1- SEMICONDUCTOR CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

1.1 INTRODUCTION
While studying semiconductors we are interested in behaviour of a
large number of electrons moving through positively charged ions.
To appreciate the complexity of the problem, we can examine the
number density of electrons involved.
"Free" valance electrons
Electrons in a solid
valance electrons (-eZc)
core electrons (-e(Za - Zc))
nucleus with charge (eZa)
where Za = atomic number
1
Fig: 1.1 Electrons in a solid
Consider now an element with density, , having a unit volume.
Then mass = , . Let the atomic mass be A , and use Avagadro's
Number (6.022 10
23
atoms per mole),
Then the number of moles = /A, and
n = (6.022 10
23
atoms per mole)* ( /A)*Zc ---------------1.1
where,
Zc = number of electrons in the outermost shell, and
n = electron density for conduction electrons.
For most metals n 10
23
electrons.
1.2 BASIC LATTICE TYPES
Crystal is formed by identical building blocks that consist of an
atom or a group of atoms.
Natural crystals have a fixed symmetry, BUT artificial crystals are
produced with a modified crystalline structure. These lead to
"superlattices". Altering crystal structure also changes the electronic
properties.
The building block which is repeated infinitely to produce the
crystal may be :
very simple (single atom for many metals, such as copper, gold,
aluminium etc.) OR
complex ( as in some proteins)
2
In superlattices the number of the building block can be arbitrary,
but in natural crystals it is mainly two.
Now we shall have some definitions:
Lattice is a set of points in space which form a periodic
structure. It is a mathematical abstraction.
Basis is a building block of atoms attached to each lattice point.
Lattice point R', can be obtained from any other lattice point R
by a translation:
R' = R +m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 ----------------1.2
where a1, a2, a3 are vectors and m1, m2, m3, are integers. Such a
lattice is called Bravais Lattice and the lattice structure together
with the basis form the Crystal Structure, as indicated below in
Fig. 1.2.
* * * * * *
* * * * * *
a- Space lattice
0
o

b- Basis with two different ions
0
o

0
o

0
o

0
o

0
o

0
o

3
0
o

0
o

0
o

0
o

0
o

0
o

c- Crystal structure
Fig. 1.2 Crystal structure
The translation vectors, a1, a2, a3 , are called primitive if the
volume of the cell formed is smallest possible.
One choice would be to take,
a1 as the shortest period of the lattice,
a2 as the shortest period of the lattice, and not parallel to a1
a3 as the shortest period of the lattice, and not coplanar with a1
and a2
The basic building block of the crystal is called the unit cell.
The lattice separation is very small, so in practical terms one deals
with almost infinite lattices. Boundaries, interfaces play an
important role, as will be seen later.
Basic lattice types: Lattice types are important in the sense that the
structure of lattice also describes the symmetry which effects the
electronic properties. We will only consider cubic lattices, which is
structure taken by all semiconductors. Basically there are THREE
types:
Simple cubic
Body centred cubic ( abbreviated to bcc)
Face centred cubic ( abbreviated to fcc)
4
Simple cubic lattice
This is generated by the primitive vectors
a x, a y, az --------------------------------------1.3
where x, y, z are unit vectors, and a is the cube side.
Fig. 1.3 Simple cubic structure.
Body centred cubic ( abbreviated to bcc)
This is generated from the simple cubic structure by placing an
extra atom at the Centre of the cube
5
Fig. 1.4. Body centred cubic structure
Face centred cubic ( abbreviated to fcc)
This is generated from the simple cubic structure by adding atoms
in the Centre of each square face.
Fig. 1.5 Face centred cubic structure.
"fcc" is the most important lattice for semiconductors. The
primitive vector set is given by:
a1 = a/2 (y + z ), a2 = a/2 (z + x ), a3 = a/2 (x + y )------1.4
6
where a is the cube edge and is called lattice constant of the
semiconductor.
The diamond and zinc-blende structures:
Essentially all semiconductors of interest for electronics and
optoelectronics have "fcc" structure with two atoms per basis.
The two basis atoms have coordinates relative to each other as,
(0,0,0), and (a/4, a/4, a/4) where "a" is the lattice constant.
Fig 1.6 Two basis atoms of a diamond structure, and two diamond
structures interpenetrating.
7
Each atom lies on its own "fcc" , and the structure may be thought
of two interpenetrating "fcc" structures, where one is displaced by
(a/4, a/4, a/4) along the body diagonal of a cube with sides "a".
Now, if the two atoms of the basis are identical the structure is
called DIAMOND (eg. as in Si, Ge, C, etc.)
But, if the two atoms are different, it is called ZINC BLENDE
(GaAs, CdS, AlAs, etc.)
Usually, semiconductors with a diamond structure is called
ELEMENTAL semiconductors, whereas those having Zinc Blende
structure are called COMPOUND semiconductors. As an example,
in a compound semiconductor of GaAs there are 4 Ga and 4 As
atoms in each cube of volume a
3
.
Example 1.1
Lattice constant of silicon is 5.43 A. Calculate the number of
silicone atoms in a cubic centimetre. Also calculate the number
density of Ga atoms in GaAs which has a lattice constant of
5.65 A.
Solution
Since we have silicone we should already know that we have a n
"fcc" diamond structure where we also have two identical atoms per
basis.
"fcc" gives 8 lattice points at the cube edges
"fcc" gives 6 points at the face centres
8
Lattice points at the edges are shared by 8 other cubes, while the
faces are shared by 6 other cubes, as indicated below.
Hence the number of point per cube of volume a
3
is:
N(a
3
) = 8*(1/8) + 6*(1/2) = 1 + 3 = 4 points
In silicone there are two atoms per lattice point (basis), hence the
number density is then, (Angstrom = 10
-10
meters, 10
-8
cm):
N Si = (4*2 ) / a
3
= 8 / a
3
= 8 /(5.43 10
-8
cm)
3
= 4.997 10
22
atoms/cm
3
.
In GaAs there are only one Ga atom and only one As atom at each
lattice point. Hence the number density of Ga atoms is given by:
N Ga = 4 / a
3
= 4 / (5.65 10
-8
cm)
3
= 2.22 10
22
atoms / cm
3

Also there are equal number of As atoms.
Example 1. 2
9
A Si device on a VLSI chip represents one of the smallest devices
and GaAs laser one of the largest. If Si device has dimensions of
(5*2*1)(m)
3
and GaAs has (200*10*5)( m)
3
, calculate number
of atoms in each device.
Solution
Using the results obtained in Example 1, for the number of atoms
per cm
3
, Si (5 10
22
atoms / cm
3
) and GaAs (2.22 10
22
atoms /cm
3
)
.
N Si = (5 10
22
atoms / cm
3
) * 10 (10
-6
10
2
cm)
3
= 5 10
11
atoms.
N Ga = (2.22 10
22
atoms /cm
3
) * 10
4
(10
-6
10
2
cm)
3
= 2.22 10
14
atoms.
Also,
N As = (2.22 10
22
atoms /cm
3
) * 10
4
(10
-6
10
2
cm)
3
= 2.22 10
14
atoms.

1.3 MILLER INDICES
Miller Indices are used to simplify description of lattice planes.
There is a simple procedure to follow when a drown plane is to be
indexed. This is:
Define the x, y, z, axes.
Take the intercepts of the plane along the axes in units of lattice
constant.
Take reciprocals of the intercepts and reduce them to smallest
integers.
A family of parallel planes are indicated by a notation { h k l } .
10
Fig. 1.7 Miller Indices for various planes
Example 1.3
Calculate the surface density of Ga atoms on a Ga terminated (001)
GaAs surface.
Solution
The atoms at the top of (001) surface are either Ga or As. If it is Ga
terminated then the atom at the top are Ga. The (001) plane has an
area of a
2
, 4 corner atoms and 1 Centre atom.

Each atom of the
corner atoms are shared by 4 similar planes, so that the contribution
is 1/4, but the Centre atom is contributed wholly.
Hence the number of atoms per a
2
= 4*(1/4) + 1 = 2 atoms
11
The surface density is then, S Ga = 2 / a
2
= 2 / (5.65 10
-8
cm)
2
=
6.26 10
14
atoms cm
-2
.
Example 1. 4
Plot the following planes for "bcc" and "fcc" structures.
(010),(110),(200),(123).
12
2- QUANTUM MECHANICS AND STATISTICAL
PHYSICS OF ELECTRONS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The physical world can be viewed in two ways using:
Classical physics
Quantum mechanics
The interaction of experimental observations and theoretical
descriptions in 20
th
century defied the classical explanations.
Experimental observations such as ;
black-body radiation, with
Energy (E) = hv -------------------------------------------2.1
where "v" is the frequency and "h" is the Planck's constant;
photoelectric effect with,
Energy (E) = h' w -----------------------------------------2.2
where h' = h / 2, and w = 2v;
and atomic spectra are all explained by the quantum mechanics
approach.
The quantum mechanics approach can be described by either,
Heisenberg uncertainty relation between momentum "p" and
position "x", and between energy "E" and time "t". That is
p*x h' /2 and E*t h' /2
13
Schrodinger Equation ( This is what we will choose to study).
2.2 SCHRODINGER EQUATION

