Elements of Food Processing

ELEMENTS OF FOOD PROCESSING METHODS AND EQUIPMENT [Return to Index]
There are over 18,000 different food items in today's supermarkets, which are processed to a greater or lesser degree, and thousands of new products are introduced each year. Modern food processing has three major aims: 1. To make food safe (microbiologically, chemically). 2. To provide products of the highest quality (flavor, color,texture) 3. To make food into forms that are convenient (ease of use) The following table summarizes the item to be controlled and comments on the major approaches involved in this control. To be Controlled Heat Cold Chemicals Aw* Mechanical
MicroPrevents organisms growth
Reduces Preservagrowth rate tives retard growth Modify activity
Do not Reduces grow numbers below Aw of 0.6 Alters rate of enzyme increase ES complex
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.Enzymes
Destroyed Decrease by heat reaction activity rate
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activity Chemical Reactions Increases chemical rate, browning, oxidation Increases effects
rate Reduces reaction rate
enzyme activity
complex formation
May inhibit Can alter Not or activate rate of applicable reaction, especially oxidation High. Aw may cause caking Can destroy structures
Physical Structure
Decreases May effects modifiy structure
*Aw = water activity Safety: Insuring the safety of food involves careful control of the process from the farm gate to the consumer. Safety includes control of both chemical and microbiological characteristics of the product. Most processing places emphasis on microbial control, and often has as its objective the elimination of organisms or prevention of their growth. Processes that are aimed at prevention of growth include: Refrigeration Freezing Drying Control of water activity (addition of salt, sugars, polyols, etc.)
Processes that are aimed at minimizing organisms include:

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Pasteurization Sterilization (canning) Cleaning and sanitizing Membrane processing A further method of processing that is aimed at the control of undesirable microflora is the deliberated addition of microorganisms and the use of fermentation. Safety from a chemical viewpoint generally relates to keeping undesirable chemicals, such as pesticides, insecticides and antibiotics out of the food supply. Making sure that food products are free from extraneous mater (metal, glass, wood, etc.) is another facet of food safety. Quality: Quality of a food product involves maintenance (or improvement) of the key attributes of the product - including color, flavor and texture. To maintain quality it is important to control: microbiological spoilage enzymatic degradation chemical degradation Convenience: Today's consumers want food products that are convenient to use and still have all the qualities of a fresh product. UNIT OPERATIONS:
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Most food processing is comprised as a series of physical processes that can be broken down into a number of basic operations. The "unit operations" can stand alone and depend upon coherent physical principles. Unit operations include:
1. Fluid flow - moving a fluid product from one point to another with varying degrees of turbulence. 2. Heat transfer - in which heat is either removed or added and includes heating cooling refrigeration freezing 3. Contact equilibrium processes or mass transfer, which may or may not require a change in state. Generally a molecular species is transferred to or from a product. Processes that use mass transfer include distillation, gas absorption, crystallization, membrane processes, drying, evaporation. 4. Mechanical separation, such as filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation, sieving 5. Size adjustment either through size reductions (slicing, dicing, cutting, grinding) or size increase (aggregation, agglomeration, gelation). 6. Mixing - to make homogenous blends or dry or liquid ingredients. This may include solubilizing solids, preparing emulsions or foams - or - dry blending of ingredients such as for dry cake mixes. 7. Fermentation, while not a physical operation, is for the purpose of this course included as a unit operation. UNIT PROCESSES:
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Some food processing operations may utilize a single unit operation, but most food processing includes a combination of unit operations to achieve the total process. For example, the manufacture of a dried coffee whitener from a combination of fluid and dry ingredients includes the following unit operations in sequence: -Mixing -Fluid flow -Size reduction (homogenization) -Heat transfer (heating) -Fluid flow -Heat transfer (cooling) -Mass transfer (conversion of water to vapor during drying) Pasteurization of milk to destroy the most heat resistance vegetative pathogen includes the unit operations of fluid flow and heat transfer (both heating and cooling).
Some other examples of unit processes, and their associated unit operations include: -freeze drying (heat transfer, mass transfer) -extrusion (fluid flow, heat transfer, mass transfer, size reduction in the case of cereals and -snack foods)
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-ice cream manufacture is comprised of two unit processes: mix making (mixing, fluid flow, heat transfer, size reduction) freezing (fluid flow, heat transfer, mass transfer of air into the ice cream)
FOOD PROCESSING EQUIPMENT Fluid Flow: Transport of fluids is achieved either by gravity flow or through the use of pumps. In gravity flow the flow is "laminar", where the flow is transfer from the fluid to the wall between adjacent layers. Adjacent molecules do not mix. In most instances, however fluids are transported from one unit operation or process to another by pumps and in "turbulent" flow where there is mixing of adjacent particles. Two different types of pumps are commonly used for different purposes: The centrifugal pump utilizes a rotating impeller to create a centrifugal force within the pump cavity, so that the fluid is accelerated until it attains its tangential velocity close to the impeller tip. The flow is controlled by the choice of impeller diameter and rotary speed of the pump drive. The capacity of a centrifugal pump is dependent upon the speed, impeller length and the inlet and outlet diameters. Product viscosity is an important factor affecting centrifugal pump performance. If the product is sufficiently viscous, the pump cavity will not fill with every revolution and the efficiency of the pump will be greatly reduced. Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluid and for cleaning operations. Centrifugal pumps may be high speed or low speed, with high speed pumps being used for cleaning (CIP). . A positive pump generally consists of a reciprocating or rotating cavity between two lobes or gears and a rotor. Fluid enters by gravity or a difference in pressure and the fluid forms the seals between the rotating parts. The rotating move of the rotor produces the pressure to cause the fluid to flow. Because there is no frictional loss, positive pumps
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are used where a constant rate of flow is required (timing pump), for high viscosity fluids or for transporting fragile solids suspended in a fluid (such as moving cottage cheese curd from a vat to a filler). Mixing: An agitation device may be placed in a tank for a number of purposes. The mixing device may need to produce bulk circulation in the tank, a controlled velocity at some surface of the tank or a controlled rate of shear. Two major purposes of mixing are either heat transfer or ingredient incorporation. Different mixer configurations will be used to achieve different purposes. The efficiency of mixing will depend upon: -design of impeller -diameter of impeller speed -baffles Heat Transfer: Heat is either transferred into a product (heating) or removed from a product (cooling). Heating is used to destroy microorganisms to provide for a healthful food, prolong shelf life through the destruction of certain enzymes and to promote a product with acceptable taste odor and appearance. The factors that influence the heat transfer into or out of the product include: 1. Heat exchanger design 2. Heat transfer properties of the product a. specific heat (amount of heat required to change the temperature of a unit mass of product a specific temperature without change in state of the material) b. thermal conductivity (rate by which heat is transferred through a material) c. latent heat (heat required to change the state of a material) 3. Density (weight per unit volume)
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4. Method of heat transfer a. conduction (transfer from molecule to molecule through the material) b. radiation (transfer from electromagnetic radiation of a body due to the vibration of its molecules c. convection (transfer through movement of mass ) 5. Viscosity (related to the amount of force required to move the fluid product) A variety of heat exchanges are utilized in the food industry, which include: -plate heat exchanges -tubular heat exchanges -swept surface heat excahngers. Plate heat exchanges pass fluid over a plate where a heating or cooling medium is being passed up or down on the other side of the place. The thin film makes for rapid heat transfer and is the most efficient method of heat fluids of low viscosity. Tubular heat exchanges general are compose of a tube within a tube, in which product and heating or cooling medium are flowing in opposite (counter current) directions. This a low cost method of heating or cooling and is applicable to fluids of higher viscosities that generally passed through a plate heat exchanger. Swept surface heat exchanges have blades that scrape the surface of the heat exchanger and bring new product continuously to the heat or cooling surface. There are utilized for fluids of very high viscosity. An ice cream freezer is an example of a swept surface heat exchanger. Common unit processes that include heat transfer as a unit operation include: -Pasteurization (heat)
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-Sterilization (heat) -Drying (heat) -Separations (based on density, size or shape) -Evaporation (heat) -Refrigeration (cold) -Freezing (cold) Pasteurization: Pasteurization is a process of heating a product at a specific temperature for a controlled period of time to destroy the most heat resistant vegetative pathogenic organism. Originally developed for fluid dairy products, the process is also applied to other fluids, including fruit juices and juice products. In addition to destruction of microorganisms, pasteurization also achieves almost complete destruction of undesirable milk enzymes - such as lipase. Pasteurization was originally conducted in jacket vats equipped with an agitator to give compete mixing and the ability to heat and cool. For milk vat pasteurization required a heat treatment of 145F for 30 minutes, with the air space above the product being heated to a higher temperature to insure all molecules of the product were adequately pasteurized. The component parts of a vat pasteurizer are the tank body, heating/cooling channels; inlet port, outlet valve with leak detector; agitator and drive motor; product indicating thermometer; recording devices; air space heater and indicating thermometer; steam inlet and outlet, cooling water inlet and outlet. Next plate heat exchanger were used with a higher temperature and shorter time (161.5/15 seconds)being used to achieve the same bacterial destruction. This is called HTST pasteurization. To improve efficiency the cold milk is used to partially cool the pasteurized milk and the hot milk partially heats the cold milk in a processed call regeneration. In this section of the pasteurizer cold milk is on one side of the plate and the hot milk on the other. The component parts of an HTST pasteurizer include the balance tank, cold side of regenerator, timing pump, heating section, holding tube, flow diversion valve, hot side of regenerator, cooling section, controls.
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Ultra high temperature (UHT) pasteurization is achieved with plate heat exchanges operating at temperatures of at least 190 F for 2 seconds. The same principles are used as for HTST, except that higher temperatures are used and the equipment is designed for very rapid heating and cooling. Sterilization: The primary object of sterilization is to destroy the most heat resistant pathogenic spore forming organism Flame Sterilizer - conveyor, preheater, gas jets Still Retort - retort body, product basket, steam inlet, water inlet, pressure gage, pressure relief valve Hydraulic cooker = a continuous sterilizer, where the cans are rotating during the sterilization process Still Retort = A type of batch sterilizer used for canning food, where the cans are not in motion during the sterilization process.
Baking: Baking is the process by which moisture is removed from wheat based (or other cereal grain, products. Batch or continuous oven are utilized to heat the products resulting in an increase in volume of the product, gelatinization or starch of protein "elation to set the final structure of the product. Baking is an essential process for bread, cakes, cookies and crackers. A rotary oven is a fairly simple device which has a cabinet, oven trays, heating element, thermostat and temperature controls. Many commercial ovens are continuous in that the product moves though the oven on a continuous belt. Concentration: Concentration can be achieved through evaporation and through reverse osmosis. Evaporation generally involves heating the fluid in a vessel under vacuum to cause a change in state of water from liquid to vapor and then recovers of water by passing the vapor through a condenser. The component parts of the
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evaporator include an enclosed vessel with product inlet, manhole, heating rings, finished product outlet, condenser, steam inlet, vacuum and condenser pump. In some product evaporation causes the loss of flavor volatiles and this case, a low temperature unit is added to recover the flavor volatiles so that they can be added back to the product. To reduce operating costs, multiple effect evaporators are utilized, which have 2 or more evaporators placed in series to provide a means for the continuous concentration of a fluid product. This increases the efficiency of the evaporation process. Reverse osmosis (RO) is a process where the fluid is passed through a semi-permeable membrane with very small pores that permit only the transfer of water. Most systems consist a the membrane cast on a solid porous backing usually in the form of a tube. High pressure is applied to force the water (called permeate) through the membrane the concentrated fluid (called retentate) is retained in the tubing. The rate of water removal decreases as the fluid is concentrate, until it is no longer economically feasible to remove more water. Concentration is often used as a pre-step to drying to reduced the amount of water that needs to be removed in drying and reducing drying costs. Evaporation can achieve higher solids economically than can reserve osmosis. RO is preferred over evaporation for heat sensitive fluids. Drying: Three common methods of drying are: (a) sun or tray drying, (b) spray drying and (c) freeze drying. Sun or tray drying is least expensive, followed by spray drying and freeze drying. The drying method of choice is generally based on the characteristics of the product. Products that are already solid lend themselves to sun or tray drying. These include fruits and vegetables. The products may be dried by exposure to sun or place in trays and dried in a current of warm or hot air. Products that are very heat sensitive are freeze dried. Commercially only instant coffee is widely freeze dried. Some freeze dried fruits are beginning to reach the market, but these are in limited quantities. In freeze drying the moisture is removed without a phase change (sublimation). A freeze drying is comprised of a dryer cabinet; drying chamber with: heating/cooling shelves, trays and door; vacuum pump, condenser, controls and digital readout.
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The most common drying method is spray drying, which is applicable to fluid products. The bulk density (weight per unit volume) is controlled to a large extent by the solids that are sent to the dryer. A spray drying has an air inlet, air heater, drying chamber, inlet atomizer, cyclone chamber, cyclone separator, dry product collection vessel, hot air inlet and outlet, drying fan and motor, controls. There are several different designs of spray nozzles through which the fluid is atomized into the heated air. These generally are either centrifugal nozzles or high pressure spray nozzles. The type of nozzles will vary with the product being dried. For some products that are very hydroscopic, the dried product may be partially re-wetted and the redried. This produces agglomerated products that are easily dispsered in solution. Spray dried powders with a surfactant is also a method for improving dispersion. Another method, no longer in common use, is roller drying -- where the product is allow to flow over a hot, rotating drum and the dried product is scraped off. This was a low cost method of drying, but created a lot of heat damage to the product. Freezing: Lowering the temperature below the freezing point of the product stops microorganisms from growing and reduces the activity of enzymes. Vegetables and some fruits are heat treated (blanched) before freezing to eliminate enzymes. One of the most common frozen foods is ice cream .An ice cream freezer can be operated either in batch or continuous mode. A batch ice cram freeze consists of a freezer cylinder; dasher assembly with scraper blades, counter rotating agitator; mix inlet, ice cream outlet gate; motor. A continuous ice cream freezer consists of an inlet pump; air injector assembly; freezer cylinder; dasher assemble with scraper blades; outlet pressure gage; ice cream back pressure regulating valve; refrigeration unit inside cabinet. The continuous freezer provides much better control of drawing temperature and overrun than batch machines and is the machine of choice for commercial ice cream operations. The product from these machines is place in low temperature freezers to freeze out additional water and produce the packaged products found in super markets. Soft serve machines are generally some modification of the batch freezer and the product is served directly from the machine without further hardening.
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For frozen fruits and vegetables, the products are generally frozen in the package and generally is blast freezers, where the product is moved through the freezer in a continuous manner. Separations: Separations can be achieved on the basis of density or size and shape. Separations that are based on density differences include the separation of cream from milk, recovery of solids from suspensions, and removal of bacterial from fluids. Cream Separator: Milk can be separated into skim milk and cream based on the density difference between fat and non-fat solids of milk. A cream separator is used to obtain the cream from milk and is a disc type centrifuge in which the fluid is separated into low and high density fluid streams that permits the separate collection of cream and skim milk. The machine consists of a regulating cover with float; cream outlet cover; skim milk outlet cover; bowl assembly with inlet, cream outlet, skim outlet, spindle, disc stack and cream disc with cream adjusting screw skim milk outlet, motor, adjusting screw.
Clarification: Sediment and microorganisms can be remove centrifugally in a clarifier, which is generally a disc-type centrifuge that employs forces of 5 to 10 thousand times gravity and forcing the denser material to the outside. By periodically opening the bowl, the solids can be continuously removed from the remainder of the fluids. A centrifugal machine call a Bactofuge was used in Europe to reduce the bacterial count by two log cycles in fluid foods. This same principle has been used to recover yeast cells from spent fermentation broths and to continuously concentrate bakers cheese from whey.
Membrane Processes: Reverse osmosis (RO), ultrafiltration (UF) and microfiltration (MF) are processes that use membranes with varying pore sizes to affect separation on the basis of size and
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processes that use membranes with varying pore sizes to affect separation on the basis of size and shape. Reverse osmosis has membranes with the smallest pore and is used to separate water from other solutes. Ultrafiltration has membranes with larger pores and will retain proteins, lipids and colloidal salts, while allowing smaller molecules to pass through to the permeate phase. Microfiltration, with pores >0.1 micron, is used to separate fat from proteins and to reduce microorganisms from fluid food systems.
A typical ultrafiltration Plant is comprised of a: feed tank, circulating pump, membrane housing, membranes, product inlet, permeate outlet, retentate outlet, controls. The components for RO and ME are similar expect for the pumps that are required. High pressure pumps are required to RO and low pressure pumps for UP and MCF. Size reduction: Size reduction can be through the use of high shear forces, graters, cutters or slicers. Emulsions with very small fat globule droplets are frequently made with a homogenizer which is a high shear positive pump that forces fluid though a very small orifice at very high pressure to form or reduce the size of an emulsion. The positive pump uses a reciprocating or rotating cavity between two lobes, gears or between a stationary cavity and a rotor. The fluid forms the seal between the rotating parts. The components of a homogenizer consist of a suction manifold; suction check valves, plungers and cylinders; discharge check valves, discharge manifold; discharge pressure gage; 1st and 2nd stage homogenizing valves; plunger seals; Typical equipment for size reduction in meat products and their component parts include: 1. Grinder which forces pieces of meat out through small openings consists of a motor, product tray, grinder screw, die 2. Bacon Slicer - product holder, cutting blade, conveyor belt, slicer arm 3. Sausage Stuffer - inlet, stuffer body, stuffer drive assembly, product feeder, product outlet, product horn
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4. Vertical Chopper - bowl, cutting blade, motor, cover
Powdered products are frequently ground into find particles through ball mills. Fermented Products: Useful microorganisms are used to preserve a number of food products, which include: -Yeast fermentations -beer - wine -champagne - bread Lactic acid fermentations -cultured buttermilk - yogurt - cheese -sour kraut -pickles
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-fermented sausages All fermentations results from the action of microorganisms growing on carbohydrates in the product and producing some material (alcohol, or acid) which minimizes the growth of undesirable organisms and preserves the product. The equipment used for fermentation varies as a function of the product. Generally, a fermentation vessel is used which may be open or closed. Modern beer, wine and cheese operations utilize closed vessels for the initial fermentation, where careful sanitation practices can be employed to present contamination. Cultures used for the fermentations are prepared under close sanitary control.
Pictures of Processing euipment:

buttermaking.jpg beerclarif.jpg drumdryer. jpg batchretort.jpg corncutter.jpg meatgrinders.jpg butterchurn.jpg beerprocessing.jpg Impingement dryer.jpg spraydryer.jpeg
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OSU FST Course 401
Food Science & Technology 401 Introduction to Food Processing

