyuiogen atom impiove with time, but theie is
continueu inteiaction between the exteinal volume of the iecoiling hyuiogen atom anu the
photon even aftei the photon has been emitteu. This inteiaction ieuuces the momentum
11-16
unceitainty angle of the expanuing photon ovei time to coinciue with the impioveu ability to
measuie the iecoil momentum vectoi of the hyuiogen atom.

Recall that a hypothetical iotai foimeu shoitly aftei the Big Bang anu unuistuibeu since then,
woulu have an exteinal volume that extenus viitually to the paiticle hoiizon of the univeise.
The waves in the exteinal volume have the Compton fiequency of the iotai, so when theie is a
loss of eneigy, an aujustment in the fiequency of the waves in the exteinal volume must be
maue. The news that a hyuiogen atom was foimeu with less total eneigy than the
component paits piogiesses into the exteinal volume of the election anu quaiks at the speeu of
light. This news exactly coiiesponueu to the expanuing shell of waves that foims the emitteu
photon. As uiscusseu below, the waves in the iotais exteinal volume continue to make a veiy
small but impoitant contiibution to the photon as the photon expanus at the speeu of light into
the exteinal volume. The unceitainty in the momentum of the photon uecieases with time
(uistance) the same as the unceitainty in the iecoil momentum of the atom uecieases with
time.

Compton Scattering Revisited: A hyuiogen atom maue of 4 iotais (1 election anu S quaiks)
is too complicateu to analyze the inteiaction between the expanuing photon anu the exteinal
volume of the iotais that foim the hyuiogen atom. Theiefoie we will switch back to Compton
scatteiing between a single election anu a single photon. This inteiaction was pieviously
examineu using the seiies of figuies fiom 1u12 to 1u1S. Figuie 1u1S is the supei position of
4 waves. The waves at the top of this figuie iepiesent the photons waves befoie anu aftei the
scatteiing. The waves at the bottom of the figuie iepiesent the elections waves befoie anu
aftei the scatteiing. The miuule poition of the figuie shows both paiis of waves inteiacting.

Because of the stanuing waves in the elections exteinal volume this inteiaction continues to
occui long aftei we think that the scatteiing event has happeneu. Pictuie the election (iotai)
as having uiminishing stanuing waves in its exteinal volume that extenu a long way fiom the
location of the scatteiing. The news that the iotai has unueigone acceleiation piopagates
into these suiiounuing stanuing waves at the speeu of light. Theie is a spheiical shell that is
expanuing at the speeu of light wheie the oveilap of the befoie inteiaction anu aftei inteiaction
waves oveilap. Within this expanuing shell oveilapping waves, the fiinge pattein shown at the
top of figuie 1u1S still exists, but at gieatly ieuuceu amplituue. This is supeiimposeu on the
photons waves which aie also spieauing away fiom the scatteiing site at the speeu of light.
The inteiaction between these oveilapping waves continues to make successively finei
aujustments to the photons momentum. This explains how the unceitainty of the photons
momentum can impiove ovei time, just like we ieasoneu by looking at the iecoil of a hyuiogen
atom.

In all of this, the election uoes not unueigo a giauual acceleiation as might be expecteu foi a
classical paiticle that is changing its momentum. Insteau, the wave mouel of the scatteieu iotai
11-17
changes fiom the wave pattein of the iotai befoie the scatteiing to the wave pattein of the
iotai aftei the scatteiing without unueigoing the inteimeuiate velocities. Similaily, a hyuiogen
atom woulu not giauually acceleiate to 4 ms as it emits a 1S.6 ev photon. The befoie wave
pattein faues as the aftei wave pattein comes into existence.

Fiom the unceitainty piinciple we know that a ueciease in the momentum unceitainty (p)
must be accompanieu by an inciease in the position unceitainty x. When we think of a point
paiticle photon, then the physical inteipietation of x is uiffeient than when we think of a
single photon as a shell of waves with a laige iauius. To accommouate this impiovement in oui
knowleuge of the photons momentum (uecieaseu p), it is necessaiy foi the iauius of the
photon to inciease with time (incieaseu x). This iequiiement fits peifectly with the pioposeu
photon mouel because the iauius of the photons shell of waves incieases with time.

Recoil from Coherent Emission: In the above examples, it was iepeateuly emphasizeu that
they uesciibeu the piopeities of a single photon. The chaiacteiistics of photons change
uiamatically when they congiegate into coheient beams. We aie going to ease into a
uiscussion of a beam of light maue of many photons with the following pieliminaiy thought
expeiiment.

Suppose that we have a iotating electiically chaigeu uipole. This imagineu electiically chaigeu
uipole is maue of a positive chaige anu a negative chaige physically sepaiateu by a shoit iou.
Foi example, imagine an election anu a position sepaiateu by a iou 1 mm long anu iotating
about a peipenuiculai axis at the centei of the iou at a fiequency of 1u
1u
Bz. Even though it
woulu be viitually impossible to have this electiical uipole mechanically iotate at this
fiequency, in the thought expeiiment theie is no such limitation. We woulu expect to see the
emission of miciowave electiomagnetic iauiation (1u
1u
Bz) in a classical iotating uipole
emission pattein fiom this iotating uipole. This pattein has emission in all uiiections, but the
intensity of emission is twice as stiong along the iotation axis as the intensity in the equatoiial
plane. Bowevei, neai the equatoiial plane theie aie moie steiiauians foi emission so all
emission uiiections aie impoitant. The symmetiical iauiation pattein aiounu the axis of a
mechanically iotating uipole is ieally the iesult of the emission of many incoheient photons.
This symmetiical emission pattein uoes not piouuce iecoil in any paiticulai uiiection.

Now suppose that we have a tiillion such iotating uipoles uistiibuteu ovei a spheiical volume
with iauius about 1uuu times laigei than the miciowave emission wavelength. The uipoles aie
theiefoie uistiibuteu in a way that inuiviuual uipoles aie sepaiateu fiom theii neaiest
neighboi by much less than one wavelength but the gioup is much laigei than a wavelength. If
the iotating uipoles aie all iotating incoheiently, they emit incoheient iauiation in all
uiiections. Since the emission is symmetiically balanceu, theie is no net iecoil uiiection felt by
inuiviuual iotating uipoles.

11-18
Bowevei, if all uipoles aie iotating coheiently (same fiequency, paiallel iotation axis anu
contiollable phase) the iauiation fiom the gioup of iotating uipoles can be contiolleu. Foi
example, the miciowave iauiation can be maue into a uiffiaction limiteu beam that can be
steeieu in any uiiection. This uiiectional contiol uepenus entiiely on the ability to aujust the
phase of inuiviuual uipoles in the gioup so that the multiple emissions auu constiuctively in the
uesiieu emission uiiection.

Now lets think about the iecoil felt by each mechanically iotating uipole fiom the emission of
iauiation. If only one uipole is mechanically iotating, the emission of multiple photons
(photons) is symmetiical anu no specific iecoil uiiection is felt by the single iotating uipole.
Bowevei, when the multiple iotating uipoles aie piopeily phaseu to constiuctively inteifeie in
a paiticulai uiiection, then each iotating uipole must feel a foice in the opposite uiiection as
the emitteu beam. We woulu say that this foice is the momentum iecoil iequiieu foi
conseivation of momentum. Bowevei, each iotating uipole is just inteiacting with the local EN
fielu geneiateu by the coheient auuition of spheiical waves geneiateu by othei iotating
uipoles. The collimation anu uiiectionality of the emitteu beam is achieveu by the gioup
inteiaction. The point is that the emission uiiection anu the iecoil uiiection aie the iesult of
the coheient auuition of piopeily phaseu iotating uipoles.

Huygens-Fresnel-Kirchhoff Principle: At this point the analysis conveits to a classic example
of the BuygensFiesnelKiichhoff piinciple. With this piinciple, each point on a wavefiont
becomes the souice of a new wavelet that emits into the amplituue uistiibution foimulateu by
Kiichhoff: cos
2
(2). This is exactly the same emission pattein as a photon with its momentum
vectoi aligneu with the beam vectoi. Theiefoie each cycle of the coheient photon emission is
iuentical to the wavelet that woulu be foimeu at the location of the emitting iotating uipole.
The BuygensFiesnelKiichhoff piinciple uesciibes amplituue auuition anu how intensity is
piopoitional to the squaie of amplituue. Theiefoie, the inuiviuual photon joins the beam as if
it was meiely a seiies of new wavelets. The only uiffeience is that in the BuygensFiesnel
Kiichhoff piinciple the total eneigy of the beam iemains constant while the emission of a
coheient photon incieases the total amplituue anu eneigy of the beam.

It is a shoit step fiom mechanically iotating uipoles to many atoms in an exciteu state in a lasei
gain meuium. The piopagation of a lasei beam is well uesciibeu by the BuygensFiesnel
Kiichhoff piinciple. Each point on the lasei beam becomes a new wavelet anu the beam
evolves by coheient auuition of successive geneiations of wavelets. When a lasei beam passes
thiough a lasei gain meuium, it inteiacts with atoms in an exciteu state. The inteiaction not
only stimulates the emission of photons with the piopei fiequency anu phase, the inteiaction
also impaits the coiiect iecoil to the atoms so that the photons aie emitteu with the coiiect
momentum vectoi. The auuition of new photons to the lasei beam then coiiesponus to the
wavelet auuition of the BuygensFiesnelKiichhoff piinciple.

11-19
All othei cases of photon emission into volumes wheie the iauiation is moie chaotic than a
lasei beam aie still well uesciibeu by the BuygensFiesnelKiichhoff piinciple. Also it is
ieassuiing that this mouel has the waves exploie all possible paths, just like the moueling of
QEB.

Beam of Light: Bow can this mouel of a photon be ieconcileu with the concept of a well
behaveu beam of light that can be easily ieflecteu off miiiois anu biought to a focus. A beam
of lasei light uoes not seem to have any of the piopeities of a spheiical shell of waves just
uesciibeu. To answei this, it is necessaiy to fiist iemembei that even a single photon has only
a naiiow momentum unceitainty angle set by the iecoil felt by the emitting atom. Seconu, a
beam of light contains many photons. Foi example, a 1 mw BeNe lasei beam contains about S x
1u
1S
photons pei seconu. Nultiple photons, such as a lasei beam, togethei achieve the familiai
beam of light. Even though each inuiviuual photon is piopagating into a spheiical shell of
waves (with a specific momentum unceitainty angle), the othei photons in the beam aie
auuing constiuctively in the beam volume anu uestiuctively eveiywheie else. The final
intensity is amplituue squaieu, so combining this with the momentum unceitainty angle of
each photon, it is easy to piouuce a well behaveu beam when many photons aie piesent. The
uiffiaction piopeities aie well chaiacteiizeu by the BuygensFiesnelKiichhoff piinciple anu
the photons exploie eveiy possible path between two points as iequiieu by the path integial.

The mechanism of ieflection of a photon off a miiioi neeus to be uevelopeu fuithei.
Appaiently many elections (iotais) on the suiface of the miiioi aie able to iesponu
simultaneously to a photon. If theie is absoiption, then the quantizeu angulai momentum of
the photon is tiansfeiieu to a single atom. Bowevei, metallic ieflection appeais to involve
multiple elections iesponuing in a way that these suiface elections become the souice of new
spacetime waves. This is a subject that neeus fuithei woik.

In chaptei 9 an expeiiment was pioposeu that involveu a iauio wave in a maximum
confinement cavity. This cavity has suifaces that aie metallic ieflectois. The elections in these
suifaces aie not just ieflecting the photons, they can be thought of as simultaneously absoibing
photons fiom the cavity anu cieating new photons that aie emitteu into the cavity. Theiefoie
this expeiiment avoius questions about whethei the photons amplituue (uistoition of
spacetime) is uistiibuteu ovei a much laigei volume of space. It might be aigueu that some of
the uistoition extenus V outsiue the cavity, but the continuous absoiption anu emission
avoius the pioblem of the uistiibution extenuing fai fiom the cavity.

Why Is there No Amplitude Dependence In a Photons Energy? 0ne of the mysteiies of
quantum mechanics is containeu in the photons eneigy equation E = . Why uoes this
equation only contain the fiequency teim . Fiom classical physics it seems as if the eneigy in
a wave shoulu also contain an amplituue teim. To answei this question, two impoitant
consiueiations must be taken into account. Fiist is the concept that this is a packet of eneigy
11-20
with quantizeu angulai momentum. Theiefoie when it is emitteu oi absoibeu, theie is the
tiansfei of a specific amount of angulai momentum. Recall that this enfoicement of quantizeu
angulai momentum occuis because the sea of uipole waves that is the vacuum fluctuations of
spacetime has supeifluiu piopeities. Any angulai momentum intiouuceu into the sea is
quaiantineu into quantizeu angulai momentum packets. As the waves spieau out, they still aie
a quantizeu unit anu subject to the pieviously uiscusseu piopeity of unity. It is possible to
analyze the wave anu eneigy piopeities assuming a maximum confinement volume of
S
. It is
also possible to assume that the total eneigy will iemain constant as the quantizeu wave fills a
volume laigei than
S
.

Seconu, the maximum uisplacement of spacetime alloweu foi a uipole wave in spacetime is
subject to the pieviously uiscusseu Planck lengthtime limitation. While a photon is not
technically a uipole wave in spacetime, it is piouuceu anu absoibeu by uipole waves in
spacetime. A single photon inheiits this Planck lengthtime limitation. As pieviously shown,
multiple photons can exceeu this limit. The stiain amplituue of a single photon in maximum
confinement is B = L
p
. The impoitant point heie is that all photons have the same
uisplacement of spacetime (L = L
p
) in maximum confinement volume of
S
. Theiefoie, since
this uisplacement amplituue is the same foi all photons unuei these conuitions, it is possible to
see how the amplituue teim might not be necessaiy to specify the eneigy of a single photon.

To actually show this cancelation of the amplituue teim we will use the following wave
amplituue equation anu substitutions:

E = B
2
2
Zvc set: B = L
p
, = c, Z = Z
s
= c
S
u anu v =
S

E = [
u
c
3
x
2

2
[
c
3
u
[
x
3
c
=

Theiefoie, the combination of quantizeu angulai momentumeneigy anu the stanuaiuizeu
uisplacement L = L
p
iesults in the amplituue teim not appeaiing in the equation E = .

12-1
Chapter12
BoundElectrons,Quarks,andNeutrinos
Bound Rotars: One of the early quantum mechanical lessons for students is the so called
particle in a box. In this exercise, students calculate what would happen if a particle was
placedinasmallcavitysurroundedbyimpenetrablewallsaninfiniteenergywell.Thereare
no such cavities, but if there were the particles quantum mechanical properties would be
exhibited.Theparticlecanonlypossessafewspecificpositiveenergiescorrespondingtoafew
specific kinetic energies. Furthermore, the particle can never be stationary within the cavity
never have zero kinetic energy. In this example, the particle confined to a box an infinite
energywellpossessesmoreenergythananisolatedparticlethatisnotconfined.
Thisisaperfectexampletosupportthequantizedwavemodelofparticles,butthereasonfor
bringing up the particle in a box exercise now is to make a point about bound particles. This
exercisecreatestheerroneousimpressionthatboundparticlesinnaturecanpossessapositive
binding energy. The particle in a box exercise describes what would happen if a particle is
surrounded by walls that are always repelling the particle. In nature, particles are bound by
attraction,notconfinedbyrepellingwalls.Electronsinanatomareboundbyattractiontothe
nucleus.Attractionalsobindsquarksinahadronorgravitationalattractionbindsaplanettoa
star.
We will now switch from the conventional perspective of particles to the rotar model. The
followingstatementcanbemade:
Rotars bound by attraction always possess less energy than the same rotar when it is
isolated. Attraction binding energy can be thought of as negative energy.
We will start with a gravitational example. In chapter #3 we determined that a particle has
more internal energy in zero gravity than when the particle is in gravity. E
o
E
g
.
Gravitationalpotentialenergyisanegativevaluethatisreferencedtozeroatinfinitedistance.
SupposeanobserverusingazerogravityclockmonitorstheComptonfrequencyoftherotaras
the rotar is restrained and slowly lowered towards a large mass. Gravitational energy is
removed by the restraining mechanism as the rotar is slowly lowered into stronger gravity.
TheComptonfrequency
c
oftheloweredrotar,measuredbyazerogravityclock,decreasesas
gravity increases and more energy is removed. This decrease in frequency is not noticeable
locally because of the gravitational dilation of time. Locally, a slow clock is used to monitor a
slow Compton frequency. The point is that gravitational bonding energy is negative energy.
The Compton frequency of a gravitationally bound rotar is lower than the same rotar not
12-2
gravitationally bound when both frequencies are measured using a clock running at zero
gravityrateoftime.
For another example, an electron and a proton release a 13.6 eV photon when they become
electromagnetically bound together to form a hydrogen atom with the electron in the lowest
energy level. This released energy represents the negative binding energy of the hydrogen
atom. It is possible to go one step deeper in understanding this negative binding energy. An
isolatedelectronhasaComptonfrequencyofabout1.24x10
20
HzandthesumoftheCompton
frequencies of the three quarks that form a proton is about2.27 x 10
23
Hz. When an electron
and a proton are bound together to form a hydrogen atom, the sum of all the Compton
frequencies is about 3.3 x 10
15
Hz less than the when the electron and proton were isolated.
This difference of 3.3 x 10
15
Hz is the frequency of the 13.6 eV photon released when the
hydrogen atom formed. Therefore it is possible to see the difference in energy when an
electronandprotonareboundtoformahydrogenatom.Tobeperfect,thisexampleneedsto
also account for the small amount of kinetic energy carried away by the hydrogen atom as it
recoilsfromemittingthephoton.
A more extreme example is the bonding of an electron to a uranium nucleus which has been
stripped of all electrons. This bonding is so strong that the bonding energy is equivalent to
aboutthemass/energyofanelectron.Theenergylostwhenthisbondingfirsttakesplaceis
removed by the emission of a gamma ray photon. Isolated particles are more energetic than
bound particles. This concept will later be applied to bound quarks with some surprising
implications.
The standard model considers the electromagnetic force to be transferred between point
particlesbytheexchangeofvirtualphotons.Thisraisesinterestingquestions.Wheredoesthe
lossofenergyoccurwhenanelectronisboundtoaproton?Itisnotsufficienttosaythatthere
is a reduction in the electric field. The virtual photons ARE the electric field. Do the virtual
photons that supposedly bond oppositely charged particles possess negativeenergy? What is
the wavelength of a virtual photon? These questions are introduced to raise some doubts
aboutvirtualphotonsandthegenerallyacceptedexplanations.
Therotarmodelproposedherehasnotroubleansweringthesequestions.Therearenovirtual
photonmessengerparticles.Therearefluctuationsofspacetimethatcanbeconsideredvirtual
photon pairs, but these are not the messenger particles that are supposedly exchanged by
chargedparticles.Allrotarspossessanexternalvolumeofwavespreviouslydiscussed.The
externalvolumesofinteractingrotarsoverlap.Twooppositelychargedrotarsinteractinaway
that decreases the rotational frequency of each rotar reduced
c
. The location of the lost
energyiseasytoidentify.Alsotheoverlappingexternalvolumesaffectthepressureexertedon
oppositesidesofarotarbyvacuumenergy.Thispressuredifferencecausesamigrationofthe
rotational path of each rotar towards the oppositely charged rotar with each rotation. We
12-3
consider this migration to be electromagnetic attraction. When an electron and proton are in
freefallfromawideseparation,theirinitialattractionisexhibitedbythekineticenergyofthe
motion towards each other. In this phase, there is no energy lost and no reduction in
frequency.ThedecreaseinComptonfrequencyduetoweakbondingisoffsetbythefrequency
increase associatedwith the rotars kinetic energy. Only when this kinetic energy is removed
bythereleaseofaphotonisthenegativeenergybondmade.
Electrons Bound in Atoms: In the Bohr model of a hydrogen atom, the electrons 1s orbital
the lowest energy level is described as having a radius of a
o
c/E
e
5.3x10
11
m. Also
theorbitalangularmomentumoftheelectrons1sorbitalisaccordingtotheBohrmodel.The
combinationofthisradiussizeandthisangularmomentumcorrespondstotheelectronhaving
velocityofvcabout137timesslowerthanthespeedoflight.ThedeBrogliewavelength
foranelectronatthisvelocityis
d
2a
o
.ThismeansthatthedeBrogliewavelengthequals
the circumference of this Bohr orbit. This is an appealing picture, but according to quantum
mechanics,noneoftheseBohratomconclusionsarecorrect.
Figure121
1
showsthegraphandthe3dimensionalplotrepresentingthefunctionofthe1s
orbital of an electron in a hydrogen atom. Squaring this function gives the probability of
finding the electron. In each case, the peak corresponds to the location of the proton in the
hydrogen atom. The closer we probe to the proton, the higher the probability of locating the
electron.Thisplot,obtainedfromtheSchrodingerequation,looksnothinglikewhatmightbe

1
Mark J. Winter http://winter.group.shef.ac.uk/orbitron/
12-4
expected from the Bohr model. There is no orbit with radius a
o
. There is no de Broglie
wavelength correspondence and the 1s orbit has no orbital angular momentum. The only
angularmomentumofthisorbitalistheangularmomentumoftheelectron.
Figure122issimilartofigure121exceptfigure122showsthefunctionandprobabilityof
findinganelectronthatisinthe2porbitalofahydrogenatom.Tounderstandthesefiguresin
termsofthespacetimewavemodelofrotars,itisnecessarytoexaminethefunction.
Function: It is an axiom of quantum mechanics that the function has no physical

significance;onlythesquareofthefunctioncanbephysicallyinterpretedasrepresentingthe
probability of finding a particle. It is proposed here that the spacetime wave model of rotars
doesgiveaphysicalmeaningtothefunction.Thisphysicalmeaningiseasiesttoexplainby
returningtothehypotheticalexampleofaparticleinabox.
The particle in a box thought experiment is an idealized thought experiment sincethere are
no cavities surrounded by impenetrable walls an infinite energy well. Assuming such a
cavity, the quantum mechanical properties of a particle rotar trapped inside would be
revealed.

12-5
Inorderfortherotartomeettheseboundaryconditionsimposedbythewalls,itisnecessary
for the rotar to possess slightly more energy than an isolated rotar. Recall that attraction
bonding involves a loss of energy and hypothetical repulsive bonding, such as a particle in a
box, requires a gain in energy. In order for the rotar to achieve zero amplitude at the two
100% reflectors of the box, it is necessary for two spacetime wave frequencies to be present
ratherthanthesingleComptonfrequencyofanisolatedrotar.
Figure123showstheconventionaldepictionofonepossible functionofaparticletrapped
inasmallboxwithimpenetrablewalls.Differentresonantmodesarepossible,soathreelobe
resonanceischosenforeaseofillustration.Notethatthefunctionrepresentedinfigure123
has both positive and negative values above and below the zero line. Quantum mechanics
does not give a physical meaning to the function. Only the square of the function can be
physicallyinterpretedastheprobabilityoffindingaparticle.Therotarmodelgoesagainstthis
conventionandgivesaphysicalmeaningtothefunction.

12-6
The function of a bound rotar is the wave envelope of the waves in spacetime that form
the rotar.
Figure 124 shows the spacetime wave interpretation of the function of a particle in a box.
Wewillreinterprettheparticleinaboxtoarotartrappedbetweentwohypotheticalbarriers
that are 100% reflectors for waves in spacetime. The box is essentially a repulsive type of
confinement. Placing a rotar in a repulsive confinement requires that energy be added to the
rotar in excess of the energy that a rotar would have if it was isolated. This added energy
shows up in the rotar having two frequencies that together average more than the Compton
frequencyofanisolatedrotar.
Placing a rotar in such a cavity changes the rotars boundary conditions compared to an
isolatedrotar.Inorderfortherotartomeettheconditionofzeroamplitudeateachofthetwo
100% reflectors, the rotar must possess two frequencies that are both propagating to the left
and right in figure 124. These two frequencies traveling both directions produce the
stationary standing wave pattern shown in this figure. This pattern looks similar to the de
Brogliewavespreviouslyshown. However,deBrogliewaveshavethewaveenvelopemoving
fasterthanthespeedoflightwhilethewaveenvelopeshowninfigure124isstationaryinthe
sensethatitsnodesandantinodesdonotmove.
12-7
Next,wewillreturnbacktothehydrogenatomthathasitselectroninthe1sorbitaldepictedin
figure121.Theelectronandprotonareboundtogetherbyattraction.Theelectronlost13.6
eV energy when it went from being an isolated electron to being an electron bound in the 1s
orbital of a hydrogen atom. The quarks that form the proton also lost a small amount of
energy, but this is negligible and will be ignored. New frequencies were introduced to the
electron in this binding process so that the average frequency of the electron is less than the
Compton frequency ofan isolatedelectron. All the orbitals of an electron in ahydrogenatom
haveawavestructurethatinvolvestwoormorefrequencieswithfractionalamountsofenergy
compared to E . The total of the energy is equal to the electrons energy in isolation
minus the energy lost to form the hydrogen atom in the designated orbital. Orbital angular
momentum also has a wave explanation that involves waves of slightly different frequencies
propagating in opposite rotational directions around the proton. This is analogous to the
waveshavingarotatingframeofreference.
WhiletheBohratommodelhasbeenreplacedbythequantummechanicalmodel,thepointis
thatthesuperpositionofcounterpropagatingwavesinspacetimetravelingatthespeedoflight
canachievethedesiredorbitalangularmomentum.Itisproposedthatitisgoingtobepossible
to combine the spacetime wave model with the quantum mechanical atomic model to give a
conceptually understandable model of an atom. The mechanism that eliminates energy loss
from an atom is unknown, but presumably it is similar to the mechanism proposed for
stabilizingisolatedrotars.
Thisexplanationleavesalotofquestionsunanswered.Perhapsthemostobvious:Istherestill
a rotating dipole quantum volumeburied somewhere within the bound electrons lobes? The
electron retains its angular momentum inaddition toorbital angular momentum present
in most atomic orbitals. Further insights clearly will involve the marriage of quantum
mechanicsandimprovedversionsofthespacetimewavetheoryofrotars.Thedifferenceinthe
spectrumofhydrogenanddeuteriumisduetothedifferenceintheamountofnutationthetwo
differentmassnucleiexperience.Thisseemstoindicatethattheelectronretainsasubstantial
amountofconcentratedinertiawithintheelectroncloudthatiscausingthenucleustonutate.
HadronsandQuarks
Background: The standard model of particles depicts hadrons as being made of low energy
quarks. Currently, an up quark is thought to have energy in the range between 1.5 and 3.3
MeV. A down quarks energy is currently thought to be in the range of 3.5 to 6 MeV. Since a
protonhasenergyofabout938MeV,thismeansthatthestandardmodelhasonlyabout1%of
12-8
aprotonsmass/energyisprovidedbytherestmassofthequarks.Thecurrentthinkingisthat
about99%ofaprotonsenergyisfromtheenergyofgluonsthatbindthequarkstogetherand
fromthekineticenergyofthequarks.
The spacetime wave model of a hadron is more complex than either an isolated rotar or an
electron bound in a hydrogen atom. A proton, for example, has three fundamental rotars
quarksthataredipolewavesinspacetimepossessingquantizedangularmomentum.These
three quarks are strongly interacting both with each other and also interacting with the
surrounding sea of vacuum fluctuations dipolewaves that lackangular momentum. We are
inthepositionoftryingtointerpretexperimentalobservationsandseeingiftheyareplausibly
compatible with the proposed wave theory of matter dipole waves in spacetime traveling at
thespeedoflightinaconfinedvolume.Somecharacteristicsofgluonswillalsobeexamined.
Wewillstartbyexaminingbindingenergyingeneral,thenattempttoapplythisideatoquarks
bound into hadrons. Since the standard model says that a proton is approximately 100 times
more energetic than its component quarks, this implies that the binding energy provided by
gluons is a large positive energy. Also, according to thestandard model, the quarkswould be
masslesswithouttheexistenceofaHiggsfield.Itisinterestingtothinkaboutthehypothetical
roleoftheHiggsfieldinthestructureofaprotonandtheimpliedenergydensityoftheHiggs
field.
Intrinsic Energy of Quarks: The low intrinsic energies of up and down quarks between
1.5and6MeVinthestandardmodelisincompatiblewiththewavetheoryofmatterproposed
here.Forexample,arotatingspacetimedipolewithenergyof2.4MeVwouldhaveaquantum
radiusofR
q
8x10
14
m.Thissinglequarkisabout100timeslargerthantheexperimentally
measured radius of a proton. Even if there is a relativistic length contraction, the transverse
dimensions remain unchanged. Clearly the idea of low energy up and down quarks is
incompatiblewiththewavemodelpresentedhere.
The proposed alternative explained below is that up and down quarks are intrinsically high
energy rotating dipoles that are strongly bound together when they form hadrons. There are
no isolated first or second generation quarks because they simply do not attain stability as
isolatedrotars.Thetopquarkwillbediscussedlater.Attemptingtoremovequarksfroma
hadronagainstthestrongforceincreasesthequarksenergyComptonfrequencyuntilanew
meson is formed. When new mesons are formed, the binding force between former
components of the split hadron decreases to near zero. Single first or second generation
quarksareneverproduced.
However, to illustrate the concepts, we will imagine what it would be like if isolated quarks
wereallowed.Itisproposedherejustifiedlaterthatifisolatedupanddownquarksexisted,
theywouldberotatingdipoleswithenergysubstantiallygreaterthan400MeV.Ifupanddown
12-9
quarks existed as isolated rotars, then they would shed energy when they bond to form a
protonorneutron.Hadronscomeintoexistencealreadyformedsincethisisthelowestenergy
stateandtheonlyformthathasstability.However,itisinformativetoimaginethestepsthat
wouldoccurifahadronwasformedfromisolatedquarks.
Energy Well: When two or more rotars are bound together by attraction, this is always an
energy well. Energy is lost when the bound state is formed by attraction compared to the
hypothetical unbound state. For example, a photon is emitted when a proton captures an
electrontoformahydrogenatom.Thisislostenergycomparedtotheunboundstate.Another
example is gravitational bonding. When distributed mass comes together to form a planet or
star,thegravitationalenergymustbeconvertedtoheatandradiatedaway.Thislostenergyis
thenegativegravitationalbindingenergy.
What change takes place when a rotar, such as an electron, goes from an isolated state to a
boundstate?
1 Itlosesenergythroughsomeformofenergyemission.
2 ThislowerstherotarsComptonangularfrequency
c
.
3 ThestrainamplitudeH
oftherotardecreases.
4 ThequantumradiusR
q
increases.
5 Theboundaryconditionsarechangedcomparedtoanisolatedrotar.Thischangesthe
energydistributionfromtheisolatedrotarmodel.Apparentlyanelectronboundinan
atombecomesalargercloudlikeenergydistribution.
Itistheusualconventioninphysicstoconsiderbindingenergyaspositiveenergy.However,it
should be remembered that this is just a convention. In nature, virtually all bonding is
accomplishedbyforceswhichareattracting.Thismeansthattheboundstatehaslessenergy
thanthehypotheticalunboundstate.
The spacetime wave model of a hadron depicts the bound quarks rotars as being in a very
deep energy well. This means that quarks bound together in a hadron have much less
mass/energy than the same quarks would have if they could exist as isolated rotars. This
concept represents a strong conflict with the standard model. As previously stated, the three
quarks that form a proton supposedly account for only about 1% of a protons mass/energy.
The standard model requires that about 99% of a protons mass/energy comes from the
bindingenergyofthegluonsandkineticenergyofthequarks.Forthismodeltobecorrect,the
gluonbondingwouldneedtosomehowaddenergyratherthanremoveenergy.Gluonbonding
does not create an energy well compared to the sum of the mass/energy of the component
parts.Insteadtheboundstatehasupto100timesmoreenergythanthecomponentquarks.
Energy Density and Pressure:In anearlierchaptertherelationshipbetweenenergydensity

andpressurewasexamined.Aprotonwasusedasanexample.Theprotonsenergydensityis
12-10
about 3 x 10
35
J/m
3
. This energy density implies that the quarks and gluons that form the
standard proton model must have an internal pressure of at least 10
35
kg/m
2
. What force
keeps the large energy density pressure of the proton confined? If gluons possess a large
energydensity,theymustalsobegeneratingthispressure.Whatpreventsgluonsfrommerely
dissipating their large energy density pressure until some equilibrium is reached? If
fundamental particles are vibrating strings, what mechanism resists the tremendous pressure
impliedbythisstructure?
Thespacetimewavemodelofaprotonalsomustcontendwithenergytravelingatthespeedof
light in a confined volume. This confined energy does indeed generate the high pressure just
like the confined light example. An energy density of 3 x 10
35
J/m
3
of dipole waves in
spacetimewouldgenerateabout10
35
kg/m
2
pressure.Thespacetimewavemodelcounteracts
thispressurebyproposingthatthefewfrequenciesandconfigurationsthatarestableachieve
stabilitybyinteractingwiththepressureofthevacuumfluctuationswavesinspacetimethat
fill the universe. In the chapters on cosmology 13 & 14 the energy density and pressure of
vacuumenergywillbeestimated.Itwillbeshownthatvacuumenergyhasmuchmoreenergy
density pressure than the minimum required to stabilize the rotar model of all known
fundamentalparticles.
Binding Energy of Nucleons: While it is very difficult to make energy and force
measurementsinsideaprotonorneutron,wecanobtainahintofwhatisgoingonbylooking
atthebindingthatoccursbetweennucleons.Accordingtothestandardmodel,gluonsarealso
responsibleforthebindingofnucleons,theresidualstrongforce.Dothegluonsincreaseor
decrease the total energy when we go from unbound nucleons to bound nucleons? Does a
heliumatom
4
Hehavemoreorlessmass/energythan2deuteriumatoms?
The answer is obvious. The binding energy of nucleons is a negative form of energy energy
reduction compared to the sum of the unbound components. There is a decrease in
mass/energywhennucleonsareboundtogetherfromhydrogenatoms.Atfirstitmightappear
that
235
U and other heavy atoms are an exception to this rule, but this is incorrect. The
strongestboundatomicnucleolusis
56
Fewithabindingenergyof8.79MeVpernucleon.
235
U
hasabindingenergyof7.79MeVpernucleonandthisiscomparabletothebindingenergyper
nucleon of carbon or nitrogen. Breaking
235
U apart releases energy because the two lighter
nuclei formed have a greater binding energy per nucleon than
235
U. A greater binding energy
meansthatexcessenergymustbereleaseduponformation.Thepointisthateven
235
Uhasless
mass/energy than the energy of the protons, neutrons and electrons that form the uranium
atom. Binding energy between nucleons is negative energy. Similarly, quarks bound into
hadrons must have less energy than the total energy of the hypothetical isolated quarks. We
nevergettodothisexperimentbecauseisolatedquarksaresoenergeticthattheydonotexist
inisolation.

12-11
Energy of Bound Quarks: The working proposal is that all the energy of a proton is
contained in its three bound quark rotars rotating dipole waves in spacetime. The role of
gluons, color force, etc. will be addressed later. Furthermore, it is proposed that the binding
energy is so great that the bound quarks have much less energy than they would as
hypothetical isolated rotars. We will first survey the hadrons that are made of only up and
down quarks to compare the energy of the up and down quarks under various bound
conditions.Thenucleonsprotonsandneutronshavealmostthesameenergy~938MeV.If
we assume that all this energy can be traced to the energy of 3 rotating spacetime dipoles 3
quarks then the implication is that up and down quarks have about the same energy. There
aredifferentproportionsofupanddownquarks,yetapproximatelythesametotalenergy.We
willassumethatboundupanddownquarksinanucleonhasenergyofabout313MeV~
1
/
3
ofthetotal.
Therearetwootherfamiliesofhadronsthatconsistofonlyupanddownquarks.Thesearethe
pimesonspionsandthedeltabaryons.ThedeltabaryonshavespinofJ
3
/
2
ratherthanthe
spinofforthenucleons.Thereare4deltabaryons.Theseare:
uuu;
uud;
o
uddand
ddd.
Theseallhaveaboutthesameenergy1,232MeVthereforetheupanddownquarksboundin
thishadronhaveenergyofabout
1
/
3
thisvalue:~411MeV.
The pions consist of a quark and an anti quark such as an up quark and an anti down quark.
The net spin of the pions is zero counter rotating dipoles. The energy of the pions is 139.5
MeVforthetwochargedpions
and
andabout135MeVfortheneutralpion
o
.This
means that the up and down quarks in a pion have average energy of about 70 MeV for the
chargedpions
and
andabout68MeVforaneutralpion
o
.
Thereforewehaveexampleswhereupanddownquarkshaveenergyrangingfrom411MeVto
68 MeV. The standard model deals with this difference by assuming that an isolated up or
down quark has energy of only a few MeV. The extra energy required to reach 68 MeV, 313
MeVor411MeVisassumedtobepredominatelyintheenergyofthegluons.
Energy of a Hypothetical Isolated Quark: The spacetime wave model offers a different
answer. It says that an isolated rotar up or down quark would have energy substantially
greater than 411 MeV. When quarks are bound into a hadron, the bonds are so strong that a
largepercentageofthehypotheticalisolatedenergyislost.Itwouldberadiatedawayifitwas
possible to do this experiment. The difference between the 68 MeV, 313 MeV or 411 MeV
reflectsdifferentamountsofnegativebindingenergy.