The quantities that are physically seen are represented by
mathematical operators in Schrodinger approach. Some important
operators are represented by following operations.
Momentum : px -i h' ( / x)
py -i h' ( / y) ---------------------------------2.3
Energy E i h' ( / t)
Now consider kinetic energy (KE) and potential energy (PE) of an
electron with mass mo. Then,
KE + PE = E or,
p
2
/2mo + U(r,t) = E -----------------------------------------------------2.4
where U(r,t) is the potential in which the electron moves. If we
represent observables "p" and "E" by their operators, and operate on
a general state (r,t), we get Schrodinger equation;
(-h'
2
/2mo)
2
(r,t) + U(r,t) (r,t) = i h' ( / t) (r,t) = E (r,t)
--2.5
where "t" is the time and "r" all the spatial variables (x,y,z), and
(r,t) is called the wave function. The wave function has the
meaning that;
|(r,t)|
2
dr ------------------------------------------------------------2.6
14
gives the probability that the electron can be found at time "t" in the
volume element "dr".
As an example take a hypothetical (not true) case and plot |(x)|
2
in one dimension as in Fig. 2.1 and assume that it is time
independent.
Fig. 2.1 The electron is always between "xo" and "x4" , (i.e.
probability is zero for xo x x4 ).
Since, in Fig. 2.1, the electron must be somewhere, the probability
of finding it between xo" and "x4" must be unity. That is;
x
x
0
4

|(x)|
2
dx = 1 -------------------------------------------------------2.7
This equation only helps to illustrate meaning of |(x)|
2
.
If the potential energy term U(r,t) has no time dependence, then
we can rewrite Eq. 2.5 with i) time dependent and ii) time
independent parts.
We may also rewrite the wave function with the time dependent and
time independent components as;
(r,t) = (r) f(t) -----------------------------------------------------2.8
15
If we substitute Eq. 2.8 into Eq. 2.5, divide by "(r) f(t)" and equate
each side to "E" , we get ;
one time independent equation as,
(-h'
2
/2mo)
2
(r) + U(r) (r) = E (r)
-----------------------------2.9
one time dependent equation as;

i h' ( / t) f(t) = E f(t) -------------------------------------------------2.10
The solutions for the two cases are;
i) Time dependent case;
The time dependent part of the solution has a general form,
f(t) = exp(t iEt / h') --------------------------------------------2.11a
and if we set E = h' then we get;
f(t) = exp(t it ) ----------------------------------------------2.11b
where "E" is the energy of the electron that has to be solved for by
solving Eq. 2.9.
[In Eq.2.9 the unknowns are both "(r)" and "E". In general, there
will be a series of solutions "(r)" with associated energies En.
16
It is clear that the associated wave functions are complex, and the
physical interpretation according to which the probability to find the
electron in a region of space Vo is given by;
P(Vo) =
Vo

d
3
r [*(r )(r )] ------------------------------------------2.12
The allowed wave functions may be normalised to a particular
volume "V" (ie. unit volume) signifying that there is one electron
in the volume "V". ]
ii) time independent case;
The time independent case can be considered under two different
conditions;
condition 1, when there is no potential, U(r) = 0
condition 2, when the potential changes uniformly in space
Condition 1
This is the case when we set U(r) = 0, in Eq. 2.9.
This concept deals with quantum mechanics of "free" electrons
moving in absence of any potential.
So the Schrodinger (time independent ) equation for free electrons
is ; ( Eq. 2.9 with no potential energy term),
(-h'
2
/2mo) (
2
/ x
2
+
2
/ y
2
+
2
/ z
2
)(r) = E (r) ------2.14
17
with a general solution;
(r) = (1 / V) exp(t ik.r) ------------------------------------------2.15
and the corresponding energy (only the kinetic energy since we
already had no potential energy) is given by;
E = (h'
2
k
2
)/2mo -----------------------------------------------------2.16
where "k" is a wave vector and the factor, "(1 / V)" is used such
that "V" is a volume having one electron and obeys the relation,
V

d
3
r (r)

2
= 1 ---------------------------------------------------2.17
The energy of the electron is,
E = (h'
2
k
2
)/2mo p
2
/2mo --------------------------------------------2.18
and the momentum is;
-ih' ( / r ) h' k
-------------------------------------------------------2.19
while the velocity is;
v = h' k / mo --------------------------------------------------------------2.20
Assume now that the volume "V" is a cube of sides "L". To
correlate with physical conditions, two boundary conditions are
imposed on the wave function.
18
Firstly, for electrons confined in a finite volume; the wave
function goes to zero at the boundaries of the volume. The wave
solutions are of the form sin(kxx) or cos(kxx) and k-values are
restricted to the positive values;
kx = / L, 2 / L, 3 / L, nx / L ----------------------------------2.21
where "nx" is an integer, and the allowed values of energy are;
E = (h'
2
k
2
)/2mo = (h
2
/ 8m0L
2
)(nx
2
+ ny
2
+ nz
2
) -----------------2.22
This standing wave solution is used to describe stationary electrons
(e.g. electrons in quantum wells) as shown in Fig. 2.2 below.
Secondly, for moving electrons; the boundary conditions is
known as periodic boundary conditions. The wave can be spread
in all space (although finite in volume, V,) made up of cubes of
side "L".
Then,
(x, y, z+L)= (x,y,z)
(x, y+L, z) = (x,y,z) ------------------------------------------------2.23
(x+L, y, z) = (x,y,z)
19
Fig.2.2 a) Standing waves(stationary boundary).
b) Exponential wave function with electron probability
equal in all regions (periodic boundary).
Because of boundary conditions, the allowed values of "k" are;
kx = 2 nx / L, ky = 2 ny / L, kz = 2 nz / L, -------------------2.24
where "n" are integers, positive or negative.
If "L" is large, spacing between "k" values is very small.
Now consider volume in k-space that each electron occupies. As
shown in Fig. 2.3 this volume in 3-dimensions is;
(2 / L)
3
= 8
3
/ V -----------------------------------------------------2.25
where the volume in real space V= L
3

Fig.2.3 k-space , the allowed values are separated by 2 / L.
20
Now, if "" is any volume in k-space, the number of electronic
states in this volume are;
() / (8
3
/ V) = V / 8
3
--------------------------------------------2.26
Condition 2
This is the case when the electrons are in a periodic potential as in a
crystal lattice.
Normally, the equation of motion for "free" electrons may be
written as;
mo dv / dt = Fint + Fext ---------------------------------------------2.27
where " Fint " and " Fext " are the internal and external forces
respectively.
The internal forces, " Fint " may be very complex. However, the
periodic nature of the crystal potential allow an equation like, "Eq.
2.27" to be written except that the effect of the internal forces are
accounted for by using "m*" (effective mass) rather than the free
electron mass "mO".
Hence; dpeff / dt = Fext ----------------------------------- 2.28
The Schrodinger equation for an electron in a semiconductor is;
(-h'
2
/2mo)
2
(r) + U(r) (r) = E (r) -------------------------2.29
where U(r) is the background potential. Due to crystalline nature of
material, U(r) has the same periodicity "R" as the crystal lattice.
21
Hence; U(r) = U( r + R ) --------------------------------------2.30
and the electron probability is the same in all unit cell.
If the potential was random, this would not be the case as shown in
Fig. 2.4.
Fig. 2.4 : a) non-periodic potential. b) periodic potential.
Through the Bloch's Theorem, Fig. 2.4b, shows that the probability
(not the wave function) is periodic through the crystal.
2.3 FROM ATOMIC LEVELS TO BANDS
There are different models representing the back-ground potential in
the crystal. One of them, the Kronig-Penny model represents the
22
back-ground potential (periodic) seen by electrons in the crystal as a
simple potential as shown in Fig. 2.4b above.
Graphical solution of Eq.2.29 to obtain allowed energy levels is
shown in Fig. 2.5 below, where f(E) is a function of energy that
must lie between the values of 1.0 and -1.0.

Fig. 2.5 a) f(E) against electron energy. b) electron energy, E,
against wave vector kx.
23
A simpler representation of energy states is shown in Fig. 2.6, where
the allowed bands are infinitesimally narrow and the forbidden gaps
are relatively wide.
Vacuum Energy Level Electrons in free space
Electrons are bound in the material
Crystal Isolated atoms
(allowed bands) (atomic levels)
spacing between atoms----------------------------------------------------
spacing 1-2 A spacing 1000 A
24
Fig. 2.6 Allowed and forbidden bands.
If the atoms are brought together to form a crystal, the discrete
energy levels broaden. The core electrons are tightly bound and not
effected.
Hence, it is the outermost electrons forming the allowed and
forbidden bands, and the properties of the semiconductors are
essentially determined by these valance electrons.
The wavelengths that are allowed in a crystal is governed by the k-
vector such that;
k = 2 / ------------------------------------------------------------2.31
Hence, the shortest wavelength that is allowed in a crystal depends
on spacing between the two adjacent lattice points.
3- THE HYDROGEN ATOMAND QUANTUM NUMBERS
25
3.1 THE HYDROGEN ATOM
Hydrogen atom forms a relatively simple system with one electron
and one proton.
Electron can stay in any stable energy level and can move to a
higher or a lower energy state by absorbing or radiating a well
defined quantum of energy, as shown in Fig 3.1 below.
--------------------------------
electron in orbit at certain
energy level
-a-
Free electrons
Vacuum level
Bound
electrons
300 (310) (320) or 3s (3p) (3d)
13.6 eV
-b- 200 (210)or 2s (2p)
100 or 1s

Fig. 3.1 a- Hydrogen atom b- Energy levels.
26
Mathematical model of Hydrogen atom can be used, as a
simplification, while studying the doped semiconductors. Here an
electron is bound to an ionised impurity.
The Schrodinger Equation for the electron-proton system is;
[(-h'
2
/2mo e
2
)-( h'
2
/2mph
2
)- e
2
/(4o|re-rp|
2
)](r) = Etot (r) -3.1
where the first and second terms on the left-hand side of the
equation represent the kinetic energy of an electron and a proton
respectively, and the third term represent the potential energy of
the system (e.g. coulomb energy between electron and proton at
points re and rp respectively.)
If we now consider the relative motion of the electron and proton
we have;
[(-h'
2
/2mr
2
) - e
2
/ (4o / r)] (r) = E(r) ------------------3.2
where r = re rp , is the relative coordinate and mr is the reduced
mass such that;
1 / mr = 1 / mo + 1 / mp 1/ mo , since mp >> mo .
The energy values are;
En = -[mo e
4
/ (4o )
2
h'
2
)][1 / n
2
] = 13.6 / n
2
eV-------------------3.3
Where n is an integer.
The general wavefunction has the form,
nml ( r,, ), where n,m,l are quantum numbers.
27
The ground state wavefunction has the form;
100 ( r,, ) = (1 / a
3
)exp (-r / a )-----------------------------------
3.4
where a is called Bohr radius, given as;
a = h'
2
/ mo
2
= 0.53 A------------------------------------------------- 3.5
Some energy levels with corresponding quantum numbers are
shown in Fig 3.1b. For quantum number l = 0, 1, 2, 3, the
representation used is s, p, d, f,.respectively.
Hence;
100 is called 1s, and
210 is called 2p states etc
3.2 QUANTUM NUMBERS
Symbol n Principal quantum number. It determines the
total energy and can have integers, 1,2,3,4, ...
Symbol l Azimuthal quantum number. It determines the
Orbital momentum and can have integers, 0,1,2,3
4, (n-1).
28
Symbol m Magnetic quantum number. It determines
magnetic moments. It can have values in the
range -l,..0..,+l
Spectrographic designation of Azimuthal quantum numbers are;
Value of l Designation
0 s (sharp)
1 p (principal)
2 d (diffuse)
3 f (fundamental)
n l m Spectrographic designations
1 0 0 1s 2 electrons
---------------------------------------------------------------------
2 0 0 2s 2 electrons
1 -1,0,+1 2p 6 electrons
----------------------------------------------------------------------
3 0 0 3s 2 electrons
29
1 -1,0,+1 3p 6 electrons
2 -2,-1, 0,+1,+2 3d 10 electrons
----------------------------------------------------------------------
4 0 0 4s 2 electrons
1 -1,0,+1 4p 6 electrons
2 -2,-1, 0,+1,+2 4d 10 electrons
3 -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3 4f 14 electrons
Subscripts or superscripts on s,p,d,. Levels ( eg. s2 or s
2
means 2
electrons) represent the number of electrons in that level. Hence;
Group 4 Semiconductors
C (Carbon) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
2
Si (Silicone) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
2
Ge (Germanium) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2
4p
2
Group 3-5 Semiconductors
Ga (Gallium) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2
4p
1
As (Arsenic) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2
4p
3
Now, as the p level have ( -1, 0, +1 ) but all have the same
energy, they are called 3-fold degenerate, eg. in a magnetic field
they split into 3 levels.
Similarly, d levels are 5-fold degenerate.
30
Example 3.1
Calculate the wavelength associated with a 1 eV a) photon, b)
electron, c) neutron. (h = 6.6 10
34
Js; c = 3 10
8
m/s;
e = 1.6 10
19
J; mo = 0.91 10
30
kg; mn = 1824 mo) .
Solution
a) Using the equation; E = hv or E = hc / or ph = hc / E
Hence, ph = (6.6 10
34
Js)(3 10
8
m/s) / 1.6 10
-19
J = 1.24 m.
b) From Eq.2.31; we have k = 2 / and for an electron the
energy is given by;
E = (h'
2
k
2
)/2mo which gives for k, k = [ (2moE) / h'
2
]
1/2
. Since
we have, = 2 / k, now substitute for k and h'= h / 2 to get;
= [ (h / 2) 2] / (2moE)
1/2
= h / (2moE)
1/2
= (6.6 10
34
Js) / [2(0.91 10
30
kg )( 1.6 10
-19
J )]
1/2
= 12.3 A
c) As we see in part b) we have a relationship 1 / (m)
1/2
and
we are given that, mn (neutron mass) = 1824 mo , then,
n /e = (mo)
1/2
/