Home Syllabus a. Au b. Wi c. Sp Assignments MW Calendar TR Calendar Contact Links Glossary Quick page for class
HOW TO FIND TECHNICAL INFORMATION MAKING TEAMS WORK SUCCESSFULLY! PRODUCTS YOU CAN MAKE SAFETY LAB REPORTS RECITATION NOTES FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 401 INFO
ELEMENTS OF FOOD CHEMISTRY ELEMENTS OF FOOD MICROBIOLOGY ELEMENTS OF FOOD PROCESSING Unit Operations Unit Processes QUALITY AND PROCESSING FLUID FOOD PROCESSING - GENERAL CLEANING AND SANITIZING PROCESSES, EQUIPMENT AND BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON SELECTED FOOD PRODUCTS:
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OSU FST Course 401
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OSU FST Course 401 - Making Teams Effective
Introduction to Food Processing

Making Teams Effective Working in teams is a "way of life" in the modern food industry -- as a means of being more effective in a competitive world. Students in FST 401 will gain experience in how to make teams effective. A good team has diversity of backgrounds, providing an opportunity to utilize the particular strengths of each individual to permit the team to achieve what can not be achieved by a single individual working alone. For the team to be successful, it is essential that each student contribute to the overall effort of the group. In this course the membership of the teams will be decided by the instructor on the basis of the background of the students -- to insure diversity. The success of a team is frequently secured through the organizing ability of the team leader. For products 3, 4 & 5, the group will appoint a different team leader for each project. The leader, with concurrence of the team members will divide the responsibilities for each project -- using the particular background of each individual. [For example - one person might take primary responsible for planning, another take major responsibility for organizing processing and a third lead the work on product evaluation. All team members should review the project report before it is submitted.] MAKING TEAMS EFFECTIVE Effective teams do not just happen. It takes real effort of the team leader and the team members. For most students, working in a team is a new experience. It can be frustrating, especially in the beginning, as the student learns how to be effective in the group setting. The following are some suggestions for making the team an effective and satisfying experience. Working together to a common goal: Remember that each member of the team has something of value to contribute. Each member of the team is an individual -- to be more effective, get to know each other's strengths and weaknesses and special capabilities. As a member of a group, you have to be willing to share the "ownership" of your concepts with others of the group. The diversity of the team may be frustrating at first, but it is one of the greatest strengths of working in a group Be respectful of each member's feelings, thoughts and ideas Be willing to compromise Don't just complain about problems; see what can be done about them. Discuss as a group about how to solve the problems that will arise. If all else fails, seek an arbitrator before the problem gets out of hand and interferes with your final grade Remember that a team can become a "family" working together for the common good. Rules for Operation of the Team:
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Home Syllabus Assignments Calendar1 Calendar2 Contact Search Links Glossary
To minimize problems, decide on some operation rules at the very beginning -- it will make for a smoother operating team. As problems arise, develop a set of rules to live by. It will be helpful to decide this as a group during the first laboratory and to put it in writing. Some questions to answer include -- How will you handle:
Members not being on time? People who don't show up? Conflict - without hurting feelings? Bossy people? Shy people? People who talk too much? People who never talk? People who don't carry out assignments on time? What role do you want the instructor to play? Let him/her know if you expect him to be an arbitrator. Use the instructor only as a last resort -- it is much better if you solve your own problems-----you may not like the instructor's solutions. Organizing you team operations: Set up a plan -- divide responsibilities -- build on individual strengths Be specific and fair about assignments -- try to use individual strengths and backgrounds Allow plenty of time for group effort -- getting started with a group is more time consuming than doing it alone. Once operating effectively, the team will accomplish much more than any individual can working alone. Withhold judgment about ideas until all information is available Be flexible The team leader for each project needs to lead, and the team members need to be supportive and let her/him lead. Be specific about deadlines for planning, operations and report preparation -- consider a written schedule When it Comes Time to Prepare the Team Report: The report is the finished article of several weeks' work and will be used to assess the performance of the team in respect to the laboratory exercise. It is up to the team to determine how to prepare the report. You might want one person to write up the report; or different people may want to work on different parts of it and bring it together for editing. Remember that that whoever writes the report, the grade on the report is the grade for the entire team. All team members should take time to look at the report before turning it in to the instructor. MORE INFORMATION OF MAKING GROUPS WORK EFFECTIVELY Visit these sites: http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/teamhint.htm http://www.econ.uiuc.edu/ECON173/make_team_work.htm
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OSU FST Course 401 - Syllabus
Introduction to Food Processing
Home Syllabus Assignments Calendar1 Calendar2 Contact Search Links Glossary Project 2 Report Project 1 Report
LAB REPORTS
Project 1 Equipment List and Pictures
Projects 3, 4 & 5 Reports