12-12
Thebindingenergypernucleonin
56
Ferepresentsapproximately1%ofaprotonsenergy.An
electron bound to a uranium atoms nucleolus stripped of all other electrons has a binding
energythatisabout25%ofanisolatedelectronsenergy.Inorderforanelectrontoattachtoa
strippeduraniumatomnucleolus,ithastoemitagammarayphotontoshedabout25%ofthe
electronsenergy.
It is proposed that the binding energy of quarks in a hadron is much greater than these
examples. To illustrate this concept, we will choose an energy substantially larger than 411
MeVfortheenergyofahypotheticalunboundupordownquark.Forillustration,wewilluse
the number of about 600 MeV for the energy of isolated up and down quarks. With this
assumption,anisolatedupordownquarkwouldloseabout1/3ofitsenergywhenitformsa
delta baryon 411 MeV. It would lose about of its energy when it forms a nucleon 313
MeVanditwouldloseabout89%ofitsenergywhenitformsaneutralpimeson68MeV.
Electron vs. Proton Size:Beforeproceedingtoofar,itisdesirabletodoacalculationtoseeif

the ideas proposed here are plausible. We will attempt to calculate the size of a proton.
However,firstitisnecessarytorecognizewhyaprotonhasameasurablesizeandanelectron
doesnot.Aprotonhasameasurablesizebecauseaprotonismadeupof3fundamentalrotars.
The three quarks of a proton do not respond to a high energy collision as a single quantized
unit.Thepropertyofunityonlyexistswithinasinglequantizedwaverotar.Acollisionwitha
proton involves speed of light communicationof forces betweenthe three quarks of aproton.
Thismeansthattheprotonexhibitsaphysicalsizeinacollisioneventhoughthissizedoesnot
exhibitahardboundary.
When an electron collides with one of the three quarks in a proton, it appears as if there is a
collision between two point particles. The reason is the same as previously explained for a
collision between two electrons. Both the electron and the quark are quantized rotating
dipoles in spacetime. In a direct hit, they both convert the kinetic energy of the colliding
electron to internal energy of the rotating dipole. This happens faster than the speed of light
because preserving the quantized angular momentum results in the previously explained
property of unity. The conversion of kinetic energy momentarily increases the Compton
frequencyofeachrotar.Inorderforangularmomentumtobeconserved,thequantumradius
R
q
of each rotar momentarily decreases. The amount of decrease in size makes each rotar
experimentally indistinguishable from a point particle because as previously explained the
momentaryradiusislessthantheresolutionlimitsetbytheuncertaintyprinciple.Theother
two quarks that were part of the proton only learn about the collision through speed of light
communication.
Calculation of Proton Radius: The presence of only three quantized waves means that a
protonstillexhibits substantial quantummechanicalproperties suchas nodefiniteshape and
thelackofahardedge.Alsotheshapeofaprotondependsonthealignmentofthespinsofthe
12-13
quarks. An analysis
2
of all measurements of the proton radius concludes a most probable
chargeradiusforaprotonis:0.877x10
15
meter0.15x10
15
meter
Wewilldoaplausibilitycalculationtoseeiftheproposedrotarmodelofaprotongivesroughly
the correct size. This calculation will assume that the proton is made of 3 rotars, each with
energyof313MeV5x10
11
J.Wemustdecidehowthesethreerotatingdipolesfittogether.
Are there voids or excessive overlaps? It is known that protons are not necessarily spherical
depending on the alignment of the spins of the up and down quarks. Still, the simplest
assumptionisasphericalprotonwithquarksthataresointimatelyboundthattheprotonhas
threetimesthevolumeofanindividualrotarquarkwithradiusR
q
.Theplausibilitycalculation
willassumethissimplifiedmodel.
We will first calculate the quantum radius R

q
of a rotar with energy of 5 x 10
11
Joule 313
MeV.Thenwewillincreasethisradiusbyafactorof3
1/3
toobtaintheradiusofaspherewith
3timesthevolumeofanindividualrotarquark.
R
q
c/E
i
substitute:E
i
313MeV5x10
11
J
R
q
6.3x10
16
meterradiusofonequarkwithenergyof313MeV
R
q
x3
1/3
9x10
16
metercalculatedprotonradius3quarks
Theexperimentallydeterminedradiusofaprotonis:8.77x10
16
1.5x10
16
meter,therefore
the calculated radius of 9 x 10
16
meter agrees within the experimental error. This degree of
accuracy is probably more than we deserve considering the crudeness of the calculation. In
fact, the rotar model could be correct for charged leptons and too simplified to be applied to
quarkswhicharetightlyboundwithveryrestrictiveboundaryconditions.Still,thecalculation
doesgiveareasonableanswerandcannotbeignored.Thiscalculationcouldeasilyhavebeen
offbymanyordersofmagnitude.
It is also interesting to note that the density of the quarks in the above calculation is roughly
5.9x10
17
kg/m
3
. The density of the nucleus of an atom many bound nucleons is subject to
some interpretation, but is roughly 2.3 x 10
17
kg/m
3
. Therefore, the density of an atomic
nucleusisroughlyhalfthedensityofindividualquarks.Thisisfardifferentfromthestandard
modelthatdepictsquarksaspointparticlesandthereforeinfinitelymoredensethananatomic
nucleolus.
Gluons: The spacetime based model of particles and forces does not use exchange virtual
gluons or photons to accomplish the transfer of the strong or electromagnetic forces. These
exchangeparticlesaresimplynotrequiredtoexplaintheforces.Thevirtualparticlepairsthat
are present in vacuum energy have an explanation based of dipole waves in spacetime. The
pressureexertedbythisvacuumenergyisacriticalcomponentofallforceexplanations.There

2
http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0008137v1
12-14
justarenoexchangegluonsorvirtualphotonspropagatingatthespeedoflight.Theexchange
ofWandZparticleswillbediscussedbelow.
The standard model has 8 different types of gluons providing the strong force. While two
opposing repulsive forces can easily accommodate the resultant force encountered in
separation, a single attractive force needs to be given unusual properties to achieve the same
net force curve. The gluon bonding needs to explain 1 no force at the asymptotic freedom
separationdistance 2a strong repulsive forceif thequarks are forced closertogether and 3
an increasing attractive force as the quarks are separated. The explanation of point #3 is that
thegluonsbecomeincreasinglyconfinedintoafluxtubeextendingbetweenthequarksasthe
quarks are separated. Since this implies energy density propagating at the speed of light, the
gluonsshouldbegeneratingahighpressurewhichshouldbothcreatearepulsiveforceforthe
quarks and quickly dissipate the gluon energy. The model of gluons has been adjusted to
accommodate these difficulties, but it is proposed that a much simpler rotar and vacuum
energybasedmodelcanbedevelopedtoagreewithexperiments.
The numerous experiments that are currently interpreted as implying 8 types of gluons are
proposedtohaveawavebasedexplanationwithinthecomplexwavestructureofhadrons.For
example, there might be internal resonances or phase shifts that are currently interpreted as
characteristics of gluons. Gluons have never been directly observed but three jet events in
energetic collisions are interpreted as indirect evidence of gluons. It is proposed that as the
wave based model is developed further, there will be alternative wave based explanations of
the experimental observations that will eliminate the need for gluons. The color charge
characteristicscurrentlyassociatedwiththe8typesofgluonswillhavetobeincorporatedinto
thewavebasedmodelofthequarkandvacuumenergyinteraction.
Removal of a Quark from a Hadron:Inchapter7therewasadiscussionoftheasymptotic

freedom ofquarks bound in a hadron. There it was statedthat thestrong force is actually an
interactionoftwoforces.AtdistanceR
q
thetwointeractionquarksaredeflectingeachothers
circulatingpowersotheyarerepellingeachotherwiththemaximumforceF
m
P
c
/c
q
R
q
2
.
However,thiswouldalsointerferewiththepressureexertedbyvacuumenergy.Themaximum
interference would produce a total loss of pressure over one side of a rotar with area of kR
q
2
.
Then there would be unbalanced force exerted by vacuum energy F
m

q
R
q
2
. The force
exerted by vacuum energy/pressure on the opposite side of the rotar would attempt to push
the two rotars towards each other and would appear to be attraction between rotars. It is
proposed that an isolated meson achieves equilibrium where the two opposing force vectors
can both equal approximately the maximum force F
m
at separation distance R
q
. This is the
asymptoticfreedomstateofhadrons.
Forexample,anattempttoremovearotarfromahadronincreasetheseparationbeyondR
q
results in an opposing force that rapidly approaches the maximum force. This is the strong
12-15
force which appears to be attraction. It is possible to get a rough idea of the effect of
attempting to remove a quark from a hadron using the rotar model. For example, we will
calculatethemaximumforcethatanupordownquarkcangenerateifweattempttoremoveit
from a proton assuming no change in frequency. For the internal energy E
i
of the bound
quarkwewillusethe313MeVE
i
5x10
11
Jpreviouslycalculatedapproximateenergyofa
quarkboundinaproton.SubstitutingthisintoF
m
P
c
/cE
i
2
/cweobtainF
m
80,000N.
While this is the correct maximum force, it is an oversimplification to assume that any
attempted displacement of two quarks immediately starts off with this maximum force. The
quarks in a hadron are in a type of equilibrium asymptotic freedom if they are not being
acted upon by an outside force that is attempting to separate the quarks. Imagine partial
overlap of the two or three similar energy rotars, so each rotar is deflecting the circulating
poweroftheotherrotars.Thisgeneratesarepulsiveforceattemptingtoseparatetherotars.
The magnitude of this force is roughly equal to the maximum force F
m
of the similar energy
rotars.
Aspreviouslyexplained,therotarsarealsobeingforcedtogetherbytheunbalancedpressure
exerted by vacuum energy. The vacuum energy is only exerting pressure on the outside
hemisphere of the quarks. This is a repulsive force exerted by vacuum energy that is
attemptingtoforcethetworotarstogether.Infact,onlyfrequenciesandconfigurationswhich
achievethisbalancearesufficientlystabletobeconsideredashadrons.Themagnitudeofthe
forceexerted byvacuum energy is alsoapproximatelyequal to the rotars maximum forceF
m
.
Forhadronsanequilibriumseparationisfoundwheretheopposingforcesbalance.Theforce
attemptingtoseparatethetworotarsisoffsetbythevacuumenergyforceattemptingtoforce
the rotars together. This is the equilibrium separation distance that exhibits asymptotic
freedom.
Therefore, if a collision is attempting to separate a quark from a hadron, the force resisting
removal of a quark starts at near zero and grows until enough work has been done to form a
pionorothermeson.Itonlytakesabout140MeVor2.2x10
11
Jtoformanewpion.Toput
thisinperspective,itwouldtakeadisplacementof2.8x10
16
magainstan80,000Nforcetodo
enough work to generate a new pion. Since the force starts near zero and increases with
distance,theactualdisplacementrequiredwouldbesomewhatgreaterthanthis.Forexample,
alinearincreaseinforceupto80,000Nwouldrequireabout6x10
16
mdisplacementtoform
a pion. What we call the strong force is proposed to be the resultant force, the difference
betweenthetwomanifestationsofthemaximumforce.
As the two quarks are being separated, but before a pion is formed, the energy expended to
separate the quarks is being stored as a higher frequency in the quarks. This higher
frequency can be thought of as getting closer to the Compton frequency of a hypothetical 600
MeV isolated up quark used as an example. This frequency increase with separation distance
12-16
thenincreasesinF
m
2
/c.However,thisequationalsoimpliesaseparationdistancethat
isnotbeingmetasthetwoquarksarebeingseparated.Thismakestheforceversusdistance
morecomplex.
Whenweattempttoseparateanelectronandaprotonthatareinitiallystationaryinspacenot
formedintoahydrogenatom,theelectrostaticforceresistingremovalstartsoffatamaximum
and drops with 1/r
2
. The graph of force versus distance for the removal of a quark from a
hadron is unknown. However, experiments seem to indicate that the force required for
removal of a quark from a hadron starts at zero and increases with distance, then perhaps
levelsofftoaconstantforcenearthepointwhereanewmesonisformed.Theforcethendrops
to near zero when the new meson is formed. Such a graph can be reconciled with the model
proposedhere.However,nojustificationwillbeofferedsinceeverything,includingthegraph,
istoospeculative.
The force between nucleons the nucleonnucleon force reacts differently to separation
compared to the force characteristics when two quarks are separated in a hadron. The
nucleonnucleon force has been estimated to drop off over a distance of roughly 1.3 x 10
15
meters.Thisisroughlytwicethe6.3x10
16
mradiusoftherotarmodelofupanddownquarks
calculatedearlierinthischapter.Itisquitereasonablethatthiswouldbethescaleoverwhich
forcesdiminishforarotarbasedmodelofaprotonorneutron.
Interactions Required for Stability:Asexplainedpreviouslywithchargedleptons,thebiggest

challengeforwavesinspacetimetoachievestabilityistosomehowpreventenergydissipation.
Withoutsomeoffsettingfactor,thewaveswillhaveanamplitudedistributionofL
p
/r.Thisjust
meansthatthewavesdissipatebackintotheotherwavesinspacetimeinatimeof1/
c
which
isroughlyintherangeof10
25
to10
20
seconds.Thefewcombinationsofangularmomentum,
frequency, amplitude, etc. that achieve stability are the rare exception. These conditions that
form stable hadrons exhibit qualities not present in a random combination of waves in
spacetime.
Somehow two or three quarks acting together can find stability where individual quarks do
not. Do the hadrons that find stability achieve this stability by exhibiting the standing wave
properties of a single unit? It is possible to answer this question by looking at the diffraction
pattern of neutrons passing through a crystal. The diffraction pattern produced by a neutron
3 quarks implies a de Broglie wavelength that is characteristic of the neutrons total mass
d
h/mv rather than the mass of the three individual quarks with approximately 1/3 this
totalmass.
Apparentlythestabilityconditionrequiredforvacuumenergytostabilizeaneutronresultsin
frequency summation in the external volume. In other words, the 3 quarks present in the
neutronlosetheirindividualityattheboundaryoftheneutron.Externally,thevacuumenergy
12-17
stabilizesaneutronbytreatingitasasingleunit.Thestandingwavesgeneratedinthevacuum
energyapparentlyareequivalenttoaComptonfrequencycharacteristicoftheentireenergyof
the neutron. The de Broglie waves generated by a neutron imply a single wavelength of the
bidirectional standing waves in the neutrons external volume. Besides neutrons, larger
composite particles such as alpha particles and even entire molecules exhibit diffraction
patternscharacteristicofthetotalenergy.Animprovedrotarmodelshouldaddresstheissue
offrequencysummationfurther.
Formation of the First Hadrons: The formation of rotars in the Big Bang was previously
described as a trial and error process where a few combinations of angular momentum,
frequency,andamplitudecondensedoutofthechaoticenergeticwavesinspacetimepresentin
the early stages of the Big Bang. It is now proposed that besides single rotating spacetime
dipoles, nature also found a few combinations of rotating dipoles that could achieve stability.
Thesealsocondensedoutoftheenergeticwavesinspacetimeasalreadyformedhadrons.The
source of the angular momentum required to form quarks, leptons and photons will be
addressed in chapters 13 and 14. It will be shown that even the starting condition of the
universePlanckspacetimemusthavepossessedquantizedangularmomentum.
Presumably the first hadrons that condensed out of the energetic waves in spacetime created
by the Big Bang were highly energetic hadrons made from generation III and II quarks. The
probable sequence that eventually arrives at the dominance of protons and neutrons in the
universetodaywillhavetobedevelopedbyothers.
W and Z Bosons:SofarthisanalysishasnomentionW
,W
andZbosons.Thereisclearlya
large body of experimental observations that support these particles in the standard model.
However, like gluons, it is proposed that these bosons have a wave explanation. W and Z
particleshavespincharacteristicwhichisnormallyassociatedwithaboson.HoweverWand
Zparticlesalsohaverestmasswhichisnormallyassociatedwithafermionspin.Clearly
thisismorecomplicatedthanpreviouslyencounteredwithotherfermionsorbosons.
Isthereanyothercasediscussedinthisbookwhereabosonspinpossessesrestmass?The
answer is: yes. In the first chapter we discussed the case of photons confined in a reflecting
box. Photons have spin yet when they are confined in some way they are forced to have a
specificframeofreferenceandtheyacquirerestmass.Infact,itwaspointedoutthatanytime
a photon has energy of E pc, the photon will have rest mass. When a photon is confined
between two reflectors it can be thought of as propagating both directions simultaneously.
Sincemomentumisavector,thetwovectorscancelandp0.Thisconditiongivesthephoton
rest mass even though the photon is a boson. Therefore even a photon propagating through
glassispropagatingatlessthanthespeedoflightinavacuumandEpc.

12-18
The point of this example is that bosons spin can have rest mass if they interact with
fermions rotars in a way that results in E pc. Apparently spacetime and the hadron
structuremusthaveatypeofresonancethatoccursat1.22x10
26
s
1
Wboson80,38GeVand
1.39x10
26
s
1
Zboson91.19GeV.W
andZbosonsonlyexistwhentheyareassociatedwitha
hadron 2 or 3 quarks. Apparently spacetime and the hadron structure must have a type of
resonancethatoccursat1.22x10
26
s
1
Wboson80,38GeVand1.39x10
26
s
1
Zboson91.19
GeV.
ImaginetwoquarksactingsomethinglikemirrorsmomentarilyconfiningaWorZboson.With
Comptonwavelengthsof1.54x10
17
mand1.36x10
17
mWandZrespectivelythesearethe
size range that plausibly could interact with the rotar structure of hadrons. The W and Z
bosons would have a standing wave structure which would look like standing waves
interacting with the wave structure of the two quarks. This would give these W or Z bosons
restmassandtheshortrangepropertiesnormallyassociatedwiththeweakforce.Thisisnota
complete explanation, but it does show how the spacetime model of forces and particles can
accommodateW
andZbosons.Hopefullyotherswillanalyzethisfurther.
Neutrinos
Neutrino Introduction: Neutrinos are the least understood of the fundamental particles.
While a lot has been learned in recent years, we still don't conclusively know whether the
electron neutrino possess rest mass or not. However, it seems very likely that all three
neutrinos possess rest mass. Previously the standard model considered neutrinos to be
massless particles but the phenomenon known as neutrino flavor oscillation indicates that
neutrinos possess a small rest mass. The spacetime wave model of the universe can
accommodate either neutrinos that have a small rest mass or massless neutrinos. However,
thislatterpossibilityisconsideredsounlikelythatitwillnotbediscussedfurtherhere.
One advantage of the starting assumption the universe is only spacetime is that it is so
restrictivethatitgreatlynarrowsthepossibilitiesforphysicalmodels.Allparticlesthatexhibit
restmassareproposedtopossesthismassbecausetheyarespacetimewaveswithquantized
angularmomentum.Thesewavesarepropagatingatthespeedoflightbuttheyarerestricted
toaconfinedvolumeofspace.Thisimpliesthattheyhavearestframeofreferencewheretheir
waves in spacetime are circulating at the speed of light in a closed loop. This model also
impliesthatthereisarotatingrateoftimegradientatthecenterofthequantumvolumeofthe
rotar. Before describing the most likely neutrino model, we will first review the known
characteristicsofneutrinos.

12-19
Background: There are three types or flavors of neutrinos electron neutrinos, muon
neutrinos and tau neutrinos. Experiments prove that neutrinos canchange from one type of
neutrino to another type of neutrino as a neutrino propagates through space. This neutrino
flavor oscillation is interpreted as indicating that neutrinos must have some rest mass. The
reasoningisthatanythingtravelingatthespeedoflightcannotexperiencetimeandtherefore
neutrino flavor oscillation implies that neutrinos must be traveling at less than the speed of
light. The upper limit for the average rest mass of the three types of neutrinos has been
estimatedatlessthan0.67eVinoneanalysis
3
andlessthan0.4eVinanotheranalysis.
However, currently there is a slight doubt that neutrinos have rest mass. This slight doubt
arisesbecauseofthefollowing:1neutrinoshaveneverbeenobservedinarestframeand2
withinexperimentalerror,allneutrinoshavelefthandedhelicitiesspinandallantineutrinos
haverighthandedhelicities.Thislastobservationgivessupporttotheideathatneutrinosare
travelingatthespeedoflight.Iftheyarenottravelingatthespeedoflight,thenhypothetically,
it would be possible to move faster than a neutrino and convert a left handed neutrino into a
righthandedantineutrino.Anantineutrinoinoneframeofreferencewouldbeaneutrinoin
anotherframeofreference.Thispredicamentisusuallyovercomebyassumingthatneutrinos
musthavesomeadditionalpropertythatdistinguishesaneutrinofromanantineutrino.
Modeling a Neutrino with Rest Mass: The spacetime wave model can accommodate
neutrinos either having rest mass or being a massless particle. However, we will only
examine the spacetime wave model of a neutrino with rest mass and presume that the
mass/energyislessthan0.67eV.Thismaximummass/energyimpliesthatanisolatedneutrino
in its rest frame has a Compton frequency of less than 1.6 x 10
14
Hz and a quantum radius
larger than 3 x 10
7
m. This large size and low frequency for rotars would seem to present a
problem for the rotar model that can be illustrated with an example. A muon decays into an
electron, an electron antineutrino and a muon neutrino. The muon has a quantum radius of
about 1.9 x 10
15
m and a Compton frequency of about 2.6 x 10
22
Hz. If neutrinos have rest
mass,howisitpossibleforthedecayofamuontoproduceneutrinosthatareabout10
8
times
largerradiusthanthemuon?~10
7
mcomparedto~10
15
m
This apparently incompatibility occurs because we are erroneously comparing the size and
frequencyofisolatedrotarsinarestframewhenweshouldbelookingatthesecharacteristics
whenrotarsareintheverycloseproximitytootherrotarsatthemomentofdecay.Recallthat
when an electron collides with a proton or another electron, there is a moment when all the
kineticenergyoftheelectronisconvertedtointernalenergyoftheelectron.Thismomentarily
increasestheelectronsComptonfrequencyandmomentarilycontractsitsquantumradius.A
50GeVelectroncollisioncausestheelectrontomomentarilydecreaseitsquantumradiusbya
factorofabout100,000andincreaseitsfrequencybythesamefactor.

3
http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/1475-7516/2006/06/019
12-20
If a neutrino has rest mass, it is proposed that a neutrino created in a particle decay a muon
decayforexampleisinitiallycreatedinthehighenergy,compressedconditioncharacteristic
of a collision. This extra energy is converted to the ultrarelativistic velocities of the three
decay products produced by the muon decay. This can be seen from the following example:
Suppose that we imagine reversing the decay process. The decay products consisting of an
electron,anelectronantineutrinoandamuonneutrinowouldreversedirectionsandproducea
collisionthatformsamuon.Thiscollisionwouldbehighlyrelativisticandmomentarilyreturn
thethreedecayproductstotheirenergetic,compressedstatepresentwhenthemuoninitially
decayed. In fact, the sum of the frequencies of the three decay products in the compressed
statebeforeseparationwouldequalthemuonsComptonfrequency.Inthisexplanation,the
neutrinos would not develop the large size and lower frequency until they separate from the
otherrotarsandeachisviewedinitsrestframe.
Almost all the quantized angular momentum in the universe is contained in neutrinos and
photons. All the other leptons and quarks contain less than one part in 10
8
compared to
quantized angular momentum of photons and neutrinos. This makes neutrinosanimportant
consideration when examining the evolution of the universe. Therefore, neutrinos will be
discussedagaininchapters13and14oncosmology.

13-1

Chaptei 1S

Cosmology I Planck Spacetime

Introductory Note: The next two chapteis will often use the teim paiticle iathei than iotai
because the wave stiuctuie is not usually iequiieu foi cosmological explanations. Also
astiophysicists usually iefei to the uensity of the univeise a teim which combines both
eneigy anu mattei. This book piesents a wave baseu mouel of the univeise which is moie
accuiately uesciibeu by the teim eneigy uensity of the univeise.

The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB): The piecise measuiement of the CNB has hau
a piofounu impact on cosmology. The Wilkinson Niciowave Anisotiopic Piobe (WNAP) has
mappeu the full sky uistiibution of the CNB to a iesolution of u.2. The age of the univeise has
been ueteimineu to be 1S.7S billion yeais _ 1%. Also the univeise has been ueteimineu to not
have any laige scale cuivatuie. It is flat to a measuiement accuiacy of less than 1%.
1
,
2

Analysis of the uata fiom WNAP has also ueteimineu that about S8u,uuu yeais aftei the Big
Bang, the eneigy in the univeise was 1u% neutiinos, 1S% photons, 12% oiuinaiy mattei
(baiyonic mattei), anu 6S% uaik mattei. Foi compaiison the peicentages quoteu foi touay
aie: 4.6 % _ u.1% oiuinaiy mattei, 2S.S% _ 1.S% uaik mattei anu 72.1% _ 1.S% uaik eneigy.

The 1S% eneigy that was photon eneigy at S8u,uuu yeais has touay been ieushifteu by a factoi
of about 1u8u. This has ieuuceu the cuiient eneigy content of these CNB photons to an almost
insignificant peicentage (~ u.u1%) of the total eneigy in the univeise. Similaily, neutiinos anu
othei ielativistic paiticles have also lost momentum (kinetic eneigy) uue to the ieushift.
Theiefoie, ovei 2u% of the total obseivable eneigy piesent in the univeise at an age of S8u,uuu
has uisappeaieu. If we extiapolate back fuithei, the univeise was iauiation uominateu anu
almost all the obseivable eneigy piesent in the eaily univeise has uisappeaieu (obseivable
eneigy excluues vacuum eneigy). The question about what has happeneu to this obseivable
eneigy will be uiscusseu latei

It can be shown that the eneigy that was piesent in oiuinaiy mattei anu uaik mattei at
S8u,uuu yeais is still appioximately piesent in the univeise touay. The peicentages look
uiffeient because of the auuition of uaik eneigy anu the subtiaction of the eneigy in photons
anu neutiinos. Baik eneigy has nevei been obseiveu, but it is iequiieu by the cuiiently
accepteu cosmological mouel. The neeu foi uaik eneigy will also be uiscusseu latei.

1
http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/map/dr4/pub_papers/sevenyear/cosmology/wmap_7yr_cosmology.pdf
2
Astrophysical Journal Supplement 180: 225-245 February 2009
13-2
The measuiement of the CNB has also shown that the univeise uoes have a piefeiieu fiame of
iefeience. Fiom any given location, the cosmic miciowave backgiounu only appeais isotiopic
fiom a paiticulai fiame of iefeience calleu the CNB iest fiame. Foi example, the sun appeais
to be moving at about S69 kms in the uiiection of the viigo constellation ielative to the CNB
as seen fiom the suns location. This ielative motion piouuces a Bopplei shift in the CNB that
shows up as a ieushift in the CNB in one uiiection anu a blue shift in the CNB in the opposite
uiiection (uipole anisotiopy). This anisotiopy is subtiacteu fiom CNB pictuies to piouuce the
unifoim CNB pictuies commonly exhibiteu showing only small tempeiatuie vaiiations. Each
location in the univeise has a unique fiame of iefeience that is stationaiy ielative to the CNB.

Comoving Coordinates: The peispective of a unique CNB iest fiame at each location has leu
to the concept that the univeise can be moueleu as having a comoving cooiuinate system.
This is a cooiuinate giiu that expanus with the Bubble expansion of the univeise. Each point
on this giiu is in the CBN iest fiame foi that location. This is also calleu the comoving fiame.
A comoving obseivei is the only obseivei that will see the univeise (incluuing the CNB) as
isotiopic. ualaxies aie neaily in the comoving fiame, so any velocity they have ielative to the
comoving fiame is theii peculiai velocity.

At any given instant, all points in the CNB iest fiame aie expeiiencing the same iate of time if
local giavitational uistuibances aie ignoieu. Anothei way of saying this is that on the scale
wheie the univeise is homogeneous (~Suu million light yeais), all points in the comoving
fiame aie expeiiencing the comoving cooiuinates cosmological time.

Comoving uistance is the piopei uistance between two points (both in the comoving fiame)
at the piesent instant of comoving time. While comoving uistance coiiesponus to piopei
uistance at the piesent instant, comoving uistance is imagineu to iemain at a fixeu value of
ovei time. In the past oi futuie the piopei uistance between these two points changes with the
Bubble flow but the comoving uistance is a fixeu uesignation on an expanuing cooiuinate
system. The cosmic scale factoi (a) is a function of time anu usually uesignateu as: a(t). This
scale factoi quantifies the ielative expansion of the univeise between two moments in time.
The teim l
t
is piopei uistance between the two points at a uiffeient time (uiffeient age of the
univeise). The ielationship between these teims is:

= l
a(t)

The cuiient scale of the comoving cooiuinate system is uesignateu a
o
anu usually set to equal
one (a
o
= 1).

The -CDM Cosmological Model: CBN is an abbieviation foi LambuaColu Baik Nattei.
This is cuiiently consiueieu to be the stanuaiu Big Bang mouel. In 1929 when Euwin Bubble
uiscoveieu the ieushift of galaxies (he calleu them nebula), the initial inteipietation was that
13-3
these weie Bopplei shifts uue to ielative motion of galaxies expanuing into a pieexisting voiu.
Bubble pioposeu that theie was a lineai ielationship between velocity anu uistance. The
cuiient inteipietation is that the ieushift is uue to a cosmological expansion of the univeise
wheie space itself is being continuously cieateu eveiywheie. 0ne uiffeience between Bubbles
concept (pieexisting voiu) anu cosmological expansion is that cosmological expansion is
cuiiently believeu to be able to piouuce sepaiation velocities that exceeu the speeu of light.
0bseivations stiongly suppoit the geneial ielativistic inteipietation of a cosmological
expansion ovei the special ielativity inteipietation of mass expanuing into a pieexisting voiu.

A uetaileu uesciiption of the CBN mouel will not be given heie. Bowevei, theie aie seveial
physical inteipietations anu pieuictions of this mouel that will be uesciibeu to establish the
cuiient peispective of cosmologists. The favoieu CBN mouel is usually uesignateu as:
N
= u.S anu
= u.7 with the Bubble paiametei J = 7u.8 kmsNpc which is equivalent to

J = 2.29 x 1u
18
msm in NKS units. The mattei uensity paiametei
N
= u.S iepiesents that
all foims of mattei makes up appioximately Su% of the ciitical uensity of the univeise anu the
cosmological constant uensity paiametei
= u.7 inuicates that uaik eneigy makes up about

7u% of the ciitical uensity of the univeise. Baik eneigy is the hypothetical eneigy that expanus
the univeise anu is associateu with Einsteins cosmological constant .

Figuie 1S1 is taken fiom a veiy goou aiticle titleu Expanuing Confusion: Common
Nisconceptions of Cosmological Boiizons anu Supeiluminal Expansion of the 0niveise
S

3
T. M. Davis; C. H. Lineweaver; Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia 2004, 21, 97-109.
13-4
Figuie 1S1 is two spacetime uiagiams that plot time veisus piopei uistance B (top panel) anu
time veisus comoving uistance (bottom panel). The panels aie uiawn fiom the peispective of
an obseivei locateu at the inteisection of the now line (1S.7 billion yeais aftei the Big Bang)
anu the uistance = u line. The lowei panel has veitical woilu lines foi objects cuiiently with
vaiious ieushifts (z = u, 1, S etc.) because the comoving uistance uoes not change ovei time.
The piopei uistance changes ovei time but the comoving uistance is a cooiuinate uistance that
expanus with the comoving cooiuinate system. The two panels offei uiffeient peispectives anu
the following uesciiption applies to both panels.

The uasheu line labeleu paiticle hoiizon ciosses the 1S.7 billion yeai now line at about 46
billion light yeais. This is to be unueistoou because even though a signal fiom the most uistant
souice cuiiently ieaching us (calleu the paiticle hoiizon) has been tiaveling at the speeu of
light foi 1S.7 billion yeais, the cuiient uistance to that souice is laigei than 1S.7 billion light
yeais. This is because the cosmic expansion of the univeise has continueu to inciease the
volume of the univeise anu the uistance between points aftei the speeu of light signal has
passeu any location.

Next we will look at the line labeleu Bubble spheie. Cuiiently the bounuaiy of the Bubble
spheie is 1S.7 billion light yeais fiom us. This is the uistance wheie space itself is supposeuly
ieceuing fiom us at a velocity equal to the speeu of light (concept examineu latei). Accoiuing
to the CBN mouel, the space beyonu the Bubble spheie is ieceuing fiom us fastei than the
speeu of light. This gives iise to an event hoiizon.

The line labeleu event hoiizon iepiesents the fuithest uistance that we can ieceive cuiient
infoimation. Foi example, accoiuing to the CBN mouel, galaxies that we cuiiently obseive as
having a ieushift of z = 1.8 aie cuiiently ciossing oui event hoiizon. This means that light
being emitteu by these galaxies touay will nevei ieach us because of the acceleiating expansion
of the univeise. All galaxies with ieushifts gieatei than 1.8 have alieauy ciosseu oui event
hoiizon anu will uisappeai fiom view sometime within the next 14 billion yeais (laigei
ieushifts uisappeai soonei).

Accoiuing to the CBN mouel eventually the Bubble spheie anu the event hoiizon will be
appioximately the same uistance. In the uistant futuie the univeise will have an event hoiizon
at a constant piopei uistance of about 17 billion light yeais. ualaxies will continue to uisappeai
fiom view as they aie caiiieu by cosmological expansion beyonu this uistance. Eventually only
the giavitationally bounu galaxies will iemain visible. If the concept of acceleiating expansion
of the univeise is caiiieu to its logical conclusion, we woulu enu with the Big Rip wheie
expanuing spacetime eventually teais apait oui galaxy, then oui solai system anu eventually
even atoms.

13-5
Spacetime Transformation Model: We aie about to stait the uesciiption of an alteinative
cosmological mouel that will be iefeiieu to as the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel. This
mouel will be moie fully explaineu in the next chaptei, but key paits of the mouel will be
piesenteu in this chaptei. Initially, these key paits will be explaineu using the familiai
concepts anu teiminology of the Big Bang mouel. Bowevei, in the next chaptei the Big Bang
will be explaineu with the concept that spacetime is unueigoing a tiansfoimation. This
tiansfoimation explains the inciease in the piopei volume of the univeise anu explains the
foimation of funuamental paiticles fiom 4 uimensional spacetime. It will be shown that this
alteinative mouel gives the same cosmological ieushift but it eliminates the neeu foi uaik
eneigy anu makes uiffeient pieuictions about the futuie of the univeise.

When explaining the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel, the initiation of the tiansfoimation (the
beginning of time) will be iefeiieu to as the Big Bang. This is a highly uesciiptive teim that is
being auapteu to expiess the stait of a tiansfoimation of one foim of spacetime to anothei.
This was accompanieu with a tiemenuous inciease in piopei volume, so the teim Big Bang is
still applicable.

The Expanding Volume of the Universe: If the univeise is only spacetime, how uoes
spacetime cieate new volume. Touay, a lot of attention is being paiu to the appaient
acceleiation of the expansion of the univeise. While this is an impoitant question, it is not
possible to answei this question until we fiist unueistanu how any new piopei volume is
cieateu in the univeise. If the expansion of the univeise is imagineu as masseneigy expanuing
into a pieexisting voiu, then momentum woulu continue this expansion anu theie woulu be no
mysteiy. Bowevei, the CBN mouel of cosmology says that the univeise is unueigoing a
cosmological expansion. This expansion is the iesult of new volume continuously being cieateu
eveiywheie in the univeise. This new volume is inuistinguishable fiom pieviously existing
volume. Theiefoie, the new volume must also contain vacuum eneigy with eneigy uensity of
moie than 1u
112
}m
S
. All the eneigy in the obseivable univeise is less than 1u
71
}oules.
Theiefoie even a cubic nanometei (1u
27
m
S
) of vacuum contains moie eneigy in the foim of
vacuum eneigy than the total obseivable eneigy in the univeise.

It woulu appeai that theie aie only thiee choices to explain this uisciepancy. Eithei 1) vacuum
eneigy is canceleu by some othei equally vast offsetting effect; 2) a vast amount of new vacuum
eneigy is being continuously auueu to the univeise to maintain a specific vacuum eneigy
uensity oi S) a fixeu amount of vacuum eneigy is being uistiibuteu ovei an incieasing volume
which vastly uecieases the eneigy uensity of vacuum eneigy as the univeise expanus. All of
these alteinatives aie unappealing. The spacetime tiansfoimation mouel of the univeise
pioposeu latei will offei a fouith, moie appealing explanation.

The auuition of new volume to the univeise is not some subtle effect that is taking place in
iemote paits of the univeise between galaxies. It is possible to illustiate the scale of cosmic
13-6
expansion using oui own solai system as an example. Suppose that we consiuei a spheiical
volume with the iauius of Neptune's oibit (iauius = 4.S x 1u
12
m). This solai system size
spheiical volume woulu contain all the majoi planets anu have a volume of about S.8 x 1u
S8
m
S
.
Calculating fiom the Bubble paiametei (J = 2.29 x 1u
18
s
1
), this volume woulu inciease by
about 1u
21
m
S
each seconu if the spheiical volume expanueu piopoitional to the Bubble
expansion of the univeise. To put this expansion in peispective, this solai system size volume
is auuing the equivalent of about eaiths volume (1.u8 x 1u
21
m
S
) eveiy seconu. We uo not
notice any change in the volume of the solai system oi the Nilky Way galaxy because these
objects aie giavitationally bounu. The auuition of new volume becomes obvious when uistance
(piopei light tiavel time) is measuieu between galaxies that aie not giavitationally bounu
togethei. 0nly aftei we have a plausible explanation foi the cieation of this new volume
eveiywheie in the univeise, can we seiiously auuiess the question about the nonlineaiity in
this cieation piocess (acceleiating expansion).

The new volume is also spacetime so a iephiasing of the question is: Bow uoes spacetime
ieaiiange itself to give the appeaiance that it is cieating new volume. If the univeise is only
spacetime, anu if the univeise appeais to be expanuing, then the piopeities of spacetime must
be changing with time. Something must be changing because touay it takes a longei time foi
light to tiavel between two galaxies than it uiu a billion yeais ago (assumes each galaxy at iest
ielative to the CNB).

Proper Volume: What examples uo we have of spacetime aujusting itself in a way that
changes piopei volume. In the example of the Shapiio expeiiment, the suns giavity changeu
the spacetime between the eaith anu the sun in a way that incieaseu the piopei iauial uistance
by about 7.S km compaieu to the iauial uistance that woulu be expecteu fiom Eucliuian
geometiy. This inciease in iauial uistance incieaseu the volume within a spheie that is 1
astionomical unit (1 A0) in iauius by v = S.46 x 1u
26
m
S
(pieviously calculateu). This non
Eucliuian inciease in piopei volume is moie than Suu,uuu times the eaiths volume. This
volume inciease was accompanieu with a ueciease in the iate of time.