(mn)
1/2
= 1 /(1824)
1/2
and n = 12.3 A(1 / 1824)
1/2

n = 0.28 A
Example 3.2
31
Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron having 1eV
energy, if the electron is inside GaAs crystal where its effective
mass is 0.067 mo. ( mo = 0.91 10
30
kg)
Solution
From the previous example we have , 1 / (m)
1/2
, hence, if the
effective mass is represented by m* then we can write,
GaAs / free = (mo)
1/2
/

(m*)
1/2
which gives for;
GaAs = 12.3 A(mo / 0.067 mo )
1/2
= 47.5 A
4- DENSITY OF STATES AND THE DISTRIBUTION
FUNCTION
4.1 DENSITY OF STATES
Density of states (DOS), is the number of available states per unit
volume per unit energy around an energy E. Now, represent
The number of states in a unit volume = N(E) dE
Where N(E) = density of states
dE = energy interval
To find N(E) we need to know E-k relation of an electron.
For the free electron case;
32
E = (h'
2
k
2
)/2mo --------------------------------------------------4.1
Suppose now that we represent energies E and E + dE as surfaces
of spheres with radii k and k + dk as in Fig. 4.1 .
3-Dimensional case 2-Dimensional case 1-Dimensional case
Shaded volume = 4k
2
dk Shaded area = 2kdk Shaded space = 2dk
Fig. 4.1 Representation of E and E+dE in 3-2-and 1 dimensional
cases.
From Eq.2.25, we see that k-space volume per electron = (2/L)
3

Now considering the 3-dimensional case only, the number of
electronic states between k and k + dk = (4k
2
dk) / (2/L)
3

= (k
2
dk) V / 2
2
-------------------------------------------------4.2
Hence, N(E) dE = (k
2
dk) V / 2
2
V = (k
2
dk) / 2
2
-------4.3
Here in this equation we will simplify for k and dk, and use
equations,
E = (h'
2
k
2
)/2mo which gives dE / dk = (2h'
2
k )/2mo)---4.4
33
So that,
k = (2moE / h'
2
)
1/2
and k dk = 2modE / 2h'
2
Multiplying the last two equations give;
k
2
dk = [2 mo
3/2
E
1/2
dE] / h'
3
---------------------------4.5
Hence,
N(E) dE = (k
2
dk) / (2
2
) = [2 mo
3/2
E
1/2
dE] / h'
3
(2
2
)

= [ mo
3/2
E
1/2
dE] / h'
3
2
2
-------------------4.6
or, (multiplying by two for two spin values of the electron) we have,
N(E) = [2 mo
3/2
E
1/2
] / h'
3

2
---------------------------4.7
Hence a plot of N(E) against the energy E will have the shape
shown in Fig. 4.2 below.
Fig. 4.2 Density of states against energy(3-D case).
34
4.2 THE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS
Distribution function f(E) gives the probability that states with
energy E are occupied. The three distribution functions (Classical,
Fermions, and Bosons ) are summarised below.
CLASSICAL f(E) = exp (E EF )/kBT-----------------4.8
(Maxwell-Boltzmann)
FERMI-DIRAC f(E) = 1 / [1 + exp (E EF )/kBT ]-------4.9
BOSE-EINSTEIN f(E) = 1 / [( exp E /kBT) - 1]-------------4.10
Where kB is Boltzmann constant = 1.38 10
-23
J/K or 8.62 10
-5
eV/K
The Fermi- Dirac expression shows that f(E) is always less than 1,
as shown in Fig. 4.3 below.
35
Fig. 4.3 f(E) against E at various temperatures. At T = 0 K, step-
like behaviour. At higher temperatures, function f(E) becomes
mainly exponential (Boltzmann distribution).
The EF is the chemical potential or Fermi Energy. It represents the
energy where f(E) becomes . It can be determined once the
density of states N(E) and the electron density n are known. That is;
n =

0
[N(E) dE] [f(E)]
n =

0
[N(E) dE] [1 / [1 + exp (E EF )/kBT ]] ------------4.11
Case When T = 0 K,
we have;
f(E) = 1 / [1 + exp (E EF )/kBT ] = 1 if E EF
or
f(E) = 1 / [1 + exp (E EF )/kBT ] = 0 if E EF
----4.12
Hence for values of energy between 0 and EF , we have;
n =

EF
o
[N(E) dE] --------------------------------------------------4.13
So for the 3-Dimensional system at T = 0 K, using Eq.4.7 for N(E)
we get;
n = [2 mo
3/2


] / h'
3

2

EF
o
E
1/2
dE
n = [22 mo
3/2


/ 3h'
3

2
][EF
3/2
] -------------------------------4.14
36
or,
EF =( h'
2
/ 2mo ) (3
2
n)
2/3
-----------------------------------------4.15
Eq. 4.15 is used for metals such as copper, gold, etc., and not for
semiconductors. Fermi energy EF is the highest occupied energy
state at T = 0 K,.
Now define corresponding wavevector kF (Fermi vector) and
velocity vF (Fermi velocity) for the same case when T = 0 K.
Hence, comparing Eq 4.15 with Eq. 2.16 we have;
kF
2
= (3
2
n )
2/3
, or kF = (3
2
n )
1/3
-----------4.16
Using Eq. 2.23, (v = h' k/ mo) and substituting kF for k, we have;
Fermi -Velocity, vF = h' k/ mo = ( h' / mo) (3
2
n)
1/3
---------4.17
Hence, we now see that the velocity at the highest occupied state is
vF at T = 0 K, and not zero as in the case of Boltzmann statistics.
Case When T 0 K,
At finite temperatures, n, is not easy to determine. But, if n is small
so that f(E) is always small, Fermi Function can be written without
the 1 in the denominator, and this leads to Boltzmann Function;
f(E) = exp (E EF )/kBT---------------------------------------4.18
In this case when f(E) is small, it is called non-degenerate
statistics, and ;
n =

0
[N(E) dE] [f(E)] = Nc exp ( EF )/kBT ------------------4.19
37
where Nc = effective density of states, and it is given by;
Nc = 2 [mo / 2 h'
2
]
3/2
( kBT )
3/2
-------------------------------4.20
But if n is HIGH so that f(E) approaches unity (the degenerate
condition) the Joyce-Dixon approximation is used, eg;
EF = kB T [ln (n / Nc) + (1 / 8 )(n / Nc)] ------------------------4.21
And,
Etot = =

0
[N(E) dE] E [f(E)] -----------------------------------4.22
Example 4.1
A particular metal has 10
28
electrons per cubic meter. Calculate the
Fermi Energy and Fermi velocity at T = 0 K.
Solution
From Eq. 4.15 we have for the EF ;
EF =( h'
2
/ 2mo ) (3
2
n)
2/3

EF = [1.05 10
34
J s]
2
[ 3
2
10
28
]
2/3
/ 2 [ 0.91 10
30
kg ]
= 2.69 10
19
J
Also; fro Eq. 4.17 we have ;
vF = h' k/ mo = ( h' / mo) (3
2
n)
1/3

= [1.05 10
34
J s]

[ 3
2
10
28
]
1/3
/ 0.91 10
30
kg
= 7.69 10
7
cm/s
38
Example 4.2
Schematically Plot the distribution function :
f(E) = 1 / [1 + exp (E - EF ) / kBT ]
as a function of energy E for temperatures T = 0 K, and T2 >> T1
>>T. Clearly indicate values of important points. At what value of
energy does the distribution value equal 50% ?
Solution
39
5- METALS SEMICONDUCTORS INSULATORS
5.1 ENERGY BANDS
Considering the allowed and forbidden energy bands, the allowed
bands may be completely or partially filled or completely empty, as
shown in Fig. 5.1 below.
VACUUM ENERGY LEVEL
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
e
conduction
band
e
valance
band
core
level
core
level
METAL SEMICONDUCTOR
Highest occupied band is Highest occupied band is
Partially filled. Completely filled.
40
Fig. 5.1 Electron occupation at 0 degrees Kelvin is described
schemattically. e = work function; e = electron affinity.
Concept : If an allowed band is completely filled with electrons,
there is no conduction of current