Project planning Planning worksheet Ice Cream Spread Sheet Supplies Needed Form
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EQUIPMENT:
EQUIPMENT: Equipment, with major component parts are listed for each pilot plant: A. Parker Hall Pilot Plant Centrifugal pump: pump head, impeller, back plate, shaft and shaft seal, motor Rotary lobe positive displacement pump: pump head with face plate, suction (inlet) and discharge (outlet) ports, impellers, shafts, shaft seals, motor. Cream separator: regulating cover with float, cream outlet cover, skim milk outlet cover, bowl assembly with inlet, cream outlet, skim outlet, spindle, disc stack and cream disc with cream adjusting screw, skim milk outlet, motor. HTST (high temperature, short time) pasteurizer: balance tank, booster pump, cold side of regenerator, positive timing pump, heating section, holding tube, flow diversion valve, hot side of regenerator, cooling section, controls. Homogenizer: Manifold, plungers and cylinders; discharge pressure gauge, 1st and 2nd stage homogenizing valves, plunger seals. Batch ice cream freezer: freezer cylinder, dasher assembly with scraper blades, mix inlet, ice cream outlet gate, motor. Continuous ice cream freezer: Mix inlet, air injector assembly, freezer cylinder, dasher assemble with scraper blades, outlet pressure gauge, back pressure regulating valve, refrigeration unit inside cabinet. Cheese vat: jacketed vat, water inlet, steam inlet, water circulating pump, water spray rings, whey outlet valve, cheese knife, stirring paddle, agitator, control panel. Colloid mill: Mill body, product inlet, product outlet, valve assembly, adjusting screw, feed pump. Ultrafiltration unit: feed tank, circulating pump, membrane housing, membranes, product inlet, permeate outlet, retentate outlet, controls. Microthermics UHT and filler: Product inlet, controls, progressing cavity (Moyno)
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EQUIPMENT:
pump, product outlet, laminar flow hood. Liquifier: Tank, water jacket, product outlet, motor, stator. Hobart mixer: Bowl, motor, bowl raising handle, paddle, whisk, controls (on/off, speed) B. Howlett Hall Pilot Plant Extruder: extruder cylinder and sections, steam and water inlets, product inlet, extruder screw, outlet with die, cutter, motor drive, controls Tomato processing line: lye tank, lye application chamber, conveyor belt, water sprayers, peel removing disks, chopper, heater, pasteurizing unit Proofing oven: temperature controls, humidity controls, oven body, water chamber and heater Potato peeler: Product inlet, rinse water, abrasive disk, product outlet, motor. Slicer: Product inlet, slicing blade Electric kettle: Steam jacket, pressure relief valve, scraper blade, pressure gauge, speed control, heater control. Pizza or Deck oven: Deck, door handle, temperature gauge, controls (load switch, temperature setting), timer. Convection oven: Cabinet, fan, controls (load switch, temperature) Proofing oven: Humidified chamber, water inlet, controls ( temperature, humidity) Steam injection oven: Chamber, water inlet, controls (temperature, humidity). Sheeter: Dough inlet, upper rollers, lower rollers, conveyor belt, controls ( upper thickness, lower thickness, on/off switch) Hobart Mixer: Bowl, motor, bowl raising handle, paddle, whisk, controls (on/off, speed) Fryer: fryer body, conveyor, oil heater, flipper, cooling section
EQUIPMENT:
Coating and Frying line: Coating drum, batter applicator, vibrating shaker, fryer (product inlet, product outlet, heat exchanger, oil reservoir), controls Rotary retort: retort body, retort chamber, rotating basket, steam inlet, pressure gauge, motor, temperature gauge Still retort: retort body, product basket, steam inlet, water inlet, pressure gauge, pressure relief valve, controls and recorders Donut maker: oil reservoir, ingredient supply hopper, inlet, belt assembly, outlet. Vacuum evaporator: product inlet, product outlet, steam inlet, vacuum pump, condenser, controls. Spray dryer:(Diagram only) air inlet, air heater, drying chamber, product inlet and atomizer, cyclone chamber, cyclone separator, dry product collection vessel, hot air inlet and outlet, controls Note: Other equipment to note (but not to include in report) includes form fill and seal filler, popcorn popper, tubular evaporator, freeze drier, can sealer, electrostatic coater C. Meat Pilot Plant (Animal Sciences Building) Grinder: motor, product hopper, grinder screw or auger, die or plate Meat slicer: product holder, cutting blade or knife, conveyor belt, slicer arm Piston sausage stuffer: inlet or hopper, stuffer body, stuffer drive assembly, product feeder , product outlet, stuffing horn Bowl chopper: bowl, cutting blade or knife, motor, cover Smokehouse/Oven: oven cabinet, heating element, water sprayer, smoke inlet, smoke generator, controls, doors, rack Curing solution injector: injector needles, solution supply lines, cabinet, chain conveyer Tumbler: body, drive motor, lid or cover, vanes or baffles
EQUIPMENT:
D. Food analysis instruments (Parker_ pH meter (234 Parker): electrode, electrode fill hole, control unit, calibration standards Colorimeter (234 Parker): Light source, button to initiate reading, control unit, calibration plate Texture analyzer (234 Parker): probes, probe arm, sample corers, platform for sample, computer control unit Particle size analyzer (334 Parker): pump head, computer control unit, Water activity meter (334 Parker): sample cup, sample drawer Moisture analyzer (360A Parker): control panel, balance air shield, balance pan and stem, glass fiber pads Viscometer (340C Parker): control panel, leveling screws, spindles, immersion groove on spindle shaft
FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 401
Project 1 Report:
You will receive color pictures of each instrument or piece of equipment. Each student will submit his or her own report.
1. For each piece of pilot plant equipment listed below, do the following: a. Label the pictures with the components listed for each piece of equipment. Use arrows and neatly written labels to identify the parts. b. Indicate the flow pattern of the food product through the equipment
c. Indicate the purpose of the equipment in food processing (ex: HTST pasteurizer - to kill the most heat resistant, vegetative pathogen in a fluid food) d. Name the primary unit operation(s) performed by the piece of equipment (fluid flow, heat transfer, size adjustment, mass transfer, separation, mixing)
2. For each analytical instrument listed below, do the following: a. Label the pictures with the components listed for each instrument. b. c. Indicate the purpose of the instrument in food evaluation. Provide a brief, step-by-step procedure for use of the instrument
PILOT PLANT EQUIPMENT & INSTRUMENTS:
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Food analysis instruments pH meter Colorimeter Texture analyzer Particle size analyzer Water activity meter Moisture analyzer Viscometer
Meat Pilot Plant ( Animal Sciences Building ) Grinder Meat slicer Piston sausage stuffer Bowl chopper Smokehouse/Oven Curing solution injector Tumbler
Parker Hall Pilot Plant Centrifugal pump Rotary lobe positive displacement pump Cream separator
HTST (high temperature, short time) pasteurizer Homogenizer Batch ice cream freezer Continuous ice cream freezer Cheese vat Colloid mill Ultrafiltration unit UHT processor and aseptic filler (Microthermics) Liquifier
Howlett Hall Pilot Plant Extruder Tomato peeling line Dicer Abrasive peeler Slicer Electric kettle Pizza or Deck oven Convection oven Proofing oven Steam injection oven Sheeter Hobart Mixer Fryer Rotary retort Still retort Donut maker Vacuum evaporator
FST 401
FST 401 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PROCESSING LABORATORY 2: UNIT OPERATIONS REPORT
Each team will turn in one report. All team members will receive the same grade. Every team member should participate in generating the report. Each member should review and edit the final report before it is submitted. Distribution of effort by team members is left up to the team. For the report, include all of the items listed in section D, For lab report, for each exercise. Be thorough and use complete sentences when answering the questions.
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FST 401
FST 401 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PROCESSING LABORATORY REPORT FORMAT FOR PROJECTS 3,4 & 5 Number in parentheses indicates point value for that topic. 1. (10) Introduction Description of product and its formulation and processing.
Background information on the product, including quality and safety issues. Include unit operations, unit processes and chemical operations involved
2. (5)
q q
Variables Describe the three variables selected and why What was your hypothesis (expected results)?
3. (10)
Formulation and Ingredients Describe formulation used. Include: -spread sheet generated on planning day -any calculations used in determining the formulation
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FST 401
Explain the functions of each ingredient in the product
4. (15) Procedures Describe the process used to make the product Make a flow chart showing equipment, sequence of operations, unit operations and include details of the process and where applicable: -times, temperatures, pressures, speeds of mixers, etc. Describe the procedures used for evaluation of your products
5. (20) Results
Show data in table of graph format. Include means and standard deviations where appropriate. Briefly summarize the results in the text Are the results for your three variables different? How did the variables affect the product characteristics?
6. (20) Discussion What do the results mean? Explain differences or similarities among variables. Do the results fit hypothesis? (if not, give a possible explanation of why not) How would you change your formulation or process knowing
FST 401
what you know now?
7. (5) Conclusions Concisely state the conclusion(s) of your project.
8. (5) References Cite any reference you used. Use at least 2 references. Less than half of your sources should be web pages.
Use the following format: Within the text, put the reference in parentheses after the cited text as: (1st authors last name, year of publication, page numbers)
In the references section, list all cited sources in alphabetical order. Book: author, year, title, page numbers cited Article: author, year, title of paper, journal name, volume, pages cited Web page: Name of web page, date accessed, author if there is one, URL, location within page
9. (10) Planning preparation
FST 401
Pre-planning e-mail. Planning day form.
10.
Appendix
Include all sensory evaluation sheets.
FST 401
PROJECTS 3, 4 & 5 PREPARATION FOR PRODUCT PLANNING DAY To save time and frustration during the planning session, the group must do the following BEFORE arriving to the planning lab session:
Read any product information in the manual.
Go to the library and read background information about your product. Use books on reserve, other books, and journals to gather information about the processing and formulation of your product. You may use web sites as well, but web sites should not be your only sources. What are the attributes of your product that the consumer expects and what processing and formulation factors can change these attributes? Review the lab report format and product checklist to see what you need to know.
The better prepared you are, the faster the planning session will go. Instructors and TAs will help revise the plans of the group, but will not do all of the work.
One week before the product-planning day, the project leader must send the following to the instructor by e-mail (courtney.25@osu.edu): 1. Name of project leader. 2. Name of product. 3. List of ingredients (instructors will help fine tune on planning day). 4. List of equipment and utensils the group will need. 5. Ideas for variables to test. (List as many as the group is considering. Instructors and TAs will help define these during planning.) 6. List of evaluation tests the group is considering. 7. List of references the group consulted.
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FST 401
PLANNING Product formulation, equipment requirements and product information DUE ON PLANNING DAY
Team: ______
Product ______________
Date of Manufacture _______
1. Variables: Variable Reason for selection Expected result
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FST 401
2. Ingredients: Ingredient Total amount needed* Function of ingredient
FST 401
*Attach diskette with spreadsheet
3. Equipment and Utensils Required:
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4. Evaluation of Product: Test Method Reason for evaluation/Expected results
FST 401
5. Summarize the quality attributes of your product:
6. What processing, formulation, and/or storage factors ensure that this product is safe to eat?
7. What is the expected shelf-life of this product if properly processed and stored? What processing, formulation, and/or storage factors contribute to extending the products shelf life?
FST 401
8. What unit operations and chemical/biochemical operations are involved in making this product? Include the step(s) in the process that will use each operation.
ELEMENTS OF FOOD CHEMISTRY
ELEMENTS OF FOOD CHEMISTRY [Return to Index]
Food is made up of chemicals that include primarily water, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and minerals. The major components that are altered by processing include proteins, lipids and carbohydrates. The chemical nature of foods is important in two ways in respect to food processing: Food chemicals are altered by processing and these changes results in changes in the characteristics of the food and consumer acceptance of the product Because of the lability of some food chemicals, the parameters used in food processing, such as temperature and shear, are limited to achieve minimal changes in the characteristics of the food and to maximize consumer acceptance. Minimal processing results in the least change in the chemicals of food, provide the highest quality and result in foods with a very short shelf-life. As processing is performed to extent shelf-life (drying, canning), the is more chemical change and loss of perceived quality. Composition of typical food products (%)
Food Whole milk Cheddar cheese Eggs Raw meat Eggplant Potatoes Wheat Soybeans Peanuts water 87 35 75 65 93 78 13 8 3 lipid 4 33 12 25 0 0 2 18 44 protein 3.5 26 13 17 1 2 13 35 27 carbohydrates 5 1 1 0 6 20 71 35 24
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The products listed in the table differ in gross composition and also differ in the specific chemical nature of their lipid, protein and carbohydrates that influence processing methods and the effects of processing on the characteristics of the food. pH: The pH of foods (negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) is important both in respect to the flavor, texture and food safety. The FDA generally regards foods with a pH of less than 4.6 to be of less concern from a microbiological view point. Examples of foods with ranges of different pH values are shown in the following table. Values greater than 4.6 are marked in red.
Product
Lemon Juice
pH
2.00 - 2.60
Product
Tomatoes, Canned Cheese, Cream, Philadelphia Dates, Dromedary Pimiento Tomatoes, whole Pimiento Soy Sauce Buttermilk Bananas
pH
3.50 - 4.70
Product
Pea Soup, Cream of, Canned Peas, canned Beans, Black, cooked Milk, evaporated Corn Spaghetti, cooked Clams Rice, Brown Sausage, pan-broi1ed
pH
5.7
Vinegar Orange, Marmalade Apple Sauce, canned Sauerkraut, cooked Cherries, Maraschino Fruit cocktail Prune Juice
2.40 - 3.40 3.00 - 3.33 3.09 - 3.40 3.16 - 3.50 3.47 - 3.52 3.60 - 4.00 3.95 - 3.97
4.10 - 4.79 4.14 - 4.88 4.20-4.90 4.30 - 4.90 4.40 - 4.90 4.40 - 5.40 4.41-4.83 4.50-5.20
5.70 - 6.00 5.78 - 6.02 5.90 - 6.30 5.90 - 7.30 5.97 - 6.40 6.00 - 7.10 6.20 - 6.70 6.50 - 6.74
For an alphabetical listing of a wider range of foods, see: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/lacf-phs.html
Water: Water is an important component of foods, which influences textural properties and the extent to which the food may be subjected to microbial spoilage. Removing water through concentration, drying or freezing reduces the "free" water and prevents microbial growth. Water activity is a measure of free (unbound) water available for chemical and biological activity. Aw = vapor pressure of food product at a specified temperature vapor pressure of pure water
The relationship between water activity and factors relating to food quality (microbiological and chemical) are shown in the following figure.
Generally bacterial require a water activity of >0.9 to growth and most yeasts and molds are inhibited by a water activity of <0.7. The FDA considers that a Aw <0.85 to control the outgrowth of pathogenic bacteria. It is well to remember that moisture migrates from high to low water activity. Materials that are water soluble are call hydrophilic and those that are not water soluble are called hydrophobic. The three components of food that have the greatest effect on the characteristics of processed foods are lipids (fats and oils), carbohydrates (sugars, starches and gums) and proteins. In addition, minerals are important in that they modify the functional properties of proteins. Vitamins influence the process of foods because they may be lost through the action of heat, light or oxygen. Lipids: May be classified as fats (solid at room temperature) or oils (liquid) at room temperature and contain a mixture of water insoluble components the primary one being a triglyceride. A triglyceride contains 3 fatty acids that are esterified to the 3 hydroxy alcohol glycerol. Fatty acids have the general formula: R-COOH with the R group containing carbon C and hydrogen H. If the carbon atoms are bond together with a single bond CC, the compound is saturated. If the carbon atoms are bound together with a double bond C=C, the compound is unsaturated. Fatty acids that are unsaturated can react with oxygen to product undesirable off flavors. Triglycerides that contain mostly unsaturated fatty acids are oils and triglycerides that contain mostly unsaturated fatty acids are fats. Generally oils, because of the higher level of unsaturated fatty acids will oxidize over time. Protection against oxidation can involved: a) use of antioxidants, b) free radical quenchers - oxygen scavengers
and c) packing in light protective packages and/or oxygen free packaging. Hydrogenation (addition of hydrogen and removal of double bonds) is used to covert vegetable oils into semi-solid or solid fats to be used as ingredients in baked goods. These partially hydrogenated products are less susceptible to oxidation than the original oils. Some lipids, such as phospholipids and mono- and di glycerides are used as emulsifiers. Phospholipids are normally occurring and have a phosphate and amine base substituted for one of the fatty acids. Mono- and diglycerides are derived from triglycerides by the hydrolysis of the ester bond for one (mono-) or two (di) of the fatty acids
diglyceride
monoglyceride
Carbohydrates: The carbohydrates in foods are mixtures of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and can be classified as: a) simple sugars and polysaccharides. Simple carbohydrates Simple carbohydrates are water soluble and contribute to the sweetness of foods. There are two general types of carbohydrates : a) reducing and b) non-reducing. Examples of these are glucose (reducing) and sucrose (nonreducing).