Also, the iotai mouel has two lobes wheie the piopeities of spacetime aie slightly uistoiteu.
The slow time lobe has a iate of time that loses 1 unit of Planck time in a time peiiou of 1
c
.
That slow time lobe has a volume that is laigei than what woulu be expecteu fiom Eucliuian
geometiy. The fast time lobe has less piopei volume than woulu be expecteu fiom Eucliuian
geometiy. Again it appeais as if theie is an inveise ielationship between piopei volume anu
the iate of time.

Neai the enu of chaptei 2 it was shown that the stanuaiu solution to the Schwaizschilu
equation has a 4 uimensional volume that is inuepenuent of the giavitational gamma because
the change in the time uimension offsets the change in the iauial spatial uimension. In all these
13-7
examples, theie is an inteiconnection between the iate of time, the cooiuinate speeu of light
anu piopei volume. We will exploie the following iuea:

New proper volume is created when the rate of time decreases.

It is pioposeu that spacetime is able to exchange the absolute iate of time foi piopei volume.
This concept is implieu in the following equation:

dt
d:
=
dL
R
dR
= note inveise ielationship between u anu uL
R

While uL
R
uR applies to the iauial uiiection in the Schwaizschilu cooiuinate system, the above
equation also can be inteipieteu as showing an inveise ielationship between the iate of piopei
time anu piopei volume even when applieu to the entiie univeise. We see the piopei volume
of the univeise incieasing, but pioving that this is coupleu with a uecieasing iate of time is
moie uifficult. An absolute pioof that the iate of time is slowing in the univeise woulu iequiie
the compaiison to a hypothetical cooiuinate clock outsiue of the univeise. This is an
impossible expeiiment, so insteau we will stait with seveial thought expeiiments.

Cavity Thought Experiments: Fiist we will imagine a spheiical shell with mass m anu
inteinal iauius i. We will place this spheiical shell in space wheie it is in an ineitial fiame of
iefeience. If the spheiical shell has mass, then on the outsiue suiface of this spheiical shell we
woulu expeiience a giavitational acceleiation accompanieu by the stanuaiu time uilation anu
giavitational effect on volume. Insiue this spheiical shell, theie woulu be no giavitational
acceleiation anu we coulu consiuei this flat spacetime. Bowevei, the escape velocity fiom the
shell is gieatei if we stait fiom insiue the shell compaieu to staiting fiom the outsiue suiface.
Even though theie is flat spacetime, insiue the spheiical shell we still have the giavitational
effects that aie a function of escape velocity (scale with ). This point was also maue in chaptei
2 with examples using a cavity anu the Anuiomeua galaxy. The giavitational effect on the iate
of time, the cooiuinate velocity of light anu on piopei volume iemains even when theie is no
giavitational acceleiation. Bowevei, only the giavitational effect on the iate of time is easy to
expeiimentally see so we will tempoially concentiate on the giavitational effect on the iate of
time.

Background Gravitational Gamma : Pieviously we uefineu the giavitational gamma anu a
closely ielateu concept, the giavitational magnituue . These weie uefineu as follows:

dt
d:
=
1
_1-[
2Gm
c
2
R
= 11 -:
c
2
c
2
=
1
1 [
= giavitational gamma
1
J
Jt
= 1 _1
2um
c
2
R
= 1
1
= giavitational magnituue
13-8
= 1 + anu =
um
c
2
appioximations valiu only in weak giavity

Insiue a cavity unifoimly suiiounueu by mass m, theie is a giavitational effect, but the
giavitational gamma uefinition =
1
_1-[
2Gm
c
2
R
neeus to be ieinteipieteu. This equation

piesumes an isolateu mass in an otheiwise empty univeise. The inteiioi of a spheiical shell
uoes not meet this assumption. Bowevei, the uefinition of that incoipoiates escape velocity
v
e
is easily uefinable: = 11 -:
c
2
c
2
. Foi example, a cavity at the centei of the eaith woulu
have an escape velocity about 22% gieatei than the escape velocity staiting fiom the eaiths
suiface (assuming a unifoim uensity appioximation anu ignoiing aii fiiction).

The othei alteinative uefinition foi the giavitational gamma (stationaiy fiame) also woiks foi
a cavity suiiounueu by mass: = utu. In this case, we uefine a cooiuinate clock fai fiom the
souice of giavity with a iate of time ut anu a clock in the cavity with iate of time u. Actually,
the uefinition = utu is piefeiable because it is also applicable to the entiie univeise.

The ieason foi uiscussing cavities suiiounueu by mass is that oui location in the univeise has
similaiities to a cavity suiiounueu by mass. In fact, the univeise is something like being
suiiounueu by a shell that is incieasing in mass eveiy seconu. What woulu it be like to be
insiue a shell that is incieasing its mass. (ineitial fiame of iefeience) The iate of time woulu
be slowing uown anu the cooiuinate speeu of light woulu be slowing uown, but we woulu not
be able to uiiectly uetect these changes unless we hau communication to an outsiue stanuaiu.
Bowevei, it is pioposeu that we woulu notice something stiange was happening. A caieful
expeiiment woulu ieveal that light was unueigoing a slight ieushift. The wavelength of light
piopagating insiue the cavity woulu inciease with piopagation time. A pioof of this contention
will be given in the next chaptei to explain the ieushift obseiveu in the univeise.

We often make the assumption that a location in space fai fiom the eaith anu sun can be
consiueieu to be a location with zeio giavity. It is tiue that theie might be negligible
giavitational acceleiation, but we aie still suiiounueu by all the masseneigy within the
paiticle hoiizon foi oui location in the univeise. The latest obseivations by the WNAP satellite
inuicate that the univeise is within 1% of being flat spacetime anu the expeiimental eiioi bai
peimits the possibility of the univeise having exactly flat spacetime. The uensity of
masseneigy in the univeise suiiounuing us must have gieatly sloweu uown both the iate of
time anu the cooiuinate speeu of light compaieu to a hypothetical empty univeise. We neeu
teiminology to uiscuss this subject.

Background Gravitational Gamma of the Universe
u
: The name backgiounu giavitational
gamma of the univeise anu the symbol
u
will be useu to iepiesent the concept that the
univeise possesses a giavitational effect that piouuces no acceleiation but affects the iate of
13-9
time, piopei volume anu many othei physical piopeities. With backgiounu gamma theie is
uistiibuteu masseneigy in all uiiections so we uo not meet the Schwaizschilu assumption of a
single mass in an otheiwise empty univeise. Bowevei, the uefinition of baseu on the effect on
the iate of time is the same:
u
= utu
u
wheie u
u
is the iate of time is the iate of time in a
fiame of iefeience that is stationaiy ielative to the cosmic miciowave backgiounu (CNB) anu
fai fiom localizeu souices of giavity. In this case ut is the cooiuinate iate of time which is
eithei the iate of time in a hypothetical empty univeise wheie
u
= 1 oi the iate of time at the
instant the Big Bang staiteu (when
u
= 1). This will be explaineu latei.

To illustiate the concept of a backgiounu giavitational gamma, an example will be given using
the Nilky Way galaxy. This galaxy has a visible iauius of about Su,uuu light yeais, but uaik
mattei is believeu to extenu to a iauius of at least 1Su,uuu light yeais. The suns oibit is about
26,uuu light yeais in iauius aiounu the galactic centei. The galactic giavitational acceleiation
felt by the sun is uue entiiely to mattei that is insiue the suns oibit. Nattei anu uaik mattei in
the Nilky Way galaxy that lies exteinal to the suns oibit uoes not piouuce any giavitational
acceleiation on the Sun. Bowevei, this exteinal mattei uoes still piouuce a giavitational effect
in the sense that it affects the iate of time, the cooiuinate velocity of light, the giavitational
potential, the escape velocity fiom the galaxy, the stanuaiu of eneigy, etc. In othei woius, this
exteinal mattei is piouucing a significant backgiounu at the suns oibital uistance.

It is inteiesting to estimate the backgiounu of the Nilky Way galaxy causeu by the galaxys
mass exteinal to the suns 26,uuu light yeai oibit. The total mass of the galaxy, incluuing uaik
mattei, is estimateu at about 1.2 x 1u
42
kg. The mass insiue the suns oibit iequiieu to piouuce
the iequiieu giavitational acceleiation on the sun is only about 1S% of this total mass of the
galaxy. Theiefoie the mass of the Nilky Way galaxy exteinal to the suns oibit is about 1u
42
kg.
Almost all of this mass is uaik mattei that is spheiically uistiibuteu aiounu the Nilky Way
galaxy. Foi this calculation we will estimate that all the mass exteinal to the suns oibit can be
simulateu by a spheiical shell 11u,uuu light yeais in iauius with mass of 1u
42
kg. Substituting
into = umc
2
i we obtain = 7 x 1u
7
(oi = 1 + 7 x 1u
7
). The eaiths giavitational
magnituue at the eaiths suiface is = 7 x 1u
1u
(oi = 1 + 7 x 1u
1u
). While neithei the eaith
noi the Nilky Way galaxy have a laige effect on the absolute iate of time, the Nilky Ways
unifoim backgiounu slows uown the iate of time about 1,uuu times moie than the eaiths
own giavity (7 x 1u
7
7 x 1u
1u
).

Extenuing the concept to the backgiounu gamma to the univeise
u
, all the masseneigy within
the paiticle hoiizon is cieating a veiy laige value of
u
. Inuiviuual stais anu galaxies iepiesent
only a ielatively small peituibation of cuiveu spacetime in the flat anu veiy laige backgiounu
u
of the univeise. (Black holes will be uiscusseu latei.) Foi example, if the univeise hau 99 %
of the mR iatio iequiieu to foim a black hole, the backgiounu giavitational gamma of the
univeise woulu be:
u
= 1u. Latei we will attempt to calculate the actual cuiient value of
u
of
the univeise. ueneial ielativity calculations noimally ignoies the backgiounu gamma of the
13-10
univeise which is the same as assuming that this backgiounu is
u
= 1. This is acceptable foi
all calculations involving uisciete mass oi even galactic clusteis. Bowevei, when attempting to
explain the expansion of the univeise, this cannot be ignoieu.

Besiues
u
, theie is a ielateu concept that is the backgiounu giavitational magnituue of the
univeise:
u
. The ielationship between
u
anu
u
is the same as the ielationship between anu
. Some equations aie simplei when expiesseu in teims of giavitational magnituue iathei
than giavitational gamma . The exact conveision between anu is: = 1 1 = 1 uut.
These ielationships also holu foi
u
. The giavitational magnituue has a scale that ianges fiom
u to 1 while the giavitational has a scale that ianges fiom 1 to infinity

Isotropic and Homogeneous Universe: All points on the comoving cooiuinate system (CNB
iest fiame) peiceive the univeise to be isotiopic anu homogeneous. This incluues the iate of
time which is the same eveiywheie in the CNB iest fiame. Since points on the comoving
cooiuinates aie expanuing away fiom each othei, what uoes it mean foi these points to have
the same iate of time at a given instant. This can be illustiateu with a thought expeiiment.
Suppose we have S spaceships locateu fai fiom souices of giavity in inteigalactic space. Each
of the thiee spaceships is exactly stationaiy ielative to the CNB foi its location. The thiee
spaceships aie wiuely sepaiateu foiming a stiaight line with the miuule spaceship exactly
halfway between the two outsiue spaceships. Suppose the two outsiue spaceships sent out a
stable miciowave signal at the 9.19 gigaheitz coiiesponuing to the fiequency of theii cesium
atomic clocks. When the two signals ieach the miuule spaceship, the fiequency woulu be
slightly lowei (ieushifteu) compaieu to the atomic clock on the miuule spaceship uue to cosmic
expansion. Bowevei, the impoitant point is that both the fiequencies fiom the two outsiue
spaceships woulu be exactly the same. The miuule spaceship obseives that both the outsiue
spaceships weie expeiiencing the same iate of time at the instant the signals left the
spaceships. With ielativity theie can be confusion about uiffeient uefinitions of the teim
simultaneous. Theiefoie, the concept of a miupoint obseivei specifies one way of uefining
simultaneous. The two outsiue spaceships aie simultaneously expeiiencing the same iate of
time accoiuing to the miupoint obseivei.

This means that all points on the comoving giiu aie expeiiencing the same iate of time
accoiuing to miupoint obseiveis. Theiefoie, this iate of time is useu as cooiuinate iate of time
in the RobeitsonWalkei metiic. Now suppose that all thiee spaceships aie stationaiy ielative
to each othei. An extiapolation of the thought expeiiment shows that the even if the thiee
spaceships aie moving ielative to the CNB but stationaiy ielative to each othei, the miupoint
obseivei will still see that the outsiue spaceships aie expeiiencing the same iate of time. This
concept can be extenueu to any two points in the univeise in the same fiame of iefeience.

On the scale where the universe is homogeneous, any two points in the same frame of
reference experience the same rate of time according to a midpoint observer.
13-11

No Large Scale Gravitational Acceleration: This thought expeiiment will be explaineu using
the iotai mouel of an election anu the explanation foi giavity pieviously uevelopeu. Suppose
that we place an election (iotai) in inteigalactic space anu ignoie any locally geneiateu foices.
We aie only inteiesteu in examining giavity on the scale laigei than Suu million light yeais
wheie the univeise is homogeneous. We aie going to test the laige scale giavity of the univeise
using the iotai mouel of an election. Recall that a iotai expeiiences giavitational acceleiation
when theie is a iate of time giauient acioss the iotai. This causes the vacuum eneigy to exeit
an unbalanceu piessuie on opposite siues of the iotai. This piouuces a net foice that is the
giavitational foice. The acceleiation of giavity (g) was pieviously shown to be:

g = c
2
[
J[
d
= c
2

d[
d
Jt
d
g = giavitational acceleiation

It was pieviously shown that the uistance uesignateu in the uenominatoi (ui) is piopei length,
not cooiuinate length (ciicumfeiential iauius) fiom geneial ielativity. If theie is no giauient in
the iate of time, then u(uut)ui = u anu g = u. Theie is no giavitational acceleiation when
theie is no giauient in the iate of time. Two points on the opposite siues of the quantum
volume of a iotai can be consiueieu to be two points in the same fiame of iefeience. In a
homogeneous anu isotiopic univeise, the same iate of time is piesent on opposite siues of the
iotai (accoiuing to the miupoint obseivei). Theie is no giavitational acceleiation on the
homogeneous scale of Suu million light yeais oi laigei. All this might seem obvious, but it
implies that the univeise is not stiuggling to expanu against a giavitational foice that is
attempting to collapse the univeise. The giavity of localizeu objects like stais anu galaxies can
cuive spacetime on a local scale, but theie is not a iate of time giauient in the univeise on the
scale wheie the univeise is homogeneous.

If there is no large scale rate of time gradient in the universe, then there is no tendency for
there to be gravitational deceleration or acceleration at this scale.

It might be aigueu that uaik eneigy is cuiiently pioviuing something like anti giavity. To
uefenu this position it woulu have to be aigueu that giavity is cuiiently piouucing a iate of
time giauient that is attempting to collapse the univeise but uaik eneigy is piouucing an
opposite iate of time giauient. The combination offset each othei anu eliminates any laige
scale iate of time giauient (eliminates laige scale giavitational acceleiation). Bowevei, even
this aigument has an obvious flaw. Baik eneigy only became a significant fiaction of the
eneigy in the univeise ioughly 7 billion yeais ago. It woulu have to be aigueu that piioi to this
time theie was a laige scale iate of time giauient in the univeise. This is countei to the
assumptions containeu in the RobeitsonWalkei metiic. It is not possible to have an isotiopic
univeise if theie is a laige scale iate of time giauient. In fact, if theie was a laige scale iate of
time giauient piesent when the CNB iauiation was emitteu, eviuence of this iate of time
13-12
giauient woulu be pieseiveu as anisotiopy in the CNB unless we happen to be locateu at the
exact centei of the iate of time giauient.

Rate of Time Gradient in a Dust Cloud: It is an axiom of geneial ielativity that a uistiibuteu
clouu of uust (no piessuie) shoulu expeiience a unifoim giavitational collapse. If the clouu is
uiviueu into spheiical volumes of successively laigei iauii, then a paiticulai uust paiticle (the
test paiticle) in the clouu expeiiences giavitational acceleiation only fiom the giavity of uust
paiticles within the smallei iauii spheies. Nass that lies outsiue the spheiical volume
containing the test paiticle uoes not contiibute to the giavitational acceleiation. Enlaiging the
iauius of the imaginaiy spheiical volume incieases the encloseu mass. The net effect is that the
collapse of the uust paiticles happens eveiywheie.

Bowevei, giavitational acceleiation uoes not happen in the abstiact. To have giavitational
acceleiation, the clouu of uust paiticles must have a uefinable iate of time giauient. It takes a
iate of time giauient of about 1.11 x 1u
17
seconusseconumetei to piouuce acceleiation of
1 ms
2
. It woulu be possible to uiaw a thiee uimensional map showing the equivalent of isobai
lines within the clouu except uepicting iegions of constant iate of time. A uust clouu oi a
galaxy uoes have iate of time contouis that can be mappeu. Bowevei, the univeise has (anu
always hau) the same iate of time eveiywheie on the laige scale auuiesseu by the comoving
cooiuinate system. Is it possible to piopose a mouel of the univeise that uoes not have a iate of
time giauient on the scale of the comoving cooiuinate system. Fuitheimoie, uoes such a mouel
follow logically fiom staiting the univeise as Planck spacetime. These questions will be
examineu by staiting with a thought expeiiment.

Dust Particle Cloud Thought Experiment: Suppose that the pieviously mentioneu clouu of
uust paiticles is unifoimly uistiibuteu in space ovei a volume about the size of the eaith. Also,
suppose that it is possible to tuin off the giavity of all the uust paiticles in the clouu. This is an
uniealistic assumption foi a clouu of uust but it will be shown that it is not uniealistic foi the
beginning of the univeise. Theiefoie attempt to follow this hypothetical thought expeiiment.
Aftei tuining off the giavity of each uust paiticle, the giavitational magnituue within the clouu
woulu quickly uiop to = u which is equivalent to = 1. The piopei iate of time eveiywheie
within the clouu woulu be equal to the cooiuinate iate of time, theiefoie we woulu stait with
u = ut oi = utu = 1. Theie obviously woulu be no iate of time giauient.

Next, the giavity of all the paiticles is simultaneously tuineu on. At speeu of light piopagation,
theie woulu be a peiiou of time wheie the piopei iate of time u woulu be slowing uown while
the giavitational influence of successively moie uistant paiticles is becoming establisheu. Foi
example, it takes about 2u milliseconus foi the giavity of a paiticle at the centei of this eaith
size clouu to affect the iate of time of paiticles neai the outei suiface of the spheiical clouu
anu vice veisa. It woulu take about 4u ms foi the most uistant paiticles on opposite siues of the
clouu to make giavitational contact. Theiefoie, it takes about 4u ms foi the matuie
13-13
giavitational acceleiation (matuie iate of time giauient) within the clouu to become fully
establisheu. Since we aie uefining the giavitational gamma as = utu, we coulu chaiacteiize
the establishment of giavity at a paiticulai location in the clouu by iefeiiing to the value of as
a function of time aftei the giavity was tuineu on.

Suppose that we look just at the fiist few milliseconus aftei tuining on the giavity. Also we will
examine seveial points (test points) within the clouu that aie close enough to the centei of the
clouu that theie is not enough time to establish giavitational communication with the
bounuaiy conuition that occuis at the outei suiface of the clouu. In the fiist few milliseconus
the giavitational is incieasing exactly the same way at each of these test points. Even though
the iate of piopei time is slowing ( is incieasing), theie is no giauient in the iate of piopei
time. This is because all the test points (anu all othei points fai fiom the suiface) have
unueigone exactly the same amount of giavitational inteiaction with theii suiiounuing
paiticles. The lack of a iate of time giauient means that theie woulu be no giavitational
acceleiation attempting to collapse the clouu uuiing the fiist few milliseconus aftei giavity is
tuineu on in this thought expeiiment. Theie is no tenuency towaius giavitational collapse only
uuiing the nonequilibiium conuition of an incieasing value of the backgiounu . Within the
uust clouu theie is flat spacetime while is incieasing. This flat spacetime uoes not iequiie a
ciitical uensity. The low uensity of the uust clouu is vastly less than meeting the conuitions of
a ciitical uensity, yet uuiing the nonequilibiium phase of incieasing the uust clouu uoes
achieve flat spacetime (no giavitational acceleiation). In fact, any homogeneous uensity can
achieve flat spacetime pioviueu that the nonequilibiium conuition of an incieasing backgiounu
is somehow achieveu.

Immature Gravity: This thought expeiiment uesciibes a conuition that will be calleu
immatuie giavity oi the nonequilibiium conuition wheie giavity is just being establisheu.
This is to be contiasteu to the matuie giavity conuition wheie theie has been sufficient time
foi giavitational contact with the bounuaiy conuitions. In this example, aftei about 4u ms
theie aie uiffeiences in the iate of time thioughout the clouu because of uiffeient uistances to
the clouu bounuaiy. The iate of time giauient piouuces giavitational acceleiation that was
pieviously missing. This is the matuie giavity conuition we noimally assume when we talk
about the unifoim giavitational collapse that we expect fiom a clouu of paiticles. These
concepts can be illustiateu using the following figuies.

Figuie 1S2 shows a volume ueep within the uust clouu. Suppose that this is a snapshot about
1 ms aftei the giavity was tuineu on. The ciicle labeleu paiticle hoiizon foi point 0 woulu
have a iauius of about Suu,uuu m which iepiesents the speeu of light giavitational contact
establisheu fiom point 0 aftei 1 ms. This hoiizon is actually an expanuing spheie anu the
figuie is a cioss sectional iepiesentation of a moment in time. Theie is also anothei point
uesignateu X that is ielatively close to point X compaieu to the paiticle hoiizon. Foi example,
suppose point X is sepaiateu by Su,uuu m fiom point 0. This sepaiation uistance is about
13-14
1u% of the uistance to the paiticle hoiizon aftei 1 ms. Bowevei, it shoulu be noteu that point
X has a uiffeient expanuing paiticle hoiizon uesignateu by the uouble line ciicle. Aftei 1 ms
this paiticle hoiizon is also a spheie about Suu,uuu m in iauius, but centeieu on point X.

Figuie 1S2 also shows a test volume. This is a an imaginaiy spheie that is centeieu on point
0 anu has a iauius equal to the uistance between point 0 anu point X (about Su,uuu m).
Theiefoie, aftei 1 ms theie has been enough time foi the centei of this Su,uuu m iauius
spheiical volume to establish giavitational contact with all the othei uust paiticles within the
test volume (u.2 ms is iequiieu foi opposite euges to establish giavitational contact). Now we
aie going to examine the giavitational foices on uust paiticles within the test volume if the test
volume is isolateu as shown in the lowei iight hanu coinei of figuie 1S2. This isolateu
illustiation shows both points 0 anu X. If this small test volume is isolateu as shown, then
aftei u.2 ms all paiticles in the test volume have sufficient time to establish giavitational
contact with the bounuaiy of the test volume. If the test volume is isolateu as shown, the
matuie iate of time giauient woulu be establisheu within the test volume aftei u.2 ms. In this
case, paiticles within this test volume woulu stait to unueigo a giavitational collapse anu a
uust paiticle at point X expeiiences a giavitational foice towaius point 0 as shown by the
aiiow.

13-15

Figuie 1SS shows a uiffeient peispective centeieu on point X. Theiefoie the paiticle hoiizon
in figuie 1SS is a spheie centeieu on point X. Now we aie going to examine the foices on point
X. In the pievious figuie, we concluueu that a uust paiticle at point X hau a foice towaius
point 0 aftei u.2 ms when the test volume was isolateu. Fiom this new peispective shown in
figuie 1SS, suppose that we weie to physically iemove the test volume as shown to the iight.
Now 1 ms aftei giavity has been tuineu on the uust paiticle at point X has unbalanceu foice
fiom the compaiable volume to its left that is uesignateu as the symmetiical volume that
offsets the test volume. The length anu uiiection of this aiiow iepiesents the giavitational
foice on a uust paiticle. This foice aiiow is pointing into the symmetiical volume anu exactly
offsets the length anu uiiection of the foice aiiow pointing towaius point 0 in the test volume.
With the test volume iemoveu, point X woulu expeiience a giavitational foice in the uiiection
of the aiiow pointing to the centei of the symmetiical volume. Bowevei, if the test volume is
piesent anu point X is suiiounueu by a homogeneous uistiibution of paiticles, then theie is no
net foice on a uust paiticle locateu at point X. Theie is also no iate of time giauient anu no net
giavitational acceleiation.

The point of figuies 1S2 anu 1SS is to illustiate that the immatuie giavity (incieasing
backgiounu ) cieates a unique conuition wheie theie is no iate of time giauient anu no
tenuency foi giavitational collapse. Both point 0 anu point X hau theii own paiticle
hoiizons that weie paitly oveilapping, but also each point hau a hoiizon that was uniquely
centeieu on them. This is the conuition wheie all the giavitational foices aie balanceu anu
13-16
theie is no tenuency towaius a giavitational collapse. Anothei way of saying this is that the
conuitions shown cieate a iate of time that is the same eveiywheie as uefineu by a miupoint
obseivei at any given instant. It is iionic that the conuition wheie theie is no iate of time
giauient (miupoint obseivei peispective) only happens in immatuie giavity wheie the iate of
time is continuously uecieasing ielative to an outsiue constant iate of time.

Observable Effects of an Increasing : The slowing of the iate of time when is incieasing
woulu not be obvious within the clouu while it is happening because it woulu not be possible to
compaie the piopei iate of time with cooiuinate iate of time using speeu of light
communication. Bowevei, it will be shown that the conuition of a homogeneous inciease in the
backgiounu giavitational gamma woulu theoietically piouuce 1) an inciease in the piopei
volume of the uust clouu anu 2) woulu piouuce a slight ieushift in iauiation coming fiom othei
paits if the uust clouu. The pioof foi this statement will be given in the next chaptei once an
easiei mouel foi analysis has been intiouuceu.

Implications of an Increasing
u
in the Universe: At the stait of this chaptei, the statement
was maue that befoie we can attempt to unueistanu the appaient acceleiation in the expansion
of the univeise, it is fiist necessaiy to unueistanu why theie is any expansion in the univeise.
It is pioposeu that the ieason foi the appaient expansion of the univeise is that the backgiounu
giavitational gamma
u
of the univeise is piesently incieasing. Fuitheimoie,
u
was always
incieasing ovei the lifetime of the univeise but the iate of inciease has been uiffeient uuiing
uiffeient epochs.

The puipose of the pievious thought expeiiment is to intiouuce the concept of immatuie
giavity using a mouel that is easiei to unueistanu than the entiie univeise. Bowevei, a clouu of
uust staiting with the giavity tuineu off is not a peifect analogy foi the univeise. The uust
clouu illustiates how it is possible foi theie to be no iate of time giauient (miupoint obseivei)
as long as the backgiounu is incieasing, but the example uesciibes a conuition wheie theie is
only a minute change in . Scale uoes mattei. The change in
u
expeiienceu by the univeise in
its fiist moments aftei giavity is tuineu on (the stait of the Big Bang) compaieu to the uust
clouu ovei a similai time peiiou is a uiffeience of moie than a factoi of 1u
Su
. This enoimous
uiffeience intiouuces many othei uiffeiences between the univeise anu the clouu that will be
uesciibeu.

To my knowleuge, no one has mathematically analyzeu the implications of living in a univeise
wheie the backgiounu
u
is incieasing as a function of the age of the univeise. The
Schwaizschilu solution to Einsteins fielu equation assumeu a single souice of static giavity in
an otheiwise empty univeise. The solution uesciibes the effect on spacetime that suiiounueu
this static souice of giavity. The Fiieuman equation assumes a unifoim uistiibution of mattei
in the univeise. Bowevei, even the Fiieuman solution assumes a matuie giavitational
uistiibution. The stanuaiu Big Bang mouel also implies a matuie giavitational uistiibution. It
13-17
is pioposeu that this is an eiioneous assumption that ultimately leaus to the neeu to invent
uaik eneigy.

Note to the Reauei: We will uiveit fiom the uust clouu example anu immatuie giavity foi a
shoit time to intiouuce auuitional piopeities of spacetime. We will then combine all these
concepts to uevelop a mouel of the expanuing univeise.

Energy Density of Planck Spacetime: 0ntil now, this book has ignoieu numeiical factois
neai 1. With cosmology the eneigy uensity of the univeise as a function of time is well known.
In oiuei foi a theoietical mouel to be cieuible, it is necessaiy to be able to match obseivations.
Theiefoie, it is necessaiy to intiouuce missing numeiical factoi into the uefinition of Planck
eneigy uensity to ueteimine the eneigy uensity of Planck spacetime. It is necessaiy to caiefully
uefine the eneigy uensity of Planck spacetime because this is pioposeu to be the staiting
eneigy uensity of the univeise anu this value affects the evolution of the univeise.

Planck eneigy uensity is uefineu as 0
p
= c
7
u
2
= 4.6 x 1u
11S
}m
S
. This uefinition uesciibes
the eneigy uensity that woulu occui if Planck eneigy E
p
was containeu in a cube with
uimensions of Planck length on a siue (0
p
= E
p
l
p
S
). This uefinition lacks uimensionless
numeiical factois. Even though the eneigy uensity of Planck spacetime is closely ielateu to
Planck eneigy uensity, they uiffei by a uimensionless constant. Foi cosmology, a moie
ieasonable uefinition of eneigy uensity woulu be baseu on the volume of a spheie that is
Planck length in iauius iathei than a cube that is Planck length on a siue. The uiffeience
between these two volumes is S4.

Zero Point Energy: Theie is one othei uimensionless numeiical factoi that must also be
incluueu. It is pioposeu that vacuum eneigy is equivalent to zeio point eneigy. Zeio point
eneigy is the lowest eneigy that a quantum mechanical system may have. The eneigy of the
giounu state of a quantum haimonic oscillatoi is:

E = V zeio point eneigy

It is pioposeu that Planck spacetime was the highest zeio point eneigy uensity possible. The
uipole waves in spacetime can be visualizeu as quantum haimonic oscillatois. The highest
possible zeio point eneigy uensity can be visualizeu as a quantum oscillatoi that is oscillating
at the highest possible fiequency in the smallest possible volume. The highest possible
fiequency is Planck angulai fiequency:
p
= c
5
u . The zeio point eneigy of this oscillatoi
is:

E = V
p
= V c
5
u = V E
p
= 9.78 x 1u
8
}.

13-18
Theiefoie, the highest eneigy uensity of spacetime is to have this eneigy (V E
p
) in the volume
of a spheie that is Planck length in iauius. This eneigy uensity of Planck spacetime will be
iuentifieu by the symbol 0
ps
.

0
ps
V
L
p
[
4n
3
I
p
3
= [
3
8n
[
c
u
2
= k 0
p
wheie: k
3
8n

0
ps
= S.SS x 1u
112
}m
S
0
ps
eneigy uensity of Planck spacetime

The coiiection factoi S8 will also be useu fiequently anu will be iuentifieu by the symbol
k = S8. A spheie Planck length in iauius which has spheiical Planck eneigy uensity contains
eneigy of V E
p
= 9.78 x 1u
8
}. Bowevei, we will often iounu this off to about a billion }oules
(1u
9
}). The constant k = S8 is the conveision factoi between Planck spacetime eneigy
uensity 0
ps
anu Planck eneigy uensity (0
p
= 0
ps
k). These concepts aie expiesseu using
eneigy uensity (0) iathei than mass uensity () because mass is a measuiement of ineitia.
Waves in spacetime aie natuially expiesseu in units of eneigy uensity iathei than units of mass
uensity which implies ineitia.

Difference between Planck Spacetime and Vacuum Energy: Planck spacetime at the stait of
the Big Bang possesseu the same piopei eneigy uensity as vacuum eneigy touay. Theiefoie,
what is the uiffeience. 0ne of the key uiffeiences is hiuuen in the qualification of piopei
eneigy uensity. Planck spacetime hau a backgiounu gamma of the univeise of
u
= 1 while
touay the value of
u
is an extiemely laige numbei that will be calculateu latei. This laige value
of
u
affects eveiything incluuing the iate of time anu oui stanuaiu of a unit of eneigy. Even
though one }oule touay appeais to be the same as one }oule a billion yeais ago oi one }oule at
the Big Bang, these aie compaiisons of piopei values that uo not take into account the effect of
a uiffeient value of
u
. 0n an absolute scale of eneigy that compensates foi the change in
u
,
one }oule touay is fai less eneigy than one }oule when
u
= 1 at the stait of the Big Bang
(explaineu below).

Anothei uiffeience is that vacuum eneigy has no quantizeu angulai momentum (no spin) while
at the stait of the Big Bang 1uu% of the eneigy in Planck spacetime possesseu quantizeu
angulai momentum. The lack of quantizeu angulai momentum in vacuum eneigy means that
this is a peifect supeifluiu that uoes not inteiact with oui obseivable univeise except thiough
subtle quantum mechanical inteiactions. Theie aie no feimions (half integei spin) oi bosons
(integei spin) in puie vacuum eneigy. We woulu say that vacuum eneigy has a tempeiatuie
of absolute zeio. Even though theie is eneigy uensity, vacuum eneigy is incapable of giving
kinetic eneigy (tempeiatuie) to paiticles. 0n the othei hanu, in Planck spacetime at the stait
of the Big Bang each of the V E
p
units of eneigy (zeio point eneigy) possesseu of angulai
momentum. This iesults in the highest possible inteiaction with othei quantizeu units of
eneigy. The tempeiatuie of Planck spacetime hau the highest possible tempeiatuie foi zeio
point eneigy which is equal to V Planck tempeiatuie (V T
p
= 7 x 1u
S1
K).
13-19

Proposed Alternative Model of the Beginning of the Universe: The alteinative mouel
pioposeu heie staits the univeise not as a singulaiity but as Planck spacetime with volume anu
finite eneigy uensity. Recall that Planck spacetime has a spheiical coiiection factoi anu a zeio
point eneigy coiiection factoi that total S8 = u.12 compaieu to Planck eneigy uensity.
Bowevei, Planck eneigy uensity eliminates numeiical factois by assuming a cubic volume.
Theiefoie, Planck spacetime is the highest zeio point eneigy uensity achievable. What is the
implieu iate of time (oi the implieu cooiuinate speeu of light) iequiieu to achieve the highest
possible eneigy uensity on an absolute scale. This question can also be stateu as follows: What
value of the giavitational gamma is iequiieu to achieve Planck spacetime. The highest possible
eneigy uensity on an absolute scale that takes into consiueiation the value of can only be
achieveu if = 1. If > 1 then the iate of time is slowei than cooiuinate iate of time anu the
unit of eneigy is less than the cooiuinate unit of eneigy. The theoietical laigest eneigy uensity
on an absolute scale can only be achieveu at the theoietical fastest iate of time (the fastest
cooiuinate speeu of light).

Theiefoie, Planck spacetime has what might seem like a contiauiction. The highest possible
eneigy uensity staits with a iate of time that we woulu expect to finu in a hypothetical empty
univeise (no slowing of time causeu by giavitational fielus). If we aie tiuly at the beginning of
time, then theie was no piioi time foi giavity to become establisheu. Theie is no contiauiction
foi = 1 if this was the staiting conuition.

The souice of Planck spacetime is an open question. Peihaps spacetime meiely came into
existence as Planck spacetime oi peihaps this is a phase change in a iepeating cycle. In eithei
case, we assume that Planck spacetime staits with a iate of time commensuiate with
u
= 1.
This assumption means that at the stait of the Big Bang the iate of piopei time equaleu the iate
of cooiuinate time (u
u
= ut at the beginning).

Extending the Dust Cloud Example: Pieviously we hau the thought expeiiment involving a
clouu of uust uistiibuteu in space. In this thought expeiiment we imagineu eliminating all
giavitational effects fiom this clouu of paiticles (giavity tuineu off). This means that we
staiteu with a backgiounu giavitational gamma of = 1. Then we tuineu on giavity
eveiywheie. The staiting conuition foi the entiie univeise is pioposeu to be similai in some
iespects to this thought expeiiment. Planck spacetime hau an eneigy uensity ioughly 1u
1uu

times laigei than the eneigy uensity of the uust clouu but Planck spacetime was not a
singulaiity. Planck spacetime hau an extiemely unifoim eneigy uensity because the eneigy
uensity was ueteimineu by the limitations of spacetime itself. Theiefoie, it is pioposeu that the
univeise staiteu with the finite volume (finite uensity) of Planck spacetime setting the staiting
conuitions foi the evolution of the univeise.

13-20
Theie was no pieexisting giavity piesent in this volume, so when time staiteu the waves in
spacetime began to uistoit because of the nonlineaiity of spacetime. The backgiounu
u
of the
univeise began to iapiuly inciease fiom the staiting conuition of
u
= 1 of Planck spacetime.
This is similai to giavity being tuineu on in the thought expeiiment, except the changes
biought about by an incieasing
u
weie vastly laigei than occuiieu in the thought expeiiment.
Rathei than an almost impeiceptible effect on piopei volume in the thought expeiiment, theie
was a tiemenuous inciease in the piopei volume of the univeise as
u
iapiuly incieaseu. The
iate of time in the univeise sloweu anu the cooiuinate speeu of light sloweu. All of this
piouuceu the immatuie giavity conuition. This immatuie giavity lacks giavitational
acceleiation on the laige scale of homogeneity as pieviously uesciibeu in the uust clouu
example.