COMPLETELY FILLED PARTIALLY FILLED
Hence, a material with a partially filled band is called a METAL;
while those with the highest occupied level completely filled are
called INSULATORS.
An insulator having a band-gap 3 eV is called a
SEMICONDUCTOR.
The band which is normally filled at 0 degrees Kelvin in a
semiconductor is called VALANCE BAND while the upper
unfilled band is called the CONDUCTION BAND.
Metal Workfunction; is the energy difference between the vacuum
level and the highest occupied state.
Electron Affinity; is the energy difference between the vacuum
level and the bottom of the conduction band.
5.2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SEMICONDUCTORS
41
For most semiconductors, top of the valance band occurs at wave
vector value k = 0.
A typical structure is shown in Fig.5.2 below.
Direct conduction band indirect conduction band
Direct bandgap indirect bandgap
Valance band
Fig. 5.2 Direct and indirect bandgaps.
42
If the bottom of the conduction band is at k = 0, we have a Direct
bandgap material; ( eg GaAs, InP, InGaAs, etc,) BUT, if k 0
we have an indirect bandgap material (eg. Si, Ge, AlAs, etc.).
These indirect bandgap materials involve a momentum change
(k 0) for transitions between the valance and the conduction
bands and therefore are less suitable for use in optical devices.
In most cases for a direct bandgap semiconductors;
E(k) = Ec + (h'
2
k
2
)/2m
*
-------------------------------------------5.1
Where Ec is the conduction band edge, and the band structure is a
simple parabola.
For indirect bandgap materials;
E(k) = Ec + (h'
2
kl
2
)/2ml
*
+ (h'
2
kt
2
)/2mt
*
--------------------5.2
Where kl = longitudinal part of k
And kt = transverse part of k and the constant energy surface of
the band structure is an ellipsoid.
Near the band edges, electrons in semiconductors have effective
mass represented by m* which is directly proportional to the
materials energy gap Eg.
Fig.5.3 below shows how the effective mass normalised to the free
mass (m* / m0) changes with Eg .
43
Fig. 5.3 Effective mass against energy gap Eg.
Masses of valance band electrons are usually heavier and also
negative. In general effective mass is defined as;
1 / m* = (1 / h'
2
)* (d
2
E / dk
2
) ----------------------------------------5.3
5.3 HOLES IN SEMICONDUCTORS
Considering a semiconductor, at finite temperatures, some electrons
leave the valance band and go into the conduction band, as shown in
Fig. 5.4 below.
Conduction band
Wavevector associated with
the missing electron.
Electron removed Valance band
44
Missing electron
Means a hole
Fig. 5.4 Holes in semiconductor.
As the electron moves to conduction band then the missing state can
be represented with a hole having wavevector ke = kh .
The hole responds as if it has a positive charge. Holes and electrons
move in opposite directions as shown in Fig. 5.5 below. So, when
discussing conduction band one is dealing with electrons; whereas
for valance band holes have the major role.
45
Fig. 5.5 Holes in valance band; when a) t = 0 ; b) t = t1 ; c) t = t2
and t2 > t1 > t , d) motion of electrons and holes under an
electric field of F.
6- DOPING OF SEMICONDUCTORS
6.1 INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION
We already know that when T = 0 Kelvin, the valance band is
completely filled, while the conduction band is completely empty.
This means that there is a high resistance to current transport.
When T 0 Kelvin however, there will be some electrons that will
go into the conduction band , leaving behind holes in the valance
band. These carriers are called intrinsic carriers. They are
nuisance in semiconductor devices, as there is no easy and practical
control of their populations. We shall later deal with controllable
carriers introduced by a process called Doping.
46
The intrinsic carrier concentration depends on mainly;
a- bandgap, Eg
b- Temperature in Kelvin, T
c- Band edge masses, m*.
Fig. 6.1 below shows the conduction and valance band density of
states.
Fig. 6.1 Density of states, Ne, Nh, and electron and hole
concentrations.
The electron concentration n is given (using Boltzmann
approximation, for low n 10
16
cm
-3
) by; ( using Eq. 4.19 with
limits from Ec to , and not from 0 to as in Eq. 4.19.)
n = Nc exp [ (EF EC )/ kB T ]
where Nc = 2 [(m*e kB T)/(2 h'
2
)]
3/2
------------------------------6.1
and represent the effective density of states at the conduction band
edge.
To find hole concentration, p, we use hole distribution function;
fh = 1 fe = 1 1 / { exp [ (E EF )/ kB T ]} + 1
47
exp - [ ( EF - E)/ kB T ]
--------------------------------------------6.2
when EF E >> kBT
This results for p;
P = Nv exp [ (EV EF )/ kB T ] ----------------------------------------6.3
Where Nv = 2 [(m*h kB T)/(2 h'
2
)]
3/2
and represents the effective
density of states for the valance band edge.
For intrinsic semiconductors; n = p = ni = pi
And the product;
np = 4[( kB T)/(2 h'
2
)]
3
(me*mh*)
3/2
[ exp (- Eg ) / kB T] ---6.4
and if we take square root of the product we get;
ni = pi =2[( kB T)/(2 h'
2
)]
3/2
(me*mh*)
3/4
[exp (- Eg )/2 kB T]--6.5
From Eq. 6.1 and Eq. 6.3, equating n = p (this will be the intrinsic
case so we may use EFi now for the Fermi energy), we get;
exp (2 EFi ) / kB T = (mh*/ me*)
3/2
[exp (Eg )/kB T] ------------6.6
and
EFi = (Ec Ev)/ 2 + kBT ln (mh*/ me*) ----------------------6.7
Where EFi is the intrinsic Fermi level which is seen in Eq. 6.7 to be
very close to the midgap.
48
As we can see in Eq. 6.5 the carrier concentration increases
exponentially as the bandgap decreases. A logarithmic plot in
Fig. 6.2 below shows this dependence for intrinsic carriers.
Fig. 6.2 Intrinsic concentration against reciprocal of
temperature.
The intrinsic carriers are detrimental to device performance and
once its concentration increase to 10
15
cm
3
, the material
becomes unsuitable for electronic devices.
We can see in Fig.6.2 that, for a given temperature, the intrinsic
concentrations ni = pi decrease as Eg increases.
Hence, high Eg materials are required for high temperature
operations ( eg ni = pi will remain low).
49
For a system in equilibrium, the product pn is independent of EF,
and is CONSTANT at a given temperature ( the law of mass
action).
Now that we have some idea of concentrations in a semiconductor
(eg intrinsic carriers , order of 10
11
cm
3
), and a metal (eg order of
10
21
cm
3
), it is clear that conduction in semiconductors need
enhancement. Such enhancement can be done by a process called
DOPING.
6.2 DONORS AND ACCEPTORS
Doping involves placing an impurity into a pure crystal lattice.
Since it is placed intentionally to serve a purpose then it is better to
name it as a dopant rather then an impurity, which is the general
name used for unintentional placements in a lattice.
When a dopant is placed in a lattice, it disturbs the symmetry and
changes the background potential (this location is sometimes called
a defect centre, or an impurity or dopant centre, or a dopant
defect). If the potential change is weak and long ranged, then the
dopant centre can be described, approximately, by the Hydrogen
model, except now the effective mass at the bandedge is used.
Dopants placed in a host lattice can effect properties of the material
mainly in two ways. If the effect is to enrich electron concentration,
then the dopant is called a donor; but if the effect is to enrich hole
concentration, then the dopant is called an acceptor.
We can define the lattice and the dopants as;
Host lattice is a lattice into which a dopant is placed.
50
Donor is an element which has one-more valance electron than
the host material.
Acceptor is an element which has one-less valance electron than
the host material.
DONOR
Consider now a semiconductor Si (group 4 element) which has 4
valance electrons. If Si is a host material then, Arsenic, As, (group 5
element) is a donor is Si host lattice ( eg As has one-more valance
electron than the Si). Such a donor defect is shown in Fig. 6.3
below.
all 4 valance electrons
go into the valance band
Silicone host atom Band
-a-
Pentavalent Silicone like Electron-ion
donor coulombic attraction
-b-
Fig. 6.3 a) silicone host. b) donor defect.
It is clear from Fig. 6.3 that the donor defect is neutral when
occupied (eg when the excess electron is there) or positively
51
charged when not occupied (eg when the excess electron leaves the
defect).
The energy equation for the electron ion combination is similar to
that of the Hydrogen atom, except that electron mass is m* and the
coulombic potential is reduced by, 0 / ;
where, , is the dielectric constant of the semiconductor, and
0 is the permittivity of vacuum ( 8.85 10
-12
Fm
-1
).
That is (see Eq. 3.3 );
Ed = Ec (e
4
m*e ) / 2 ( 4 )
2
h'
2
n
2
where n = 1,2,3,---------6.8
and Ed - Ec is the donor defect energy with respect to conduction
band edge.
The ground -state energy level is obtained by setting n = 1, which
gives;
Ed = Ec (e
4
m*e )/2( 4 )
2
h'
2
= Ec 13.6(m*/m0)(0/)
2
eV--6.9
Fig. 6.4 below shows the donor defect and the donor energy level.
Fig. 6.4 Donor defect and the energy level.
52
The wave function is similar to Hydrogen atom case and is;
d(r) = (exp r/a) / ( a
3
)
1/2
-----------------------------------------6.10
and Bohr radius a=( 4 )
2
h'
2
/m*e e
2
= 0.53( / 0) /(m*e/m0) 6.11
For most semiconductors; Ed few meV; and a 100 A.
Although Ed seems to be dependant only on the host material
(through and m* in Eq. 6.9) more accurate theories show some
dependence on the dopant atom itself.
ACCEPTOR
Considering Si again as the host material, then, group 3 elements
can be used as acceptors . Fig. 6.5 below shows Boron (B) acting
as an acceptor in Si, and the corresponding energy level of the
acceptor.
Fig. 6.5 Acceptor defect and the energy level.