Glucose (monosaccharide)
Sucrose (disaccharide)
Reducing sugars contain a reactive aldehyde (CHO) group that is absence in non-reducing sugars. Thermal processing can cause reactions between reducing sugars and the amino-group of proteins, causing browning and altering flavors. This reaction is termed the Maillard reaction. Very high heat processing in a low water environment can cause carmelization (polymerization) of also results in a browning reaction. Monosaccharides may have 6 carbons and are called hexoses or they may have 5 carbons and are called pentoses. Glucose (sometimes called dextrose), fructose and galactose are three common hexoses. Ribose and deoxyribose are two common pentoses. Two monosaccharides may be linked together to form a disaccharides. Sucrose is the most common disaccharide and is made of one molecule each of glucose and fructose. Sucrose is commonly referred to as sugar. Lactose is the major sugar in milk and is made up of one molecule of glucose and one of galactose. Maltose is a disaccharide made from two molecules of glucose. This linkage is formed by the removal of water(dehydration) and is broken by adding water back (hydrolysis)
Complex carbohydrates Cellulose is the most common polysaccharide and the major component of plant cell walls. Cellulose is a polymer of glucose molecules linked together by beta 1-4 linkages and cannot by digested by humans. Thus, cellulose is a major component of dietary fiber. Starch is also a polymer of glucose, but the glucose molecules are joined together by alpha 1-4 linkages that can be digested by humans. In plants, starch is an energy reserve. In animals, small amounts of energy are stored in liver and muscle as glycogen, a highly branched polymer of glucose. Pectin is a polymer of galcturonic acid and is not digested. In plants, pectin "cements" cells together. Polysaccharides may be added to foods for a variety of reasons. Nutritionally, they are generally added to increase the dietary fiber content. Functionally, polysaccharides are added to thicken, form gels, bind water, and stabilize proteins. Starch is the most common polysaccharide added to food products. For some uses, starch may be chemically modified to improve stability or to alter its functional properties. Cellulose and cellulose derivatives are also added to a number of food products. The term, gum, is used describe some of the naturally occurring polysaccharides added to food. Polysaccharides commonly added to foods include: Agar, Gum tragacanth , Algin, Locust bean (carob) gum , Carrageenan, Starch, Cellulose, Pectin, Guar gum, Xanthan gum , Gum arabic. These gums vary in the solubility in cold water and care must be taken to ensure that they are fully hydrated during food processing. Starches, commonly used as thickening agents in food, are plant storage polysaccharides the are either branched (amylopectin) or unbranched (amylose). The partial structure of amylopectin is shown below:
The proportion of the two starches varies from plant to plant and influences the processing of the foods in which starches are used, as well as the characteristics of the food. Starches with 100% amylopectin (waxy starch) create a pie filling like texture, are clear with a long texture and do not form films. Starches that have >20% amylose have a pudding like short texture, are cloudy and do form films.
Regular starches require heating to replace the hydrogen bonds between starch molecules with starch-water bonds, which causes "gelatinization" and creates the thickening effect. Starches that are pre-gelatinized and dried are cold water soluble and are termed "instant" starches. Proteins: Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together through a peptide bond.. The shape and thus the function of a protein is determined by the sequence of its amino acids. Digestion of proteins produce amino acids, some of which are essential to the nutritional well being of the human. Amino Acid - contain an amino group ( -NH2 ) and an acid group ( - COOH ). There are twenty amino acids that are found in proteins. Peptide Bond- A bond formed by the condensation of the amino group ( -NH2 ) of one amino acid with the acid group ( -COOH ) of another amino acid resulting in the loss of water. Condensation Reactions - Removal of water ( H2O ) and formation of a bond. The reversal of this is hydrolysis which involves the addition of water. Peptide bonds are not easily broken. Mild thermal processing does not normally result in the breaking of peptide bonds to yield amino acids from proteins. The function of protein in foods include: Furnish essential amino acids Add to structure ( Texture ) Appearance ( myoglobin, browning ) Contribute to odor and taste Stabilize emulsions Stabilize foams Form gels Frequently the conditions used in processing are adjusted to optimize the effects of the processing on the proteins and subsequent characteristics of the food. In bread, for example, the brown crust is related to the Maillard reaction and the final structure of the bread is caused by the thermal gelation of the protein - gluten.
ELEMENTS OF FOOD MICROBIOLOGY AND SANITATION
ELEMENTS OF FOOD MICROBIOLOGY AND SANITATION [Return to Index]
Both the safety and quality of foods require an understanding of the basics of food microbiology. Organisms important in food include: bacteria yeasts molds viruses Although not living organisms, viruses are generally included as biological agents of concern. These materials are combinations of proteins and nucleic acids that can take over cellular functions. In addition of causing disease, they also can infect microorganisms used in beneficial fermentation. Microorganisms either can be beneficial or harmful. Harmful effects of microorganisms include: spoilage of foods food borne toxification food borne infections viral borne infections Beneficial effects results from the use of microoganisms to utilize carbohydrates and product fermented foods, which include
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cheese yogurt fermented sausages wine beer pickles sour kraut tea coffee cocoa Factors affecting microbial growth: The effect of organisms on the safety and quality of foods is dependent on the initial numbers of organisms present, processing to eliminate the organisms, control of environment to prevent growth and sanitation. The major factors that influence the growth of microorganisms in food are: pH oxygen availability moisture availability nutrient availability storage temperature lag time generation time
The food industry depends on minimizing microbial populations in the food and/or control of the environment. pH: Generally microorganisms, and especially pathogens, can not grow at pH levels below 4.0. These are termed acid foods and depend upon the low pH to prevent or minimize growth. These include foods like fruit beverages and salad dressings. Oxygen: Organisms can be classified as: a) aerobic, b) microaerophylic and c) anaerobic.
Aerobic organisms require air (oxygen) to growth and will not grow in the absence of air. These include yeasts and molds and a number of bacteria. It is a common practice to hot fill foods and seal them so that a slight vacuum is formed in the package. A number of foods will be labeled "refrigerate after opening" and this is because yeasts and molds can growth one the product is open and contains air. Anaerobic organisms only growth in the absence of acid. One such organisms is Clostridium botulinum, which produces a toxin that can be lethal if ingested. Where foods are packed under a vacuum, the protection against Cl. botulinum growth is to heat treat the food (sterilization) to a time and temperature where any organisms present are destroyed. Some organisms, such as lactobacilli, either can grow (or grow best) under slightly reduced conditions with low levels of oxygen but do not grow anaearobically. Moisture availability: Organisms need free moisture in order to grow. Drying foods removes the available moisture and prevents growth of bacteria, yeasts and molds. Control of water activity is a common method of preventing the outgrowth of microorganisms. Water activity is a measure of free (unbound) water available for chemical and biological activity. Aw = vapor pressure of food product at a specified temperature Aw is a measure of the relative humidity of the food where: Aw = 1.0 = 100% relative humidity Aw = 0.0 = 0% relative humidity Food generally have water activities that range between 0.1 for dried foods to 0.96 for fluid foods. Different organisms require different levels of free water in order to growth, with bacteria requiring more free water than yeasts and molds. A thumb rule is that bacteria do not grow at an Aw < 0.85 and that yeasts and molds do not growth at an Aw <0.65. There are some exceptions. Intermediate moisture foods depend upon the addition of large quantities of sugars or polyols to reduce the Aw to below 0.85 and on packaging to prevent the growth of yeasts and molds. Nutrient Availability:
Most foods contain adequate nutrients to support the growth of microorganisms, especially foods that contain both a fermentable carbohydrate and a protein source. Sugar is the most common carbon source. In starch based foods, the action of amylases will frequently increase the available sugar source. Storage temperature: Organisms can be classified on the basis of their ability to grow at different temperatures: -psychrophiles grow best at temperatures <10 C -mesophiles grow best at ambient temperatures 25-35 C -thermophiles grow best at temperature > 40 C -psychrotrophic - tolerate low temperatures and can grow under refrigeration -thermotrophic - tolerate high temperature and can grow at 55-60 C. Most pathogenic bacteria are mesophilic, although a few (such as Listeria monocytogenes or Cl botulinum type E) can growth under refrigeration conditions. Organisms that spoil refrigerated products are generally psychrotrophic, and frequently belong to the genus Psuedomonas. Lag, generation time and numbers required to achieve an effect on the food: The amount of time required for an organism to reach the log growth phase is termed the lag time and the time required to double the population of the organisms is termed the generation time. The amount of time required for an organism to reach a specific number is dependent upon the initial population, the lag time and the generation time. Under ideal growth conditions, microorganisms can double their number in about 30 minutes. As conditions move away from their optimum, the generation time is decreased until eventually no growth occurs. In processed foods, organisms surviving have generally been stressed and commonly may exhibit a lag time of 2-4 days. In fermented foods, where cultures are added, the organisms are added in an active growth phase and the lag time is 0 or very small. A thumb-rule for the numbers of organisms required to produce toxins or to produce desired or
undesired flavors is one million/g. (106/g). Thus for food born toxification (such as caused by Cl. botulinum, Staph. aureous and Bacillus cereus), there has to have been large number produced. Similarly, the numbers of organisms required for fermented foods (such as yogurt) is also very large. However, in the case of organisms causing infectious disease (E. coli 0157, Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella), the numbers of organisms that can cause the disease can be very small. FDA generally requires that no organisms can be recovered from 100 g of food after suitable incubation. Under ideal growth conditions it can take a relatively short period of time to increase from 1/g to 1 million/g. (20 generations). At 4 generations/hour, the food can reach >1 million in just 5 hours. If the initial load is 1000/g, then the time required to reach 1 million would be 2.5 hours (10 generations). Minimizing Microorganisms during processing and handling: Keeping microbial loads at minimal levels is essential to provide safe food of high quality. This requires care in food handling and minimizing microorganisms in the product during processing. Key to this goal is preventing contamination of the food during contact with equipment (or food contact) surface. Cleaning and sanitizing are important steps in the operation of any food plant and will become more important in the future as the industry deals new and emerging microorganisms such as E. coli 0157 that first began to be associated with food borne infections in the 1980s Cleaning: Cleaning of food plant equipment generally involves the use of relatively strong chemicals and can be considered a 4 step process: a) rinsing away excess soil, b) bringing the cleaning compound in contact with the soil, c) removing the soil from the equipment surface and final cleaning. The factors that influencing cleaning efficiency are: nature of the soil and the cleaning compound used concentration time force The removal of soil in a first order reaction in respect to the concentration of the cleaning compound and time of cleaning. This means that increasing concentration and time increase soil removal up to a point where further increases cause very little additional removal. Increasing force increases soil removal. Temperature increases soil removal, up to the point of protein denaturation at which point protein denaturation decreases the effect of further increases in temperature. Generally a 10 C change in temperature causes a two fold change in soil removal [Q10 = 2]
The soil on a food contact surface may be one or more of the following: protein fat minerals soluble solids (sugars, etc) Heated surfaces, especially those containing protein, are always more difficult to clean that unheated surfaces. Alkaline cleaning compounds are used to remove fat and proteins, whereas acid is used to remove mineral soils. Minerals are frequently complexed with proteins and the addition of chlorine to the alkaline cleaner increases the ease of removal. Cleaning compounds perform their cleaning via different functions, which include: emulsification (making fat into an emulsion that is water soluble and easily removed. peptizing (chemically degrade proteins into smaller units and thus more easily removed saponification (chemically convert oils and fats into soaps through interaction with sodium hydroxide wetting (reducing the surface tension of the water) water conditioning (removal of divalent cations that impede the action of the cleaning compound Cleaning may be achieved by hand or by circulation of the cleaning compound over or through the equipment. Circulation cleaning may be in place or may be the circulation of cleaning solution of cleaning compound of equipment components in a tank. CPI = cleaned in place COP = cleaned out of place (circulation tank) CIP and COP are more efficient than hand cleaning because: can use stronger cleaning compounds (higher or lower pH)can use higher temperatures provides for more force eliminates potential contamination of equipment from contact with humans Sanination: Cleaning reduces, but does not totally eliminate, microoganisms from the surface of the equipment. Generally chemical sanitizers are used to further reduce organisms on the equipment surfaces. However, sanitizers are only effective for clean surfaces and will not penetrate residual soil to kill bacteria below the exterior surface.
Common sanitizers include: chlorine (100 - 200 ppm) iodine (25 - 50 ppm) acid/surfactant blends (100-200 ppm) quaternary ammonium germicides. (200 ppm) The sanitizers are listed in order of decreasing effectiveness. The halogens are most effective over the widest range of different organisms. Chlorine is especially affected by organic matter. Iodine sublimes at high temperatures. Quaternary ammonium compounds have a residual effect, but are not effective against viruses or gram - organisms. Destruction of Microoganisms: Microbial destruction is achieved either by heat or chemicals. The most common method of making foods safe is to use thermal processing to eliminate pathogens and then to use good sanitation practices to prevent them from re-entering the food after thermal processing. Spores are more resistant than vegetative cells and thus require more heat to kill. Two general heat processes are used: Pasteurization - heating to a specific temperature for a specific time to kill the most heat resistant vegetative pathogen Sterilization - heat to a specific temperature for a specific time to kill the most heat resistant spore forming organism. Neither process kills all of the organisms in the food, and non-pathogenic, spoilage organisms can survive to some degree. Since pasteurization does not kill spores, pasteurized products are kept under refrigeration to control the growth of surviving spore formers that grow well at ambient temperature. Two terms are used to evaluate the heat resistance of an organism: D value = the time required at a given temperature to reduce the organism by 90%(one log cycle) Z value = the temperature required to reduce the D value by 90% (one log cycle) The industry uses the term Fo to describe the thermal process (time and temperature) to reduce the microbial population by a prescribed number of log cycles (generally 12). The FO required for non-acid
foods is higher than than required for acid foods (See Chapter on Canned foods)
ELEMENTS OF FOOD PROCESSING
ELEMENTS OF FOOD PROCESSING METHODS AND EQUIPMENT [Return to Index]
There are over 18,000 different food items in today's supermarkets, which are processed to a greater or lesser degree, and thousands of new products are introduced each year. Modern food processing has three major aims: 1. To make food safe (microbiologically, chemically). 2. To provide products of the highest quality (flavor, color,texture) 3. To make food into forms that are convenient (ease of use) The following table summarizes the item to be controlled and comments on the major approaches involved in this control. To be Controlled Microorganisms Heat Prevents growth Cold Reduces growth rate Chemicals Preservatives re-tard growth Modify activity Aw* Do not grow below Aw of 0.6 Alters rate of enzyme activity Can alter rate of reaction, especially oxidation High. Aw may cause caking Mechanical
Reduces numbers
.Enzymes
Destroyed by heat activity Increases chemical rate, browning, oxidation Increases effects
Decrease reaction rate Reduces reaction rate
increase ES complex formation Not applicable
Chemical Reactions
May inhibit or activate
Physical Structure
Decreases effects
May modifiy structure
Can destroy structures
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*Aw = water activity Safety: Insuring the safety of food involves careful control of the process from the farm gate to the consumer. Safety includes control of both chemical and microbiological characteristics of the product. Most processing places emphasis on microbial control, and often has as its objective the elimination of organisms or prevention of their growth. Processes that are aimed at prevention of growth include:
q q q q
Refrigeration Freezing Drying Control of water activity (addition of salt, sugars, polyols, etc.)
Processes that are aimed at minimizing organisms include:

q q q q
Pasteurization Sterilization (canning) Cleaning and sanitizing Membrane processing
A further method of processing that is aimed at the control of undesirable microflora is the deliberated addition of microorganisms and the use of fermentation. Safety from a chemical viewpoint generally relates to keeping undesirable chemicals, such as pesticides, insecticides and antibiotics out of the food supply. Making sure that food products are free from extraneous mater (metal, glass, wood, etc.) is another facet of food safety. Quality: Quality of a food product involves maintenance (or improvement) of the key attributes of the product including color, flavor and texture. To maintain quality it is important to control:

q q q
microbiological spoilage enzymatic degradation chemical degradation
Convenience: Today's consumers want food products that are convenient to use and still have all the qualities of a fresh product. UNIT OPERATIONS: Most food processing is comprised as a series of physical processes that can be broken down into a number of basic operations. The "unit operations" can stand alone and depend upon coherent physical principles. Unit operations include:
1. Fluid flow - moving a fluid product from one point to another with varying degrees of turbulence. 2. Heat transfer - in which heat is either removed or added and includes heating
q q q
cooling refrigeration freezing
3. Contact equilibrium processes or mass transfer, which may or may not require a change in state. Generally a molecular species is transferred to or from a product. Processes that use mass transfer include distillation, gas absorption, crystallization, membrane processes, drying, evaporation. 4. Mechanical separation, such as filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation, sieving 5. Size adjustment either through size reductions (slicing, dicing, cutting, grinding) or size increase (aggregation, agglomeration, gelation). 6. Mixing - to make homogenous blends or dry or liquid ingredients. This may include solubilizing solids, preparing emulsions or foams - or - dry blending of ingredients such as for dry cake mixes. 7. Fermentation, while not a physical operation, is for the purpose of this course included as a unit operation.
UNIT PROCESSES: Some food processing operations may utilize a single unit operation, but most food processing includes a combination of unit operations to achieve the total process. For example, the manufacture of a dried coffee whitener from a combination of fluid and dry ingredients includes the following unit operations in sequence: -Mixing -Fluid flow -Size reduction (homogenization) -Heat transfer (heating) -Fluid flow -Heat transfer (cooling) -Mass transfer (conversion of water to vapor during drying) Pasteurization of milk to destroy the most heat resistance vegetative pathogen includes the unit operations of fluid flow and heat transfer (both heating and cooling).
Some other examples of unit processes, and their associated unit operations include: -freeze drying (heat transfer, mass transfer) -extrusion (fluid flow, heat transfer, mass transfer, size reduction in the case of cereals and -snack foods) -ice cream manufacture is comprised of two unit processes: mix making (mixing, fluid flow, heat transfer, size reduction) freezing (fluid flow, heat transfer, mass transfer of air into the ice cream)
FOOD PROCESSING EQUIPMENT Fluid Flow: Transport of fluids is achieved either by gravity flow or through the use of pumps. In gravity flow the flow is "laminar", where the flow is transfer from the fluid to the wall between adjacent layers. Adjacent molecules do not mix. In most instances, however fluids are transported from one unit operation or process to another by pumps and in "turbulent" flow where there is mixing of adjacent particles. Two different types of pumps are commonly used for different purposes: The centrifugal pump utilizes a rotating impeller to create a centrifugal force within the pump cavity, so that the fluid is accelerated until it attains its tangential velocity close to the impeller tip. The flow is controlled by the choice of impeller diameter and rotary speed of the pump drive. The capacity of a centrifugal pump is dependent upon the speed, impeller length and the inlet and outlet diameters. Product viscosity is an important factor affecting centrifugal pump performance. If the product is sufficiently viscous, the pump cavity will not fill with every revolution and the efficiency of the pump will be greatly reduced. Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluid and for cleaning operations. Centrifugal pumps may be high speed or low speed, with high speed pumps being used for cleaning (CIP). . A positive pump generally consists of a reciprocating or rotating cavity between two lobes or gears and a rotor. Fluid enters by gravity or a difference in pressure and the fluid forms the seals between the rotating parts. The rotating move of the rotor produces the pressure to cause the fluid to flow. Because there is no frictional loss, positive pumps are used where a constant rate of flow is required (timing pump), for high viscosity fluids or for transporting fragile solids suspended in a fluid (such as moving cottage cheese curd from a vat to a filler). Mixing: An agitation device may be placed in a tank for a number of purposes. The mixing device may need to produce bulk circulation in the tank, a controlled velocity at some surface of the tank or a controlled rate of shear. Two major purposes of mixing are either heat transfer or ingredient incorporation. Different mixer configurations will be used to achieve different purposes. The efficiency of mixing will depend upon: -design of impeller -diameter of impeller -speed -baffles Heat Transfer: Heat is either transferred into a product (heating) or removed from a product (cooling).
Heating is used to destroy microorganisms to provide for a healthful food, prolong shelf life through the destruction of certain enzymes and to promote a product with acceptable taste odor and appearance. The factors that influence the heat transfer into or out of the product include: 1. Heat exchanger design 2. Heat transfer properties of the product a. specific heat (amount of heat required to change the temperature of a unit mass of product a specific temperature without change in state of the material) b. thermal conductivity (rate by which heat is transferred through a material) c. latent heat (heat required to change the state of a material) 3. Density (weight per unit volume) 4. Method of heat transfer a. conduction (transfer from molecule to molecule through the material) b. radiation (transfer from electromagnetic radiation of a body due to the vibration of its molecules c. convection (transfer through movement of mass ) 5. Viscosity (related to the amount of force required to move the fluid product) A variety of heat exchanges are utilized in the food industry, which include: -plate heat exchanges -tubular heat exchanges -swept surface heat excahngers. Plate heat exchanges pass fluid over a plate where a heating or cooling medium is being passed up or down on the other side of the place. The thin film makes for rapid heat transfer and is the most efficient method of heat fluids of low viscosity. Tubular heat exchanges general are compose of a tube within a tube, in which product and heating or cooling medium are flowing in opposite (counter current) directions. This a low cost method of heating or cooling and is applicable to fluids of higher viscosities that generally passed through a plate heat exchanger.
Swept surface heat exchanges have blades that scrape the surface of the heat exchanger and bring new product continuously to the heat or cooling surface. There are utilized for fluids of very high viscosity. An ice cream freezer is an example of a swept surface heat exchanger. Common unit processes that include heat transfer as a unit operation include: -Pasteurization (heat) -Sterilization (heat) -Drying (heat) -Separations (based on density, size or shape) -Evaporation (heat) -Refrigeration (cold) -Freezing (cold) Pasteurization: Pasteurization is a process of heating a product at a specific temperature for a controlled period of time to destroy the most heat resistant vegetative pathogenic organism. Originally developed for fluid dairy products, the process is also applied to other fluids, including fruit juices and juice products. In addition to destruction of microorganisms, pasteurization also achieves almost complete destruction of undesirable milk enzymes - such as lipase. Pasteurization was originally conducted in jacket vats equipped with an agitator to give compete mixing and the ability to heat and cool. For milk vat pasteurization required a heat treatment of 145F for 30 minutes, with the air space above the product being heated to a higher temperature to insure all molecules of the product were adequately pasteurized. The component parts of a vat pasteurizer are the tank body, heating/cooling channels; inlet port, outlet valve with leak detector; agitator and drive motor; product indicating thermometer; recording devices; air space heater and indicating thermometer; steam inlet and outlet, cooling water inlet and outlet. Next plate heat exchanger were used with a higher temperature and shorter time (161.5/15 seconds) being used to achieve the same bacterial destruction. This is called HTST pasteurization. To improve efficiency the cold milk is used to partially cool the pasteurized milk and the hot milk partially heats the cold milk in a processed call regeneration. In this section of the pasteurizer cold milk is on one side of the plate and the hot milk on the other. The component parts of an HTST pasteurizer include the balance tank, cold side of regenerator, timing pump, heating section, holding tube, flow diversion valve, hot side of regenerator, cooling section, controls.
Ultra high temperature (UHT) pasteurization is achieved with plate heat exchanges operating at temperatures of at least 190 F for 2 seconds. The same principles are used as for HTST, except that higher temperatures are used and the equipment is designed for very rapid heating and cooling. Sterilization: The primary object of sterilization is to destroy the most heat resistant pathogenic spore forming organism Flame Sterilizer - conveyor, preheater, gas jets Still Retort - retort body, product basket, steam inlet, water inlet, pressure gage, pressure relief valve Hydraulic cooker = a continuous sterilizer, where the cans are rotating during the sterilization process Still Retort = A type of batch sterilizer used for canning food, where the cans are not in motion during the sterilization process.
Baking: Baking is the process by which moisture is removed from wheat based (or other cereal grain, products. Batch or continuous oven are utilized to heat the products resulting in an increase in volume of the product, gelatinization or starch of protein "elation to set the final structure of the product. Baking is an essential process for bread, cakes, cookies and crackers. A rotary oven is a fairly simple device which has a cabinet, oven trays, heating element, thermostat and temperature controls. Many commercial ovens are continuous in that the product moves though the oven on a continuous belt. Concentration: Concentration can be achieved through evaporation and through reverse osmosis. Evaporation generally involves heating the fluid in a vessel under vacuum to cause a change in state of water from liquid to vapor and then recovers of water by passing the vapor through a condenser. The component parts of the evaporator include an enclosed vessel with product inlet, manhole, heating rings, finished product outlet, condenser, steam inlet, vacuum and condenser pump. In some product evaporation causes the loss of flavor volatiles and this case, a low temperature unit is added to recover the flavor volatiles so that they can be added back to the product. To reduce operating costs, multiple effect evaporators are utilized, which have 2 or more evaporators placed in series to provide a means for the continuous concentration of a fluid product. This increases the efficiency of the evaporation process. Reverse osmosis (RO) is a process where the fluid is passed through a semi-permeable membrane with
very small pores that permit only the transfer of water. Most systems consist a the membrane cast on a solid porous backing - usually in the form of a tube. High pressure is applied to force the water (called permeate) through the membrane the concentrated fluid (called retentate) is retained in the tubing. The rate of water removal decreases as the fluid is concentrate, until it is no longer economically feasible to remove more water. Concentration is often used as a pre-step to drying to reduced the amount of water that needs to be removed in drying and reducing drying costs. Evaporation can achieve higher solids economically than can reserve osmosis. RO is preferred over evaporation for heat sensitive fluids. Drying: Three common methods of drying are: (a) sun or tray drying, (b) spray drying and (c) freeze drying. Sun or tray drying is least expensive, followed by spray drying and freeze drying. The drying method of choice is generally based on the characteristics of the product. Products that are already solid lend themselves to sun or tray drying. These include fruits and vegetables. The products may be dried by exposure to sun or place in trays and dried in a current of warm or hot air. Products that are very heat sensitive are freeze dried. Commercially only instant coffee is widely freeze dried. Some freeze dried fruits are beginning to reach the market, but these are in limited quantities. In freeze drying the moisture is removed without a phase change (sublimation). A freeze drying is comprised of a dryer cabinet; drying chamber with: heating/cooling shelves, trays and door; vacuum pump, condenser, controls and digital readout. The most common drying method is spray drying, which is applicable to fluid products. The bulk density (weight per unit volume) is controlled to a large extent by the solids that are sent to the dryer. A spray drying has an air inlet, air heater, drying chamber, inlet atomizer, cyclone chamber, cyclone separator, dry product collection vessel, hot air inlet and outlet, drying fan and motor, controls. There are several different designs of spray nozzles through which the fluid is atomized into the heated air. These generally are either centrifugal nozzles or high pressure spray nozzles. The type of nozzles will vary with the product being dried. For some products that are very hydroscopic, the dried product may be partially re-wetted and the redried. This produces agglomerated products that are easily dispsered in solution. Spray dried powders with a surfactant is also a method for improving dispersion. Another method, no longer in common use, is roller drying -- where the product is allow to flow over a hot, rotating drum and the dried product is scraped off. This was a low cost method of drying, but created a lot of heat damage to the product.
Freezing: Lowering the temperature below the freezing point of the product stops microorganisms from growing and reduces the activity of enzymes. Vegetables and some fruits are heat treated (blanched) before freezing to eliminate enzymes. One of the most common frozen foods is ice cream .An ice cream freezer can be operated either in batch or continuous mode. A batch ice cram freeze consists of a freezer cylinder; dasher assembly with scraper blades, counter rotating agitator; mix inlet, ice cream outlet gate; motor. A continuous ice cream freezer consists of an inlet pump; air injector assembly; freezer cylinder; dasher assemble with scraper blades; outlet pressure gage; ice cream back pressure regulating valve; refrigeration unit inside cabinet. The continuous freezer provides much better control of drawing temperature and overrun than batch machines and is the machine of choice for commercial ice cream operations. The product from these machines is place in low temperature freezers to freeze out additional water and produce the packaged products found in super markets. Soft serve machines are generally some modification of the batch freezer and the product is served directly from the machine without further hardening. For frozen fruits and vegetables, the products are generally frozen in the package and generally is blast freezers, where the product is moved through the freezer in a continuous manner. Separations: Separations can be achieved on the basis of density or size and shape. Separations that are based on density differences include the separation of cream from milk, recovery of solids from suspensions, and removal of bacterial from fluids.
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Cream Separator: Milk can be separated into skim milk and cream based on the density difference between fat and non-fat solids of milk. A cream separator is used to obtain the cream from milk and is a disc type centrifuge in which the fluid is separated into low and high density fluid streams that permits the separate collection of cream and skim milk. The machine consists of a regulating cover with float; cream outlet cover; skim milk outlet cover; bowl assembly with inlet, cream outlet, skim outlet, spindle, disc stack and cream disc with cream adjusting screw skim milk outlet, motor, adjusting screw.
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Clarification: Sediment and microorganisms can be remove centrifugally in a clarifier, which is generally a disc-type centrifuge that employs forces of 5 to 10 thousand times gravity and forcing the denser material to the outside. By periodically opening the bowl, the solids can be continuously removed from the remainder of the fluids. A centrifugal machine call a Bactofuge was used in Europe to reduce the bacterial count by two log
cycles in fluid foods. This same principle has been used to recover yeast cells from spent fermentation broths and to continuously concentrate bakers cheese from whey.
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Membrane Processes: Reverse osmosis (RO), ultrafiltration (UF) and microfiltration (MF) are processes that use membranes with varying pore sizes to affect separation on the basis of size and shape. Reverse osmosis has membranes with the smallest pore and is used to separate water from other solutes. Ultrafiltration has membranes with larger pores and will retain proteins, lipids and colloidal salts, while allowing smaller molecules to pass through to the permeate phase. Microfiltration, with pores >0.1 micron, is used to separate fat from proteins and to reduce microorganisms from fluid food systems.
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A typical ultrafiltration Plant is comprised of a: feed tank, circulating pump, membrane housing, membranes, product inlet, permeate outlet, retentate outlet, controls. The components for RO and ME are similar expect for the pumps that are required. High pressure pumps are required to RO and low pressure pumps for UP and MCF.
Size reduction: Size reduction can be through the use of high shear forces, graters, cutters or slicers. Emulsions with very small fat globule droplets are frequently made with a homogenizer which is a high shear positive pump that forces fluid though a very small orifice at very high pressure to form or reduce the size of an emulsion. The positive pump uses a reciprocating or rotating cavity between two lobes, gears or between a stationary cavity and a rotor. The fluid forms the seal between the rotating parts. The components of a homogenizer consist of a suction manifold; suction check valves, plungers and cylinders; discharge check valves, discharge manifold; discharge pressure gage; 1st and 2nd stage homogenizing valves; plunger seals; Typical equipment for size reduction in meat products and their component parts include: 1. Grinder which forces pieces of meat out through small openings consists of a motor, product tray, grinder screw, die 2. Bacon Slicer - product holder, cutting blade, conveyor belt, slicer arm 3. Sausage Stuffer - inlet, stuffer body, stuffer drive assembly, product feeder, product outlet, product horn 4. Vertical Chopper - bowl, cutting blade, motor, cover
Powdered products are frequently ground into find particles through ball mills. Fermented Products: Useful microorganisms are used to preserve a number of food products, which include: -Yeast fermentations -beer - wine -champagne - bread Lactic acid fermentations -cultured buttermilk - yogurt - cheese -sour kraut -pickles -fermented sausages All fermentations results from the action of microorganisms growing on carbohydrates in the product and producing some material (alcohol, or acid) which minimizes the growth of undesirable organisms and preserves the product. The equipment used for fermentation varies as a function of the product. Generally, a fermentation vessel is used - which may be open or closed. Modern beer, wine and cheese operations utilize closed vessels for the initial fermentation, where careful sanitation practices can be employed to present contamination. Cultures used for the fermentations are prepared under close sanitary control.
Pictures of Processing euipment:

buttermaking.jpg beerclarif.jpg drumdryer. jpg batchretort.jpg corncutter.jpg meatgrinders.jpg butterchurn.jpg beerprocessing.jpg Impingement dryer.jpg spraydryer.jpeg
UNIT PROCESSES
UNIT OPERATIONS A unit operation is a single operation defined by physical principles. Six unit operations are utilized frequently in the processing of food. 1. Fluid Flow: Movement of liquid from one place to another 2. Heat Transfer: Movement of energy in the form of heat into or out of a product 3. Mass Transfer: Transfer of mass into or out of a food system 4. Mixing: Production of a homogenous mass 5. Size Adjustment: Change in the size of particles 6. Separation: Separation components on the basis of some physical property
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UNIT PROCESSES
UNIT PROCESSES Unit processes combine 2 or more unit operations to achieve a specific purpose, such as the pasteurization of milk or a juice product.
Animation of some unit processes are shown by accessing the following links to the material developed by Paul Singh of the University of California, Davis. Pasteurization: combines fluid flow with heat transfer Evaporation: combines fluid flow, heat transfer and mass transfer Spray drying: combines fluid flow, heat transfer and mass transfer. We may also consider the atomization of the fluid into small particles as size reduction Ultrafiltration: combines fluid flow and separation through a semi-permeable membrane in a pressure driven system. Membrane processes that utilize membranes with different size pores include, microfiltration, ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis
http://class.fst.ohio-state.edu/fst401/401%20product/Process-Product/Unit%20Processes.htm1/9/2013 6:08:04 PM
Five stage plat pasteurizer
Copyright: R. Paul Singh
http://www.rpaulsingh.com/animated%20figures/fig4_4.htm1/9/2013 6:08:13 PM
Single Effect Evaporator
Spray drier
View another animation
Membrane Pressure driven
http://www.rpaulsingh.com/animated%20figures/fig%2011_8.htm1/9/2013 6:08:40 PM
membranes