Comparison to the Big Bang Model: We aie now beginning to iesolve the uiffeience
between two mouels of the univeise. The Big Bang mouel uoes not attempt to explain the
piocess which iesults in cosmic expansion. Nattei is not expanuing into a pieexisting voiu.
Insteau, the Big Bang mouel has a vast expansion in the volume of the univeise but no
explanation is given as to how new volume is cieateu. The pioposeu spacetime tiansfoimation
mouel attiibutes the expansion in piopei volume to a change in the piopeities of spacetime
that can be quantifieu as a continuous inciease in
u
. Nost impoitant, theie is a unifoim
inciease in
u
eveiywheie which implies that theie is no laige scale giavitational giauient
attempting to collapse the univeise. This contiasts with the Big Bang mouel of the univeise
which has giavity attempting to slow uown the expansion of the eaily univeise. The following
quote by P. }. E. Peebles in the book Piinciples of Physical Cosmology uesciibes the cuiient
ieasoning.

Newtons iion spheie theoiem says that the Newtonian giavitational acceleiation
insiue a hollow spheiical mass vanishes. The ielativistic geneialization is that
spacetime is flat in a hole centeieu insiue a spheiically symmetiic uistiibution of
mattei.

Now we aie in a position to finu the ielation between the mass uensity, , anu the
local iate of expansion oi contiaction of the mateiial. We aie consiueiing a spatially
homogeneous anu isotiopic mass uistiibution. Suppose the mattei within the space
within a spheie of iauius i is iemoveu anu set to one siue. Then spacetime is flat
within the spheie. Now ieplace the mattei. If i is small enough, we have placeu a
small amount of mateiial into flat spacetime. Theiefoie, we can use Newtonian
mechanics to uesciibe the giavitational acceleiation of the mateiial.

This goes on to show that the spheiical volume with homogeneous uensity has giavitational
acceleiation that attempts to contiact the uistiibuteu mass. When this ieasoning is applieu to
the entiie univeise it natuially iesults in giavity opposing the expansion of the univeise. Even
13-21
if the univeise is unueigoing acceleiateu expansion because of uaik eneigy, the Big Bang mouel
has giavity attempting to contiact the univeise. This sounus ieasonable anu it has been
accepteu by geneiations of physicists. Bowevei, it is pioposeu to be wiong.

If we assume a univeise has immatuie giavity anu an incieasing
u
, then the fallacy in the
above ieasoning is that iemoving a spheiical volume of homogeneous uensity mateiial fiom
the univeise woulu not leave a voiu with flat spacetime. Insteau, the iemaining voiu woulu
have negative cuivatuie which has giavitational acceleiation away fiom the centei of the voiu.
Figuie 1SS showeu that point X on the euge of the voiu has giavitational acceleiation away
fiom point 0. Point X in figuie 1SS is not unique. All othei points within the voiu also have
giavitational acceleiation away fiom the centei. This negative cuivatuie effect can be
unueistoou since each point in the voiu can be thought of as existing in a spheiical paiticle
hoiizon centeieu on them. Theiefoie these othei points within the voiu aie similai to point X
anu also have a giavitational acceleiation vectoi pointing away fiom the cential point 0.
These vectois exactly offset the giavitational acceleiation towaius point 0 causeu by the test
volume. Replacing the test volume woulu iesult in offsetting vectois that eliminate any
giavitational acceleiation. The immatuie giavity uesciibeu heie has no tenuency towaius
giavitational collapse of the univeise on the cuiient scale of homogeneity (~ Suu million light
yeais).

Low Density Regions of the Universe: 0n the scale smallei than Suu million light yeais the
univeise is cuiiently not homogeneous. Theie aie volumes containing galactic clusteis which
have above aveiage uensity anu volumes of space between the galactic clusteis with below
aveiage uensity. These volumes with below aveiage uensity shoulu exhibit negative cuivatuie
analogous to the voiu pieviously uiscusseu. A low uensity iegion in the univeise woulu have a
similaiity to the concept of an electionic hole in a semiconuuctoi (elections anu holes). A
volume of a semiconuuctoi that is missing an election is the equivalent of a positive electiical
chaige. Similaily, a low uensity iegion in the univeise (missing mass compaieu to the aveiage)
exhibits the iepulsive piopeities as if the missing mass hau antigiavity piopeities (inveise
iate of time giauient). This effect only happens if the univeise has the immatuie giavity
chaiacteiistic.

If low uensity iegions of the univeise exhibit something like antigiavity, this woulu
substantially speeu the iate of foimation of stais anu galaxies in the eaily univeise. Any mattei
within the low uensity iegions of the eaily univeise woulu tenu to be expelleu. Fuitheimoie,
the antigiavity acceleiation woulu extenu into the euges of suiiounuing highei uensity
iegions. This woulu tenu to uiive these high uensity iegions to even gieatei uensity. The
aveiage uensity of the eaily univeise was much gieatei than touay. Theiefoie the iepulsive
giavitational acceleiation of low uensity iegions of the eaily univeise woulu be much gieatei
than touay. Noueling galaxy foimation in the eaily univeise shoulu take this pioposeu effect
into consiueiation.
13-22

Scaling Factor Based on Planck Spacetime a
u
: The comoving cooiuinate system uses a
o
to
iepiesent the piesent scaling factoi of the cooiuinate system anu the scaling is usually baseu
on the convention of consiueiing the cuiient scale of the univeise as a
o
= 1. This is convenient
since a mouel of the univeise that staits with a singulaiity uoes not have any absolute scaling
factoi fiom the stait of the Big Bang. Bowevei, the concept that the univeise staiteu as Planck
spacetime means that the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel uoes have a uefinable initial size at
the stait of the Big Bang. It is natuial that we woulu choose this absolute staiting conuition as
the basis of oui scaling factoi. Theiefoie we will use the symbol a
u
to iepiesent the scaling
factoi baseu on the absolute scaling factoi of Planck spacetime.

Theiefoie the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel sets a
u
1 foi Planck spacetime when the
univeise was 1 unit of Planck time olu anu
u
= 1. Accoiuing to this pioposal, at the stait of the
Big Bang Planck spacetime hau eneigy uensity of about 0
ps
= S.SS x 1u
112
}m
S
anu 1uu% of
this eneigy was obseivable. Anothei way of saying this is that all the eneigy in Planck
spacetime hau quantizeu angulai momentum. Touay almost all the eneigy uensity in the
univeise is in the foim of vacuum eneigy which lacks any quantizeu angulai momentum.
Theiefoie only ioughly 1 pait in 1u
122
touay has quantizeu angulai momentum is obseivable
to us anu out instiuments touay. We only inteiact with the vast eneigy uensity in vacuum
eneigy thiough quantum mechanical effects. These numbeis then become the basis foi
gauging the futuie scale of the univeise.

Cosmic Expansion from
u
: What happens to the comoving cooiuinate system when theie is
an inciease in the backgiounu giavitational gamma of the univeise
u
. In chaptei 2 we uiu a
thought expeiiment involving two concentiic shells. The changes that occui when mass is
intiouuceu insiue the innei shell aie: 1) the iate of piopei time u
u
sloweu compaieu to
cooiuinate time ut anu 2) the piopei volume between the two shells incieaseu. We live in a
univeise which is pioposeu to have staiteu with a backgiounu giavitational gamma
u
= 1 anu
this value then staiteu to inciease at the beginning of time (at the Big Bang). We also know
that the piopei volume of the univeise iapiuly incieaseu initially anu the piopei volume of the
univeise continues to inciease touay (cosmic expansion).

Assuming that the univeise is only spacetime, theie appeais to be only one way that the
univeise can ieaiiange itself to inciease its piopei volume. I am pioposing that the ieason foi
cosmic expansion is that the backgiounu giavitational gamma
u
of the univeise is
continuously incieasing towaius
u
= . This is a tiansfoimation in the chaiacteiistics of
spacetime. When the backgiounu giavitational gamma of the univeise
u
incieases, piopei
volume incieases, the iate of time uecieases anu the cooiuinate speeu of light uecieases
piopoitional to 1
u
2
. It will be shown latei that the mouel being uevelopeu iesults in new
masseneigy continuously coming into view at oui paiticle hoiizon. Fuitheimoie,
masseneigy cuiiently within oui paiticle hoiizon is uecieasing its ieushift which incieases its
13-23
giavitational influence. The pioposal is that the iate of time continues to get slowei, but we aie
unawaie of this change because we cannot uiiectly compaie oui iate of time to eithei the iate
of time yesteiuay oi the iate of time in a hypothetical empty univeise that is not unueigoing
any change. This obviously is a uiffeient mouel than the CBN mouel cuiiently consiueieu to
be the cosmological stanuaiu.

The proposal is that the expansion of the proper volume of the universe is caused by the
background gravitational gamma of the universe
u
increasing.

We can see if this pioposal is compatible with the RobeitsonWalkei metiic (heieaftei RW
metiic). The highly successful RW metiic has been calleu the stanuaiu mouel of mouein
cosmology. It assumes an isotiopic anu homogeneous univeise anu a spheiical cooiuinate
system that expanus with the Bubble flow so that the cooiuinate system iemains in the CNB
iest fiame eveiywheie. The stanuaiu way of wiiting the RW metiic is:

uS
2
= c
2
ut
2
a
2
(t)|
dr
2
1 k
2
+ i
2
(u
2
+ sin
2
u
2
)]

wheie a(t) is the scale factoi of the univeise anu i is physical uistance. The convention is to use
the cuiient scale factoi of the univeise as a
o
= 1. Theiefoie a(t) is usually scaleu into the futuie
oi past fiom the cuiient scaling factoi anu i is set equal to the cuiient uistance between two
points which can be consiueieu a unit of length. Bowevei, it is also possible to choose some
othei stanuaiu foi a anu i if theie is a compelling ieason. In oui case, we have a veiy
compelling ieason to choose a uiffeient stanuaiu foi a anu i because unlike the Big Bang
mouel, we have an exact scale foi the univeise at the beginning of the beginning of time (at the
stait of the Big Bang). Theiefoie this scale factoi which changes with time but was a
u
= 1 when
the univeise was Planck spacetime will be uesignateu a
u
(t). Also the physical length between
two points will use as its stanuaiu the length when the univeise was Planck spacetime (
u
= 1).
This length stanuaiu (cooiuinate length) will be uesignateu R. Theiefoie, iewiiting the RW
metiic with these changes we have:

uS
2
= c
2
ut
2
a
u
2
(t) (
dR
2
1 kR
2
+ R
2
u
2
) RW metiic wheie u
2
= (u
2
+ sin
2
u
2
)

The spatial cuivatuie teim is k anu in the geneial case k can take values of +1, u oi 1.
Bowevei, analysis of the CNB using expeiimental uata fiom WNAP has establisheu that
spacetime on the laige scale is flat to bettei than a 1% expeiimental accuiacy. Theiefoie, we
aie going to assume a flat univeise anu set k = u. We can ueteimine the spatial metiic foi a flat
univeise by setting ut = u anu follow a iauial iay by setting = u.

uS
2
= c
2
ut
2
a
u
2
(t) (
dR
2
1 kR
2
+ R
2
u
2
) set k = u, ut = u, = u anu uS = cu = uL
13-24
uL
2
= a
u
2
(t)uR
2

a
u
(t) =
dL
JR

The pioposeu physical inteipietation of this is that the ieason that the scale factoi incieases is
because piopei length contiacts ielative to cooiuinate length R when the univeise hau
u
= 1
oi compaieu to a unit of length in a hypothetical empty univeise. If a unit of piopei length L is
smallei than a unit of cooiuinate length R, then piogiessing in the iauial uiiection the iate of
change in piopei length uL will be gieatei than the iate of change in uR. This iatio is equal to
the scale factoi a
u
(t). Since spacetime is homogeneous anu isotiopic on the laige scale, this
applies to all spatial uiiections since the choice of a iauial uiiection is aibitiaiy. The
ielationship to the giavitational backgiounu of the univeise
u
is pioposeu to be:

Seventh Staiting Assumption:
u
(t) = a
u
(t) =
dL
JR

It is not possible to conclusively piove this equation. Theiefoie, this equation is an assumption.
Bowevei, it is possible to suppoit the valiuity of this assumption by showing that it is
compatible with obseivations anu gives a compelling mouel of the univeise. The piopei
volume of the univeise is inueeu expanuing. This equation is a key step in explaining why the
univeise is unueigoing what appeais to be a cosmic expansion. The Big Bang mouel uoes not go
fai enough to explain the unueilying physics behinu the piopei volume expansion of the
univeise.

This equation allows us to estimate the value of
u
of the univeise touay because we know the
initial scale of Planck spacetime anu we can estimate the expansion that has occuiieu since the
univeise hau the eneigy uensity of Planck spacetime. We will pioceeu by assuming that
u
= a
u

is coiiect anu using it to obtain othei insights. If the answeis obtaineu by the use of this
equation aie ieasonable, this can also seive as a check on the equation.

The appeal of the concept that the univeise is unueigoing an inciease in
u
is that: 1) it explains
the appaient cosmic expansion of the univeise 2) it gives the coiiect ieushift to light fiom
uistant galaxies (pioven latei), S) it gives a univeise with a unifoim iate of time on the
comoving giiu anu 4) it eliminates the mysteiy of expanuing space supposeuly caiiying
galaxies away fiom us at fastei than the speeu of light S) it is one of seveial steps that eliminate
the neeu foi uaik eneigy 6) it solves the mysteiy of how the eneigy uensity of vacuum
fluctuations (zeio point eneigy) can iemain constant when the piopei volume of the univeise
expanus.

Coordinate Rate of Time dt: As explaineu pieviously, the uefinition of the cooiuinate iate of
time (uesignateu ut) useu by the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel is the iate of time when
u
= 1. This only occuiieu in oui univeise uuiing the fiist Planck unit of time in the age of the
13-25
univeise. Theiefoie, the cooiuinate clock can be imagineu as a clock that continues to iun at
the iate of time that was piesent at the beginning of time. This is also the iate of time that
woulu occui in a hypothetical empty univeise wheie always
u
= 1. Aftei the fiist unit of
Planck time, the backgiounu
u
of the univeise began to inciease (
u
> 1) anu the iate of
piopei time in the univeise u
u
uecieaseu ielative to the cooiuinate iate of time. The
giavitational gamma of the univeise can also be uefineu by the following tempoial ielationship:

u
= utu
u

Coordinate and Hybrid Speed of Light: The symbol ut in the RW metiic iepiesents the
iate of time in the comoving cooiuinate system. This is actually the piopei iate of time in the
CNB iest fiame of the univeise. We neeu to substitute a uiffeient symbol because we want to
use ut as the cooiuinate iate of time when
u
= 1. The iate of time useu in the RW metiic is
actually the piopei iate of time in the univeise (the iate of time on the cosmic clock).
Theiefoie in the RW metiic we will make the following substitution ut - u
u
. Also making the
substitution of a
u
anu R pieviously uiscusseu, we have:

uS
2
= c
2
u
u
2
a
u
2
(t) (
dR
2
1 kR
2
) + R
2
u
2
mouifieu RW metiic

Combining these substitutions with substitutions pieviously explaineu we have:
Set: uS = u, u = u, k = u, a
u
(t) =
u

c
2
u
u
2
= a
u
2
(t)uR
2

c = a
u
(t) [
dR
d:
u
set a
u
(t) =
u
(t) anu
JR
d:
u
C
C =
c
u
(t)
=
dR
d:
u
= hybiiu speeu of light (cooiuinate length anu piopei iate of time)

Next we will ueteimine the cooiuinate speeu of light (C = uRut) which iefeiences the
cooiuinate iate of time ut anu the iate of change of cooiuinate length uR both in a hypothetical
empty univeise wheie
u
= 1. The uefinition of ut useu foi the iemainuei of this book is the
iate of time in a hypothetical
u
= 1 univeise. Theiefoie: ut
u
(t)u
u
.

c =
u
(t) [
JR
d:
u
set u
u
=
dt
u
(t)

c =
u
2
(t) [
dR
Jt
set C =
dR
dt

C =
c
u
2
(t)
=
dR
dt
= cooiuinate speeu of light

13-26
Theie aie times when it is necessaiy to use the cooiuinate speeu of light C but usually the
hybiiu speeu of light C is auequate anu simplei. When possible, it is moie convenient anu
intuitive to use the piopei (comoving) iate of time. If we aie ueteimining the time iequiieu foi
light to tiavel a uistance between two stationaiy points, we usually want the answei expiesseu
in units of piopei time that woulu be iecoiueu on the cosmic clock. The uiffeience between the
hybiiu speeu of light C = uRu
u
anu the piopei speeu of light c = uLu
u
is the uiffeience
between a unit of cooiuinate length R anu a unit of piopei length L. The ieason that it takes
moie time foi light to tiavel between two uistant galaxies touay than it uiu a billion yeais ago is
that the hybiiu speeu of light is less touay than it was a billion yeais ago. The uistance between
these two galaxies is constant when measuieu in units of cooiuinate length R. A slowing
hybiiu speeu of light implies that a unit of piopei length, (such as 1 metei touay) is contiacting
ielative to a unit of cooiuinate length (such as 1 metei when
u
= 1).

Reconciliation With Proper Length Being Constant: Cleaily the physical inteipietation that
is emeiging is that a unit of piopei length contiacts when
u
incieases. In chaptei S it was
pioposeu that it was an acceptable basis of a cooiuinate system to consiuei a unit of piopei
length, such as a metei, to be the same eveiywheie in the univeise. A metei in a location with a
laige giavitational was consiueieu to be the same as a metei in a location fai fiom any souice
of giavity which we weie pieviously calling zeio giavity. Bow is it possible to ieconcile the
view that piopei length is contiacting as
u
incieases with the view in chaptei S that piopei
length is constant eveiywheie in the cuiient univeise.

The answei is that the noimalizeu cooiuinate system of chaptei S useu the equation L
o
= L
g
.
This uoes not imply that L
o
anu L
g
aie constant ovei time. It meiely says that this cooiuinate
system assumes that in a stationaiy fiame of iefeience, a unit of length in a zeio giavity
location (L
o
) is the same as a unit of length in a location with giavity (L
g
) at a given instant in
time (miupoint obseivei peispective). Both of these lengths can be simultaneously contiacting
as the univeise ages anu yet maintain L
o
= L
g
. Noie will be saiu about this in chaptei 14.

Planck Sphere: We will now uefine teims necessaiy to quantify anu analyze the evolution of
the univeise. Planck spacetime has eneigy uensity equivalent to a spheie that is Planck length
in iauius containing the maximum zeio point eneigy peimitteu by the piopeities of spacetime.
This maximum eneigy is equal to V Planck eneigy (V E
p
= 9.78 x 1u
8
}). Nost impoitant,
Planck spacetime has
u
= 1 anu all the eneigy possesses quantizeu angulai momentum. The
implications of these conuitions will be explaineu latei.

We will call the basic quantizeu unit of Planck spacetime a Planck spheie. Besiues having a
iauius of Planck length it also has quantizeu angulai momentum of (peihaps V ). The choice
between these two will have to be woikeu out by otheis, but is moie ieasonable anu we will
use in the following uiscussion. The concept of a Planck spheie is intiouuceu piimaiily
because this is a convenient iefeience to help us visualize the appaient expansion of the
13-27
univeise in units of piopei length. We can uesciibe what happens to the iauius, eneigy anu
angulai momentum that aie initially in the Planck spheie. In this way the evolution of the
Planck spheie becomes an easy iefeience foi what happens to all the spacetime in the univeise.

Angular Momentum in Planck Spacetime: Besiues having eneigy uensity, Planck spacetime
also must have a uistiibuteu uensity of quantizeu angulai momentum. 0ui cuiient univeise
possesses quantizeu angulai momentum piimaiily in the foim of CNB photons. Cuiiently the
CNB has the photon uensity of a 2.72S K black bouy cavity which is about 4 x 1u
8
photonsm
S
.
The angulai momentum () possesseu by this vast numbei of photons exceeus by a factoi of
about 1u
8
the inteinal angulai momentum possesseu by baiyonic mattei in the univeise
(ignoiing uaik mattei). If we simply imagine ieveising time, all the CNB photons woulu be
compiesseu anu blue shifteu until each photon was ieuuceu to a spheie that is Planck length in
iauius. This iuea can be checkeu with a plausibility calculation that will be maue latei.

Starting the Universe From Planck Spacetime: The iemainuei of this chaptei will look at the
evolution of the univeise. This combines the concepts of an incieasing
u
anu Planck spacetime
with the Big Bang mouel of expanuing spacetime. This combination allows us to intiouuce new
iueas in the familiai context of the Big Bang mouel. In the next chaptei we will uiop the Big
Bang mouel anu switch completely to the pioposeu spacetime tiansfoimation mouel that is
moie compatible with the piemise that the univeise is (anu always was) only spacetime.

We aie setting the stage foi the stait of the Big Bang. In this thought expeiiment we aie going
to witness the Big Bang fiom the vantage point of an infinitely small point that is at the centei
of a Planck spheie at the stait of the Big Bang. Fiom this vantage point we aie going to pay
paiticulai attention to what happens to the appioximately one billion }oules (V E
p
) that is the
eneigy of the Planck spheie that suiiounus oui infinitely small vantage point. All of this eneigy
is initially within a uistance of Planck length of oui location.

We will imagine that we can watch the evolution the univeise (watch the Big Bang) fiom oui
infinitely small vantage point within Planck spacetime. We aie also going to equip ouiselves
with two clocks that will stait iunning the moment that time staits to piogiess foiwaiu at the
stait of the Big Bang. Both of these clocks aie uigital clocks that iun in quantizeu inciements of
Planck time (~ S.4 x 1u
44
seconu steps). 0ne of these clocks will be calleu the cosmic clock
that measuies the piopei age of the univeise in the comoving fiame of iefeience. Time on the
cosmic clock, expiesseu in uimensionless Planck units of time, will be uesignateu with the
symbol
u
(bolu anu unueilineu uesignates Planck units) anu uefineu as:

u

u
t
p
.

The othei clock will be calleu the =1 clock. This is a hypothetical clock that iuns at the iate
of time of an empty univeise wheie the backgiounu giavitational
u
is always equal to 1. Time
13-28
on the =1 clock also is in Planck units of time anu uesignateu as t
u
. Since the univeise staiteu
with
u
= 1, the =1 clock can also be thought of as a clock that continueu iunning at the iate of
time that was piesent at the beginning of the Big Bang. This clock is keeping cooiuinate time
which is the ut teim in the equation:
u
= utu
u
.

The Big Bang Starts: Now foi the big event: Time staits anu the Big Bang has begun. Actually,
the obseivable, piopei eneigy uensity uefining Planck spacetime only exists in this foim uuiing
the fiist unit of Planck time. Aftei this biief time the obseivable eneigy uensity (eneigy with
spin) iapiuly uiops to less than 0
ps
= S.SS x 1u
112
}m
S
anu
u
iapiuly incieases (
u
> 1).
Bowevei, the total eneigy uensity of the univeise iemains constant when we auu togethei the
vacuum eneigy uensity (no spin) plus the obseivable eneigy uensity (with spin) as explaineu
latei. It is not possible to talk about what happens befoie time staits to piogiess (when
t
u
= u) because this implies that the iate of time has stoppeu anu theie is no motion of waves in
spacetime. We will auopt the position that theie was no time befoie t
u
= 1. In oiuei foi
spacetime to be eneigetic, theie must be moving uipole waves in spacetime (theie must be
uynamic spacetime). Theie is no eneigy in static spacetime. If the spin in each Planck spheie is
, then this is the equivalent of one photon pei spheie. Initially the eneigy of this single photon
pei Planck spheie woulu be equal to the maximum zeio point eneigy which is V E
p
. Anothei
way of saying this is that all the eneigy of Planck spacetime hau quantizeu angulai momentum
anu was obseivable eneigy. Touay only about 1 pait in 1u
122
of the total eneigy in the
univeise has quantizeu angulai momentum anu is obseivable.

We aie going to assume that time staits simultaneously eveiywheie within the Planck
spacetime. This obviously iequiies eithei fastei than speeu of light communication oi some
othei way of synchionizing the stait of time. The only justification foi this assumption is that
obseivations touay inuicate a simultaneous initiation of the Big Bang. Peihaps this can be
iationalizeu by assuming that in this highest possible eneigy uensity, the entiie univeise was
like a single paiticle that exhibiteu the instantaneous communication of entanglement oi unity.
We will not uwell on this point. This assumption seems moie unueistanuable than staiting
with a singulaiity, but ultimately the simultaneous initiation of the Big Bang (simultaneous
staiting of time) is just a staiting assumption.

At the instant that the Big Bang staits, oui imagineu vantage point is completely isolateu.
Theie has been no time foi any communication with any of the suiiounuing eneigy in Planck
spacetime anu theie has been no nonlineai uistoition of the waves in spacetime that constitute
Planck spacetime. This means that at the stait of the Big Bang theie is no pie existing
giavitational effects no pieexisting giavitational acceleiation anu foi the fiist unit of Planck
time,
u
= 1 eveiywheie in the univeise. Theiefoie, foi the fiist unit of Planck time, the cosmic
clock anu the =1 clock both iun at the same iate of time (u
u
= ut). This staiting conuition is
similai to the uust clouu thought expeiiment wheie we staiteu with giavity tuineu off.

13-29
Increasing Value of
u
: The fiist tick of Planck time was easy because it happens with
u
= 1.
0ui paiticle hoiizon was equal to Planck length which is the bounuaiy of the Planck spheie.
The question is: What happens with subsequent ticks as oui paiticle hoiizon expanus beyonu
the bounuaiy of oui Planck spheie. Speeu of light contact is being maue with aujacent waves
in spacetime just beyonu the bounuaiy of oui Planck spheie. The nonlineaiity of spacetime
begins to affect these waves causing an inciease in the backgiounu giavitational gamma fiom
u
= 1 to
u
> 1. The iate of time slows anu piopei volume incieases, but theie is no time
giauient. All points aie expeiiencing the same iate of time so theie is no tenuency foi
giavitational attiaction oi giavitational collapse. This is the stait of the immatuie giavity
conuition that continues touay. A unifoimly incieasing
u
eliminates the time giauient
necessaiy foi giavitational attiaction.

Foi the fiist unit of Planck time the cosmic clock anu the = 1 clock weie synchionizeu.
Bowevei, all subsequent ticks exhibit the fact that the cosmic clock has a iate of time that is
slowing ielative to the =1 clock. Also the piopei uistance to the bounuaiy of the Planck
spheie incieases. Both of these effects aie the iesult of
u
incieasing which in tuin is the iesult
of the nonlineai effects of spacetime accumulating. The waves in spacetime iesponsible foi the
eneigy uensity of Planck spacetime have begin to uistoit. 0nlike the giavity piouuceu by an
isolateu mass, insiue the eaily univeise the stiesseu spacetime is a homogeneous uistiibution
of eneigy that extenus beyonu oui paiticle hoiizon. This wave uistoition woulu piouuce an
inciease in the backgiounu giavitational gamma
u
similai to the inciease in the backgiounu
in the uust clouu thought expeiiment. Bowevei, because the univeise staiteu with the
maximum possible quantizeu eneigy uensity, the effects on volume anu the iate of time aie
vastly laigei than in the uust clouu thought expeiiment.

Spacetime Evolves into Different Types of Energy: The uistoition fiee oscillating spacetime
(Planck spacetime) that was piesent uuiing the fiist tick of the cosmic clock begins to exhibit
uistoition foi all subsequent ticks. The nonlineaiity of spacetime causes the waves in spacetime
to uistoit. The uistoiteu waves can be thiough of as being split into thiee component paits.
These thiee components aie:

1) The uistoition fiee component of the oiiginal waves in spacetime that ietain the
oiiginal quantizeu angulai momentum (spin). This is pioposeu to become the souice of
eveiything in the univeise that we can sense touay (all feimions anu bosons).
2) The non oscillating component (the B
2
component of chaptei 6) that iesults when the
waves in spacetime aie uistoiteu by the nonlineaiity of spacetime. This is iesponsible
foi giavitational effects anu also iesponsible foi the backgiounu
u
of the univeise.
S) The high fiequency oscillating component of giavity (the B
cos2t component
uesciibeu in chaptei 6) pioposeu to be iesponsible foi vacuum eneigy. This component
lacks angulai momentum anu becomes the vacuum fluctuations component of the
univeise touay.
13-30

Theiefoie staiting with Planck spacetime means that any nonlineai uistoition causeu by an
inteiaction of waves in spacetime (giavitational contact with suiiounuing eneigy) must
inciease
u
. Bowevei, as
u
incieases this also incieases piopei uistance between stationaiy
points anu uecieases the iate of time. New eneigy is always auuing its giavitational influence
as the paiticle hoiizon expanus anu new eneigy comes into view. As
u
incieases, the piopei
uistance to the paiticle hoiizon incieases even fastei than the speeu of light because oui unit of
length is also shiinking ielative to cooiuinate length R. The value of
u
incieases towaius
infinity.

Avoiding Gravitational Collapse: What pievents Planck spacetime fiom collapsing into a
singulaiity. In fact, when
u
= 1 each Planck spheie appeais to contain the exact amount of
eneigy iequiieu to become a black hole with a Schwaizschilu iauius equal to Planck length.
Even touay the piopei eneigy uensity of spacetime is appioximately the same as the eneigy
uensity of Planck spacetime. Accoiuing to geneial ielativity, eneigy in any foim piouuces
giavity. Theiefoie, geneial ielativity consiueis the eneigy uensity of spacetime iequiieu by
quantum mechanics to be a iiuiculously laige numbei (~ 1u
12u
times laigei than the ciitical
eneigy uensity of the univeise). What pievents the eneigy uensity of spacetime fiom
collapsing into a black hole. A paitial answei will be given heie anu auuitional uetails will be
given in the next chaptei.

Think of the eneigy uensity of spacetime as being the necessaiy ingieuient to give spacetime
piopeities such as a speeu of light, impeuance, a giavitational constant, elasticity, etc.
Theiefoie it is an oveisimplification to say that eneigy in any foim cieates giavity. The moie
coiiect statement woulu be that any foim of eneigy that possesses quantizeu angulai
momentum cieates giavity (feimions anu bosons cieate giavity). The uipole waves in
spacetime that foim vacuum eneigy lack angulai momentum anu aie pait of the fabiic of
spacetime. They have supeifluiu piopeities anu aie as homogeneous as quantum mechanics
allows. They aie also the necessaiy ingieuient iequiieu to suppoit the existence of feimions
anu bosons.

When iotais with theii quantizeu angulai momentum aie intiouuceu into an otheiwise
homogeneous volume of spacetime, this is auuing an auuitional eneigy uensity to the pieviously
homogeneous eneigy uensity of spacetime. Foi example, if theie was a iotai with Planck
eneigy, then this iotai woulu have a quantum iauius equal to Planck length. The eneigy
uensity of such a iotai woulu be equal to the eneigy uensity of an equivalent volume of
spacetime. Theiefoie, intiouucing such a iotai into a pieviously homogeneous volume of
spacetime woulu uouble the eneigy uensity of that volume of spacetime. This uoubling ieaches
the theoietical limit of the piopeities of spacetime anu iesults in the cieation of a black hole.

13-31
Theie aie no funuamental paiticles (iotais) with Planck masseneigy. The conuitions which
cieate a stellai size black hole oi a supei massive black hole uo not match the total eneigy
uensity of spacetime (~1u
11S
}m
S
). Bowevei, they uo match the inteiactive eneigy uensity 0
i

pieviously uiscusseu in chaptei 4. Recall fiom chaptei 4 the following:

The inteiactive eneigy uensity 0
i
= F
p
2
is a veiy laige eneigy uensity. Bow
uoes this eneigy uensity compaie to the eneigy uensity of a black hole (symbol
0
bh
). We will uesignate the black holes eneigy as E
bh
anu its classical
Schwaizschilu iauius as R
s
. Ignoiing numeiical factois neai 1 we have:

0
bh
=
L
bh
R
s
3
= [
R
s
c
4
u
[
1
R
s
3
=
P
p
R
s
2

Theiefoie, since 0
i
= F
p
2
anu 0
bh
= F
p
R
s
2
it can be seen that if = R
s
then
0
i
= 0
bh
.

Auuing auuitional eneigy to a specific volume by intiouucing mattei incieases the total eneigy
uensity anu piouuces the giavitational effects uesciibeu by geneial ielativity. The laigest foice
that the vacuum eneigypiessuie can exeit is Planck foice (F
p
= c
4
u). With the iotai mouel it
was stateu that the eneigy uensity of a iotai implieu a specific piessuie. This piessuie neeueu
to be containeu by an offsetting piessuie exeiteu by vacuum eneigypiessuie. Likewise, the
mattei of a laigei bouy such as a stai has a collective eneigy uensity that must be stabilizeu by
offsetting piessuie fiom vacuum eneigypiessuie. The piessuie on a stai can be consiueieu as
two opposing foices exeiteu on opposite hemispheies of the stai. The maximum foice that
spacetime can exeit is Planck foice. Theiefoie the conuitions which foim a black hole occui
when spacetime is askeu to exeit this maximum foice. The eneigy uensity of a black hole
(ignoiing numeiical factois neai 1) is 0
bh
= F
p
R
s
2
. The point is that the eneigy uensity of
spacetime uoes not foim a black hole. Insteau, a black hole foims when auuitional eneigy
uensity (mattei) in intiouuceu to a volume anu equals the inteiactive eneigy uensity wheie
= R
s
in the equation 0
i
= F
p
2
.

When the univeise staiteu at the beginning of the Big Bang (
u
= 1), 1uu% of the eneigy of
Planck spacetime possesseu quantizeu angulai momentum. Theie was no vacuum eneigy
uuiing the fiist unit of Planck time. Theiefoie, the total eneigy uensity of a Planck spheie uiu
not foim a black hole anu the paiticle hoiizon was equal to Planck length. The possibility of
foiming black holes only occuiieu latei when some of the eneigy of Planck spacetime was
conveiteu to vacuum eneigy. Then it became possible to oveiloau a paiticulai volume of
spacetime with the combination of vacuum eneigy anu eneigy with quantizeu angulai
momentum (multiple iotais anuoi photons). In chaptei 14 we will see how it is possible foi
the piopei eneigy uensity of spacetime to iemain constant while the piopei volume of the
univeise expanus.

13-32
Three Epochs in the Evolution of the Universe: The iate of expansion of the univeise (iate of
change of
u
) is cuiiently believeu to have gone thiough S uiffeient phases. The following
calculations use the cuiient estimates foi the iates of expansion of the univeise anu the cuiient
estimates of age of the univeise when tiansitions occui. As impioveu estimates become
available, they shoulu be substituteu foi the following pieliminaiy estimates.

The fiist phase is the iauiation uominateu epoch anu is cuiiently believeu to have staiteu with
the Big Bang anu enueu ioughly 7u,uuu yeais aftei the Big Bang. Buiing this epoch, the scaling
factoi of the univeise giew as: a
u
(t) =
u
1/2
. Next came the mattei uominateu epoch fiom
ioughly 7u,uuu yeais aftei the Big Bang to about S billion yeais aftei the Big Bang. The mattei
uominateu epoch is believeu to have a scaling factoi that giew with a slope chaiacteiistic of
u
2/3
. Bowevei it is not accuiate to say that a
u
(t) =
u
2/
S
because uuiing the iauiation uominateu
epoch the slope was uiffeient. Theiefoie, we will say that uuiing the mattei uominateu phase
the change in scaling factoi is a
u
(t) =
u
2/3
. Fiom about S billion yeais until the piesent we
aie in what is iefeiieu to as the uaik eneigy uominateu epoch. Buiing this phase a fiist
appioximation of the change scaling factoi can be uesciibeu as: a
u
(t) =
u
. Bowevei, the
change in scaling factoi appeais to be moie complex than this because the change in the scale
factoi is piobably acceleiating. The CBN mouel of cosmology has paiameteis that can be
aujusteu to peimit it to match obseivations. Foitunately, the key points of the pioposeu
spacetime tiansfoimation mouel can be stateu without iequiiing a piecise equation foi the
scale factoi in the uaik eneigy uominateu epoch.

Radiation Dominated Epoch: The stanuaiu Big Bang theoiy (without inflation) has the scale
factoi of the univeise inciease piopoitional to the squaie ioot of time uuiing the iauiation
uominateu epoch a
u
(t) =
u
1/2
. Even the mouel of the univeise that incluues inflation staits off
with the scale factoi incieasing piopoitional to
u
1/2
between the stait of the Big Bang anu
about 1u
S7
seconu aftei the stait. The inflation mouel then has a biief peiiou wheie a vast
exponential expansion takes place. This is then followeu by a ietuin to expansion piopoitional
to
u
1/2
.

The spacetime wave mouel pioposeu heie uoes not neeu the hypothetical inflationaiy
exponential expansion to make the univeise homogeneous, isotiopic anu spatially flat. All of
this automatically follows fiom staiting the univeise at the highest possible eneigy uensity that
spacetime can suppoit Planck spacetime. This eneigy uensity is as homogeneous as quantum
mechanics allows. These quantum mechanical fluctuations aie tiaceable to the Planck
lengthtime limitation of wave amplituue in the mouel of the univeise baseu on waves in
spacetime. These quantum fluctuations pioviue the small amount of inhomogeneity iequiieu
to seeu the eventual giavitational foimation of stais anu galaxies. The symbols anu equations
that we will be using to chaiacteiize the iauiation uominateu epoch aie:

a
u
(t) =
u
=
u
1/2
=
u
t
p
iauiation uominateu epoch ielationships
13-33

The Universe at
u
= 9: We will illustiate some impoitant concepts about the eaily stages of
the expansion of the univeise with an example. Pieviously an imaginaiy vantage point at the
centei of a Planck spheie was uesciibeu. Suppose that we ietuin to that infinitely small
vantage point anu look at the changes that occui 9 units of Planck time (
u
= 9) aftei the stait
of the Big Bang. Fiom
u
1/2
=
u
we obtain that at
u
= 9 the backgiounu giavitational gamma of
the univeise is:
u
= S. This has a piofounu effect on spacetime. The scale factoi of the
univeise ielative to Planck spacetime (a
u
) has tiipleu. Theiefoie, the Planck spheie that staiteu
with a iauius of Planck length l
p
now has a piopei iauius S times as laige (i = S l
p
). Bowevei,
the cooiuinate iauius always assumes
u
= 1, theiefoie the cooiuinate iauius of the Planck
spheie (measuieu in units of R) iemains constant at 1 unit of Planck length (R = 1)

The Bubble spheie with iauius i
h
aiounu the oiigin point, has a piopei iauius of i
h
= c
u
so
when
u
= 9 then i
h
= 9 l
p
. The Bubble spheie uefines the uistance wheie objects seem to be
ieceuing at the piopei speeu of light. The piopei uistance to the paiticle hoiizon (uesignateu
i
ph
) at an instant in time is laigei than the Bubble spheie at that same instant in time. This is
because the instantaneous piopei uistance to the paiticle hoiizon incluues uistance that has
expanueu aftei a speeu of light signal has passeu any point. Buiing the iauiation uominateu
epoch it can be shown that the piopei uistance to the paiticle hoiizon is always twice the
iauius of the Bubble spheie. At age of the univeise
u
, the iauius of the paiticle hoiizon is
i
ph
= 2c
u
= 18 l
p
when
u
= 9 oi
u
= 4.8S x 1u
4S
s. Touay the value of
u
is much laigei than S
(calculateu latei). Theiefoie the piopei uimensions quoteu when
u
= 9 anu
u
= S woulu be
uiffeient touay because
u
is much laigei. Bowevei, the cooiuinate uimensions (measuieu in
units of R) always aie constant because they uo not scale with
u
.