An electron from valance band go to Boron to complete bonding,
leaving behind a hole. So we see from Fig. 6.5 that the acceptor
defect is neutral when it is not occupied, but it is negatively
charged when occupied.
53
In compound semiconductors, the dopants can be amphoteric .
(eg Si (group 4) can act as a donor in GaAs if it replaces Ga (group
3) atom, or as an acceptor if it replaces As(group 5) atom.)
6.3 EXTRINSIC CARRIER DENSITY
In the lowest energy state of the donor atom, the extra electron is
trapped at the donor site as showing Fig. 6.6a and cannot carry
current; eg it is not useful for changing electronic properties. This
state is called carrier freeze out, and also occurs at very low
temperatures.
At higher temperatures, the donor electron is ionised and resides
in conduction band as a free electron as shown in Fig. 6.6b. Ionised
donor is positively charged and offers scattering centres for free
electrons. So the donor site can be represented as;
Donor = atom core + 4 bound electrons + 1 loosely bound
electron ------------------------------------------------------------------6.12
localised electron free electron
Ground state excited state
54
Donor is neutral donor is positively charged
Fig. 6.6 a) Donor site neutral b)donor ionised (positively
charged)
When the material is doped, we may have donor density, N.D., and
acceptor density, An, and no equality between them, eg electrons
and holes; so
n p = n 0
----------------------------------------------------------6.13
However the law of mass action still holds at normal doping levels
and we can still write;
np = constant = ni
2
= pi
2
= ni pi -------------------------------------6.14
From equations Eq. 6.13 and Eq. 6.14 one can show that;
n = n + ( n
2
+ 4ni
2
)
1/2
--------------------------------------6.15
p = - n + ( n
2
+ 4ni
2
)
1/2
--------------------------------------6.16
Also using equation Eq. 6.1 with approximation for the distribution
function, eg use Boltzmann like function, f(E) = exp (E EF )/kBT
we get by setting first n = n, and then n = ni
n = ni exp [ (EF EFi )/ kB T ] ---------------------------------------6.17
( use, n = Nc exp [ (EF Ec )/ kB T ], ni = Nc exp [ (EFi Ec )/ kB T ] )
Similarly;
p = pi exp [ -(EF EFi )/ kB T ] -------------------------------------6.18
55
where EF is the Fermi level corresponding to the doped
semiconductor. We also have from Eq, 6.17 and Eq. 6.18;
(n p) / ni = n / 2 = 2 sinh [ (EF EFi )/ kB T ] ----------------6.19
The relative position of the Fermi changes depending on the
doping level and type of doping. Hence,
when the semiconductor is doped n-type, the Fermi level
moves towards the conduction band edge.
when the semiconductor is doped p-type, the Fermi level
moves towards the valance band edge.
In such cases, (eg when doped) the Boltzmann approximation is not
valid any more and the simple expression relating the carrier
concentration and the Fermi level are not very accurate.
A more accurate relation is given by;
) (
2
2 / 1 F c
F N n

----------------------------------------------------------6.20
where,
) (
2 / 1 F
F
=

+
0
) (
2 / 1
1
F
e
d


and is called Fermi Dirac Integral or
(just Fermi half integral), and,
T k
E E
B
c

;
T k
E E
B
c F
F


-----------------------------------------6.21
and Nc is the effective density. The Fermi half integral is plotted in
Fig. 6.7 below.
56
Fig. 6.7 Fermi half integral.
Using the Joyce Dixon approximation we have;
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
c c
B c F
N
n
N
n
T k E E
8
1
ln
or
1
1
]
1

,
_

v v
B v F
N
p
N
p
T k E E
8
1
ln
-------------------------------------------6.22
If the last term (eg
c
N
n
8
1
; and
v
N
p
8
1
) is omitted the result
corresponds to Boltzmann approximation.
We shall assume in our studies that the Boltzmann approximation is
valid and all the dopant centres (donors and acceptors) are ionised.
Hence, the electron concentration in n-type materials will be the
same as the donor density, Nd and the hole concentration in p-type
materials will be the same as the acceptor density Na
57
7- TRANSPORT PROPERTIES IN SEMICONDUCTORS
7.1 SCATTERING
Impurities and imperfections, either intentional or unintentional,
cause scattering of electrons.
Some important sources of scattering may be summarised as below;
Ionised impurities (caused by dopants)
Phonons (lattice vibrations)
Alloys (causes potential variation)
Interface (surface roughness in heterostructures)
Chemical impurities (causes potential variations).
Scattering causes loss of coherence between the initial and final
states of momentum and energy of an electron, as represented in
Fig. 7.1 below.
58
Fig. 7.1 Scattering of electrons
We shall now define relaxation time ( sc

) as the time taken

(Average) to loose coherence, or memory of the initial state.
Conceptual picture of scattering is given in Fig. 7.2 below.
Fig. 7.2 Conceptual picture of scattering.
Scattering rate is proportional to;
59
How strong the scattering potential (Vr) couples to the initial and
final states.
How many final states there are to scatter to.
7.2 VELOCITY-ELECTRIC FIELD RELATIONS IN
SEMICONDUCTORS
If an electric field is applied, electrons move in the field direction
(in opposite sense) scatter but in steady-state gain some net drift
velocity.
Electron distribution changes now and it can be determined by
velocity-field relationship at low and moderately high electric
fields.
LOW FIELD RESPONSE MOBILITY
For this case assume that;
Electrons do not interact with each other,

sc

, is mean time between successive collisions from scattering

sources,
electron move like free electrons (eg ext
F
dt
dk

) in between
collisions.
Electron gain velocity in between collisions, ie., only during the
time sc

. Hence, we can write ;

d
sc
avg
v
m
eF
v
*

(drift velocity) -----------------------------------------7.1

where F is the electric field.
60
The current density J = -nevd and after substituting for vd (Eq.
7.1)we have;
*
2
m
F ne
J
sc

----------------------------------------------------------------7.2
If we now compare Eq. 7.2 with that of Ohms Law ;
F J
--------------------------------------------------------------------7.3
where

is the conductivity, then we can write;

*
2
m
ne
sc

-----------------------------------------------------------------7.4
From the definition of mobility (

);
F v
d

---------------------------------------------------------------------7.5
we have from Eq. 7.1 and 7.5 ;
*
m
e
sc

-------------------------------------------------------------------7.6
Mobility has strong dependence on the reciprocal effective mass,
m*( which is the conductivity effective mass).
HIGH FIELD RESPONSE
Under strong electric fields (1 100 kV/cm), electrons get hot
(gain more energy) and the carrier drift velocity increases.
In Si, typical of indirect bandgap materials, this velocity initially
increases and then saturates, as shown in Fig. 7.3 below, at about
1.2 10
7
cm s
1
.
In GaAs, typical of direct bandgap materials, the drift velocity
shows a peak and then decreases (shows a negative differential
resistance) and saturates at about 10
7
cm s
1
.
61
Fig. 7.3 Drift velocity against the electric field.
7.3 CARRIER TRANSPORT BY DIFFUSION
Diffusion takes place, always from higher to lower concentrations.
The extend of diffusion is effected by the collision of electrons
(holes). The random collision of electrons (holes) can be described
by mean free path (l), and the mean collision time (

sc ) and
represented as below.
62
collision collision
* *
l = average distance

sc = time
Now, consider a concentration gradient profile n(x,t), of electrons as
in Fig. 7.4 , at time t .
Fig. 7.4 Electron concentration profile n(x), against distance x,
at time t.
Now, we are going to calculate electron flux

(x,t) across the

plane x = xo at any instant of time.
Electrons in the L (left) and R(right) regions move randomly and
half of them in the L region will go across x = xo to the right.
Similarly, half of those in the region R will go across x = xo to the
left in time

sc .
63
The flux to the right can be written as;
l
n n
t x
sc
R L
n

2
) (
) , (

--------------------------------------------------------7.7
where nL and nR are the average carrier densities. As the two regions
are separated by the distance l, we can write;
;
dx
dn
l
n n
R L

or
l
dx
dn
n n
R L


-------------------------------7.8
Hence, the net flux is;
dx
t x dn
D
dx
t x dn l
t x
n
sc
n
) , ( ) , (
2
) , (
2

--------------------------------------7.9
where Dn is called the Diffusion coefficient of the electron system,
and depend on l and sc

.
We also have;
) )( (
sc th
v l
;
where th
v
is the mean thermal speed, and shows that Dn is also
temperature dependant.
A similar argument for holes gives;
dx
t x dp
D
dx
t x dp l
t x
p
sc
p
) , ( ) , (
2
) , (
2

--------------------------------------7.10
64
Hence total current flow (in the absence of any applied electric
field) is given by;
Jtot (diff) = Jn (diff) + Jp (diff) =
dx
t x dp
eDp
dx
t x dn
eDn
) , ( ) , (

--------7.11
Example 7.1
For n-type GaAs at 300 K, electron concentration varies as;
3 ) / ( 16
10 ) (

cm e x n
L x
for x

0; where L = 1 micron(micrometer = 10
-6
meter).
Calculate diffusion current density at x = 0, if the electron diffusion
coefficient is 220 cm
2
/s at 300 K.
Solution
The diffusion current density is given by;
Jn (diff) = eDn
0 x
dx
dn
= - (1.6 10
19
C)(220 cm
2
/s) (10
16
/ 10
-4
)
= - 3.5 kA/cm
2
.
7.4 TRANSPORT BY DRIFT AND DIFFUSION
(EINSTEIN RELATION)
In many electronic devices charge moves under the influence of
both;
electric field
concentration gradients
The current is then given by; (using Eq. 7.2, 7.5 and 7.11)
65
Jn (x) =-enn(x)F(x) +
dx
x dn
eD
n
) (

-----------------------------7.12
Jp (x) = epp(x)F(x) -
dx
x dp
eD
p
) (
The mobility n and p are only constant at low fields, but decrease
at high fields. The product F reaches a constant value at even
higher fields, when the saturation velocity is reached.
Thus the Drift current saturates and becomes independent of the
Field, (eg as we have, J = nevd, and vd = F ).
The effect of an electric field on the energy bands can be examined
through Fig. 7.5 below.
Fig. 7.5 Bending of energy bands due to an electric field.
The force on the electron is eF(x) and it is related to potential
energy U(x) by;
F(Force) = - U(x) -----------------------------------------------7.13
For a uniform electric field, then;
U(x) = eF(x) x ------------------------------------------------------7.14
66
Then,
Ec(x) = Ec (F = 0) + eF(x) x -------------------------------------7.15
and since the electron charge is negative, bands bend as shown in
Fig. 7.5, and electrons drift downhill in the energy band picture (eg
current flow in opposite sense).
At equilibrium, the total electron and hole currents are individually
(each one) zero and we have from Eq. 7.12;
dx
x dn
x n
D
x F
n
n
) (
) (
1
) (

-----------------------------------------------------7.16
For n(x) we may use Boltzmann distribution (from Eq. 6.17);
1
1
]
1