Elements of Food Processing

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ELEMENTS OF FOOD PROCESSING METHODS AND EQUIPMENT [Return to Index]

MicroPrevents organisms growth

Reduces Preservagrowth rate tives retard growth Modify activity

Destroyed Decrease by heat reaction activity rate

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rate Reduces reaction rate

Decreases May effects modifiy structure

Processes that are aimed at minimizing organisms include:

4. Vertical Chopper - bowl, cutting blade, motor, cover

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OSU FST Course 401

Food Science & Technology 401 Introduction to Food Processing

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OSU FST Course 401

09/14/03 Copyright The Ohio State University, 2003 http://class.fst.ohio-state.edu/FST401/401index.htm

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OSU FST Course 401 - Making Teams Effective

Introduction to Food Processing

Home Syllabus Assignments Calendar1 Calendar2 Contact Search Links Glossary

OSU FST Course 401 - Making Teams Effective

OSU FST Course 401 - Making Teams Effective

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OSU FST Course 401 - Syllabus

Introduction to Food Processing

Project 1 Equipment List and Pictures

Projects 3, 4 & 5 Reports

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FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 401

PILOT PLANT EQUIPMENT & INSTRUMENTS:

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FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 401

FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 401

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FST 401 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PROCESSING LABORATORY 2: UNIT OPERATIONS REPORT

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Explain the functions of each ingredient in the product

what you know now?

7. (5) Conclusions Concisely state the conclusion(s) of your project.

9. (10) Planning preparation

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Pre-planning e-mail. Planning day form.

Include all sensory evaluation sheets.

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Read any product information in the manual.

Date of Manufacture _______

1. Variables: Variable Reason for selection Expected result

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2. Ingredients: Ingredient Total amount needed* Function of ingredient

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*Attach diskette with spreadsheet

3. Equipment and Utensils Required:

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4. Evaluation of Product: Test Method Reason for evaluation/Expected results

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5. Summarize the quality attributes of your product:

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ELEMENTS OF FOOD CHEMISTRY

ELEMENTS OF FOOD CHEMISTRY [Return to Index]