Any signal obtaineu fiom the paiticle hoiizon has infinite ieushift but a signal emitteu fiom
insiue the paiticle hoiizon has less of a ieushift. The giavity of an appaiently ieceuing mass is
less than the giavity of a stationaiy mass at the same uistance. Theiefoie, the ieushift at
vaiious uistances also affects giavity. It is the combination of the giavity of all the eneigy
insiue the paiticle hoiizon that togethei is incieasing the backgiounu gamma at oui
obseivation point. Since all othei obseivation points aie expeiiencing a similai giavitational
effect, the backgiounu giavitational gamma of the univeise is incieasing homogeneously
because Planck spacetime staiteu off at the maximum homogeneity peimitteu by quantum
mechanics.

We will now ietuin to oui example of the univeise when it was 9 units of Planck time olu
(
u
= 9). At this instant we hau:
u
=
u
1/2
= utu
u
= S. The iate of piopei time shown on the
cosmic clock has sloweu to a thiiu the iate of time shown on the =1 clock. Also the hybiiu
speeu of light C = uRu
u
has sloweu to a thiiu the piopei speeu of light expiesseu by the
univeisal constant c = uLu
u
because of the uiffeience between uR anu uL. Theiefoie:

13-34
C =
c
u
= c
u
1/2
(assumes iauiation uominateu epoch)

The Planck spheie initially containeu about 1u
9
}oules uuiing the fiist unit of Planck time when
the univeise was Planck spacetime. All this eneigy initially possesseu of quantizeu angulai
momentum. Theiefoie these waves weie similai to photons. Bowevei, when
u
= 9 anu
u
= S
the photonlike waves have been ieushifteu by a factoi of S. Theiefoie, the piopei volume of
the Planck spheie has incieaseu by a factoi of 27 anu the obseivable eneigy (possessing
quantizeu angulai momentum) in the Planck spheie has uecieaseu because of ieushift by a
factoi of S to about u.SS billion }oules. Wheie uiu the uiffeience in eneigy go.

Lost Energy Becomes Vacuum Energy: When physics stuuents heai about the cosmic
ieushift uecieasing the eneigy of photons, they often ask wheie the eneigy went. Answeis
often involve a uiscussion of stietcheu wavelengths, anu eventually imply that conseivation of
eneigy uoes not apply to the cosmic expansion of the univeise. The pioposeu spacetime
tiansfoimation mouel gives a uiffeient answei. When the piopei volume of the univeise
expanus, a photon loses eneigy but ietains 1uu% of its piopei angulai momentum. Theiefoie
the lost eneigy possesses no angulai momentum.

It is pioposeu that all the obseivable eneigy lost by photons is being conveiteu to vacuum
eneigy (zeio point eneigy) that is in a supeifluiu state that cannot possess angulai momentum.
In fact, it is not only photons that aie losing eneigy to cosmic expansion. Neutiinos anu othei
ielativistic paiticles (moving ielative to the local CNB iest fiame) aie also losing substantial
amounts of obseivable kinetic eneigy. This lost eneigy is also being conveiteu to vacuum
eneigy. In the next chaptei we will attempt to calculate the iatio of vacuum eneigy uensity to
obseivable eneigy uensity in the univeise touay.

Radiation-Matter Equality Transition: The iauiation uominateu epoch enueu when the
eneigy uensity in iauiation fell to eventually equal the eneigy uensity of mattei in the univeise.
The piopei eneigy of mattei (such as an election) uoes not ueciease when
u
incieases so
eventually iauiation eneigy uensity falls to equal the aveiage eneigy uensity of mattei. This
tiansition is calleu the iauiationmattei equality anu occuiieu about 7u,uuu yeais aftei the Big
Bang. Befoie the WNAP piobe accuiately measuieu the CNB, this tiansition was thought to
have occuiieu eailiei, peihaps 1u,uuu yeais aftei the Big Bang. Bowevei, analysis of the
WNAP uata has ueteimineu that the eneigy content of the univeise at S8u,uuu yeais aftei the
Big Bang was 1S% iauiation, 1u% neutiinos, 12% baiyonic mattei anu 6S% uaik mattei. Since
both iauiation anu neutiino eneigy ueciease in eneigy at viitually the same iate (assuming no
new souices), the bieakuown at S8u,uuu yeais can be geneializeu as 2S% iauiationlike
eneigy anu 7S% eneigy in mattei. These numbeis imply the iauiationmattei equality
occuiieu about 7u,uuu yeais aftei the Big Bang (
u
= 4.u9 x 1u
SS
Planck units of time). It is
possible to calculate the value of the backgiounu giavitational gamma at the iauiationmattei
13-35
equality tiansition. This backgiounu gamma is impoitant foi latei calculations anu will be
uesignateu as:
eq
.

u
=
u
1/2

set
u
= 4.u9 x 1u
SS
(= 7u,uuu yeais)
eq
= 6.4 x 1u
27

eq
=
u
at the iauiationmattei equality tiansition

Theiefoie, about 7u,uuu yeais aftei the Big Bang the absolute scale factoi of the univeise was:
a
u
=
eq
= 6.4 x 1u
27
. This means that the Planck spheie incieaseu in iauius fiom Planck length
(~1u
SS
m) to about 1u
7
m (obtaineu fiom l
p
x 6.4 x 1u
27
= 1u
7
m). Fuitheimoie, the ieushift
that occuiieu uuiing the iauiation uominateu epoch uecieaseu the piopei eneigy of iauiation
by a factoi equal to
eq
. This means that the obseivable eneigy in the Planck spheie
uecieaseu by a factoi equal to
eq
fiom about a billion }oules to about 1.SS x 1u
19
}. All the
missing eneigy was conveiteu to vacuum eneigy. Theiefoie the total eneigy in the Planck
spheie (incluuing vacuum eneigy measuieu in units of cooiuinate eneigy }oules) iemaineu
constant at about 9.78 x 1u
8
}oules at the enu of the iauiation uominateu epoch (uiscusseu
latei). This can be confusing since theie aie uiffeient stanuaius foi eneigy the same way that
theie aie uiffeient stanuaius of length. The conclusion is that the eneigy uensity of the
univeise has not changeu fiom the Big Bang to touay if vacuum eneigy is incluueu in the eneigy
uensity. What has changeu is the obseivable eneigy uensity of the univeise (excluues
vacuum eneigy) has uecieaseu by a factoi of about 1u
122
.

Aftei the iauiation uominateu epoch enueu, the next phase was the mattei uominateu epoch
which lasteu fiom about 7u,uuu yeais to about S billion yeais aftei the Big Bang. The scale
factoi (anu
u
) uuiing this epoch scales piopoitional to
u
2/3
. The cuiient epoch is usually
iefeiieu to as the uaik eneigy uominateu epoch anu extenus fiom about S billion yeais to the
piesent. The scale factoi anu
u
uuiing this epoch might be lineaily incieasing piopoitional to
u
oi it might be incieasing fastei than lineaily in which case it woulu be an exponential
inciease. This is the famous acceleiating expansion of the univeise anu the exact
iepiesentation of this phase will be left to the astiophysicists.

uo
Calculation from Expansion: 0ui objective heie is to ueteimine the cuiient value of the
backgiounu giavitational gamma foi the univeise uesignateu
uo
. We have calculateu the value
eq
= 6.4 x 1u
27
foi the iauiation uominateu epoch. The iemaining pait of the calculation
iequiieu to ueteimine
uo
is gieatly helpeu by the fact that the ieushift fiom the
iauiationmattei equality to the piesent has been expeiimentally measuieu by WNAP. The
following quote is fiom the S Yeai WNAP iepoit
4
; The equality ieushift z
eq
is one of the
funuamental obseivables that one can extiact fiom the CNB powei spectium
S
. The teim
equality ieushift z
eq
is the value of the ieushift since the iauiationmattei tiansition

4
Five-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe Observations: Cosmological Interpretation, E. Komatsu1
et.al. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 180:330376, 2009 February

13-36
(equality) to the piesent. This ieushift has been measuieu by WNAP anu founu to be:
z
eq
= S2SS _ 88. Theiefoie this numbei incluues all of the ieushift that occuiieu uuiing both
the mattei uominateu epoch anu the uaik eneigy uominateu epoch until now. This single
numbei incluues even acceleiateu expansion.

Theiefoie since the ieushift z
eq
equals the change in scaling factoi since equality, we can simply
multiply this times the pieviously calculateu value of
u
piioi to iauiationmattei equality to
obtain the total value of the backgiounu giavitational
u
of the univeise touay. We make use of
the contention that
u
= a
u
theiefoie the cuiient values aie
uo
= a
uo
.

uo
=
eq
z
eq
= 6.4 x 1u
27
x S2SS
uo
= 2.1 x 1u
S1

uo
calculateu fiom cosmological expansion

This is the appioximate amount that the univeise has expanueu since it was one unit of Planck
time olu (~ S.S9 x 1u
44
s). Foi example, the iauius of the Planck spheie was Planck length l
p
at
the beginning of time. This value of
uo
says that the iauius of the Planck spheie touay has
incieaseu by a factoi of ioughly 2.1 x 1u
S1
times anu the volume about 1u
94
times. Since
inflation is not neeueu in this mouel, theie is no inflation expansion incluueu in these numbeis.

uo
Calculation from Planck Temperature: 0ne auvantage of the pioposeu spacetime
tiansfoimation mouel of the univeise is that it uesciibes the staiting conuition of the univeise
in a way that we can make both pieuictions anu plausibility calculations that check the mouel.
The cuiient chaiacteiistics of the univeise have been expeiimentally measuieu. It is only the
physical inteipietation of these measuiements that is being calleu into question. We can uo
simple calculations extiapolating fiom the pioposeu staiting conuitions to see if the mouel is
ieasonable. The fiist of these plausibility calculations ueteimines the value of
uo
by compaiing
the tempeiatuie of Planck spacetime to the cuiient tempeiatuie of the CNB. The iatio of these
two tempeiatuies shoulu be equal to
uo
. The ieasoning is that the tempeiatuie of the univeise
changeu inveisely with the scaling factoi which means that the change in tempeiatuie also
scaleu inveisely with the change in
u
. To expiess this ielationship we will use the following
new symbols

T
ps
= tempeiatuie of Planck spacetime: T
ps
= V E
p
k
B
= 7.u8 x 1u
S1
K
T
uo
= cuiient tempeiatuie of the univeise (CNB tempeiatuie) T
uo
= 2.72S K
uo
= cuiient value of the backgiounu giavitational gamma of the univeise
uo
=
T
ps
T
uc
= 7.u8 x 1u
S1
K2.72S K = 2.6 x 1u
S1

uo
fiom iatio of tempeiatuies

This is a fantastic iesult. Fiom the iatio of tempeiatuies we obtain
uo
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
compaieu to
uo
= 2.1 x 1u
S1
fiom the ieushift calculation. This suppoits the assumption that the staiting
13-37
conuition foi the Big Bang was Planck spacetime anu not a singulaiity oi any othei eneigy
uensity in excess of Planck eneigy uensity.

uo
Calculation from Energy Density: Theie is anothei way that we can calculate the value of
uo
using the eneigy uensity of Planck spacetime anu compaiing this to the obseivable eneigy
uensity of the univeise touay. The eneigy uensity of the univeise touay is commonly thought
to be about 8.46 x 1u
1u
}m
S
(equivalent to 9.4 x 1u
27
kgm
S
). Bowevei, this is a calculateu
numbei baseu on the concept that the univeise must maintain a ciitical uensity. 0nly about
27.9% of this eneigy uensity oi 2.S6 x 1u
1u
}m
S
is obseivable masseneigy consisting of
feimions anu bosons (incluuing uaik mattei). Baik mattei is consiueieu obseivable because
the giavitational effects of uaik mattei aie cleaily obseivable. 0nly the obseivable 2.S6 x 1u
1u
}m
S
is tiaceable to Planck spacetime. The iemaining appioximately 72.1% of the ciitical
eneigy uensity (8.46 x 1u
1u
}m
S
) is cuiiently attiibuteu to uaik eneigy. Almost all this uaik
eneigy has supposeuly been auueu to the univeise since the univeise was about S billion yeais
olu. It uiu not oiiginate with Planck spacetime anu theiefoie will be excluueu fiom this
calculation. Theiefoie, the cuiient eneigy uensity of the univeise that excluues uaik eneigy is
about 2.S6 x 1u
1u
}m
S
. This will be calleu the cuiiently obseivable eneigy uensity of the
univeise anu uesignateu with the symbol 0
obs
.

Theie is anothei way of calculating the value of
uo
using only 0
ps
, 0
obs
anu z
eq
. The ieasoning
is that the univeise staiteu with Planck spacetime with eneigy uensity of 0
ps
= S.SS x 1u
112

}m
S
anu touay the obseivable eneigy uensity is 0
obs
= 2.S6 x 1u
1u
}m
S
. Theie aie two
ieasons foi this change in eneigy uensity. Fiist, the volume of each Planck spheie incieaseu by
a factoi of
uo
S
because the iauius of the Planck spheie incieaseu by a factoi of
uo
. Seconuly,
the cosmic ieushift ieuuceu the eneigy in the Planck spheie uuiing the iauiation uominateu
epoch. This epoch staiteu with
u
= 1 anu enueu ioughly at the iauiationmattei equality with
a backgiounu gamma uesignateu as
eq
. We uo not expeiimentally know the value of
eq
, but
we uo expeiimentally know the ieushift that has occuiieu since the iauiationmattei equality.
As pieviously stateu, this ieushift value has been measuieu by WNAP anu founu to be
z
eq
= S2SS _ 88. The value of
uo
is
uo
=
eq
z
eq
theiefoie
eq
=
uo
z
eq
. The initial eneigy
uensity of Planck spacetime was ieuuceu both because of expansion (a factoi of
uo
S
) anu
because of cosmic ieushift (a factoi of
eq
). We can now calculate the value of
uo
using this
knowleuge.

0
ps
0
obs
=
uo
S
x
eq
set
eq
=
uo
z
eq

0
ps
0
obs
=
uo
4
z
eq

uo
= (0
ps
z
eq
0
obs
)
14

set 0
ps
= S.SS x 1u
112
}m
S
0
obs
= 2.S6 x 1u
1u
}m
S
z
eq
= S2SS
uo
= 2.9S x 1u
S1

uo
calculateu fiom 0
ps
, 0
obs
anu z
eq

13-38
This is anothei successful plausibility calculation that suppoits the mouel that the univeise
staiteu as Planck spacetime because this value of
uo
geneially agiees with the pievious two
values of
uo
.

Calculation from Energy Density of the CMB: The CNB cuiiently has eneigy uensity equal
to the eneigy uensity of 2.72S K black bouy iauiation: 0
CNB
= 4.2 x 1u
14
}m
S
. Thiough the
entiie lifetime of the univeise, the eneigy uensity in iauiation has scaleu piopoitional to 1a
4
.
Theiefoie if we only tiack the eneigy uensity of iauiation we have an extiemely simplifieu
mouel of the univeise. This assumption ignoies all the feimions anu othei bosons which have
about S,uuu times gieatei eneigy uensity than the eneigy uensity of photons in the CNB.
Theiefoie, this gieatly simplifieu assumption iepiesents a iough uppei limit estimate of
uo
.
We assume that the univeise staiteu as Planck spacetime with eneigy uensity of
0
ps
= S.SS x 1u
112
}m
S
anu thiough expansion achieveu the cuiient eneigy uensity of just the
0
CNB
. The cosmological ieushift plus incieaseu volume iesulteu in a 1a
4
scaling of eneigy
uensity.

uo
= (0
ps
0
CNB
)
14
= (S.SS x 1u
112
4.2 x 1u
14
)
14
= S.4 x 1u
S1

I finu it suipiising that this simplifieu estimate that incluues only iauiation achieves a ielatively
close value foi
uo
. The ieason is that the gieatest expansion factoi occuiieu when the univeise
was iauiation uominateu theiefoie most of the eneigy loss in fact scaleu as 1a
4
. This
uo
value
woulu moie closely appioach the pievious thiee values if we incluueu the ielativistic eneigy of
paiticles in the eaily univeise which aie similai to iauiation because they also exhibit a
ielativistic ieushift.

Calculation from Spin: Theie is one last calculation that I finu amazing. It is baseu on the
assumption that quantizeu spin shoulu be appioximately conseiveu. The teim quantizeu
spin is best uefineu with an example. Two gamma iay photons, each with spin, can inteiact
to foim an election anu a position. These two feimions each have spin of V . The concept of
quantizeu spin ignoies spin uiiection anu makes no uistinction between spin anu V spin.
To ueteimine the total numbei of quantizeu spin units we meiely auu togethei the numbei of
bosons anu feimions ( anu V units of spin aie tieateu the same).

We know the uensity of quantizeu spin units in Planck spacetime anu we know the uensity of
photons anu feimions in the univeise touay (except foi uaik mattei). The spacetime baseu
mouel of the univeise uoes not iequiie the exchange of viitual paiticles to tiansmit foices so no
quantizeu spin is allotteu to viitual paiticles. Bowevei, the assumption that theie is laige scale
pieseivation of quantizeu spin is questionable. Foi example, two photons can be absoibeu anu
ieemitteu as a single photon. Bowevei, with black bouy iauiation theie is laige scale
pieseivation of the total numbei of photons because the numeious absoiptions anu
ieemissions aveiage out. Foi this calculation to be accuiate we will make the questionable
13-39
assumption that quantizeu spin has a similai aveiaging. If the answei is ieasonable, then this
will suppoit the accuiacy of this assumption.

Planck spacetime hau spin in each Planck spheie with initial volume of
(4S)l
p
S
= 1.77 x 1u
1u4
m
S
oi a quantizeu spin uensity of S.6S x 1u
1uS
spin unitsm
S
. Touay
mattei uominates the univeise but the quantizeu spin units containeu in obseivable mattei is
small compaieu to the quantizeu spin in the CNB. 0iuinaiy mattei is 4.6% of the ciitical
uensity of the univeise. Theiefoie the uensity of oiuinaiy mattei has a uensity of about
4.S x 1u
28
kgm
S
. This is equivalent to about hyuiogen atom pei cubic metei oi about 1
quantizeu spin unit pei cubic metei (S quaiks anu one election). Recall that the spacetime
baseu mouel has no viitual photons, giavitons oi gluons. If theie ieally aie giavitons, etc. then
this calculation shoulu be wiong by many oiueis of magnituue. The quantizeu spin in the
photons of the CNB uominate baiyonic mattei because the 2.72SK blackbouy CNB photon
uensity is 4.2 x 1u
8
photonsm
S
compaieu to about 1 feimionm
S
foi oiuinaiy mattei. The
photon uensity of stailight is also consiueieu insignificant because it has been estimateu
6
that
the uensity of stailight photons is less than 1% of the photon uensity of the CNB. We will also
tempoiaiily ignoie the spin in neutiinos anu uaik mattei. Theiefoie, with these exceptions the
quantizeu spin of the CNB uominates the univeise.

If each Planck spheie containeu one unit of quantizeu spin in Planck spacetime anu if theie was
pieseivation of quantizeu spin, then we woulu expect that the expanueu Planck spheie woulu
still on aveiage contain one unit of quantizeu spin. The best estimate of the cuiient piopei
iauius of this Planck spheie is: l
p
uo
= l
p
x 2.6 x 1u
S1
= 4.2 x 1u
4
m oi a volume of about
S.1 x 1u
1u
m
S
. This estimate uses the value of
uo
obtaineu fiom the iatio of tempeiatuies
(
uo
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
). This numbei iepiesents the miuule of the iange of values anu is obtaineu
fiom the simplest calculation. Theiefoie, assuming spin pieseivation we woulu expect that the
cuiient uensity of quantizeu spin units woulu be S.2 x 1u
9
m
S
. It appeais as if the CNB photon
uensity of 4.2 x 1u
8
photonsm
S
is low by a factoi of about 7.6. Bowevei this is actually veiy
goou agieement consiueiing that the volume has expanueu by a factoi of about 1u
94
fiom:
uo
S
= (2.6 x 1u
S1
)
S
= 1u
94
.

Dark Matter Calculation: Even though we shoulu be satisfieu with an agieement that is quite
accuiate consiueiing that it coveis a iange of 1u
94
, we still have not accounteu foi neutiinos
anu uaik mattei. Suppose that we assume that statistically theie is viitually piefect
pieseivation of quantizeu spin. This assumption gives us the oppoitunity to estimate the
eneigy of a uaik mattei paiticle (iotai). 0sing 4.2 x 1u
8
photonsm
S
anu an expanueu Planck
spheie volume of S.1 x 1u
1u
m
S
spheie we have:

4.2 x 1u
8
photonsm
S
x S.1 x 1u
1u
m
S
spheie = u.1S photonsspheie

6
Paul Davies, 1982 The Accidental Universe, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-24212-6
13-40
Assuming spin pieseivation anu
uo
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
, theie shoulu be 1 spin unit pei spheie
theiefoie we aie missing u.87 spin unitsspheie. The aveiage uensity of uaik mattei in the
univeise is about 2.2 x 1u
27
kgm
S
oi an eneigy uensity of 1.9 x 1u
1u
}m
S
. The cuiient volume
of a Planck spheie is S.1 x 1u
1u
m
S
, theiefoie combining these we have:

1.9 x 1u
1u
}m
S
x S.1 x 1u
1u
m
S
spin unit x (1u.87) = 6.8 x 1u
2u
}spin unit

The implieu eneigy pei uaik mattei funuamental paiticle is 6.8 x 1u
2u
} = u.4 ev

Peihaps this is a coinciuence, but out of the many oiueis of magnituue involveu in this
calculation, the answei of about u.4 ev is in the eneigy iange cuiiently attiibuteu to neutiinos
anu it is fai iemoveu fiom the >1u
1u
ev eneigy iange assumeu foi the hypothetical WINP uaik
mattei paiticle mouel. Allowing foi the speculative natuie of this iesult, this suipiising iesult
waiiants a new examination of uaik mattei canuiuates.

Can Neutrinos Be Dark Matter? Neutiinos have been uiscounteu as possible explanations of
uaik mattei because they aie consiueieu to be hot uaik mattei piopagating at velocity in
excess of u.1c. They have such low iest mass that even at a tempeiatuie of about 1 K, they
woulu have a velocity much gieatei than the escape velocity of a galaxy. Also, in the eaily
univeise a high uensity of ultiaielativistic neutiinos woulu excessively homogenize the CNB
uistiibution. Bowevei, the leauing canuiuate foi uaik mattei (a WINP) also has pioblems. Foi
example, the hypothetical funuamental paiticle of a WINP (~1u
1u
to 1u
12
ev) must not exhibit
any electiomagnetic oi stiong inteiaction. Theiefoie these hypothetical paiticles woulu not
expeiience collisions with baiyonic mattei except thiough the impiobably weak inteiaction.
Nost impoitant, the WINPs cannot lose kinetic eneigy by EN iauiation to foim a stable
giavitationally bounu oibit.

Think about the iequiieu piopeities of a WINP paiticle. It must have such a high piobability of
being foimeu that in the eaily univeise eneigy that was uestineu to become a feimion hau the
highest piobability of foiming this paiticle. It shoulu be veiy easy to foim the uaik mattei
WINP once paiticle colliueis ieach the eneigy iange wheie they aie piouuceu. Also, cuiiently
it appeais as if feimions become less stable the highei eneigy they have. Bowevei, the
hypothetical WINP paiticle woulu have to bieak this tienu anu foim a completely stable
funuamental paiticle at eneigy in the iange of 1u
1u
to 1u
12
ev.

Now look at the ease with which neutiinos aie piouuceu. They aie the lowest eneigy feimion
known anu they aie known to have long teim stability. Also, the low masseneigy of neutiinos
moie easily foims a mass uistiibution aiounu a galaxy that is chaiacteiistic of the uaik mattei
spheiical halo pioviueu that they can somehow fit the uefinition of colu uaik mattei.
Bowevei, a plausible methou foi them to lose kinetic eneigy anu cool much below 1 K must be
suggesteu. The point is that we have much to leain about neutiinos.
13-41

Neutiinos have the auvantage that they aie known to exist anu they aie known to be piouuceu
in laige numbeis in the eaily univeise. 0sing the known piopeities of neutiinos, the uensity of
neutiinos has been estimateu
7
at about
S
11
of the CNB photon uensity pei species. Theiefoie
the S species of neutiinos woulu have a total uensity of about 82% of the photon uensity
(~ S.4 x 1u
8
m
S
foi S species). This is not quite the uensity iequiieu to satisfy the missing
quantizeu spin (iequiies ~ 2.8 x 1u
9
m
S
), but it is within an oiuei of magnituue. Is theie a
single piopeity of the iotai mouel of neutiinos that woulu iesult in neutiinos acquiiing a
tempeiatuie ioughly in the iange of u.u1 K. Neutiinos have such a small mass that this
extiemely colu tempeiatuie woulu be iequiieu foi neutiinos to not gieatly exceeu the escape
velocity of galaxies. At this tempeiatuie iange neutiinos woulu meet the iequiiements to be
consiueieu colu uaik mattei paiticles.

A iotai mouel of a neutiino with inteinal eneigy of S x 1u
2u
} (about u.S ev) woulu have a
quantum iauius of R
q
= cE
i
= 6.S x 1u
7
m oi a quantum volume of about 1u
18
m
S
. The
eneigy uensity of a u.S ev iotai woulu be about 1u
24
times smallei than the eneigy uensity of
an election. The enoimous uiffeience in eneigy uensity of neutiinos compaieu to any othei
funuamental paiticle suggests the possibility that peihaps neutiinos also possess othei
chaiacteiistics not obseiveu with othei funuamental paiticles.

Neutiino flavoi oscillation has been well uocumenteu expeiimentally. Bowevei, it is uifficult to
explain how neutiinos can change theii iest mass if they aie visualizeu as piopagating thiough
an empty vacuum. The usual explanation invokes the neutiinos existing simultaneously in
thiee states that uiffei slightly in eneigy. These thiee states woulu have thiee slightly uiffeient
ue Bioglie fiequencies when they aie moving ielative to an obseivei. The thiee fiequencies
can then constiuctively anu uestiuctively inteifeie with each othei piouucing what is a change
in neutiino flavoi (mass). Bowevei, this explanation has pioblems if a neutiino is visualizeu as
being obseiveu fiom a stationaiy fiame of iefeience. Then the thiee states all have the same
ue Bioglie fiequency (zeio ue Bioglie fiequency). Fiom a stationaiy fiame, a change in
neutiino masseneigy without any othei inteiaction woulu seem to be impossible.

Bowevei, now imagine that the uaik mattei clouu that suiiounus galaxies is maue up of
neutiinos at a tempeiatuie in the u.u1 K iange. This extiemely colu tempeiatuie is iequiieu
to give the neutiinos the coiiect speeu which is in the iange of a few hunuieu kilometeis pei
seconu. The speeu iange must be geneially less than the escape velocity of the galaxy yet high
enough speeu to achieve the uiffuse mass uistiibution of the uaik mattei clouu. A small
peicentage of neutiinos can exceeu the escape velocity because they will be ieplaceu by
neutiinos captuieu fiom the backgiounu neutiinos that aie uistiibuteu between galaxies. The
maximum uensity of uaik mattei in galaxies is about S x 1u
2u
kgm
S
. If this uensity was causeu

7
J Rich; Fundamentals of Cosmology (second edition 2009); Springer, Heidelberg, New York
13-42
by u.4 ev neutiinos, then the maximum neutiino uensity neai the centei of galaxies woulu be
about 4 x 1u
16
neutiinosm
S
.

Now we come to the key speculative point. Boes the neutiino mass oscillation geneiate the
emission of a wave in spacetime. Such an emission woulu have the effect of cooling the
neutiino ielative to the CNB. This wave woulu most likely be a uipole wave in spacetime, but it
coulu also be a tiansveise wave similai to a giavitational wave. The following explanation will
focus on uipole waves. Recall that geneial ielativity foibius the geneiation of uipole waves on a
macioscopic scale because they iequiie a violation of the conseivation of momentum.
Bowevei, violations of the conseivation of momentum aie peimitteu by quantum mechanics
pioviueu that the violations aie unuetectable accoiuing to the unceitainty piinciple. This
means that uipole waves in spacetime can be geneiateu pioviueu that the uisplacement
amplituue is less than the Planck lengthtime limitation. The pioposal is that ielativistic
neutiinos can inteiact with eithei ieal neutiinos oi peihaps viitual neutiino paiis to piouuce
neutiino flavoi (mass) oscillations. Each mass oscillation woulu be accompanieu by the
emission of a uipole wave in spacetime that iemoves a small amount of kinetic eneigy anu
slightly cools the piopagating neutiinos. This woulu be a loss mechanism that allows neutiinos
to cool much moie than the CNB photons. The uipole waves in spacetime that foim vacuum
fluctuations aie at a tempeiatuie of absolute zeio. Theiefoie if such a loss mechanism exists,
theie is nothing pieventing the neutiinos fiom ieaching a tempeiatuie of u.u1 K oi below.
This woulu even peimit neutiinos to foim into colu uaik mattei clouus in the eaily univeise.
This uensity vaiiation coulu then pioviue the giavitational fielu that seives as the fiist step in
the foimation of a galaxy.

Summary of the
uo
Calculations: We took a ueviation in the uiscussion of uaik mattei.
Bowevei, now we will ietuin to the eailiei uiscussion of the
uo
calculation. We have now
calculateu the value of
uo
seveial uiffeient ways anu they all give about the same answei. The
closeness of the iesults obtaineu with veiy uiffeient appioaches suppoits the mouel being
useu. We will use the value
uo
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
as iepiesentative of the iange of values calculateu
heie foi futuie calculations. 0sing this value, touay each Planck spheie has expanueu to a
piopei iauius of l
p
x
uo
= u.42 mm. Bowevei, measuieu in cooiuinate units which piesume
u
= 1, the Planck spheie still has a iauius of R = 1. It also appeais to still have on aveiage 1
unit of quantizeu spin. The analysis of the spin pei Planck spheie will be maue in the next
chaptei.

13-43

Graph Showing the Evolution of
u
and Observable Energy: Figuie 1S4 shows two
supeiimposeu giaphs that use the same time line but uiffeient Y axis scales. Note fiist that the
X axis is a log scale of the age of the univeise in seconus. The time scale extenus fiom S x 1u
44
s
which is 1 unit of Planck time to 1u
2u
seconus which is an age of about S tiillion yeais. The
piesent age of the univeise is about 4.S x 1u
17
seconus (~ 1S.7 x 1u
9
yeais) anu is uesignateu
with an aiiow anu a veitical uasheu line.

The giaph line uesignateu
u
is the value of the backgiounu giavitational gamma of the
univeise (
u
). This giaph uses the iight scale which is a log scale extenuing fiom
u
= 1 to
about
u
= 1u
S2
. It can be seen fiom this giaph that
u
= 1 at a time of
u
= S x 1u
44
seconus
anu enus with
u
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
at the piesent (
u
= 4.S x 1u
17
s). Note that theie is a slight
change in the slope of this line as it ciosses the veitical line uesignateu RN tiansition. This is
the tiansition between a iauiation uominateu univeise anu a mattei uominateu univeise that
occuiieu about 7u,uuu yeais aftei the beginning of the univeise (the Big Bang). Theie shoulu
also be anothei slope change at the tiansition between the mattei uominateu epoch anu the
uaik eneigy uominateu epoch. Bowevei, this slope change is so small that it uoes not show up
on this loglog giaph.

The othei giaph (uesignateu }oules) uses the left scale anu is the obseivable eneigy in the
Planck spheie (also a log scale). A spheie Planck length (l
p
) in iauius staiteu with about 1
13-44
billion }oules when the univeise was Planck spacetime foi the fiist unit of Planck time. 0vei
the age of the univeise as
u
incieaseu, the piopei iauius of this spheie incieaseu anu equaleu
u
l
p
. The piopei eneigy of this imaginaiy Planck spheie uecieaseu uuiing the iauiation
uominateu epoch by a factoi of 6.4 x 1u
27
fiom about 1u
9
} to about 1.S x 1u
19
} anu then the
piopei eneigy geneially has iemaineu constant since the enu of the iauiation uominateu
epoch. Theiefoie, note the flat line fiom an age of about 7u,uuu yeais to the piesent. Bowevei,
the eneigy on an absolute scale wheie
u
= 1 continues to ueciease as
u
incieases. Foi
example, the uecieasing iate of time makes it appeai that the Compton fiequency of
funuamental paiticles is constant. Bowevei, if we timeu the Compton fiequency of an election
using the =1 clock, we woulu finu that on this absolute time scale, even the Compton
fiequency of an election woulu be slowing uown each seconu. It is not noticeable because oui
cosmic clock is slowing uown at the same iate.

14-1

Chaptei 14

Cosmology II Spacetime Tiansfoimation Nouel

Alternative Model to the Big Bang: The Big Bang theoiy is one of only a few theoiies in
science that enjoys viitually univeisal acceptance. Befoie about 1929 the Steauy State theoiy
was favoieu but since then theie have been numeious expeiimental obseivations that suppoit
the Big Bang theoiy anu uispiove the Steauy State theoiy. I am going to piopose an alteinative
to the stanuaiu Big Bang mouel. This might be consiueieu by some as the equivalent of
scientific heiesy. Bowevei, we will faithfully follow oui staiting assumption (the univeise is
only spacetime) to its logical conclusion.

As an intiouuction to the cosmological implications of oui staiting assumption, we will use a
line out of the chiluiens stoiy of Alice in Wonueilanu. In this stoiy Alice asks the question: Is
the ioom getting biggei oi am I getting smallei. Scientists uo not ask the equivalent question
about the univeise. They always assume that the univeise is getting biggei while theii metei
sticks anu clocks stay the same. The piopei speeu of light is constant, so this is extiapolateu to
the assumption that the piopeities of spacetime aie constant.

Befoie Copeinicus, it was assumeu that the eaith was the centei of the univeise. Now we know
that we uo not live in a special place in the univeise, but we at least assume that both oui size
anu oui iate of time aie constant. I am pioposing that the final inuignity to mankinu is that
spacetime is going thiough a tiansfoimation that contiacts all physical objects, incluuing the
eaith anu oui bouies. Fuitheimoie, the iate of time is also slowing uown. The univeise staiteu
with
u
= 1 anu since then
u
has been incieasing so that cuiiently
u
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
. This has
iesulteu in the iate of time slowing anu the piopei volume incieasing. In fact, it can be saiu
that the iate of time is being exchangeu foi piopei volume.

Planck spacetime staiteu with the fastest possible iate of time anu the smallest possible piopei
volume foi the univeise. Since the univeise was Planck spacetime (the stait of the Big Bang),
the iate of time in the univeise has uecieaseu, the hybiiu speeu of light uecieaseu anu piopei
length contiacteu ielative to cooiuinate length. This iesulteu in the piopei volume of the
univeise incieasing anu the aveiage tempeiatuie of the univeise uecieasing. We uo not notice
the changes in the iate of time, the hybiiu speeu of light oi piopei length compaieu to
cooiuinate length because eveiything combines in a way that keeps the laws of physics
unchangeu.

In chaptei S we ueteimineu the changes in eneigy, foice, voltage, etc. that aie iequiieu to keep
the laws of physics constant in uiffeient giavitational potentials wheie theie is a uiffeience in
the iate of time. The noimalizeu cooiuinate system of chaptei S useu the equation L
o
= L
g
.
14-2
This uoes not imply that L
o
anu L
g
aie constant ovei time. It is now pioposeu that both of these
units of length aie simultaneously contiacting as the univeise ages. This simultaneous
contiaction maintains L
o
= L
g
in the CNB iest fiame accoiuing to a miupoint obseivei.

Now we aie attempting to unueistanu the evolution of the univeise anu to uo this it is most
convenient to use a cooiuinate system baseu on the piopeities of Planck spacetime when
u
= 1. It is ielative to the length stanuaiu of that cooiuinate system that we can say that metei
sticks aie shiinking. Cuiiently astiophysicists aie using the length stanuaiu assumeu by the
RW metiic (CNB iest fiame anu homogeneous univeise). I am pointing out that even though
on that scale the univeise is flat spatially anu tempoially, theie is continuous change in the
backgiounu giavitational gamma of the univeise
u
. Theiefoie, ielative to a cooiuinate system
assuming a static
u
= 1, both the iate of time anu the unit of length aie changing ovei time. As
u
incieases in oui univeise, this uecieases the hybiiu speeu of light anu oui metei sticks
piopoitionally shiink. This combination keeps the piopei speeu of light constant. 0ne of the
few inuications that anything is changing in oui univeise is that light that was emitteu a long
time ago fiom uistant souices has unueigone obvious changes in wavelength anu intensity.