,
_

T k
x E E
i
B
F Fi
e n x n
) (
) (
------------------------------------------------------7.17
where EFi and EF(x) are the intrinsic Fermi level and the Fermi level
in the presence of extrinsic charge. Tis gives;
1
]
1

dx
dE
dx
dE
T k
x n
dx
dn
F i F
B
) (
--------------------------------------------------7.18
But at equilibrium, the Fermi level can NOT vary spatially;
Hence,
0
dx
dE
F
--------------------------------------------------------7.19
So now Eq. 7.19 becomes;
67
1
]
1

dx
dE
T k
x n
dx
dn
i F
B
) (
and now differentiate Eq.7.14 to get
) (x eF
dx
dE
Fi

,
also use Eq. 7.16 for
n
n
D
x n x F
dx
dn ) ( ) (

and substitute both to get;

n
n B
D
x n x F
x n
T k
x eF
) ( ) (
) (
) (

, and this gives;

e
T k D
B
n
n

------------------------------------------------------------7.20
which is the Einstein Relation satisfied for electrons. A similar
relation also holds for holes, using the hole parameters.
7.5 QUASI FERMI LEVELS
We already know that at equilibrium, distribution of n and p are
given by Fermi function, if of course we know the Fermi level and
the product pn = constant.
If however, excess n and p are injected, the same Fermi function
will not describe the occupancy. So, quasi-Fermi levels are used
now, assuming that excess n and p are in thermal equilibrium in
conduction and valance bands respectively.
In such cases, the quasiequilibrium n and p can be represented by
an electron Fermi function f
e
and a hole Fermi function f
h
respectively. Hence;

c
E
e
e
dE E f E N n ) ( ) ( ------------------------------------------------------7.21
68

v
E
h
h
dE E f E N p ) ( ) (
-------------------------------------------------------7.22
where
1
1
) (
+

,
_

T k
E E
e
B
Fn
e
E f
-------------------------------------------------7.23
1
1
1
1
1 ) ( 1 ) (
+

,
_

,
_

T k
E E
T k
E E
v h
B
Fp
B
Fp
e e
E f E f
----------------------------7.24
where EFn and EFp are electron and hole Fermi levels.
At equilibrium, EFn = EFP . But, when excess carriers are injected
EFn moves towards the conduction band
And
EFP moves towards the valance band.
The carrier density relationships are as follows;

1
]
1

T k
E E
v
B
P F v
e N p
----------------------------------------7.25
The Joyce Dixon approximation is then,
1
]
1

+
c c
B c Fn
N
n
N
n
T k E E
8
ln
-----------------------------------------7.26
1
]
1

+
v v
B FP v
N
p
N
p
T k E E
8
ln
Example 7.2
69
Use Boltzmann statistics to calculate the position of the electron and
hole Fermi levels when an e-h density of 10
17
cm
-3
is injected (by
field or optical) into pure (undoped ) silicone at RT (300K).
( Nc = 2.8 10
19
cm
-3
, Nv = 1.04 10
19
cm
-3
, Eg = 1.1 eV.)
Solution
Given; n = p = 10
17
cm
-3
, kBT = 0.026 eV
Hence, from;
1
]
1

T k
E E
c
B
c n F
e N n and
1
]
1

T k
E E
v
B
P F v
e N p
, we
have
eV E E
N
n
T K E
c c
c
B Fn
146 . 0 ln +
1
]
1

eV E
N
p
T k Ev E
v
v
B FP
121 . 0 ln +
1
]
1

For Si, Eg = 1.1 eV = Ec Ev , hence;
EFn EFp = (Ec Ev ) ( 0.146 + 0.121 ) = 1.1 0.267 = 0.833 eV
If the injected e-h density was 10
15
cm
-3
, then
EFn EFp = 1.1 0.506 = 0.59 eV, hence
As the injected carrier density increase the separation between the
Fermi levels widen.
70
7.6 THE CONTINUITY EQUATION DIFFUSION LENGTH
In our discussion up to now we did not consider a process called
recombination ( loss of carriers, radiative or non-radiative) of electrons and
holes.
Continuity equation is developed to account for the recombination process in
carrier transport.
Hence;
Particle flow rate = Particle flow rate due to current Particle loss rate
due to Recombination.
This is simply a statement of conservation of particles. Consider now a
volume of space as in Fig.7.6 below.
71
Fig. 7.6 Recombination rate R in a volume element of Ax.
If
n
is the excess carrier density in the region, the recombination rate, R, in
volume Ax may be written as (losses);
x A
n
R
n

-----------------------------------------------------------------7.27
where, n

is the electron recombination time per excess particle (radiative or

non-radiative process together).
Also, particle flow rate into the same volume due to the current Jn is (gains);
xA
x
x J
e
A
e
x J
e
x x J
n n n

1
]
1

) ( 1 ) ( ) (
------------------------------7.28
Using Eq.7.27-28, total rate of electron build-up can be written as;
dt
t x n
x A
t
n
x A
n
x
x J
e
x A
n
n
) , ( ) ( ) ( 1

1
]
1

-------------------------7.29
where n is the only part which changes with time.
Hence, from Eq. 7.29 the continuity equation for electrons and
holes can be written as;
72
n
n
n
x
x J
e dt
n

) ( 1 ) (
------------------------------------------------7.30
p
p
p
x
x J
e dt
p

) (
1 ) (
------------------------------------------------7.31
In the case where we only have charge transport by diffusion, the
diffusion currents are (from Eq.7.11);
x
n
eD diff J
n n

) (
) (
---------------------------------------------------7.32
x
p
eD diff J
p p

) (
) (
---------------------------------------------------7.33
we have from Eq. 7.30 and Eq. 7.31, and differentiating Eq.7.32 and
Eq.7.33;
n
n
n
x
n
D
dt
n

2
2
) ( ) (
-------------------------------------------7.34
p
p
p
x
n
D
dt
p

2
2
) ( ) (
---------------------------------------------7.35
In steady state, (used to study steady state charge profile), we have ;
0
) (

t
n

and now, Eq. 7.34 and Eq.7.35 become,
n
n n
L
n
D
n
dx
n d
2 2
2
) (

and
p
p p
L
p
D
p
dx
p d
2 2
2
) (

- --7.36
73
where Ln Lp are defined as;
2
1
) (
n n n
D L
and
2
1
) (
p p p
D L
and are called Diffusion
Lengths.
The meaning of Diffusion Length is better understood if we study
the spatial variation in carrier density as shown below in Fig. 7.7.
Fig. 7.7 Spatial variation of injected carrier density in x-
direction.
Due to some external injection, an excess electron density n(0) is
maintained at the semiconductor edge at x = 0.
If no is the equilibrium density, then we are interested in finding out
how n changes with x.
74
The general solution of Eq. 7.36 is given by;
n n
L
x
L
x
e A e A x n

+
2 1
) (
------------------------------------------7.37
However, when x is large n(x) must go to zero, therefore, it is
required that A1 = 0.This condition is valid only if the sample is
large (large x).
Since n(0) is known and fixed by injection condition, we have;
A2 = n(0) -----------------------------------------------------------7.38
Hence the solution is;
n
L
x
e n x n

) 0 ( ) (
---------------------------------------------7.39
The diffusion length Ln (or Lp)represents the distance over which
the injected carrier density falls to 1/e of its original value.
It also represents the average distance an electron will diffuse before
it recombines with a hole.
Example 7.3
In p-type GaAs sample, electrons are injected from a contact. If the
minority carrier mobility is 4000cm
2
/V-s at 300K, calculate the
diffusion length of the electrons.(recombination time = 0.6 ns)
Solution
At 300 K, kBT/e = 0.026 Volts, = 4000 cm
2
/V-s = 0.4 m
2
/V-s
75
Hence, using Einstein relation, Dn = kBT/e
Dn = (0.4 m
2
/ V-s )(0.026 V) = 1.04 10
2
m
2
/s .
The diffusion length = (Dn) = [(1.04 10
2
m
2
/s )(0.6 10
-9
s)] =
2.5 10
6
m = 2.5 micrometer = 2.5 micron = 2.5 m.
( In pure silicone can be much longer in the range 10
-3
to 10
-6
seconds and Ln can be much longer.)
Example 7.4
The electron mobility of Silicone at 300 K is 1400 cm
2
/V-s .
Calculate the mean free path and the energy gained in a mean free
path at an electric field of 1 kV /cm . Assume that the mean free
path l = vthsc and vth =2 10
7
cm/s, m* = 0.26 mo, and eV = 1.6 10
-19
Joule.)
Solution
Based on the data given we can first find the collision time, sc ,
which is given by;
76
sc = m*/e = (1400 10
-4
m
2
/V-s)(0.26 )(0.91 10
-30
kg)/ 1.6 10
-19
C
= 2.07 10
-13
s
Now we can find the mean free path as;
l = vthsc = (2 10
7
cm/s)( 2.07 10
-13
s) = 4.14 10
-6
cm = 414
Angstrom.
Electrons gain drift velocity, vd, and the energy gained between the
collisions is kinetic energy , given by;
E = m*(vd)
2
/2 = m*(F)
2
/2 = (0.5)(0.26)(0.91 10
-30
kg)[ ( 1400
10
-4
m
2
/V-s )(10
5
V/m)]
2
= 2.32 10
-23
J = 0.145 meV .
Example 7.5
In a Silicone sample at 300 K the electron concentration drops
linearly from 10
18
cm
3
to 10
16
cm
3
over a length of 2 m.
Calculate the current density due to the electron concentration.( Dn
= 35 cm
2
/s; e = 1.6 10
19
C).
77
Solution
The diffusion current density due to electron concentration is given
by;
dx
dn
eD J
n n

here the only unknown is the concentration gradient
dx
dn
, which
can be found from the data given.
So, using the data,
4 21
4
3 16 18
9510 . 4
210
10 10

cm
cm
cm
dx
dn
Hence the diffusion current density is then;
Jn = (1.6 10
19
C)( 35 cm
2
/s)(4.95 10
21
cm
-4
)
= 2.77 10
4
A/cm
2
.
Example 7.6
In GaAs sample it is known that the electron concentration varies
linearly. The diffusion current density at 300 K is found to be 100
A/cm
2
. Calculate the slope of the electron concentration profile.
(Dn = 220 cm
2
/s; e = 1.6 10
19
C).
78
Solution
From,

dx
dn
eD J
n n

we have
4 18
1 2 19
2
8410 . 2
) 220 )( 610 . 1 (
100

cm
s cm C
Acm
eD
J
dx
dn
n
n
Example 7.7
Calculate the density of electrons in Silicone if the Fermi level
coincides with the conduction band edge at 300K. Compare the
79
results using Boltzmann approximation and the Fermi Half Integral.
(Nc = 2.78 10
19
cm
-3
).
Solution
The Boltzmann approximation gives;
kBT
E E
c
C F
e N n

Since we have EC EF = 0 , then n = NC = 2.78 10

19
cm
3
.
The Fermi Half Integral gives for,
0

T k
E E
B
C F
F

, F 1/2 (0) = 0.65

So, from
) (
2
2
1 F C
F N n

we have ;
) 65 . 0 (
2
C
N n

n= 0.74 NC which is more accurate than the Boltzmann

approximation. However the Boltzmann approximation is good
enough when the term (EC EF/kBT ) is large.
Example 7.8
80
The electron density in Silicone sample at 300 K is 10
16
cm
-3
.
Calculate EC EF and the hole density using Boltzmann
approximation. (NC = 2,78 10
19
cm
-3
, np = 2.25 10
20
cm
-6
at 300 K).
Solution
Using Boltzmann approximation we have
kBT
E E
c
C F
e N n

which gives for;

EC EF = -kBT ln(n/NC) = (-0.026)ln(10
16
/2.7810
19
) eV = 0.206 eV
Since the product pn is given then we can calculate hole
concentration as;
P = 2.25 10
20
/ 10
16
= 2.25 10
4
cm
-3
.
81
Example 7.9
In a GaAs sample electrons are moving under the influence of an
electric field of 10 kV/cm, and the drift velocity is saturated at 10
7
cm/s. If the electron concentration is uniform at 10
16
cm
-3
, calculate
the drift current density.( e = 1.6 10
19
C)
Solution
Since the drift velocity is saturated we do not need the field and
mobility values and can directly use the drift velocity value.
The drift current density is given by;
Jn = -nevd
Jn = (10
16
cm
-3
)(1.6 10
19
C)(10
7
cm/s)
Jn = -1.6 10
4
A/cm
2
.
82
Example 7.10
A GaAs sample is doped n-type at 5 10
17
cm
-3
. Assume that all the
donors are ionised. What is the position of the Fermi level at 300 K.
(NC = 4.45 10
17
cm
-3
.)
Solution
Since all the donors are ionised, the electron density in the
conduction band is ;
N = 5 10
17
cm
-3
= ND , since the intrinsic density is much less than
the donors.
Using Boltzmann approximation;
EC EF = -kBT ln(n/NC) = (0.026)ln(5 10
17
cm
-3
/ 4.45 10
17
cm
-3
)
= -3meV
As EF is very close to EC, we may use Joyce-Dixon approximation
for more accurate result.
EF = Ec + kBT[ln(n/NC) + n/8 NC] eV
EF = Ec + 0.026[ln(5 10
17
/4.45 10
17
) + 5 10
17
/8 5 10
17
] eV
83
Ec - EF = -13.36 meV.
8- THE P-N JUNCTION
8.1 UNBIASED P-N JUNCTION
There are many different procedures for doping semiconductors n- or p-type.
Some of these are, a) epitaxial layers doped during crystal growth, b) ion
implantation is used to implant dopant ions, c) diffusion of dopants, etc..
We will now consider a junction between n-type material and a p-type
material, and assume that the junction is abrupt. Fig. 8.1 below shows what
happens when the p-type and n-type materials are made to form a junction
and there is no externally applied field.
84
Fig. 8.1 a) p-type and n-type material, before forming a junction.
b) pn junction formation.
In Fig. 8.1 we can identify 3 distinct regions. These are;
p-type region at the far left-hand side. Material is neutral, bands are flat.
Acceptor and hole densities are equal.
n-type region at the far right-hand side. Material is neutral, bands are flat.
Donor and free electron densities are equal.
The depletion region in the middle. Bands are bent. Field exists which
swept mobile charge carriers(depleted), leaving behind negatively charged
acceptors in the p-region and positively charged donors in the n-region.
Electric field exist in the depletion region which extends Wp into the p-
region and Wn into the n-region.
Hence , both currents exist, but they counterbalance each other in the
absence of an externally applied field.
In analysing the depletion layer, we will assume, as shown in Fig. 8.2 , that;
The junction is abrupt and each side is uniformly doped.
Mobile charge density in the depletion region is zero (depletion
approximation). This approximation will be used to solve Poissons equation
but not in calculating current flow.
The transition between the bulk neutral n- type or p- type regions and the
depletion region is abrupt.
85
Fig. 8.2 pn junction and the bulk neutral regions.
The electron and hole drift and diffusion currents may be
summarised as below in Fig. 8.3 below.
Fig. 8.3 Drift and diffusion currents and charge movement in a
pn junction.
These current cancel each other individually (eg hole currents add
up to zero as does the electron currents). That is the hole current
density given by;
Jp(x) = e[pp(x)F(x) - Dp
dx
x dp ) (
] = 0------------------------------------8.1
86
This gives;
dx
x dp
x p
x F
D
p
p
) (
) (
1
) (

------------------------------------8.2
Now remember that (from Eq. 7.20) Einstein relation gives ;
T k
e
D
B p
p

--------------------------------------------------------------8.3
and in terms of potential gradient the electric field can be written as;
dx
dV
x F ) (
----------------------------------------------------------8.4
Substitution of Eq. 8.3 and 8.4 into Eq. 8.2 gives;
dx
x dp
x p dx
x dV
T k
e
B
) (
) (
1 ) (

-------------------------------------------8.5
If Vp and Vn denote the potential in the neutral p-region and n-
regions (see Fig. 8.4a below), then Eq. 8.5 can be written in integral
form as;


n
p
n
p
p
p
V
V
B
p
dp
dV
T k
e
------------------------------------------------8.6
where pp = hole density in p-region, and
pn = hole density in n-region.
87
Fig. 8.4a Structure, Potential profile, and the band profile of a
p-n junction(not biased).
Now, using Eq. 8.6 and after integration we get;
p
n
p n
B
p
p
V V
T k
e
ln ) (

------------------------------------------8.7
Thus the contact potential or, build-in potential Vbi = Vn Vp is
given by;
n
p
B
bi
p
p
e
T k
V ln
--------------------------------------------------8.8
Similar start with electron drift current and diffusion currents will
yield;
p
n B
bi
n
n
e
T k
V ln
-------------------------------------------------8.9
88
where nn and np are the electron densities in n-region and p-region
respectively, and the law of mass action still gives;
nnpn =nppp = n
2
i --------------------------------------------------------8.10
Therefore, we can now write from Eq. 8.8 and 8.9 ;
p
n
T k
eV
n
p
n
n
e
p
p
B
bi
-------------------------------------------------8.11
If now an external bias (V) is applied, a similar relationship holds
except Vbi is now replaced by (Vbi + V).
The electric field and potential in the depletion layer and the width
of the depletion layer can be calculated using Poisson equations (see
appendix .).Considering that the charge on p- and n- regions has
the same magnitude, then we can write;
AWpNa = AWnNd ----------------------------------------------------8.12
where A is the cross-sectional of the p-n structure.
Poisson equations can now be used which will have solutions for
the electric field in the depletion region as ;
89

p a
a
W eN
x eN
x F ) ( -Wp < x < 0 ---- ----8.13
for the p-side of the junction.

n d d
W eN x eN
x F ) ( 0 < x < Wn ---------8.14
for the n-side of the junction.

p
p a p a
a
V
W eN x W eN
x eN
x V + + +
2 2
) (
2
2

for the p-side, and Wp < x < 0 ------------------------------------8.15

n
n d n d d
V
W eN x W eN x eN
x V + +
2 2
) (
2 2

for the n-side and, 0 < x < Wn -------------------------------------8.16
The charge neutrality (Eq. 8.12) gives;
Nd Wn = NaWp and we can obtain the relationship;
90
2
1
) (
2
) (
1
1
]
1

,
_

d a a
d bi
bi p
N N N
N
e
V
V W

------------------------------8.17
2
1
) (
2
) (
1
1
]
1

,
_

d a d
a bi
bi n
N N N
N
e
V
V W

------------------------------8.18
and the depletion region width (total width) is given by;
W(Vbi) = Wp(Vbi) + Wn(Vbi) or;
2
1
2
) (
1
1
]
1

,
_

d a
d a bi
bi
N N
N N
e
V
V W

---------------------------------8.19
Fig, 8.4b below shows the Structure, Charge density, and Electric
field profile of the region.
91
Fig. 8.4b Structure, charge density, and electric field profile in
the depletion region.
Here it should be noticed that, in Na >> Nd (eg p-side is heavily
doped, and shown as p
+
), then Wp << Wn and a very strong field
exists over a very narrow region in heavily doped side of the
junction. In such cases, (p
+
n, n
+
p), depletion region is primarily on
the lightly doped side of the junction(eg for p
+
n Wn >> Wp).
The maximum field,

p a
n d
m
W eN
W eN
F ---------------8.20
(this is obtained from Eq. 8.13 and 8.14 by setting x = 0).
8.2 P-N JUNCTION BIASED
When an external bias (voltage ) is applied across the junction, we
can no longer assume that there is a balance between the Drift and
Diffusion currents. A charge may be injected, and now a net current
will flow. However we will still assume the following;
injected minority carrier density << majority carrier density,,
Boltzmann distribution is valid in the depletion region,
92
Mobile charge density is low in the depletion region and the
applied voltage drops mainly across this region.
Fig. 8.5 below shows some profiles for forward and reverse biased
junction cases.
Equilibrium Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Fig. 8.5 Biasing, voltage profile, and band profile for
equilibrium, forward bias, and reverse bias cases of a p-n
junction.
In forward bias (FB);
Vtot = Vbi - Vf -------------------------------------------------8.21
In reverse bias(RB);
Vtot = Vbi + Vr -------------------------------------------------8.22
93
BIASSING
VOLTAGE PROFILE
BAND PROFILE
Vn
Vn
Vn
Vp
Vp Vp
Based on the approximation we used, equations for depletion region
width, electric field profile, and potential profile are all applicable
except that Vbi (used in Section 8.1 for the unbiased junction) is now
replaced by Vtot as described by Eq. 821 and 8.22 above.
Now we are equipped with knowledge to study charge injection and
current flow due to minority and majority carriers.
Charge injection and current flow
We will assume that under moderate external bias the electric field
in the depletion region is always higher than the field for carrier
velocity saturation (see Fig. 7.3, where the drift velocity is
saturated). This means that the drift part of the current is not
changing with bias, once the saturation level of field is reached.
From Eq. 8.10 we have;
T k
eV
n
p
B
bi
e
p
p

---------------------------------------------8.23
Now in the presence of bias, we may write;
T k
V V e
n
p
B
bi
e
W p
W p
) (
) (
) (