Spacetime Transformation Model: A mouel of the univeise baseu on a continuously
incieasing
u
iepiesents an alteinative to the Big Bang mouel. This alteinative mouel will be
calleu the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel until a bettei name can be founu. What we
peiceive as an inciease in the scale of the univeise is actually uue to an inciease in the
backgiounu
u
of the univeise changing the spatial anu tempoial uimensions of spacetime. This
is a change in the piopeities of spacetime that affects eveiything in the univeise. The iauius of
an atom oi the quantum iauius of a iotai woulu ueciease ielative to cooiuinate length R. An
inciease of
u
iesults in the following: 1) the hybiiu speeu of light of the univeise uecieases; 2)
piopei length contiacts ielative to cooiuinate length; S) the iate of piopei time uecieases
ielative to the iate of cooiuinate time; 4) the total eneigy uensity of the univeise iemains the
same (total eneigy incluues vacuum eneigy).

Peihaps most suipiising of these is that the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel says that the
cooiuinate eneigy uensity of the univeise has iemaineu constant since the beginning of the
univeise (since the Big Bang). The cooiuinate eneigy uensity utilizes cooiuinate length R anu
cooiuinate iate of time ut to quantify cooiuinate eneigy uensity. The piopei (obseivable)
eneigy uensity of the univeise has uecieaseu by a factoi of ioughly 1u
12u
since the beginning of
time (since the Big Bang). Bowevei, incluuing the waves in spacetime iesponsible foi vacuum
eneigy, it will be shown that the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel of the univeise sees no
change in the cooiuinate eneigy uensity of the univeise. This leaus to new insights into the
famous 1u
12u
uisciepancy between the ciitical eneigy uensity of the univeise ueiiveu fiom
geneial ielativity anu suppoiteu by obseivation compaieu to the calculateu eneigy uensity of
the univeise ueiiveu fiom quantum mechanics anu quantum chiomouynamics.

14-3
This spacetime tiansfoimation mouel might seem like an unnecessaiy contiaiian view that is
funuamentally equivalent to uepicting the univeise as expanuing. Bowevei, it will be shown
that this mouel is not equivalent to the Big Bang. This pioposeu mouel gives the same ieushift
anu the same inciease in piopei volume as the Big Bang mouel, but the spacetime
tiansfoimation mouel offeis uiffeient pieuictions about the futuie of the univeise. Piobably
the most contioveisial uiffeience is that the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel puipoits to
eliminate the neeu foi uaik eneigy anu a cosmological constant.

Observable Universe from Planck Spacetime: As pieviously stateu in chaptei 1S, Planck
spacetime has spheiical Planck eneigy uensity. Nost impoitant, Planck spacetime has
u
= 1
anu all the uipole waves in spacetime have angulai momentum. This means that 1uu% of the
eneigy in Planck spacetime was obseivable (has spin). The value of
u
= 1 also means that
the iate of time was the highest possible anu the piopei volume of the univeise was the
smallest possible. A unit of eneigy (such as 1 }oule) was the highest possible when measuieu
on an absolute scale using cooiuinate iate of time anu cooiuinate length.

At this eneigy uensity (0
ps
= S.SS x 1u
112
}m
S
) anu with these auuitional conuitions, all the
eneigy iequiieu to foim oui cuiiently obseivable univeise (incluuing vacuum eneigy
calculateu latei) woulu be containeu in a spheie of Planck spacetime about 1S x 1u
6
meteis
(~ 1S micions) in iauius. This iauius is calculateu by ieuucing the cuiient uistance to oui
paiticle hoiizon (~ 46 billion light yeais oi 4 x 1u
26
m) by a factoi of
uo
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
. 0ui
cuiient univeise has
uo
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
which gieatly ieuuces both oui cuiient stanuaiu of
eneigy anu the fiaction of the eneigy in the univeise that is obseivable eneigy

It is piesumeu that the univeise cuiiently extenus fai beyonu oui cuiient paiticle hoiizon. This
means that the oiiginal volume of Planck spacetime was fai biggei than the 1S micions
iequiieu to foim eveiything (incluuing vacuum eneigy) within oui cuiient paiticle hoiizon.
This oiiginal volume of Planck spacetime might not have been infinite, but it is piesumeu to be
viitually infinite because theie is no uetectable uiffeience as fai as a mouel of the univeise is
conceineu. It is also piesumeu that theie aie galaxies, uaik mattei, etc. beyonu oui paiticle
hoiizon that have a similai appeaiance anu uensity to oui obseivable univeise.

In the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel of the univeise, all the masseneigy in the univeise is
fixeu on a stationaiy cooiuinate system. Theiefoie, the cuiient uistance to the paiticle hoiizon,
when measuieu in units of cooiuinate length R is still about 1S micions of cooiuinate length
units. To us the piopei volume of the obseivable univeise touay is vastly laigei because of the
changes in the piopeities of spacetime that have taken place since the beginning of the
univeise when
u
= 1. Bowevei, when moueling the univeise using the spacetime
tiansfoimation mouel, it is veiy useful to be able to pictuie all the masseneigy as positioneu
on stationaiy cooiuinates (no expansion). It will be shown that with the spacetime
14-4
tiansfoimation mouel the changing piopeities of spacetime (incieasing
u
) answeis many
questions that aie mysteiies foi the Big Bang mouel.

Hubble Parameter and Shrinking Meter Sticks: Touay, astionomeis uo not iealize that
theii metei sticks aie contiacting uue to changes in spacetime (the teim metei stick
iepiesents any means of length measuiement). Astiophysicists calculate that uistant galaxies
aie fuithei away (moie meteis) as measuieu on theii contiacting metei stick. The uistant
galaxies that aie stationaiy on the static cooiuinate system appeai to be ieceuing at a velocity
given by the Bubble paiametei. In astionomical teiminology, the Bubble paiametei is often
expiesseu as about J = 7u.8 kmsNpc which is equivalent to J = 2.29 x 1u
18
msm in NKS
units. The seconus useu heie aie piopei seconus. The common inteipietation of the Bubble
paiametei is that this is the cuiient expansion iate of the univeise. The spacetime
tiansfoimation mouel inteipiets the Bubble paiametei uiffeiently:

J =
dc
u
d
u
u
uc
=
d
u
d
u
uc
oi J =
u
u
u
uc
=

u
uc
note the uots iepiesenting time ueiivative

The uots aie shoithanu foi time ueiivatives. Theiefoie, the Bubble paiametei J equals the
iate of change of
u
uiviueu by the cuiient backgiounu value
uo
. Also a
uo
is the cuiient scaling
factoi of the univeise which is equal to
uo
.

A metei stick (1 metei long) is contiacting at a velocity of about 2.29 x 1u
18
meteisseconu
when compaieu to a hypothetical metei stick that is not contiacting (a metei stick with fixeu
cooiuinate length in units of R).

As explaineu in chaptei 1S, the Bubble spheie is a 1.S x 1u
26
m iauius (~1S.7 x 1u
9
light yeai
iauius) spheiical bounuaiy wheie galaxies anu space itself aie ieceuing away fiom us at about
the speeu of light. Bowevei, it is pioposeu that we aie using a contiacting unit of length, such
as a contiacting metei stick, as iefeience foi this calculation. The piopei uistance between us
anu a galaxy at the euge of the Bubble spheie is inueeu incieasing by S x 1u
8
ms, but that is
because we aie measuiing the uistance using a contiacting metei stick. 0ui metei stick is
shiinking at the iate of 2.29 x 1u
18
meteisseconu so we obtain an inciease in piopei uistance
of S x 1u
8
ms (obtaineu fiom 2.29 x 1u
18
msm x 1.S x 1u
26
meteis). This is not the same as
saying that the galaxy is physically ieceuing fiom us at the speeu of light. The spacetime
tiansfoimation mouel says that this is an eiioneous speeu that is obtaineu when we measuie a
fixeu uistance using shiinking metei sticks.

The ieasonable explanation is that spacetime is unueigoing a tiansition that changes the
cooiuinate speeu of light while keeping the laws of physics unchangeu (incluuing a constant
piopei speeu of light). This is similai to the covaiiance of the laws of physics in uiffeient
giavitational potentials as uiscusseu in chaptei S. Bowevei, with the univeise
u
incieases
14-5
with time but the laws of physics iemain unchangeu. 0ne obseivable effect is that it takes
longei foi light to tiavel between galaxies as the univeise ages. Since we measuie no change in
the piopei speeu of light we inteipiet this as inuicating an expansion. Bowevei, the alteinative
explanation pioposeu heie is that the change occuiiing in the piopeities of spacetime piouuces
a uimensional contiaction. In chaptei S we saw how the iate of time can change at uiffeient
elevations of a giavitational fielu without being uetectable locally. It was shown how many of
the units of physics aie also affecteu in such a way that the laws of physics aie unchangeu. It is
pioposeu that something similai is happening with the entiie univeise except that theie is an
impoitant uiffeience. With the univeise at any instant the value of
u
is the same eveiywheie.
Bowevei, the value of
u
is continuously incieasing. This is the opposite of the static giavity
assumeu in chaptei S. The continuous inciease in
u
causes changes in vaiious units of physics
(eneigy, foice, voltage. etc.) which togethei pieseive the laws of physics. 0nly when we look at
uistant galaxies uo we obtain a hint that change ovei time is occuiiing.

No Event Horizon: The CBN mouel consiueis the acceleiating expansion of the univeise to
have an event hoiizon. Accoiuing to the CBN mouel, galaxies that we obseive as having a
ieushift gieatei than Z = 1.8 aie cuiiently beyonu oui event hoiizon. Light that is cuiiently
being emitteu by these galaxies will nevei ieach us because cosmic expansion of space is
supposeuly auuing volume at such a fast iate that the uistance inciease exceeus the speeu of
light. Even the expansion of oui Bubble spheie cannot oveicome the acceleiating expansion of
the univeise. Photons being emitteu now by galaxies with Z > 1.8 will be swept away fiom us
by the acceleiating expansion of the univeise. The only ieason that we can see those galaxies
touay is that we aie seeing the light emitteu fiom a long time ago befoie they ciosseu oui event
hoiizon.

The spacetime tiansfoimation mouel of the univeise makes a pieuiction that is uiffeient than
the CBN mouel. The piopei uistance between us anu the Z > 1.8 galaxies is inueeu
incieasing fastei than the speeu of light. Bowevei, this is because of the cuiient iate of
inciease in
u
is causing oui metei sticks to shiink. The galaxies aie actually stationaiy on the
pioposeu cooiuinate giiu. The pieuiction is that light cuiiently being emitteu fiom those
galaxies will eventually ieach us just at a slowei hybiiu speeu of light than touay. Even
though the univeise appeais to have acceleiating expansion, the spacetime tiansfoimation
mouel says that theie is no event hoiizon at a uistance coiiesponuing to Z = 1.8 oi at any othei
uistance in the foieseeable futuie.

We can obtain a bettei insight into the piopeities of the hybiiu speeu of light with a numeiical
example. Since C uRu
u
= c
u
, theiefoie the cuiient value of the hybiiu speeu of light is:

C = c
uo
=
c
2.6 x 1u
31 ,
= 1u
2S
ms

14-6
This is the cuiient hybiiu speeu of light wheie the units ms aie cooiuinate meteis (R) uiviueu
by piopei comoving seconus (note use of italic in cooiuinate units). The hybiiu speeu of light is
ueceleiating eveiy seconu at a cuiient iate of:

C J = 1u
2S
ms x 2.S x 1u
18
s
1
= 2.S x 1u
41
ms
2
ueceleiation of C

Finally, the iate of piopei comoving time (u
u
) is slowing ielative to cooiuinate time (ut)
which assumes
u
= 1.

Constant Coordinate Energy Density: The eneigy uensity of this 1S x 1u
6
m spheiical
volume is equal to spheiical Planck eneigy uensity: 0
ps
= S.S x 1u
112
}m
S
. At the beginning of
time (the Big Bang) this eneigy was in the foim of uipole waves in spacetime with the unique
piopeities of Planck spacetime pieviously enumeiateu. Touay the chaiacteiistics of the uipole
waves in spacetime that foim both vacuum eneigy anu the obseivable masseneigy in oui
univeise have changeu theii chaiacteiistics compaieu to Planck spacetime. Almost all the
eneigy in the univeise touay is in the foim of vacuum eneigy uipole waves in spacetime that
uo not possess angulai momentum. 0nly an extiemely small pait is in the foim of obseivable
eneigy that possesses angulai momentum. Bowevei, it will be shown that not only the piopei
eneigy uensity (incluuing vacuum eneigy) but also the cooiuinate eneigy uensity of the
univeise touay is still the same as Planck spacetime. Theie have been changes ielating to the
uistiibution of quantizeu angulai momentum, the iate of time, piopei length, etc. but the total
eneigy uensity has not changeu even when measuieu using cooiuinate eneigy uensity that
assumes
u
= 1. Theiefoie, it is possible to auopt a cooiuinate system baseu on these
cooiuinate values that uoes not expanu ovei time. This is the stationaiy cooiuinate system of
the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel.

It might seem as if both the Big Bang mouel that incoipoiates an expanuing univeise is
ultimately equivalent to the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel that has a stationaiy cooiuinate
system. Bowevei, this is not a case of simple cooiuinate tiansfoimation. Foi example, the two
mouels make uiffeient pieuictions about the existence of an event hoiizon as pieviously noteu.
Also, the Big Bang mouel cannot accommouate the fact that new volume being auueu to the
univeise must also possess the vacuum eneigy with eneigy uensity exceeuing 1u
112
}m
S
.
Wheie uiu this auuitional eneigy come fiom. The spacetime tiansfoimation mouel can
accommouate this iequiiement as will be explaineu latei in this chaptei.

14-7

Illustration of Slowing Hybrid Speed of Light: Figuie 141 illustiates the concept of a
stationaiy cooiuinate system with a slowing hybiiu speeu of light. This figuie uses cooiuinate
length, theiefoie the uistance in cooiuinate length units between Point A anu the fuithest
cuiveu suiface (16 billion yeais) is ioughly 1u
S
m. Point A can be imagineu as initially a
Planck spheie within Planck spacetime at the beginning of time. This spheie containeu about a
billion }oules, so when time began to piogiess the giavitational influence of this eneigy began
to piopagate away fiom point A at the piopei speeu of light c. Bowevei, the iate of
piopagation as measuieu using the hybiiu speeu of light uecieases as
u
incieases. Aftei 4
billion yeais the giavitational influence hau ieacheu the piopagating paiticle hoiizon
uesignateu 4 billion yeais. (The teim piopagating paiticle hoiizon is useu heie to uesignate
the expanuing spheie of influence of a point of masseneigy) Similaily, the piopagating
paiticle hoiizons foi 8, 12 anu 16 billion yeais aie shown.

The puipose of this figuie is to illustiate the slowing iate of piopagation as inuicateu by the
uecieasing uistance sepaiating the cuiveu suifaces as time piogiesses anu
u
incieases. Theie
is no tenuency foi this piogiession to be swept backwaius by cosmic expansion. The iate of
piogiess will continue to ueciease, but theie is no event hoiizon wheie the piogiess is stoppeu.
It is speculation whethei
u
evei ieaches such a laige value that a quantum mechanical
tiansition occuis. The spacetime tiansfoimation mouel of the univeise pieuicts that foi the
14-8
foieseeable futuie, we will continue to see new, moie uistant galaxies appeai in the sky. The
galaxies that we cuiiently see will get uimmei (less photons pei seconu pei m
2
) but also
paiauoxically be less ieushifteu than touay.

Redshift: The spacetime tiansfoimation mouel is also the best mouel to see why an incieasing
backgiounu
u
piouuces a ieushift on the light that we see fiom a uistant galaxy. The piesence
of a ieushift in cosmology is countei intuitive when it is iealizeu that the spacetime
tiansfoimation mouel claims that the iate of time was fastei when the light was emitteu (u
em
)
than when the light is obseiveu (
em
<
obs
anu u
obs
< u
em
). Foi example, Schwaizschilu
assumeu a single stationaiy mass in an empty univeise. This assumption piesumeu a matuie
giavity conuition (no time uepenuence). 0nuei these conuitions, light piopagating fiom a
location fai fiom the mass (small giavitational ) to a location neai the mass (laige
giavitational ), unueigoes a giavitational blue shift. This was pieviously uiscusseu anu
shown that a uistant obseivei using a single iate of time peiceives no change in the eneigy of
the photon. The locally obseiveu appaient inciease in eneigy is uue to the slow iate of time in
giavity (laige ).

When the backgiounu
u
of the univeise incieases unifoimly eveiywheie, this is completely
uiffeient than a photon piopagating fiom a location with a small value of to a location with a
laigei value of . It will be shown below that an inciease in the backgiounu
u
of the univeise
piouuces a ieushift which incluues an inciease in piopei wavelength anu a ueciease in piopei
fiequency anu a ueciease in piopei eneigy.

Coordinate Wavelength Constant: When the backgiounu
u
of the univeise is incieasing
homogeneously thioughout the univeise, this means that the hybiiu speeu of light is
uecieasing homogeneously as: C = c
u
. Light in flight just slows uown homogeneously
eveiywheie. This homogeneous slowing maintains the same cooiuinate wavelength foi a light
wave. The entiie wave just slows uown without changing its size when measuieu using
cooiuinate length. If the light in flight is constant wavelength when measuieu in units of
cooiuinate length, what iesult will we obtain when we measuie the wavelength in units of
piopei length using a contiacting metei stick. We will obtain the iesult that the light is
incieasing its wavelength ielative to the contiacting metei stick. In othei woius, we woulu see
a ieushift (an inciease in wavelength).

Redshift Wavelength Analysis: To analyze this we will assume that light is emitteu in
location #1 at an age of the univeise t
1
anu a backgiounu giavitational gamma
1
. The emission
is at cooiuinate wavelength which can be conveiteu to piopei wavelength
1
at the time of
emission. At a latei time (age of the univeise t
2
anu backgiounu gamma
2
) the cooiuinate
wavelength is still the same but the piopei wavelength is
2
ielative to the contiacteu metei
stick. All we have to uo is compaie
1
to
2
which means that we neeu to conveit which is
always in units of cooiuinate length R into wavelength expiesseu in piopei length at two
14-9
uiffeient times. The cooiuinate wavelength uoes not change; it only slows uown uue to a
change in the hybiiu speeu of light C when
u
incieases (C = c
u
). Theiefoie we must conveit
between cooiuinate length anu piopei length at two uiffeient values of backgiounu gamma:
1

anu
2
. Fiom chaptei 1S we know that the conveision of units of cooiuinate length R to units
of piopei length is L =
u
R. When we expiess this conveision in teims of wavelength symbols
we have =
u
. This says that a given wave appeais to have a biggei wavelength (moie units
of piopei length) when it is measuieu with the contiacteu metei stick useu foi piopei length
than when it is measuieu with the cooiuinate scale metei stick that is not contiacteu. Since
is inuepenuent of the backgiounu
u
we have:

= wavelength of light when measuieu in units of cooiuinate length.
1
anu
2
= wavelength of light (piopei wavelength) at time t
1
anu t
2
wheie t
2
> t
1

1
anu
2
= backgiounu
u
of the univeise at time t
1
anu t
2
wheie t
2
> t
1

a
em
= cosmological scale factoi at emission (a
em
) at time = t
1

a
obs
= cosmological scale factoi at obseivation (a
obs
) at time = t
2

=
x
1
1
anu =
x
2
2
conveision of to
1
anu
2

x
2
x
1
=

2
1
since
2
>
1
theiefoie
2
>
1
(wavelengths in units of piopei length)

Since
u
is incieasing with time, theiefoie
2
>
1
anu
2
>
1
. This all says that
2
is ieushifteu
(longei wavelength) compaieu to
1
. The amount of the ieushift is:
2
1
=
2
1
which can
also be expiesseu in teims of the iatio cosmological scaling factois at emission (a
em
= a
1
) anu
obseivation (a
obs
= a
2
) oi in teims of ieushift 1 + Z.

x
2
x
1
=

2
1
=
u
2
u
1
=
u
cbs
u
cm
= 1 + Z

Since
1
is the piopei wavelength at emission (time t
1
) anu
2
is the piopei wavelength at
obseivation (time t
2
), theiefoie the ielationship can be wiitten as:

x
cbs
x
cm
=
u
cbs
u
cm
= 1 + Z

This answei, obtaineu fiom the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel agiees with the answei
obtaineu fiom the Big Bang mouel that assumes cosmic expansion of the univeise.

Redshift Frequency Analysis: Theiefoie, it has been shown that looking just at wavelength
theie is the coiiect ieushift when we piesume that the ieushift is causeu by a change in the
backgiounu
u
iathei than an expansion of the univeise. It is possible to woik this same
pioblem looking at the fiequency of the iauiation iathei than at the wavelength. In this case
14-10
we woulu expect a lowei fiequency at a latei time when we expiess fiequency ielative to
piopei time.

We will stait off by woiking this pioblem using cooiuinate values. As befoie, theie is no
change in wavelength expiesseu in teims of cooiuinate length between the emission anu
obseivation. The new symbols aie:

C
1
anu C
2
= hybiiu velocity of light at times t
1
anu t
2
iespectively
= wavelength expiesseu in units of cooiuinate length this uoes not change at t
1
anu t
2

1
anu
2
= piopei fiequency of light at times t
1
anu t
2
iespectively
piopei fiequency has a ieushift since
1
>
2
anu
u2
>
u1

Since
1
can be consiueieu the fiequency when the light was emitteu (
1
=
em
) anu
2
can be
consiueieu the fiequency when the light was obseiveu (
2
=
obs
), theiefoie the following is
anothei way of stating these iesults:

u
cbs
u
cm
=
u
cm
u
cbs
=
1
z + 1

Theiefoie the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel gives the same ieushift (piopei wavelength anu
piopei fiequency) as the Big Bang mouel. Bowevei, this analysis leaves one question
unansweieu. If the iate of time was fastei in the past than it is touay, why uont we obseive a
blue shift on light fiom uistant galaxies. The answei to this question is not obvious in the
pievious analysis because that analysis useu the hybiiu speeu of light C = uRu
u
. This
uefinition incoipoiates the piopei iate of time in the univeise (u
u
) which hiues the question
about the blue shift. This question can only be answeieu if we compaie piopei values to
cooiuinate values. This compaiison iequiies that we iewoik the pioblem using cooiuinate
iate of time (ut), cooiuinate speeu of light (C) anu cooiuinate fiequency (
c
).

To begin, we will ietuin to the example pieviously stateu anu examine light emitteu at location
#1 at an age of the univeise t
u1
which hau a backgiounu giavitational gamma
u1
. This light is
latei obseiveu at location 2 with the age of the univeise t
u2
anu backgiounu gamma
u2
. Again,
the wavelength of the light measuieu in units of cooiuinate length is . This cooiuinate
wavelength uoes not change; the light meiely slows as the cooiuinate speeu of light uecieases.
The cooiuinate speeu of light at ages of the univeise t
u1
anu t
u2
will be uesignateu as C
1
anu C
2

iespectively.

C
1
=
c
u1
2
anu C
2
=
c
u2
2

We will now state the fiequency of this light using the iate of cooiuinate time ut as oui
stanuaiu. Recall that ut =
u
u
u
. Fiequency obtaineu using the cooiuinate time stanuaiu will
14-11
be uesignateu
c
. Foi the paiticulai cooiuinate fiequency piouuceu by wavelength will be
uesignateu
1c
when the backgiounu gamma is
u1
anu
2c
when the backgiounu gamma is
u2
.
Theiefoie:

=
C
1
v
1c
=
C
2
u
2c
set C
1
=
c
u1
2
anu C
2
=
c
u2
2

c
u
1c
u1
2
=
c
u
2c
u2
2

u
2c
u
1c
= [
u1
u2
2
iatio of cooiuinate fiequencies

This says that using cooiuinate fiequency iesults in a ieushift piopoitional to the squaie of the
iatio of gammas. This means that the coiiection uue to the slowing iate of time uoes not
piouuce an obseivable blue shift, but insteau this blue shift is useu to ieuuce a cooiuinate
ieushift that is piopoitional to (
u1
u2
)
2
to a piopei ieushift piopoitional to just (
u1
u2
).
This is shown by making the substitution u
1c
=
u
1
u1
anu u
2c
=
u
2
u2
to obtain the iatio of
fiequencies expiesseu in piopei fiequencies
1
anu
2
.

u
2
u
1
=

u1
u2
iatio of piopei fiequencies

Rotars Frequency: Since photons lose piopei fiequency as
u
incieases, why uoes the piopei
Compton fiequency of iotais iemain constant. To put this question in peispective, we shoulu
fiist acknowleuge that on the cooiuinate time scale that assumes
u
= 1 the Compton fiequency
of a iotai uoes ueciease. Theiefoie, all funuamental iotais aie continuously slowing uown on
an absolute time scale. We uo not notice this slowing because oui cosmic clock is also slowing.
Theiefoie we aie using a continuously slowing clock to time the fiequency of a continuously
slowing iotai such as an election. This is a moving stanuaiu, but each seconu an election is
losing about 282 Bz if we measuieu the Compton fiequency using the iate of time that existeu
in the pievious seconu (
c
J2 = 282 Bzs).

Theiefoie, on an absolute time scale, why uoes a photons fiequency ueciease piopoitional to
(
u1
u2
)
2
while a iotais fiequency scales with just (
u1
u2
). The answei is that the
piopagation iate of the iotais uipole wave uecieases piopoitional to (
u1
u2
)
2
but this is
paitly offset by a ueciease in the iotais ciicumfeience (measuieu on the absolute scale of R).
The ieuuceu ciicumfeience uistance anu ieuuceu quantum iauius (both measuieu on the
absolute scale of R) means that a uipole wave with quantizeu angulai momentum piopagates
aiounu the shoiteneu ciicumfeience (measuieu in units of R). The ueciease in a iotais
ciicumfeience iesults in a iotais fiequency scaling with (
u1
u2
) which matches the iate of
14-12
time ueciease on an absolute scale. Theiefoie, the iotais Compton fiequency appeais to be
constant while the fiequency of a photon uecieases when measuieu using piopei iate of time.
The stanuaiu explanation of the cosmic ieushift baseu on expansion of the univeise is
pioposeu to be wiong. Wavelengths aie not being stietcheu. Theie aie no point paiticles.
Paiticles with finite uimensions aie also affecteu by the tiansfoimation of spacetime. Bowevei
the effects on paiticles aie not noticeable because theie aie offsetting effects on the iate of
time, on the stanuaiu of eneigy anu on othei units of physics.

Estimating the Vacuum Energy Density: In the last chaptei we calculateu the value of
uo

seveial uiffeient ways. 0ne of these ways utilizeu the iatio of the eneigy uensity of Planck
spacetime (0
ps
= S.SS x 1u
112
}m
S
) to the obseivable eneigy uensity of the univeise touay
(0
obs
= 2.S6 x 1u
1u
}m
S
excluues uaik eneigy). This iatio is: 0
ps
0
obs
= 2.S4 x 1u
122
. Now we
want to attempt to ueteimine the cuiient eneigy uensity of vacuum eneigy (uesignateu 0
vac
)
This is one of the most peiplexing pioblems in physics because quantum mechanics anu
quantum chiomouynamics both iequiie that the vacuum must have a tiemenuously laige
eneigy uensity. Bowevei, any eneigy uensity substantially in excess of the ciitical uensity of
the univeise appeais to be foibiuuen by geneial ielativity. The numbei most commonly
quoteu fiom quantum mechanics is ueiiveu fiom the concept that the vacuum has zeio point
eneigy anu that all fiequencies aie piesent up to Planck angulai fiequency. This concept
yielus an eneigy uensity appioximately equal to spheiical Planck eneigy uensity of S.SS x 1u
112

}m
S
.

Quantum chiomouynamics iequiies inteiactions with vacuum eneigy. The minimum eneigy
uensity iequiieu to accomplish known piocesses within hauions is about 0
vac
0
obs
1u
6u
.
0thei moie inclusive estimates fiom quantum chiomouynamics also appioach 1u
12u
. If all
fiequencies aie cuiiently piesent up to Planck fiequency, then this piesents anothei pioblem
foi the Big Bang mouel of the univeise. The pioblem is that thioughout the histoiy of the
expanuing univeise, the piopei eneigy uensity of vacuum eneigy woulu have to iemain
constant at spheiical Planck eneigy uensity 0
vac
= S x 1u
112
}m
S
. The expanuing volume woulu
appeai to iequiie a mechanism to continuously auu a tiemenuous amount of new eneigy to the
expanuing univeise. Foi example, the Bubble paiametei of J = 2.S x 1u
18
msm inuicates
that each cubic metei in the univeise is expanuing anu incieasing its volume by ~ 1u
SS
m
S
s. If
the vacuum eneigy uensity iequiieu to fill this auuitional volume is 0
vac
= 1u
112
}m
S
, then the
auuitional volume geneiateu by EACB cubic metei in the univeise iequiies auuitional 1u
S9

}oulesseconu. To put this in peispective, the E = mc
2
total obseivable eneigy of the Nilky Way
galaxy is also about 1u
S9
}oules. Theiefoie it woulu appeai that each cubic metei of volume in
the univeise must be supplieu with about 1u
S9
}oules of eneigy each seconu.

Theiefoie, the pioblem supplying the univeise with uaik eneigy each seconu is tiivial
compaieu to the pioblem of supplying the univeise with new vacuum eneigy each seconu.
This all seems to be impossible, so most physicists piesume that theie must be some
14-13
mechanism that cancels out almost all the implieu vacuum eneigy uensity in the univeise.
Bowevei, this hypothetical cancelation mechanism must be caieful to leave the one pait in
1u
122
that constitutes oui obseivable univeise. Also the effect capable of canceling 1u
112
}m
S

must be equally as laige.

Expansion of the 0niveise: Now we aie ieauy to offei an alteinative explanation of the
expansion of the univeise. We aie compaiing a volume of space at two uiffeient ages of the
univeise. Noie impoitantly, we aie also acknowleuging that the backgiounu giavitational fielu
of the univeise (
u
) is changing with time. All of this iequiies that we auopt a cooiuinate
system that iefeiences flat spacetime at a paiticulai age of the univeise. If the univeise staiteu
the Big Bang as Planck spacetime with
u
= 1, then the backgiounu giavitational gamma of the
univeise has been incieasing evei since. This peispective gives the answei that a metei of
piopei length is continuously shiinking ielative to a metei of the cooiuinate length piesent at
the stait of the univeise when
u
= 1. Next we will calculate the tiansfoimation of the units of
physics that aie occuiiing in the univeise as
u
incieases.

New Tiansfoimations of 0nits: Recall that in chaptei S we maue a table of tiansfoimations of
the units of physics showing the uiffeience between a zeio giavity location anu a location
with giavity. In chaptei S we uesignateu the zeio giavity location as having = 1. Now it is
necessaiy to iealize that this uesignation incoipoiateu a simplification. We weie ignoiing any
change in the backgiounu giavitational gamma of the univeise
u
. Anothei way of saying this is
that we uefineu a zeio giavity location as having = 1. Now that we aie talking about the
evolution of the univeise it is necessaiy to be moie piecise. The length tiansfoimation was
pieviously expiesseu as: L
o
= L
g
. Bowevei, to put this in the biggei peispective that
incoipoiates
u
anu R, we can now say:

L
o
= L
g
= R
u

This equation says that what we weie pieviously calling L
o
anu L
g
weie both changing ielative
to oui absolute length stanuaiu R that was piesent at the stait of the univeise when
u
= 1.
When we aie uealing with the univeise anu time scales wheie the effects of a changing
backgiounu
u
aie significant, then it is no longei possible to auopt piopei length as the
cooiuinate unit of length. A uiffeient cooiuinate length tiansfoimation is iequiieu to
chaiacteiize the ielationship between the units of physics when they aie compaieu at the same
location but at substantially uiffeient ages of the univeise. The value of
u
incieases with the
age of the univeise.

In chaptei S we weie able to obtain all the othei tiansfoimations using uimensional analysis
once we hau the tiansfoimations foi length, time anu mass. Pieviously these thiee
tiansfoimations weie expiesseu as:

14-14
L
o
= L
g
T
o
= T
g
N
o
= N
g

In these tiansfoimations the symbols L
o
, T
o
anu N
o
iepiesenteu cooiuinate (zeio giavity) units
of length, time anu mass iespectively. Now it is necessaiy to auopt new cooiuinate units to
iepiesent a unit of cooiuinate length, cooiuinate time anu cooiuinate mass at the stait of the
Big Bang when the univeise was one unit of Planck time olu (
u
= 1) anu hau
u
= 1. We have
pieviously been using R to iepiesent one unit of cooiuinate length in a univeise wheie
u
= 1.
Bowevei, now it is necessaiy to auu a subsciipt 1 to this uesignation to confoim to a pattein
wheie all units of physics neeu to be specifieu when
u
= 1. Foi example, E
1
, Q
1
anu 0
1
will be
useu to specify a unit of eneigy, chaige anu eneigy uensity iespectively when
u
= 1. The
symbols N
1
anu T
1
will be useu to specify a unit of mass anu time iespectively at the stait of the
Big Bang when
u
= 1.

In chaptei S the subsciipt g was useu to specify a location in giavity. The analogous conuition
when uealing with the evolution of the univeise is to specify the unit of physics when it feels
the effect of a backgiounu giavitational gamma that is gieatei than 1 (
u
> 1). This conuition
will be specifieu by the subsciipt u. Foi example, a unit of length, time anu mass when
u
> 1
will be uesignateu as L
u
, T
u
anu N
u
iespectively. Foi the evolution of the univeise the time anu
mass tiansfoimations aie similai to those in chaptei S but with new symbols. 0nly the length
tiansfoimation equation is not analogous to L
o
= L
g
fiom chaptei S. The new length
tiansfoimation equation neeus to specify the fact that we aie now iecognizing the change in a
unit of length that scales with
u
. Theiefoie we have:

R
1
=
u
L
u
T
1
= T
u
u
N
1
= N
u
u

In utilizing the mass tiansfoimation N
1
= N
u
u
, it is impoitant to iecall the assumption stateu
in chaptei S that the same iate of time must be useu to quantify both N
1
anu N
u
. Nass is a
measuiement of ineitia, which in tuin involves foice anu acceleiation. All of these imply the
use of a iate of time. Nass is not synonymous with mattei. In chaptei S we often assumeu that
cooiuinate time woulu be useu. Bowevei, in the cuiient univeise with
uo
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
, the iate
of cooiuinate time on the =1 clock is about 2.6 x 1u
S1
times fastei than the iate of time on the
cosmic clock, so it might not be convenient to use cooiuinate iate of time. All that is impoitant
is that we iemembei that the tiansfoimation of units iequiies that we use the same iate of time
to expiess both N
1
anu N
u
oi othei units of physics at uiffeient ages of the univeise with
uiffeient values of
u
.

14-15
Because of the change in the length tiansfoimation, it is necessaiy to iecalculate the othei
tiansfoimations using the uimensional analysis pioceuuies establisheu in chaptei S. 0sing the
above tiansfoimations foi units of length, time anu mass we obtain:

Impedance of Spacetime Z
s
: Z
s1
- N
1
T
1
=
[
M
u
[
T
u
I
u
- Z
su

Z
s1
= Z
su
impeuance of spacetime tiansfoimation

Energy E: E
1
-
1
R
1
2
T
1
=
[
M
u
u
(L
u
2
u
2
)
T
u
(
u
)
2
-
S
E
u

E
1
=
u
S
E
u
units of eneigy tiansfoimation

Energy Density U: 0
1
-
1
R
1
T
1
2
=
(M
u
u
)
(L
u
u
)(T
u
2
u
2
)
- 0
u

0
1
= 0
u
units of eneigy uensity tiansfoimation

Coordinate Speed of Light C: C
1
- R
1
T
1
=
L
u
u
1
u
u

-
2
C
u

c = C
1
=
u
2
C
u

cooiuinate speeu of light tiansfoimation

These aie the most impoitant tiansfoimations anu some of them will be useu to ueteimine the
cuiient vacuum eneigy uensity anu analyze the 1u
12u
mysteiy. Fiist, the impeuance of
spacetime shoulu be unaffecteu by a change in
u
. The fact that the tiansfoimation gave
Z
s1
= Z
su
shows that the length, time anu mass tiansfoimations aie coiiect. This acts as a check
on the tiansfoimation piocess. Above we assumeu the mass tiansfoimation was the same as
chaptei S. In tiuth, this was not a foiegone conclusion. Bowevei, the impeuance of spacetime
shoulu iemain constant. Assuming the length anu time tiansfoimations, theie is only one
possible mass tiansfoimation that achieves a constant impeuance tiansfoimation.

Energy and Energy Density Transformations: Next, the units of eneigy tiansfoimation
E
1
=
u
S
E
u
will be illustiateu with an example. Suppose that theie was an election in a
hypothetical univeise with = 1. The eneigy of the election in the
u
= 1 univeise woulu be
8.19 x 1u
14
}oules measuieu locally which is the same eneigy we woulu measuie foi the
election in oui cuiient univeise. Bowevei, the measuiement in the
u
= 1 univeise useu a
local clock that is iunning 2.6 x 1u
S1
times fastei than the cosmic clock in oui cuiient univeise.
Fuitheimoie, a metei in the
u
= 1 univeise is 2.6 x 1u
S1
times laigei than a metei in oui
cuiient univeise. Both of these factois combine to make 1 }oule in the
u
= 1 univeise
equivalent to
uo
S
= 1.8 x 1u
94
joules in oui cuiient univeise. Theiefoie, even though both
elections have the same eneigy measuieu locally, uiffeient stanuaius of eneigy aie being useu.
14-16
When we coiiect foi this uiffeience, the election in the
u
= 1 univeise has
uo
S
= 1.8 x 1u
94

moie eneigy.

0sing the iotai mouel, suppose that we wanteu to compaie the eneigy uensity of the
u
= 1
election anu an election in the univeise touay. The tiansfoimation of units of length is
R
1
=
u
L
u
. This says that a metei in the =1 univeise woulu be about 2.6 x 1u
S1
times longei
than a metei stick in oui cuiient univeise because we aie living in a univeise with
u
= 2.6 x1u
S1
. Theiefoie, the quantum iauius of the election in the =1 univeise woulu be
2.6 x 1u
S1
times biggei anu the quantum volume of that election woulu be
uo
S
= 1.8 x 1u
94

times gieatei than the quantum volume of an election in oui univeise. The iesult is that both
elections woulu have the same eneigy uensity because the 1.8 x 1u
94
uiffeience in the
elections eneigy is offset by the factoi of 1.8 x 1u
94
uiffeience in the sizes of the quantum
volumes. The tiansfoimation of eneigy uensity is shown above anu iesults in 0
1
= 0
u
.

This illustrates how the proper energy density of the universe (including vacuum energy)
remains constant even when the universe experiences a vast increase in
u
.

This is a fantastic iesult because it is a key component in solving the mysteiy of the 1u
122

uiffeience between vacuum eneigy uensity anu cuiiently obseiveu eneigy uensity. When the
univeise was Planck spacetime, it hau eneigy uensity of S.SS x 1u
112
}m
S
. The spacetime
tiansfoimation mouel of the univeise views the cuiient univeise as the same size anu same
eneigy uensity as Planck spacetime. Theiefoie, the tiansfoimation 0
1
= 0
u
says that the
piopei eneigy uensity of the univeise equals the tiemenuously laige eneigy uensity of the
univeise obtaineu when the eneigy uensity is expiesseu in cooiuinate units. It is not necessaiy
to auu eneigy to the univeise to keep the eneigy uensity of vacuum eneigy constant. Insteau,
natuie uses two uiffeient stanuaius foi a unit of piopei eneigy (in auuition to uiffeient
stanuaius of length, foice, the iate of time, etc.) This uiffeience in eneigy stanuaius exactly
offset the change in piopei volume theieby maintaining a constant eneigy uensity. The total
piopei eneigy uensity of the univeise (incluuing vacuum eneigy) has iemaineu constant at
S.SS x 1u
112
}m
S
since the beginning of time (since the Big Bang). Touay almost all of this
eneigy of the univeise is in the foim of vacuum eneigy.

Additional Transformations: If we caiiy these tiansfoimations fuithei, we obtain a few
counteiintuitive iesults. Foi example, the tiansfoimations of change (Q) anu momentum (p)
aie:

Q
1
=
u
Q
u
unit of chaige tiansfoimation
p
1
=
u
p
u
unit of momentum tiansfoimation

At fiist these tiansfoimations seem to be saying that neithei change (Q) noi momentum (p) is
conseiveu when the univeise ages anu
u
incieases. Bowevei, these aie the tiansfoimations
14-17
iequiieu to pieseive chaige, momentum anu the laws of physics when measuieu locally
(piopei measuiement) anu assuming a CNB iest fiame which has the uistance between points
inciease with the Bubble flow. The momentum tiansfoimation (p
1
=
u
p
u
) will be useu to
illustiate this point.

We will stait with a thought expeiiment. Suppose that theie is a hyuiogen atom in an exciteu
state that is at iest ielative to the CNB anu also at iest at the oiigin of a cooiuinate system. The
hyuiogen atom emits a photon in the +Y uiiection anu the photons momentum causes the
hyuiogen atom to iecoil in the Y uiiection caiiying the opposite momentum. As shown in
chaptei S, the momentum impaiteu to the atom by the emission of a photon iesults in the atom
having a ue Bioglie wavelength that equals the wavelength of the emitteu photon. If we view
this fiom a iigiu fiame of iefeience that uoes not expanu with the Bubble flow, then theie is no
loss of momentum ovei time. Bowevei, if we view both the iecoiling atom anu the piopagating
photon fiom a cooiuinate system that expanus with the Bubble flow, then ielative to this
cooiuinate system theie is a loss of momentum. Both the photon anu the ue Bioglie waves of
the atom unueigo a ieushift (lose momentum) ielative to a cooiuinate system that expanus
with the Bubble flow. The cooiuinate system useu by the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel is
iigiu but the effect of an incieasing
u
piouuces effects similai to auopting an expanuing
cooiuinate system. Theiefoie the equation p
1
=
u
p
u
is meiely expiessing this uiffeience in
peiceiveu momentum between the two cooiuinate systems. Similaily, the chaige
tiansfoimation Q
1
=
u
Q
u
keeps the piopei laws of physics unchangeu in both an expanuing
cooiuinate system anu in the spacetime tiansfoimation cooiuinate system as
u
incieases.

10
120
Calculation: Now we aie going to calculate the cuiient iatio of vacuum eneigy uensity
to obseivable eneigy uensity. A Planck spheie oiiginally containeu about a billion }oules
measuieu using the cooiuinate eneigy stanuaiu of eneigy because the univeise staiteu as
Planck spacetime with
u
= 1. The Planck spheie staiteu with iauius of Planck length anu
touay the piopei value of this iauius has incieaseu by a factoi of
uo
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
to u.42 mm
iauius oi a volume of S.1 x 1u
1u
m
S
. The 1u
9
} of cooiuinate eneigy when
u
= 1 has hau an
appaient inciease so that cuiiently this much eneigy woulu appeai to have incieaseu by a
factoi of
uo
S
. The objective of the following calculation is to finu the cuiient vacuum eneigy
uensity 0
vac
.

1u
9
} x
uo
S
= 1.8 x 1u
1uS
} conveision of cooiuinate eneigy to piopei eneigy
(4S) l
p
S
uo
S
= S.18 x 1u
1u
m
S
cuiient piopei volume of Planck spheie
1.8 x 1u
1uS
} S.18 x 1u
1u
m
S
= S.S x 1u
112
}m
S
= 0
vac

Ignoiing vacuum eneigy, the cuiient ciitical eneigy uensity of the univeise uepenus on the
value of the Bubble paiametei useu. 0sing J = 7u.8 kmsNpc the ciitical eneigy uensity of
the univeise 0
ciit
is about 8.S x 1u
1u
}m
S
if we incluue hypothetical uaik eneigy. If we excluue
14-18
uaik eneigy which iepiesents about 72.1% of the total eneigy uensity, then we have
obseivable eneigy uensity 0
obs
of about 2.S6 x 1u
1u
}m
S
.

0
vac
0
ciit
= S.S x 1u
112
}m
S
8.S x 1u
1u
}m
S
= 6.S x 1u
121
iatio incluuing uaik eneigy
0
vac
0
obs
= S.S x 1u
112
}m
S
2.4 x 1u
1u
}m
S
= 2.S x 1u
122
iatio excluuing uaik eneigy

Eithei of these numbeis qualifies as the famous 1u
12u
uisciepancy between the theoietical
eneigy uensity of the univeise anu the obseiveu eneigy uensity. Beie is how we achieve
spheiical Planck eneigy uensity using one of the S waveamplituue equations (0 = B
2
2
Zc).
0sing the piopei iate of time on the cosmic clock, the fiequency appeais to be Planck angulai
fiequency
p
. Fuitheimoie, stiain amplituue is a uimensionless numbei that uoes not change
with
u
. Theiefoie we will inseit B = 1. Finally we must inseit the constant k to conveit fiom
cubic to spheiical with the factoi of V associateu with zeio point eneigy.

0 = B
2
p
2
Z
s
c
set =
p
= 1.8SS x 1u
4S
s
1
; Z = Z
s
= 4.uS8 x 1u
SS
kgs; B = 1 anu auu k = S8

0
ps
= k B
2
p
2
Z
s
c = (S8) 1
2
(1.8SS x 1u
4S
)
2
(4.u4 x 1u
SS
)S x 1u
8

0
ps
= S.SS x 1u
112
}m
S

0
ps
= 0
vac
+ 0
obs

The spacetime tiansfoimation mouel of the univeise pioposes that ovei the age of the univeise
theie has been no change in the total eneigy uensity of the univeise. Touay viitually all of the
eneigy uensity of the univeise is in the foim of vacuum eneigy 0
vac
which lacks quantizeu
angulai momentum. Bowevei, at the stait of the Big Bang all the eneigy uensity of Planck
spacetime 0
ps
was obseivable eneigy uensity 0
obs
because all the eneigy possesseu quantizeu
angulai momentum. 0vei time the tiansfoimation of spacetime has iesulteu in a uiamatic
ueciease in the obseivable eneigy uensity of the univeise anu an equal inciease in vacuum
eneigy uensity of the univeise. Touay 0
vac
= 1u
122
0
obs
but the total eneigy uensity has not
changeu: 0
vac
+ 0
obs
= 0
ps
.

Touay we peiceive the maximum fiequency of the waves that foim vacuum eneigy to be equal
to Planck angulai fiequency. Bowevei, this is a piopei fiequency that has been sloweu by a
factoi of
uo
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
compaieu to the cooiuinate fiequency that occuiieu when the
univeise was Planck spacetime. Bow is it possible foi touays vacuum eneigy to possess
viitually the same eneigy uensity as Planck spacetime if the cuiient maximum fiequency of the
uipole waves is a factoi of about 2.6 x 1u
S1
times slowei than the uipole waves that foimeu
Planck spacetime. The answei to this question is analogous to the answei given pieviously in
the section titleu Eneigy anu Eneigy Bensity Tiansfoimations. Theie it was shown how the
eneigy uensity of an election iemains constant even when theie is a big inciease in
u
. The
eneigy scales piopoitional to 1
u
S
but the volume also scales with 1
u
S
so the eneigy uensity
14-19
of the election iemains constant. This holus tiue foi any uipole wave in spacetime that has a
specific fiequency anu stiain amplituue. The highest fiequency uipole waves have a piopei
fiequency equal to Planck angulai fiequency
p
anu a piopei volume that is Planck length in
iauius. Bowevei, this volume is 1
u
S
times smallei than it was in Planck spacetime. The
wavelets that foim vacuum eneigy aie continuously foiming new wavelets as pieviously
explaineu. These wavelets auapt to the changing scale of length.

Illustrations Showing the Effect of
u
on Waves: Next, we want to see what happens to the
waves in spacetime that foim vacuum eneigy when theie is an inciease of
u
. The mysteiy to
be explaineu is how the wave stiuctuie of vacuum eneigy changes to iesult in an inciease in
piopei volume as the univeise ages. In figuie 142 we have two sine waves uesignateu wave #1
anu wave #2. These aie ciuue iepiesentations of the uipole waves in spacetime iesponsible
foi vacuum eneigy. Since the nonlineaiity is paiticulaily stiong in the eaily pait of the
evolution of the univeise, insteau imagine these as iepiesenting vacuum eneigy at moie iecent
times. In fact, wave #2 can be thought of as iepiesenting vacuum eneigy touay with
uo
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
anu wave #1 iepiesenting vacuum eneigy when the comoving giiu was
1
S
its
cuiient size which is equivalent to
u
= 1u
S1
. Theiefoie, it is impoitant to iemembei that theie
14-20
is a factoi of S uiffeience between the value of
u
foi wave #1 compaieu to the backgiounu
gamma piesent foi wave #2. This is wiitten as S
u1
=
u2
.

Both of these waves woulu be exactly the same if they weie uiawn using piopei units of length.
The uisplacement amplituue of both waves is uynamic Planck length when the uisplacement of
spacetime is expiesseu in units of piopei length. Bowevei, figuie 142 uses cooiuinate length
foi both the X anu Y axis. Theiefoie, the spatial uisplacement amplituue of wave #1 is S times
laigei than the spatial uisplacement amplituue of wave #2 because of the factoi of S uiffeience
between
u1
anu
u2
. The uisplacement amplituue (Y axis) is set so that wave #1 has amplituue
of 1. This makes the cooiuinate amplituue of wave #2 equal to u.SSS. If the uisplacement
amplituue was expiesseu using the absolute cooiuinate scale wheie Planck length equals 1
when
u
= 1, then wave #1 woulu have a uisplacement amplituue of 1u
S1
. This is because
wave #1 is piesumeu to exist in a univeise with a backgiounu value of
u
= 1u
S1
. This laige
value of
u
contiacts piopei length compaieu to a unit of cooiuinate length R
1
.

The maximum slope of a sine wave occuis when the sine wave ciosses the zeio line. The aiiow
shows one of many points wheie the two waves have the same maximum slope. This slope is
a uimensionless numbei that is the stiain amplituue of the sine wave. The point of this figuie is
to show that the maximum slope is the same even though the waves have a uiffeient scale. The
stiain piouuceu by waves in spacetime is piopoitional to the maximum slope. Theiefoie both
waves have a stiain amplituue of B = 1. Natuially, the slope woulu also be the same if the
waves weie uiawn using piopei length because both waves woulu then be exactly the same in
uisplacement, wavelength anu maximum slope. The waves that foim vacuum eneigy can
maintain the same stiain amplituue even when
u
is incieasing. The fiequency, measuieu
locally also iemains the same so the piopei eneigy uensity iemains the same when
u

incieases. The point is that the stiain amplituue is always B = 1 foi all values of
u
. This is a
key component in maintaining the total eneigy uensity of the univeise at 1u
11S
}m
S
thioughout
the age of the univeise.

It is inteiesting to note what these waves woulu look like if they weie plotteu in the tempoial
uomain iathei than the spatial uomain. The Y axis woulu be labeleu Cooiuinate Tempoial
Bisplacement Amplituue anu the X axis woulu be labeleu Cooiuinate Time. The figuie woulu
physically look the same as figuie 142 except that the labels foi wave #1 anu #2 woulu be
ieveiseu. Wave #2 (laigei value of
u
) woulu have the laigei tempoial uisplacement
amplituue when measuieu in cooiuinate units of time. This compaiison helps to illustiate how
a change in
u
exchanges the tempoial piopeities of spacetime foi the spatial piopeities of
spacetime.

14-21

Figuies 14S shows a Suimensional plot of wave #1 in figuie 142 anu figuie 144 shows a
Suimensional plot of S layeis of wave #2 in figuie 142 (oiiginal uefinitions of
u
). These two
figuies aie oveisimplifieu. The wave stiuctuie shoulu be moie chaotic anu unsymmetiical.
Imagine the waves in figuie 144 as oscillating at
1
S
the fiequency of the waves in figuie 14S.
The giiu pattein in figuie 144 is only
1
S
the cooiuinate length so each giiu cube has only
1
27

the cooiuinate volume of the giiu cube in figuie 14S. Bowevei, each giiu cube also only
contains
1
27
the cooiuinate eneigy as the giiu cube in figuie 14S, so the eneigy uensity is the
same no mattei whethei it is assesseu using the piopei stanuaiu of eneigy uensity oi the
cooiuinate stanuaiu of eneigy uensity.

Quantum mechanics has been telling us that the vacuum eneigy uensity shoulu be constant
even as the univeise ages anu the piopei volume incieases. Now it is possible to see that the
spacetime baseu mouel of the univeise shows that this is possible. In fact, in oiuei foi the laws
of physics to iemain constant, it is necessaiy that the vacuum eneigy uensity iemains constant.
If the vacuum eneigy uensity uecieaseu as the piopei volume of the univeise expanueu, then
the high fiequency viitual paiticle paiis woulu eventually be lost anu this woulu be uetectable.

Does Dark Energy Exist? Baik eneigy is supposeuly a homogeneous foim of eneigy that
piouuces a foice that is the opposite of giavitational attiaction. Baik eneigy is sometimes
consiueieu a negative piessuie anu othei times consiueieu a type of antigiavity. The teim
negative piessuie will be avoiueu heie because theie aie logical incompatibilities when we
14-22
ciitically examine the ielationship between piessuie, eneigy uensity anu giavity. Insteau, uaik
eneigy will be consiueieu a mysteiious foim of eneigy that possesses antigiavity piopeities.
The ieason that the concept of uaik eneigy was inventeu is because the Big Bang mouel cannot
explain the obseiveu univeise without inseiting a substance with antigiavity piopeities that
also giows in impoitance as the volume of the univeise incieases.

The concept is that uaik eneigy uensity iemains constant at about 6 x 1u
1u
}m
S
. Theiefoie, as
the piopei volume of the univeise incieases, the eneigy uensity of oiuinaiy mattei anu uaik
mattei ueciease while the eneigy uensity of uaik eneigy iemains constant. Since theie is a
continuous inciease in piopei volume, a constant eneigy uensity means a continuous inciease
in the amount of uaik eneigy in the univeise. Theiefoie, uaik eneigy supposeuly was an
insignificant fiaction of the total eneigy of the univeise at S8u,uuu yeais aftei the Big Bang
(CNB obseivations). Bowevei, since then the iauius of a given spheiical volume of spacetime
(such as a Planck spheie) has incieaseu by a factoi of about 1u8u. This means that the volume
of such a hypothetical spheie has incieaseu by a factoi of ~1.S x 1u
9
anu the uaik eneigy
content of this spheie has also incieaseu by this factoi. Staiting at an age of about S x 1u
9

yeais, uaik eneigy supposeuly began to uominate the univeise anu now uaik eneigy is
believeu to iepiesent about 72% of the total eneigy content of the univeise.

Eveiything about hypothetical uaik eneigy conflicts with the concepts piesenteu in this book.
The staiting assumption is that the univeise is only spacetime anu a coiollaiy of this is that
theie is only one funuamental foice F
i
= Pc. This is the foice exeiteu by eneigy tiaveling at
the speeu of light anu it is always iepulsive. Positive eneigy tiaveling at the speeu of light
(such as light oi waves in spacetime) piouuces this iepulsive foice. It has been shown how
vacuum eneigy (high fiequency waves in spacetime) can piouuce what appeais to be eithei an
attiactive foice oi a iepulsive foice on iotais using only the ielativistic foice that is always
iepulsive. uiavity anu cuiveu spacetime was also shown to iesult fiom spacetime being a
nonlineai meuium foi waves in spacetime.

The spacetime baseu explanation of the univeise has shown that eneigy uensity 0 anu piessuie
" is: 0 = " = B
2
2
Z
s
c (ignoies uimensionless constants). Theiefoie, how is it possible to
cieate negative piessuie " oi negative eneigy uensity 0 . Even if theie was such a thing as
negative amplituue B oi negative fiequency , both of these aie squaieu so we always obtain a
positive value when squaieu. Also theie is only one uefinition of the impeuance of spacetime
Z
s
= c
S
u anu only one univeisal constant c. Theiefoie, these must be the same positive values
as in othei calculations that aie inteipieteu as giving a positive value of eneigy uensity anu
piessuie. Theie appeais to be no way to obtain negative piessuie oi negative eneigy uensity
fiom 0 = " = B
2
2
Z
s
c. Waves can cancel in one location, but the positive eneigy is not
uestioyeu it meiely appeais in anothei location wheie theie is constiuctive inteifeience.

14-23
Theie is no single explanation foi uaik eneigy, but the simplest explanation given foi the
existence of uaik eneigy that scales with volume is that uaik eneigy is the cost of having
space. Each time cosmic expansion somehow cieates an auuitional cubic metei of spacetime;
this volume is supposeuly left with an eneigy ueficit of about 6 x 1u
1u
} of negative eneigy.
Theie simply is no spacetime wave mouel of negative eneigy oi negative piessuie.
Fuitheimoie each new cubic metei of spacetime must contain about 1u
11S
} of positive zeio
point eneigy. The spacetime tiansfoimation mouel shows how this is accomplisheu. The
CBN mouel assumes that this iequiiement is somehow canceleu.

In fact, the CBN mouel uoes not iespect the conuitions that must be met to cieate a cubic
metei of new space. This new space must have the impeuance of spacetime Z
s
= c
S
u anu
the inteiactive bulk mouulus of spacetime K
s
= F
p
2
. The new space must be filleu with zeio
point eneigy at eneigy uensity of 1u
11S
}m
S
. The new space must have elasticity anu
piopeities that peimit a giavitational wave to piopagate at the speeu of light. The list goes on.
As befoie, the pioblem is in the physical inteipietation of obseivations anu equations. If the
piopei uistance between galaxies incieases, this can be inteipieteu uiffeient ways. The mouel
pioposeu heie is actually the simplest because it uoes not uemanu any new physics oi new
eneigy be auueu to the univeise.

Theie is no uiiect expeiimental eviuence that uaik eneigy exists. Baik eneigy is a theoietical
concept that appeais to be necessaiy to explain the appaient acceleiation of the expansion of
the univeise anu also to explain that the eneigy uensity of the univeise has fallen below the
ciitical uensity. Baiyonic mattei, uaik mattei anu iauiation only achieve about 28% of the
eneigy uensity calculateu to be necessaiy to achieve flat spacetime. Bowevei, this calculation
uepenus on the accuiacy of the mouel of the univeise being useu. The concept of ciitical
uensity of the univeise assumes that the univeise possesses a giavitational giauient that uoes
not exist in the conuition pieviously uesciibeu as immatuie giavity. It uoes not make any
uiffeience whethei the immatuie giavity occuis in the low giavitational of the uust clouu
thought expeiiment oi the high giavitational
u
of the univeise. The impoitant point is that
immatuie giavity piouuces an incieasing giavitational
u
anu a unifoim instantaneous iate of
time (CNB iest fiame). If theie is no laige scale iate of time giauient (miupoint obseivei
peispective), then theie is no laige scale giavitational acceleiation anu nothing that uemanus
an explanation that incoipoiates antigiavity.

The concept of ciitical uensity of the univeise assumes that theie is a giavitational acceleiation
that is attempting to collapse the univeise. If the univeise is pictuieu as the homogeneous anu
static uistiibution of galaxies with piopei volume inciease because of the spacetime
tiansfoimation of the iate of time anu of piopei length, then the univeise is not stiuggling to
expanu against giavity. Theie is no such thing as a ciitical uensity. The uust clouu thought
expeiiment uiu not meet the conuitions of ciitical uensity anu yet theie was no giavitational
acceleiation in the fiist few milliseconus aftei giavity was tuineu on.
14-24

As long as the univeise has no uetectable bounuaiy (no euge), the matuie giavity conuition
cannot be establisheu. It takes a uensity change at a bounuaiy to establish a iate of time
giauient anu giavitational acceleiation. The pioposeu mouel of the univeise staiteu with
Planck spacetime that hau a unifoim iate of time. At speeu of light communication, we still
have no uetectable bounuaiy. The iate of time has sloweu uown but theie still is no laige scale
iate of time giauient. uiavitational acceleiation anu cuiveu spacetime both iequiie a iate of
time giauient. Theiefoie, the univeise has nevei possesseu laige scale cuiveu spacetime oi
giavitational acceleiation. New masseneigy will continue to appeai on the paiticle hoiizon of
the obseivable univeise. The backgiounu
u
of the univeise will continue to inciease towaius
infinity anu theie will be no iate of time giauient on the scale of univeisal homogeneity unless
one uay we become awaie of a laige scale uensity uisciepancy that is the equivalent of a
bounuaiy conuition that gives an euge to the univeise.

Dark Energy Not Needed: What is being pioposeu is that the spacetime tiansfoimation
mouel uoes not iequiie the invention of uaik eneigy to pioviue the missing ciitical uensity anu
uoes not neeu any mysteiious foice with antigiavity piopeities that is causing the appaient
expansion of the univeise to acceleiate. When vieweu fiom a hypothetical cooiuinate iate of
time anu cooiuinate unit of length, theie is no expansion of the univeise. No woik is being
uone against giavity. The immatuie giavity conuition pieviously uiscusseu eliminates the
tenuency foi the univeise to have a giavitational contiaction. The cooiuinate volume of the
univeise has nevei changeu anu the cooiuinate eneigy uensity (incluuing vacuum eneigy) has
iemaineu constant at the laige scale of Suu,uuu light yeais. At a smallei scale mattei has
foimeu stais anu galaxies which uistoit the homogeneous eneigy uensity of vacuum eneigy.
We call this uistoition cuiveu spacetime. 0ui peiception of the volume of the univeise
inuicates continuous expansion. Bowevei, this is the iesult of a continuous inciease in the
backgiounu
u
of the univeise. What we peiceive as acceleiation of the expansion is uue
insteau to an acceleiation in the iate of change of u
u
u
u
.

All the factois that ueteimine u
u
u
u
(the iate of change of
u
in piopei time) aie not known.
This woulu be a function the age of the univeise, but it piobably also incluues othei factois
ielating to the composition anu the obseivable eneigy uensity of the univeise. Foi example,
when the univeise was iauiation uominateu, a substantial amount of the obseivable eneigy
was being conveiteu to vacuum eneigy. This piocess iesulteu in u
u
u
u
being piopoitional to
12
. Buiing the mattei uominateu epoch the electiomagnetic iauiation was a small peicentage
of the obseivable eneigy of the univeise anu u
u
u
u
was piopoitional to
u
2S
. Touay we have
an inciease in piopei volume that is acceleiation. If this is vieweu as an acceleiation in the iate
of change of u
u
u
u
, then mysteiy becomes easiei to peiceive anu peihaps easiei to solve.

Why Does Vacuum Energy Not Produce Gravitational Acceleration? An impoitant axiom
of geneial ielativity is that eneigy in any foim piouuces giavity. Bowevei, it is pioposeu that
14-25
this is an oveisimplifieu statement. It is pioposeu that vacuum eneigy lacks quantizeu angulai
momentum anu is a completely uiffeient foim of eneigy that uoes not fit this axiom. Even
though the eneigy uensity of vacuum eneigy is vastly laigei than the eneigy uensity of
oiuinaiy masseneigy, vacuum eneigy is a supeifluiu of uipole waves in spacetime that is as
homogeneous anu isotiopic as quantum mechanics allows. Wavelets aie continuously foiming
anu ieuistiibuting the fluctuations that aie subject to the Planck lengthtime limitation. These
fluctuations uo not foim concentiations of eneigy like the funuamental paiticles (iotais)
because theie is no quantizeu angulai momentum. This foim of eneigy uoes not foim iate of
time giauients, noi uoes it iesponu to giavitational acceleiation piouuceu by concentiations of
mattei. 0nly the intiouuction of eneigy possessing quantizeu angulai momentum locally
exceeus the homogeneous noim of vacuum eneigy anu iesults in a uistoition we call cuiveu
spacetime.

The mechanism by which iotais feel a giavitational foice involves the time uiffeience acioss
the iotai influencing the piessuie uiffeience exeiteu on a iotai by the vacuum eneigy. This
stiuctuie iequiies quantizeu angulai momentum. In contiast, vacuum eneigy uipole waves aie
not a cohesive unit. They have no quantum iauius ovei which they act like a quantizeu unit.
Even if they aie piesent in a iate of time giauient, this giauient uoes not piouuce a piessuie
uiffeience. All of this says that the eneigy uensity of vacuum eneigy uoes not count towaius
the ciitical uensity of the univeise. vacuum eneigy is a funuamental piopeity of spacetime
anu is necessaiy to give spacetime its othei piopeities.

Pieviously it was shown that laige scale flat spacetime occuis in the univeise as long as theie is
no uetectable bounuaiy to the univeise (immatuie giavity). It is possible foi the univeise to
have less than the ciitical eneigy uensity of oiuinaiy matteieneigy anu still piouuces flat
spacetime because the univeise is still in the immatuie giavity conuition. When vacuum
eneigy is in the piesence of a local giavitational fielu, it will unueigo a tiansfoimation similai
to the tiansfoimation exhibiteu as the univeise ages. The iate of time is sloweu anu exchangeu
foi an inciease in piopei volume. Bowevei, this tiansfoimation maintains the same eneigy
uensity, just like what happeneu as the univeise ages. 0n an absolute scale, the eneigy uensity
of vacuum eneigy is maintaineu at the maximum eneigy uensity that spacetime can suppoit.
vacuum eneigy uoes not cause giavity. Insteau the uistoition of the homogeneous eneigy
uensity of vacuum eneigy by a iotai piouuces the effects of giavity.

Offsetting the Rate of Change of
u
: Retuining to the inciease in
u
, how fast woulu an object
neeu to be iaiseu in the eaiths giavitational fielu in oiuei foi the ueciease in the eaiths to
offset the inciease in
u
of the univeise. In othei woius, what iate of inciease in elevation
achieves (uut) = J = 2.29 x 1u
18
s
1
in the eaiths giavitational acceleiation of 9.8 ms
2
.

g = c
2
[
d[
dL
R
= c
2
[
d
dL
R
set
d[
dL
R
=
d
dL
R
weak giavity appioximation

14-26
d
d:
u
= [
g
c
2
[
dL
R
d:
u
set
d
d:
u
= J anu g = 9.8 ms
2

[
dL
R
d:
u
= J
c
2
g
= .u21 ms [
dL
R
d:
u
= veitical velocity

Theiefoie an elevation velocity of about 2.1 cms oi about 7S meteis pei houi in the eaiths
giavity offsets the tempoial effects of an inciease in the
u
of the univeise. 0bviously this is
only a tempoiaiy iepiieve maue possible because an object in the eaiths giavity staits off at a
lowei eneigy state (laigei total ) than the same object if it was isolateu on the comoving
cooiuinate system. Still, this example gives a physical feel foi the iate of change that is
cuiiently taking place in the univeise.

All physical objects aie losing eneigy each seconu when measuieu with an absolute eneigy
scale that uoes not ueciease as
u
incieases. Foi example, the sun is cuiiently iauiating about
4 x 1u
26
watts of electiomagnetic iauiation. Bowevei, the sun is losing about 1uuu times this
eneigy pei seconu as the eneigy in the suns iotais is being conveiteu to vacuum eneigy. This
is an unuetectable effect using the piopei eneigy stanuaiu which uoes not acknowleuge the
effect of an incieasing
u
on eveiything in the univeise.

Times Arrow: The equations of physics seem to be ieveisible in time. Except foi entiopy, it
appeais as if it shoulu be possible to go backwaius in time. Bowevei, if the backgiounu
u
of
the univeise is incieasing continuously anu all mattei is conveiting eneigy into vacuum eneigy,
then it is not possible to go backwaius in time. Yesteiuay all the iotais anu photons in the
univeise hau moie eneigy than they possess touay (measuieu on the scale of cooiuinate
eneigy). Also, the lowei backgiounu
u
of yesteiuay also affects many othei things such as the
units of foice, velocity, voltage, etc. Even though the laws of physics aie the same touay anu
yesteiuay, all the components that makeup the univeise aie uiffeient. The univeise is
unueigoing a tiansfoimation anu this makes Times aiiow only point one uiiection to the
futuie.

Black Holes: The following uiscussion of black holes is moie speculative than the iest of this
book. Theiefoie the following shoulu be consiueieu just a few pieliminaiy thoughts about
black holes.
Bo black holes have a uiffeient stiuctuie in a spacetime baseu univeise than they woulu have
in a univeise populateu by point paiticles. So fai the geneial ielativity analysis of black holes
has inuiiectly assumeu the stanuaiu mouel of paiticles. With this assumption, a black hole has
an accietion uisk, an event hoiizon, a volume insiue the event hoiizon anu finally a singulaiity
at the centei. This singulaiity supposeuly has infinite eneigy uensity. The volume insiue the
event hoiizon supposeuly has mouulation of the piopeities of spacetime that woulu iequiie in
excess of 1uu% uepth of mouulation of spacetime. Cleaily these conuitions cannot be achieveu
by the spacetime baseu mouel of the univeise pioposeu heie. The event hoiizon of a black hole
14-27
supposeuly has a iate of time that is stoppeu anu a cooiuinate speeu of light equal to zeio. It is
questionable whethei a complete stoppage of the iate of time anu stopping the piopagation of
light can be achieveu by the wavebaseu mouel of hauions anu bosons pioposeu heie.

If youi mouel of a funuamental paiticle is a point paiticle with no physical size anu no
stiuctuie, then such a paiticle woulu be able to suivive the plunge past the event hoiizon of a
black hole. Bowevei, if we assume the iotai mouel of mattei, then a pieliminaiy analysis
seems to inuicate a uiffeient answei. As pieviously explaineu, a iotai is just a slight uistoition
of spacetime that has a specific fiequency, quantum iauius, anu uisplacement amplituue. It
seems as if a spacetime baseu explanation of the univeise cannot foim a tiue black hole event
hoiizon. This is because such an event hoiizon woulu eliminate the waves in spacetime
iequiieu foi its foimation. If a mass collapseu to a uegiee that the iate of time is sloweu uown
by an enoimous amount such as 1u
2u
oi moie (compaieu to the comoving iate of time), then
exteinally this woulu be inuistinguishable fiom a conventional black hole. In this scenaiio,
aftei a black hole foims, all auuitional masseneigy that falls towaius the black hole auus to the
oibiting accietion uisk anu nevei ieaches an event hoiizon. The spacetime wave piopeities of
iotais anu photons woulu have to be taken into consiueiation in oiuei to piopeily chaiacteiize
the accietion uisk that nevei quite ieaches an event hoiizon. If hauions anu bosons nevei
quite ieach a tiue event hoiizon, then this woulu explain how it is possible foi infoimation
about the black holes chaige, magnetic fielu, mass anu iotational uiiection can be
communicateu to the iest of the univeise.

Like any giavitational captuie, mass must sheu some eneigy in oiuei to be captuieu by a
pseuuo black hole. This sheauing of eneigy is uone by the emission of iauiation anu by the
eneigy emitteu by the polai jets associateu with black holes. The eneigy that is captuieu can
change its foim but its giavitational effect iemains constant. Recall the example pieviously
given of a planet in a highly elliptical oibit aiounu a stai. The total giavitational effect of the
combination of the stai anu the planet is constant even though the eneigy in the planet changes
foim. Similaily, a photon falling into a pseuuo black hole woulu appeai to be blue shifteu if the
photon coulu be obseiveu locally in a iegion with a high giavitational gamma . A iotai woulu
gain kinetic eneigy to offset the loss of inteinal eneigy associateu with a high . In neithei case
uoes the eneigy pass an event hoiizon wheie contact with the outsiue univeise woulu be lost.

The mouel of spacetime cuiiently accepteu is that the effects of cuiveu spacetime can somehow
tianscenu an event hoiizon. We can obviously accuiately measuie the mass, spin anu chaige of
a black hole. These aie examples of communication that appeais to be coming fiom insiue an
event hoiizon. The spacetime baseu mouel of giavity iequiies waves in spacetime to piouuce a
nonlineai inteiaction in spacetime. When the eneigy uensity of mattei anu iauiation
appioaches the eneigy uensity that woulu iequiie 1uu% mouulation of spacetime then we aie
appioaching the conuitions of a black hole. Bowevei, the spacetime baseu mouel nevei
actually ieaches 1uu% mouulation of spacetime. Time nevei quite stops compaieu to
14-28
cooiuinate time anu length nevei quite contiacts to zeio compaieu to cooiuinate length. The
singulaiity associateu with the conventional black hole iequiies eneigy uensity in excess of
Planck eneigy uensity. This is usually explaineu by saying that the laws of physics bieak
uown. The spacetime baseu mouel of the univeise nevei iequiies that the laws of physics
bieak uown.

I visualize the volume neai the centei of a wave baseu black hole to be piimaiily photons that
have been highly blue shifteu. Foi example, suppose that the iate of time is 1u
2u
times slowei
than the suiiounuing volume of the univeise. Rotais that fall into this pseuuo black hole woulu
eventually inteiact with each othei anu inteiact with tiappeu photons to eventually conveit
almost all theii eneigy into photons. Theiefoie, photon uensity woulu inciease with uepth.
Theie woulu be no event hoiizon, but eneigy in the accietion uisk woulu cause the
giavitational gamma to appioach infinity.

The Spacetime Transformation Model Versus The Inflationary Model: In chaptei 1S we
peifoimeu seveial calculations to finu the value of
uo
. Bowevei, the same uata can be
ieaiiangeu to suppoit the contention that the pioposeu spacetime tiansfoimation mouel of the
univeise is coiiect anu that theie was not an inflationaiy phase. Beie is the ieasoning. When
we calculate the change in scale factoi staiting fiom one unit of Planck time (~S x 1u
44
s) anu
enuing with 1S.7 billion yeais, we obtaineu scaling factois of 2.1, 2.6, 2.9S anu an uppei limit of
S.4 (all x 1u
S1
). These numbeis aie appioximately the same yet they weie obtaineu fiom
uiveise souices such as the cuiiently obseivable eneigy uensity of the univeise, the obseiveu
CNB tempeiatuie anu the CNB photon eneigy uensity.

Now we will ieveise the thought piocess anu extiapolate back in time to when the univeise
was S x 1u
44
seconus olu (1 unit of Planck time). Staiting with the cuiiently obseivable eneigy
uensity, CNB tempeiatuie anu CNB photon eneigy uensity of touays univeise we always
aiiive at the piopeities of Planck spacetime using an aveiage value of
uo
= 2.6 x 1u
S1
.
Bowevei this extiapolation makes the assumption that theie was no inflationaiy phase in the
expansion of the piopei volume of the univeise.

Bowevei, suppose that we incluue inflation in this backwaius extiapolation. Between about
1u
SS
seconus anu 1u
S2
seconus we have to ueviate fiom the iauiation uominateu conuition
that scales with
u
12
anu inseit the inflationaiy exponential scaling factoi. This inflation factoi
is unknown, but it is usually consiueieu to be in excess of 1u
2S
. At an age of S x 1u
44
seconu,
incluuing inflation implies that the eneigy pei photon exceeus Planck eneigy by a factoi of at
least 1u
2S
. Similaily the implieu tempeiatuie exceeus Planck tempeiatuie by moie than 1u
2S

anu the implieu eneigy uensity exceeus Planck eneigy uensity also by a similai factoi. These
aie impossibilities accoiuing to the known laws of physics. Theiefoie physicists casually
uisiegaiu this by saying that the laws of physics must bieakuown unuei these conuitions.
14-29
Even the iuea that the inflationaiy expansion gieatly exceeueu the speeu of light iequiies a
bieakuown of the laws of physics.

Theie is no expeiimental pioof that it is possible foi the laws of physics to bieakuown. This
is meiely a teim useu when a paiticulai theoiy gives an impossible answei accoiuing to the
known laws of physics. Insteau, when a theoiy iequiies a bieakuown in the laws of physics,
this shoulu be a stiong inuication that the theoiy is wiong. The beauty of assuming that the
univeise is only spacetime is that theie shoulu be no cases wheie the theoiy neeus to ieveit to
saying that the laws of physics must bieakuown in oiuei to explain a paiticulai implieu iesult.

Inflation is an au hoc solution iequiieu by a mouel of the univeise that has point paiticles anu
foices caiiieu by the exchange of viitual paiticles. If the univeise is only spacetime, then it was
only spacetime (the composite quantum mechanical anu ielativistic spacetime mouel) even at
the beginning of the Big Bang. Extiapolating backwaius fiom touay iesults in the Planck
spacetime homogeneous state. This is the highest obseivable eneigy uensity spacetime can
suppoit. The laws of physics nevei bieak uown. Foi example, theie aie no singulaiities in this
spacetime baseu mouel of the univeise. All the steps aie conceptually unueistanuable anu
accessible to physicists touay. Planck spacetime is as homogeneous as quantum mechanics
allows, so theie is no neeu foi inflation to expanu spacetime to achieve local homogeneity.

Unity and Entanglement Revisited: It was pieviously pioposeu that quantizeu waves in
spacetime such as iotais anu photons can have inteinal communication fastei than the speeu
of light. This piopeity also extenus to communication between two entangleu photons oi
iotais. No infoimation can be imposeu on this inteinal communication so theie is no violation
of the piohibition against fastei than light communication. Still theie is a question about how
spacetime accomplishes the fastei than speeu of light inteinal communication. 0ne possibility
is that this inteinal communication might be taking place at the speeu of light chaiacteiistic of
Planck spacetime. This speeu woulu be about 2.6 x 1u
S1
times fastei than the piopei speeu of
light. At this speeu, inteinal communication within a photon uistiibuteu ovei one light yeai
woulu only take about 1u
24
seconu anu a CNB photon geneiateu S8u,uuu yeais aftei the Big
Bang woulu collapse within about 1u
14
seconus. The miciowave photons that make up the
CNB have a peak fiequency of about 1.6 x 1u
11
Bz. Theiefoie a collapse with a time uelay of
about 1u
14
s woulu meet the conuitions of being viitually instantaneous. Peihaps the inteinal
communication is actually instantaneous, but communication at 2.6 x 1u
S1
times fastei than c is
inuistinguishable fiom being instantaneous.

Are All Frames of Reference Really Equivalent? A basic assumption of ielativity is that all
fiames of iefeience aie equivalent. The CNB iest fiame is cleaily the piefeiieu fiame foi
cosmological puiposes, but the laws of physics aie piesumeu to woik equally well in all fiames
of iefeience. Expeiimental obseivations have not uetecteu any piefeience foi fiames of
iefeience, but uoes this mean that ultiaielativistic fiames ielative to the CNB iest fiame aie
14-30
equivalent. Recall that in chapteis 4 anu 11 the subject of the spectial eneigy uensity of zeio
point eneigy (quantizeu haimonic oscillatois) was uiscusseu. It was stateu:

S
uepenuence of spectial eneigy uensity is unique in as
much as motion thiough this spectial uistiibution uoes not piouuce a uetectable
Bopplei shift. It is a Loientz invaiiant ianuom fielu. Any paiticulai spectial
component unueigoes a Bopplei shift, but othei components compensate so
that all components taken togethei uo not exhibit a Bopplei shift.

Theie is one pioblem with this concept. vacuum fluctuations have a cutoff fiequency equal to
Planck fiequency
p
. If this cutoff fiequency is symmetiical when vieweu fiom the CNB iest
fiame, then theie must be an ultiaielativistic fiame of iefeience (ielative to the CNB) wheie
the asymmetiy becomes obvious. An example will help to uefine this question. We can
cuiiently acceleiate an election to eneigy of Su uev. This is a ielativistic Loientz factoi of
= 1u
S
ielative to the CNB iest fiame. Bowevei, a fiame of iefeience with = 1u
S
uoes not
come close to testing the questions ielateu to the limits of extieme ultia ielativistic fiames of
iefeience. Imagine an election with an ultiaielativistic speeu with = 2.4 x 1u
22
as seen fiom
the CNB iest fiame. This is the Loientz factoi wheie the elections ue Bioglie wavelength
u

woulu be shoitei than Planck length (
u
=
c
appioximation valiu when >>1). This is veiy
close to the speeu of light but it uoes not equal the speeu of light. Theiefoie, it is hypothetically
a peimitteu fiame of iefeience foi an election.

Bowevei, in the CNB iest fiame the election woulu have a ue Bioglie wavelength less than
Planck length anu ue Bioglie fiequency exceeuing Planck fiequency. Accoiuing to the piemise
of this book, spacetime is not capable of piouucing this wavelength anu fiequency. Also, in the
elections fiame of iefeience theie woulu be an extieme ieushift in one uiiection of the uipole
waves in spacetime iequiieu to stabilize the eneigy uensity (piessuie) of the election. This
ieushift woulu pievent the vacuum eneigy fiom exeiting the piessuie iequiieu to stabilize an
election in this fiame of iefeience. If the univeise is only spacetime, then this fiame of
iefeience is not peimitteu foi an election. Instability woulu appeai as an election appioacheu
the Planck lengthfiequency limit as seen fiom the CNB iest fiame. The election woulu exhibit
piopeities in this ultiaielativistic fiame of iefeience that the election uoes not possess in the
CNB iest fiame. 0thei paiticles woulu exhibit unusual piopeities anu instabilities at uiffeient
ultiaielativistic fiames ielative to the CNB iest fiame. This is just one example wheie the
finite fiequency spectium of vacuum eneigy affects the piopeities of funuamental paiticles in
ultiaielativistic fiames (ielative to the CNB). Also, if all fiames of iefeience aie not
equivalent, then this unueimines one of the staiting assumptions of stiing theoiy.

The Fate of the Universe: The cuiiently accepteu mouel of the univeise has mysteiious uaik
eneigy becoming moie uominant anu acceleiating the expansion of the univeise until we lose
sight of uistant galaxies. In the most extieme extension of this piocess, a Big Rip eventually
14-31
occuis when the expansion becomes so extieme that giavitationally bounu objects such as
galaxies anu stais aie uispeiseu by the expansion of space. Finally even atoms aie iippeu apait
anu the univeise uies as subatomic paiticles aie eventually conveiteu to photons.

The mouel pioposeu heie has not been uevelopeu sufficiently to have a cleai pieuiction about
the eventual fate of the univeise. Bowevei, as pieviously explaineu, the neai teim (a few
billion yeais) has uistant galaxies getting uimmei but also the cuiiently obseiveu ieushift of
any paiticulai uistant galaxy will ueciease. This countei intuitive pieuiction is actually a
continuation of the piocess that has occuiieu thioughout the histoiy of the univeise.

0vei the longei teim the spacetime tiansfoimation mouel of the univeise offeis an intiiguing
possibility. The total eneigy uensity of the univeise (obseivable eneigy + vacuum eneigy)
iemains the same ovei the lifetime of the univeise. Piesently obseivable eneigy (incluuing
uaik mattei) iepiesents only about 1 pait in 1u
122
of the total eneigy in the univeise. As
pieviously explaineu, we only can obseive (inteiact with) waves in spacetime that possess
quantizeu angulai momentum (feimions anu bosons). Fuitheimoie, the fiaction of the total
eneigy that possesses angulai momentum (1u
122
) is uiopping uaily anu the iate of change of
u
u
u
u
appeais to be acceleiating.

If funuamental paiticles eventually uecay into photons in the fai uistant futuie of the univeise,
then an intiiguing possibility exists. When the quantizeu angulai momentum of the photons
becomes homogeneously uistiibuteu thioughout the univeise, then this conuition of spacetime
begins to look like Planck spacetime. The eneigy uensity is the same anu the aveiage
uistiibution of the quantizeu angulai momentum is the same. The majoi uiffeience is that
Planck spacetime has
u
= 1 anu this final state of the univeise has
u
appioaching infinity.

Peihaps the obseivable eneigy of the univeise (photons) becomes such a small fiaction of the
total eneigy uensity that quantum mechanics allows the backgiounu gamma of the univeise to
iounu off to
u
= . The iate of time woulu stop anu the hybiiu speeu of light woulu stop. This
is a uiscontinuity that woulu allow a iebiith of the univeise. All that has to happen is that the
backgiounu gamma of the univeise has to change fiom
u
= to
u
= 1. No collapse is
iequiieu because the univeise is alieauy at the iequiieu eneigy uensity. Also, the iequiieu
quantizeu spin units woulu be pieseiveu. All that has to change is the iate of time anu the
spatial chaiacteiistics must ieveit back to the
u
= 1 conuition. This woulu piouuce Planck
spacetime anu the univeise woulu stait a new cycle with a new Big Bang.

________________________________________________

14-32

Personal Note: While woiking on the iueas containeu in this book, theie weie times that I
questioneu whethei I shoulu be unueitaking this laige pioject. Was theie ieally a conceptually
unueistanuable solution to a paiticulai pioblem. Why shoulu I be the one attempting to finu
this solution. At those times I thought about anu ieceiveu encouiagement fiom the following
quote by }ohn Aichibalu Wheelei. Pieuicting a new ievolution in physics, he saiu:

Anu when it comes, will we not say to each othei, 0h, how beautiful anu simple it all is!
Bow coulu we evei have misseu it so long.


PS This book was maue available online fiee of chaige in the hopes that ieaueis woulu give feeuback.
Please senu youi comments to: johnonlyspacetime.com

15-1
Chaptei 1S

Equations anu Befinitions

Properties of a Single Rotar
B
=
L
p
R
q
= T
p
c
=
_
0m
2
c
=
m
m
p
=
L
i
L
p
=
o
c
o
p
=
[
q
=
_
P
c
P
p
B
= iotai stiain amplituue

R
q
=
mc
=
c
o
c
=
c
L
i
=
L
p
2
R
s
=
L
p
H
R
q
= quantum iauius
c
=
mc
2
=
c
R
q
=
c
x
c
= B
p

c
= Compton angulai fiequency
E
i
= mc
2
=
c
=
c
R
q
=
P
c
o
c
= F
m
R
q
= B
E
p
E
i
= inteinal eneigy
m =
L
i
c
2
=
R
q
c
=
o
c
c
2
= T
p
2
c
Z
s
= B
m
p
m = iotai mass
P
c
= E
i

c
=
c
2
=
L
i
2
=
c
2
R
q
2
=
m
2
c
4
= B
2
P
p
P
c
= ciiculating powei
F
m
=
m
2
c
3
=
c
R
q
2
=
o
c
2
c
= B
2
F
p
F
m
= maximum foice at uistance R
q

0
q
=
L
i
R
q
3
=
m
4
c
S
3
=
u
g
2
u
= B
4
0
p
0
q
= quantum volume eneigy uensity
q
=
um
2
c
= B
2

q
= giavitational magnituue at quantum iauius
J =
R
q
=
mc
J = uistance (i) fiom a iotai expiesseu as the numbei of R

q
units
B
e
=

uL
p
R
q
2

= o
H
J
2
B
e
= electiomagnetic stanuing wave stiain amplituue oscillating
at
c

B
E
=
o
L
p
= o
E
[
J
B
E
= electiomagnetic nonoscillating stiain amplituue
B
g
=
L
p
2
2
=
E
[
2
J
2
B
g
= giavitational stanuing wave stiain amplituue oscillating at 2
c

B
u
= =
0m
c
2
r
=
H
2
J
B
u
= giavitational nonoscillating stiain amplituue
B
f
=
L
p
B
f
= hypothetical funuamental amplituue befoie cancelation

5 Wave-Amplitude Equations
J

= k B
2

2
Z J = intensity (wm
2
)
0

= k B
2

2
Zc = " 0 = eneigy uensity (}m
S
) (0 = Jc) anu 0 = "
E

= k B
2

2
Z vc E = eneigy (}) (E = Jvc)
P

= k B
2

2
Z A P = powei (}s) (P = JA)
F

= k B
2

2
Z Ac F = foice (N) (F = JAc)
15-2

Planck Units
l
p
= Planck length l
p
= t
p
c = uc
3
1.616 x 1u
SS
m
m
p
= Planck mass m
p
= cu

2.176 x 1u
8
kg
t
p
= Planck time t
p
= l
p
c = uc
5
S.S91 x 1u
44
s
Q
p
= Planck chaige Q
p
= eo = 4
o
c

1.876 x 1u
18
Coulomb
E
p
= Planck eneigy E
p
= m
p
c
2
= c
5
u

1.9S6 x 1u
9
}
p
p
= 1t
p
= c
5
u

1.8SS x 1u
4S
s
1

F
p
= Planck foice F
p
= E
p
l
p
= c
4
u 1.21u x 1u
44
N
P
p
= Planck powei P
p
= E
p
t
p
= c
S
u S.628 x 1u
S2
w
p
p
= Planck momentum p
p
= m
p
c = c
3
u 6.S2S kg ms
0
p
p
= E
p
l
p
S
= c
7
u
2
4.6S6 x 1u
11S
}m
S

"
p
= Planck piessuie "
p
= F
p
l
p
2
= c
7
u
2
4.6S6 x 1u
11S
Nm
2
(= 0
p
)
T
p
= Planck tempeiatuie T
p
= E
p
k
B
= c
5
0k
B
2
1.417 x 1u
S2
K
A
p
= Planck acceleiation A
p
= ct
p
= c
7
0 S.S7S x 1u
S1
ms
2

p
= Planck uensity
p
= m
p
l
p
S
= c
S
u
2
S.1SS x 1u
96
kgm
S

v
p
= Planck electiical potential v
p
= E
p
Q
p
= c
4
4
o
u 1.u4S x 1u
27
v
Z
p
p
= Q
p
2
= 14
o
c 29.98

Properties of Spacetime
Z
s
=
c
3
u
= 4.uS8 x 1u
SS
kgs Z
s
= impeuance of spacetime
K
s
=
P
p
x
2
K
s
= bulk mouulus of spacetime (K
A"
Av v
)
0
i
=
c
2
o
2
u
=
P
p
x
2
= _
o
o
p
]
2
u
p
0
i
= inteiactive eneigy uensity of spacetime
B
max
=
L
p
x
= T
p
B
max
= maximum uisplacement amplituue of a uipole wave in spacetime

Gravitational and (excludes cosmology equalities)

dt
d:
=
1
_1-[
2Gm
c
2
R

=
1
1 [
= giavitational gamma
= 1 +
um
c
2
= 1 + (weak giavity appioximations)

1
d:
dt
= 1 -_1
20m
c
2
R
= 1 1 = giavitational magnituue
=
um
c
2
=
g
c
2
=
R
s
(weak giavity appioximation)
q
= B
2
=
um
2
c

q
= giavitational magnituue in a iotai at R
q

15-3

Acceleration Equations
g = c
2
[
d[
d
= c
2

d[
d
dt
d
g = giavitational acceleiation
g
q
=
H
3
c
1
p
= A
g
B

= B
S
A
p
=
uc
2
m
3
2
g
q
= giavitational acceleiation at R
q

A
g
= B
c
c = L
p
c
2
=
g
q
H
= B
2
A
p
=
_
m
4
c
S
G
3
A
g
= giav acceleiation (insiue iotai)

Normalized Transformations (assumes proper length is coordinate length)
L
o
= L
g
unit of length
T
o
= T
g
unit of time
N
o
= N
g
unit of mass
Q
o
= Q
g
chaige (coulombs)
o
=
g
tempeiatuie
C
o
= C
g
noimalizeu speeu of light
uL = uR ciicumfeiential iauius
E
o
= E
g
eneigy
v
o
= v
g
velocity
F
o
= F
g
foice
P
o
=
2
P
g
powei
u
o
=
S
u
g
giavitational constant
0
o
= 0
g
eneigy uensity
"
o
= "
g
piessuie
o
=
g
uensity
o
=
g
fiequency
k
o
= k
g
Boltzmanns constant
o
=
2

g
StefanBoltzmann constant

o
=
g
electiical cuiient
v
o
= v
g
electiical potential
oo
=
og
peimittivity of vacuum
oo
=

og
peimeability of vacuum
p
o
= p
g
momentum
o
=
g
fine stiuctuie constant
o
=
g
electiical iesistance
B
o
= B
g
magnetic flux uensity
Z
oo
= Z
og
Z
so
= Z
sg
impeuance of spacetime

Transformation of Standard Units into Spacetime Units

uL
p
c
=
_
1
4ns
c
P
p
= 8.617 x 1u
18
meteisCoulomb = chaige conveision constant
Name Spacetime Conversion
Elementaiy chaige (e) e = oL
p
= o cT
p

Planck chaige (q
p
) q
p

= L
p

o
) 14
o
2
= cZ
s

Peimeability of fiee space (
o
)
o
4
2
= Z
s
c
Electiic fielu of EN iauiation (E
) E
= BZ
s
Z
o
= BZ
s

Nagnetic fielu of EN iauiation (H
) H
= BZ
s
Z
o
= B
Impeuance of fiee space (Z
o
) Z
o
2

= 4 Z
s

Planck impeuance (Z
p
) Z
p
2
= Z
s

Plancks constant () = c
2
T
p
2
Z
s
= L
p
2
Z
s

uiavitational constant (u) u = c
S
Z
s

The Universe is Only Spacetime 2012 john@macken.com
15-4

Transformation of Planck Units into Spacetime Units

Planck 0nits Stanuaiu Conveision Spacetime Conveision
Planck length l
p
= 0 c
3
l
p
= cT
p

Planck mass m
p
= cu m
p
= Z
s
T
p

Planck fiequency
p
= c
5
u
p
= 1T
p

Planck impeuance Z
p
= 14
o
c Z
p
= Z
s

Planck chaige q
p
= 4
o
c

q
p
= cT
p
Planck eneigy E
p
= c
5
u E
p
= c
2
T
p
Z
s

Planck foice F
p
= c
4
u F
p
= cZ
s

Planck powei P
p
= c
S
u P
p
= c
2
Z
s

Planck eneigy uensity 0
p
= c
7
u
2
0
p
= Z
s
cT
p
2

Some Useful Dimensional Analysis Conversions
Bimensional Analysis Symbols:
0 - NLT
2
0 = eneigy uensity N = mass
u - L
S
NT
2
u = giavitational constant L = length
- NL
2
T = Planck constant T = time
Z
s
- NT Z
s
= impeuance of spacetime Q = chaige
Z
o
- NL
2
TQ
2
Z
o
= impeuance of fiee space
o
- T
2
Q
2
NL
S

o
= peimittivity
o
- NLQ
2

o
= peimeability
E - NL T
2
Q E = electiic fielu
H - QLT H = magnetic fielu stiength
v - NL
2
T
2
Q v = electiical potential
B - NTQ B = magnetic inuuction
- NL
2
TQ
2
= iesistance

15-5
Cosmology
u
(t) = a
u
(t) =
dt
d:
u

u
= backgiounu gamma of the univeise
C =
c
u
2
(t)
=
dR
dt
C = cooiuinate speeu of light in the univeise
C
dR
d:
u
= c
u
C = hybiiu speeu of light

J =
dc
u
d
u
u
c
=
d
u
d
u
uc
oi J =
u
u
u
c
=

u
uc
J = Bubble paiametei
u
(t) =
u
u
(t)
u
p
=
dL
dR

x
2
x
1
=

u1
u2
=
u
2
u
1
=
u
2
u
1
= 1 + z
0
ps
0
cbs
=
uo
S
x
eq

0
ps
0
cbs
= eneigy uensity iatio Planck spacetime obseivable
0
ps
[
3
8n
[
c
u
2
= S.SS x 1u
112
}m
S
0
ps
= Planck spacetime eneigy uensity

Cosmic Transformations Relative to Planck Spacetime
R
1
=
u
L
u
cosmological unit of length tiansfoimation
T
1
= T
u
u

cosmological unit of time tiansfoimation
N
1
= N
u
u

cosmological unit of mass tiansfoimation
Z
s1
= Z
su
cosmological impeuance of spacetime tiansfoimation
E
1
=
u
S
E
u
cosmological unit of eneigy tiansfoimation
0
1
= 0
u
cosmological unit of eneigy uensity tiansfoimation
Q
1
=
u
Q
u
cosmological unit of chaige tiansfoimation
C
1
=
u
2
C
u
cosmological cooiuinate speeu of light tiansfoimation

Characteristics of an Electron
B
= 4.18S1 x 1u
2S
B
= stiain amplituue
R
q
= S.8616 x 1u
1S
m R
q
= quantum iauius
c
= 7.76S4 x 1u
2u
s
1

c
= Compton angulai fiequency
c
= 1.2SS6 x 1u
2u
Bz
c
= Compton fiequency
E
i
= 8.1871 x 1u
14
} E
i
= inteinal eneigy
m
e
= 9.1u94 x 1u
S1
kg m
e
= elections mass
e = 1.6u22 x 1u
19
Coulomb e = elementaiy chaige
P
c
= 6.SS6u x 1u
7
w P
c
= ciiculating powei
F
m
= u.212u1 N F
m
= maximum foice at uistance of R
q

R
s
= 6.76SS x 1u
S8
R
s
= classical Schwaizschilu iauius
0 = E
i
R
q
S
= 1.4218 x 1u
24
}m
S
0 = eneigy uensity (cubic ignoies constant)
0 = (S4)E
i
R
q
S
= S.S942 x 1u
2S
}m
S
0 = eneigy uensity (spheiical)
A
q
= 9.74u4 x 1u
6
ms
2
A
g
= giav acceleiation at centei of quantum volume
g
q
= 4.u764 x 1u
16
ms
2
g
q
= giavitational acceleiation at R
q

15-6
Symbol Definitions (Roman alphabet):

a
o
= cosmological comoving scale factoi at the piesent time
a
p
= cosmological scale factoi of Planck spacetime (when t
u
= 1)
a
u
= cosmological scale factoi of the univeise ielative to Planck spacetime
a
em
= cosmological scale factoi at emission
a
obs
= cosmological scale factoi at obseivation
A
g
= iotais giav acceleiation at the centei of the quantum volume
A
o
= oiiginal aiea befoie stiess applieu in Youngs mouulus uefinition
B = magnetic inuuction
B
o
anu B
g
= noimalizeu magnetic flux uensity
c = speeu of light (S x 1u
8
ms)
C
o
= noimalizeu speeu of light in zeio giavity C
o
= c
C
g
= noimalizeu speeu of light in giavity C
o
= C
g

C
i
= speeu of light in the iauial uiiection ielative to C
o

C
t
= speeu of light in the tangential uiiection ielative to C
o

C = hybiiu cooiuinate speeu of light C = uRu
u

C
u
= cosmological cooiuinate speeu of light C
u
= uRut = c
u
2
C
1
= cosmological cooiuinate speeu of light foi
u
= 1
C
T
= cooiuinate speeu of light in the tangential uiiection (Schwaizschilu metiic uR = u)
C
R
= cooiuinate speeu of light in the iauial uiiection (Schwaizschilu metiic u = u)
u
m
= uipole moment
e = elementaiy electiical chaige (e = 1.6 x 1u
19
coulomb)
E = eneigy
E = eneigy in Planck units E = EE
p

E = electiic fielu
E
= electiic fielu stiength in EN iauiation

E
i
= inteinal eneigy foi a paiticle: E
i
= mc
2
=
c

E
p
= Planck eneigy E
p
= c
5
u = 1.9S6 x 1u
9
}
E
E
= eneigy in the electiic fielu exteinal to i foi chaige e E
E
= c2i
E
el
= elastic potential eneigy in the context of bulk mouulus
E
g
= eneigy of the mass in giavity but measuieu using the zeio giavity stanuaiu of eneigy
E
g
= noimalizeu eneigy of an object in giavity but measuieu using zeio giavity stanuaius
E
k
= kinetic eneigy of mass falling fiom zeio giavity to uistance i fiom mass N
E
o
= eneigy of a mass in zeio giavity measuieu using the zeio giavity stanuaiu of eneigy
E
y
= Youngs mouulus E
y
= stiessstiain = FL
o
A
o
L
E
u
= Cosmological unit of eneigy foi
u
> 1
E
1
= Cosmological unit of eneigy foi
u
= 1
F = foice
F
e
= electiomagnetic foice assumes chaige e paiticles F
e
= e
2
4
o
i
2
F
e
= electiomagnetic foice

in uimensionless Planck units assumes Planck chaige paiticles
F
E
= electiomagnetic foice assumes Planck chaige paiticles F
e
= q
p
2
4
o
i
2

F
E
= electiomagnetic foice

in uimensionless Planck units assumes chaige e paiticles
F
g
= giavitational foice F
g
= (u mN)i
2
F
g
= giavitational foice in Planck units
15-7
F
g
= noimalizeu foice in giavity but using zeio giavity stanuaius (note symbol uuplication)
F
o
= noimalizeu foice in zeio giavity
F
m
= maximum foice possible at a uistance of R
q
= m
2
c
S

F
s
= the stiong foice at uistance R
q

F
p
= Planck foice F
p
= c
4
u F
p
= 1.21u x 1u
44
N
F
i
= ielativistic foice F
i
= Pc
F
w
= weak foice at uistance R
q

g = acceleiation of giavity
u = giavitational constant
u
o
anu u
g
= noimalizeu giavitational constant using zeio giavity stanuaius
g
oo
, g
11
, g
22
, g
SS
= geneial ielativity matiix coefficients
B = wave amplituue
H = magnetic fielu stiength
H
= magnetic fielu stiength in EN iauiation

J = Bubble paiametei cuiiently J = 2.29 x 1u
18
msm
h = Planck constant h = 6.626 x 1u
S4
} s
= ieuuceu Planck constant: h bai = = h2 = 1.uSS x 1u
S4
} s
B
f
= funuamental amplituue of a spacetime wave piioi to any cancellation B
f
= L
p
i
B
= stiain amplituue in the quantum volume of a iotai

B
e
= wave amplituue iequiieu foi a iotais electiomagnetic chaiacteiistics at R
q

B
g
= amplituue of the nonlineai wave at uistance R
q
(B
g
= B
2
)
B
w
= speculative amplituue of the weak foice
B
e
= amplituue of the wave iesponsible foi electiic fielu of chaige e

B
e
= o L
p
R
q
i
2

B
eq
= electiic fielu stanuing wave amplituue at uistance R
q
B
eq
= o L
p
R
q

B
gw
= amplituue of a giavitational wave (B
gw
= 2 LL = k u
2
" c
4
i)
B
max
= maximum stiain amplituue peimitteu foi a uipole wave
J = intensity
" = moment of ineitia
k = uimensionless constants (k
1
, k
2
, etc.)
k = S8 (a constant useu in cosmology)
K
b
= bulk mouulus
k
B
= Boltzmann constant = 1.S8 x 1u
2S
}m
S
K
B
= bulk mouulus
K
p
= Planck bulk mouulus = c
7
u
2
K
s
= bulk mouulus of spacetime: K
s
= F
p
2
= F
p
(c)
2

L = uimensional analysis symbol iepiesenting length
L
g
= noimalizeu length uL
g
= cu
L
o
= noimalizeu length uL
o
= cut
L
o
= in the context of Youngs mouulus, L
o
is the oiiginal length befoie stiess
L = angulai momentum
L
o
anu L
g
= noimalizeu angulai momentum
L
i
& L
t
= piopei length in the iauial oi tangential uiiection iespectively
l
p
= Planck length = uc
3
= 1.616 x 1u
SS
m (a static unit of length)
L
p
= uynamic Planck length (wave amplituue of l
p
)
L
u
= cosmological unit of length foi
u
> 1
15-8

m = mass
m = mass in uimensionless Planck units
m
p
= Planck mass m
p
= cu = 2.176 x 1u
8
kg
m
e
= mass of an election = 9.1u94 x 1u
S1
kg
m
i
= pseuuo iest mass when inuex of iefiaction n > 1
N = uimensional analysis symbol iepiesenting mass
N
o
anu N
g
= noimalizeu unit of mass
N
u
= cosmological unit of mass foi
u
> 1
N
1
= cosmological unit of mass foi
u
= 1
N = an integei numbei
J = the uistance between two iotais expiesseu as a multiple of R
q
(numbei of R
q
units)
n
k
= the inuex of iefiaction which incluues the optical Keii effect contiibution
n
o
= the inuex of iefiaction at zeio intensity
p = momentum
p
p
= Planck momentum p
p
= m
p
c = c
3
u = 6.S2S kg ms
P = powei
P
c
= a Paiticles ciiculating powei P
c
= E
i

c
P
c
= ciiculating powei in Planck units
" = piessuie
"
p
= Planck piessuie "
p
= c
7
u
2
= 4.6S6 x 1u
11S
Nm
2
(= 0
p
)
P
p
= Planck powei P
p
= c
S
u
"
q
= piessuie geneiateu by a iotai "
q
=(
c
4
c
S
)= E
i
R
q
S
= 0
q

q = electiical chaige
Q
o
, & Q
g
= uimensional analysis units of chaige useu in vaiious tiansfoimations
Q
1
= cosmological unit of chaige foi
u
= 1
Q
u
= cosmological unit of chaige foi
u
> 1
q
p
4ne
o
c = eo = 11.7e = 1.876 x 1u
18
Coulomb
i = iauial uistance (piopei length)
R = ciicumfeiential iauius fiom geneial ielativity (ciicumfeience2)
R = a unit of cooiuinate length peitaining to cosmology u R = uL
u

u

R
1
= cosmological unit of length foi
u
= 1
i
h
= iauius of the Bubble spheie
i
ph
= iauius of the paiticle hoiizon
R
s
= classical Schwaizschilu iauius: R
s
= umc
2

i
s
= ielativistic Schwaizschilu iauius i
s
= 2umc
2

R
q
quantum iauius of a iotai R
q
mc
R
q
= quantum iauius R
q
in Planck units R
q
= R
q
l
p

t = eithei time oi cooiuinate time (uepenus on context)
t
c
= time inuicateu on the cooiuinate clock
T = uimensional analysis symbol iepiesenting time
T = tempeiatuie
T
g
= noimalizeu unit of time in giavity
T
o
= noimalizeu unit of time in zeio giavity
T
u
= cosmological unit of time foi
u
> 1
15-9
T
1
= cosmological unit of time foi
u
= 1
t
p
= Planck time t
p
= uc
5

= S.S91 x 1u
44
s
T
p
= uynamic Planck time (a wave amplituue with uimension of Plank time)
T
p
= Planck tempeiatuie = E
p
k
B
=1.4168 x 1u
S2
K
u
u
= ue Bioglie wave gioup velocity u
u
= v
0 = eneigy uensity
0
el
= eneigy uensity of elastic potential eneigy (bulk mouulus)
0
i
= inteiactive eneigy uensity encounteieu by a wave in spacetime 0
i
= c
2
2
u =
(
p
)
2
0
p

0
o
= eneigy uensity in cooiuinate units (assumes = 1)
0
g
= eneigy uensity in a location with giavity ( > 1)
0
u
= eneigy uensity in the univeise when
u
> 1
0
p
p
= c
7
u
2
= 4.6S6 x 1u
11S
}m
S

0
ps
= eneigy uensity of Planck spacetime 0
ps
= (S8)(c
7
u
2
) = S.SS x 1u
112
}m
S
0
q
= eneigy uensity of a iotai

0
q
= E
i
R
q
S
= (
c
4
c
S
) = "
q

0
u
= cosmological unit of eneigy uensity foi
u
> 1
0
1
= cosmological unit of eneigy uensity foi
u
= 1
v = velocity
v
e
= escape velocity v
e
= (2umR)
12

v= volume anu Electiical potential
v
q
= quantum volume v
q
= (4S) R
q
S

v
p
= Planck electiical potential v
p
= E
p
Q
p
= c4
o
u
w
u

= ue Bioglie wave phase velocity w
u

= c
2
v
w
m
= velocity of the mouulation wave envelope (moving iesonatoi) w
m

= c
2
v
= maximum uisplacement piouuceu by uipole wave in spacetime
z = cosmological ieushift
z
eq
= cosmological ieushift since the iauiationmattei equality tiansition
eq
=
u
Z = impeuance
Z
s
= spacetime impeuance Z
s
= c
S
u
Z
s1
= cosmological impeuance of spacetime foi
u
= 1
Z
su
=

cosmological impeuance of spacetime foi
u
> 1
Z
e
= electiomagnetic impeuance of fiee space Z
e
= S77
Z
a
= acoustic impeuance Z
a
= c
a
(uensity x speeu of sounu)
Z
oo
= noimalizeu impeuance of fiee space (zeio giavity)
Z
og
= noimalizeu impeuance of fiee space (in giavity)
Z
p
p
= 14
o
c = 29.98

15-10
uieek Symbols
= fine stiuctuie constant = e
2
4
o
c = 11S7
= giavitational magnituue 1 (1 2umc
2
R)
12
= 1 1 = 1 uut = gmc
2
i
q
= giavitational magnituue at uistance R
q

q
= B
2
= um
2
c
u
= backgiounu giavitational magnituue of the univeise
u
=1 1
u
= 1 u
u
ut
=

giavitational gamma = (12umic
2
)
12

q
= giavitational gamma at uistance of R
q
(
q
1) = (um
2
c)
u
= backgiounu giavitational gamma of the univeise
u
= utu
u
= a
u
a
p

uo
= the cuiient value of
u
wheie
uo
= 2.6 x 1u
S1

obs
=
u
at the time an obseivation of a photon is maue
em
=
u
at the time of emission of a photon
eq
=
u
= special ielativity gamma = (1 v
2
c
2
)
12

= asymmetiy of an object unifoim spheie has = u, two equal point masses have = 1
o
= peimittivity of vacuum
= spin axis piobability
a
= acoustic amplituue (paiticle uisplacement)
o
anu
g
= noimalizeu tempeiatuie
= angle symbol
= wavelength
= ieuuceu wavelength: lambua bai = = 2 = c
u
= Be Bioglie wavelength
u
= hmv
uu
= wavelength of confineu photon in moving fiame of iefeience (ielativistic contiaction)
m
= mouulation envelope wavelength;
m
=
o
cv
c
= Compton wavelength
c
= mc
o
= oiiginal wavelength oi wavelength in zeio giavity
g
= wavelength in giavity (blue shifteu)
em
&
obs
= wavelength at emission anu obseivation iespectively
= wavelength of confineu light (chaptei 1)

= wavelength of light when measuieu in units of cooiuinate length.
= cosmological constant
= fiequency
c
= Compton fiequency
c
= mc
2
h
obs
&
em
= cosmological obseiveu fiequency & emitteu fiequency
= mattei uensity
p
= Planck uensity
p
= c
S
u
2

= StefanBoltzmann constant

= piopei time time inteival on a local clock
u
= time inuicateu on the uipole clock
obs
= (cosmological) piopei age of the univeise at the time an obseivation is maue
em
= (cosmological) piopei age of the univeise at the time of emission of a photon
u
= (cosmological) piopei age of the universe at aibitiaiy time (cosmic time)
uo
= (cosmological) cuiient piopei age of the univeise (cosmic time)
u
= (cosmological) age of the univeise in nonuimensional Planck units
u
=
u
t
p

J = emission lifetime
15-11
= uistance in comoving cooiuinates
= psi function
= angulai fiequency
c
= Compton angulai fiequency of a Paiticle (
c
= mc
2
)
c
= Compton angulai fiequency in Planck units
c
=
c
p
p
= c
5
u

= 1.8SS x 1u
4S
s
1

= a soliu angle in a spheiical cooiuinate system (u
2
= u
2
+ sin
2
u
2
)
= symbol iepiesenting electiical iesistance
N
= mattei uensity paiametei
= cosmological constant uensity paiametei

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= wavelength of confineu light

Now we can write the wave as

Where it is understood that the physical wave is the real part

related to x and t via the following Lorentz

= a and the other at the position

= b. The distance between these features is L = ba. The

So the distance between the features has been contracted by

We see that the frequency and wavenumber of the plane wave

anu = 1 + weak giavity appioximations

= p = u). This conclusion ultimately follows fiom

which is the stiess eneigy tensoi with units of

. Theiefoie the emission of this photon impaits the same magnituue of

: The stiain amplituue of the wave uepicteu in figuies SS anu S4 is

of the uipole wave can also be expiesseu these

, fiequency, mass, quantum iauius (inveise), eneigy,

= stiain amplituue in the

, but this is offset

of the spacetime wave insiue the

. This symbol was chosen because it is amplituue that affects the

that iepiesents the stiain amplituue of a iotai

has the following equalities:

foi an election, muon anu the tauon aie:

= 1 anu squaie both siues

= 1 also has a ciiculating powei

= electiic fielu stiength at fiequency

is a numbei veiy close to zeio anu any

as the substitution of the wave amplituue foi the maximum

to the foices between two of the same iotais sepaiateu by uistance R

into the above equations.

is iaiseu to highei poweis, but these woulu be so small

is ioughly in the iange of 1u

= u.2. In this case the uiffeience between B

. Recall that spacetime is a nonlineai meuium foi Planck amplituue

while the noniotating giavitational

is just in the foim of a iotating iate of time

so that it also uefines iotating iate of time giauients anu

anu the magnetic fielu as H

= Electiic fielu of EN iauiation expiesseu utilizing B, , Z

= magnetic fielu of EN iauiation obtaineu fiom H

= electiic fielu stiength of EN iauiation

= magnetic fielu stiength of EN iauiation

coheient photons in maximum confinement

photons) piouuce uisplacement amplituue of

photons) woulu piouuce a path length uiffeience between the

anu J teims which both have a fiequency uepenuence (B

J = V. Beie is the ieasoning.

J between iotais with chaige e.

J looks similai to the funuamental amplituue

J = v. This in tuin affects the

This is the same foi all iotais with chaige e

J. Pieviously the eneigy in a iotais exteinal volume

Function: It is an axiom of quantum mechanics that the function has no physical

The Universe Is Only Spacetime 2012 john@onlyspacetime.com

The Universe Is Only Spacetime 2012 john@onlyspacetime.com

Energy Density and Pressure:In anearlierchaptertherelationshipbetweenenergydensity

The Universe Is Only Spacetime 2012 john@onlyspacetime.com

The Universe Is Only Spacetime 2012 john@onlyspacetime.com

Electron vs. Proton Size:Beforeproceedingtoofar,itisdesirabletodoacalculationtoseeif

We will first calculate the quantum radius R

Removal of a Quark from a Hadron:Inchapter7therewasadiscussionoftheasymptotic

Interactions Required for Stability:Asexplainedpreviouslywithchargedleptons,thebiggest

The Universe Is Only Spacetime 2012 john@onlyspacetime.com