-----------------------------------8.24
where injection is much lower than majority carrier density, so that
majority carrier densities are essentially unchanged because of
injection. This is to say that;
94
p(-Wp) = pp and the ratio of Eq. 8.23 to Eq. 8.24 (for a forward bias
with +V) gives ;
T k
eV
n
n
B
e
p
W p

) (
------------------------------------------------8.25
Here we see that the hole minority density p(Wn) at the edge of the
n-side of depletion region will increase exponentially with bias V.
Similarly, for electrons we have;
T k
eV
p
p
B
e
n
W n

) (
------------------------------------------------8.26

n(-Wp) - np = np pn = p(Wn) - pn
The excess carriers injected across the depletion region are (from
Eq. 8.25 and 8.26);
1
1
]
1

1 ) (
T k
eV
n n
T k
eV
n n n n
B B
e p p e p p W p p
---------------8.27
95
-Wp Wn
np
n(-Wp)
pn
p(Wn)
1
1
]
1

1 ) (
T k
eV
p p
T k
eV
p p p p
B B
e n n e n n W n n
------------8.28
At this moment we are going back to our discussion on diffusion
and recombination of excess carriers (see Fig.7.7 ). Considering the
p-n junction now, we have excess minority carriers just outside the
depletion region and similarly we can write for minority carrier
density (for holes or electrons);
p
n
B
p
n
L
W x
T k
eV
n
L
W x
n
e e p e p x p
) ( ) (
) 1 ( ) (


for x Wn ------------------------------------------------------- 8.29
n
p
B n
p
L
W x
T k
eV
p
L
W x
p
e e n e n x n
) ( ) (
) 1 ( ) (
+ +


for x -Wp --------------------------------------------------------8.30
as shown in Fig 8.6 below.
96
Fig. 8.6 Excess minority carrier density outside the depletion
region.
Now we can write an equation that will describe net current flow
with the applied bias voltage.
Only the diffusion currents will be considered, since the drift current
will not change with bias ( eg. high field values within the depletion
region and the drift velocity is saturated).
For net current we will consider both the excess electron and holes
injected as given by Eq. 8.29 and 8.30.
Hence the diffusion current for holes (minority carriers in n-type) is
given by;
[ ]
[ ] ) (
) (
) ( x p
L
D
eA
dx
x p d
eAD x I
p
p
p p

for x Wn ------------------------------------------------------- 8.31
The total current injected (when x = Wn in equation 8.29) is given
by;
97
) 1 ( ) (
T k
eV
n
p
p
n p
B
e p
L
AD
e W I
-------------------------------8.32
Similarly the total electron current injected into p-side is given by;
) 1 ( ) (
T k
eV
p
n
n
p n
B
e n
L
AD
e W I --------------------------------8.33
The overall total current I(V) is then given by;
+ ) ( ) ( ) (
p n n p
W I W I V I

,
_

1
1
]
1

+ 1
kBT
eV
p
n
n
n
p
p
e n
L
D
p
L
D
eA
or
) 1 ( ) (
T k
eV
o
B
e I V I
--------------------------------------------8.34
where
1
1
]
1

+
p
n
n
n
p
p
o
n
L
D
p
L
D
eA I
---------------------------------------8.35
and Eq. 8.34 is known as the diode equation for forward bias
(when V > 0 ) or reverse bias (when V< 0 ). Hence, it is clear that
for forward bias current increases exponentially, but for reverse
bias, it reaches Io value.
Minority and majority currents
98
The minority diffusion currents decrease exponentially as given by
Eq. 8.31. If we now substitute Eq.8.29 into Eq. 8.31 we get for the
hole diffusion current;
1
1
]
1

1 ) (
) (
T k
eV
Lp
W x
n
p
p
p
B
n
e e p
L
D
eA x I
for x >Wn ----------------8.36
Now, as the diffusion current decreases due to recombination of
holes with majority carriers (eg. electrons), then an equal number of
electrons are injected (eg. used up). This causes drift current due to
electrons which then exactly balance the hole current lost in
recombination.(This is why x = Wn was taken for the total diffusion
current in Eq. 8.32).
Hence,
Electron drift current = total current hole diffusion current
Indr(x) = I(V) Ip(x) and substituting for equations Eq. 8.36 and
8.34;
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (
) (

1
1
]
1

+

T k
eV
p
n
n
n
L
W x
p
p
ndr
B
p
n
e n
L
D
p e
L
D
eA x I
-8.37
Similarly on the p-side, hole drift current compensates the loss in
electron diffusion current, as shown in Fig. 8.7 below. Hence,
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (
) (

1
1
]
1

+

T k
eV
n
p
p
p
L
W x
n
n
pdr
B n
p
e p
L
D
n e
L
D
eA x I
-8.38
99
Fig. 8.7 Excess charge profile and the currents
The behaviour of current with bias is shown in Fig. 8.8 below.
Fig. 8.8 Diode current I with bias voltage V.
100
The forward bias voltage at which the diode current becomes
significant ( order of mA), is called cut-in voltage. This is about 0.8
V for Si and about 1.2 V for GaAs.
The case of a narrow diode
Consider the geometry in Fig. 8.9 below;
Fig. 8.9 Structure of a narrow diode
We will assume that;
there is no recombination in the depletion region, that is to say,
Wn << Lp and Wp << Ln .
injected charge goes to zero linearly at the contacts.
The hole current injected across Wn is then given by;
[ ]
1
]
1

n
n n n
p p n p
W W
W p W p
eAD
dx
x p d
eAD W I
ln
ln
) ( ) ( ) (
) (

101
and using Eq. 8.29 for pn(Wn), and setting pn(Wln) = 0 ;
) 1 ( ) (
ln

T k
eV
n
n
p
n p
B
e p
W W
AD
e W I ---------------------8.38
A similar expression can be developed for the electron current,
using the Eq. 8.28.
The diode current in this case would be ( compare with Eq. 8.32 and
8.33),
) 1 ( ' ) (
T k
eV
o
B
e I V I
-------------------------------------8.39
similar to Eq. 8.34 and where;
1
1
]
1

p
p lp
n
n
n
p
o
n
W W
D
p
W W
D
eA I
ln
'
---------------------8.40
This can be compared with Eq. 8.35 for Io where the difference is
that;
Lp is replaced by (Wln Wn), and
Ln is replaced by (Wlp Wp).
102
8.3 SMALL SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Diode capacitance occurs as a combination of mainly two
capacitive effects. These are;
junction capacitance Cj, (dominates under reverse bias)
diffusion capacitance Cdiff. (dominates under forward bias)
In general form the capacitance is given by;
dV
dQ
C
-----------------------------------------------------8.41
The depletion width is (from Eq. 8.19) given for a forward bias V,
2
1
) ( 2
) (
1
]
1

,
_

d a
d a bi
N N
N N
e
V V
V W

------------------------8.42
and the depletion charge is;
a p d n
N eAW N eAW Q
-------------------------------8.43
103
Also from Eq. 8.17 and 8.19 we have;
W
N N
N
W
d a
a
n
+

, and
W
N N
N
W
d a
d
p
+

-------------------8.44
Hence, substituting Eq. 8.44 into Eq. 8.43 we get;
2
1
) ( 2
1
]
1

+

+

d a
d a
bi
d a
d a
N N
N N
V V e A W
N N
N eAN
Q
---------8.45
The junction capacitance is then obtained by differentiating Eq. 8.45
as;
W
A
N N
N N
V V
e A
dV
dQ
C
d a
d a
bi
j

1
]
1

+

2
1
) (
2
2
----------------8.46
Notice that Cj changes with bias V, and such a device may be called
varactor.
Regarding the diffusion capacitance, Cdiff, consider now the
injected holes. The charge injection is Ip (p is the hole
recombination time) and use the equation pDp = Lp
2
, and ignore
the 1 in Eq. 8.32 (
) 1 ( ) (
T k
eV
n
p
p
n p
B
e p
L
AD
e W I
), then we get;
T k
eV
n p
p
p T k
eV
n
p
p
p p p
B B
e p eAL
D
L
e p
L
AD
e I Q
2
) (
-----------8.47
104
Hence, we can now differentiate Eq. 8.47 to get;
p p
B
T k
eV
n p
B
p
diff
I
T k
e
e p AL
T k
e
dV
dQ
C
B

2
----------8.48
For small signal ac response, the conductance Gs of a diode is
given by;
s B
s
r
V I
T k
e
dV
dI
G
1
) (
----------------------------------------8.49
where rs is the diode resistance.
Consider now a forward-biased p-n junction having an ac signal and
an equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 8.10 below;
Fig. 8.10 Forward biased p-n junction I-V characteristic and
equivalent circuit.
In forward bias only the Cdiff will dominate and the small signal
current is and voltage vs are related as;
105
dt
dv
C v G i
s
diff s s s
+ ----------------------------------------8.50
or
is = Gsvs + jwCdiffvs ------------------------------------------------8.51
where w is the angular frequency. The admittance of the diode is
then;
y = is/vs = Gs + jwCdiff --------------------------------------------8.52
9- SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTIONS WITH METALS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Before we say anything about the metal-semiconductor (MS)
junctions, let recall how metals are usually used in electrical
engineering. They are used mainly to serve as;
Interconnection between different parts of a circuit,
A part of a junction in Schottky barrier diode, etc.
Ohmic contact
Regarding resistivities, we can compare some as;
Aluminium (Al) 2.7 10
-6
ohm-cm.
Copper (CU) 1.77 10
-6
ohm-cm.
Silver (AG) 1.59 10
6
ohm-cm
Example 9.1
Resistivity of Al at RT is 2.7 -cm. If 10
22
electrons/cm
3
participate in current flow, calculate the mobility of electrons.
106
Solution
From Eq. 7.3 we have, J = F = nev, and substitute for v = F,
then ;
J = neF . Now comparing this equation with Eq. 7.3 we can write
for conductivity;
= ne and therefore the resistivity is 1/ = 1/ ne. This gives;
=1/ne = 1/(10
22
electrons cm
-3
)(1.6 10
19
C)( 2.7 10
-6
-cm)
= 240.4 cm
2
/Vs (eg. dimensionally, V=IR = (C/s)( ) or C = Vs )
9.2 THE SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE
The Schottky barrier diode ;
is similar to p-n diode (the p-n diode is a, semiconductor(p)-
semiconductor(n) diode).
has a metal-semiconductor junction.
has a faster response than the normal p-n diode.
Now consider the energy band profiles shown in Fig. 9.1 below.
107
Fig. 9.1 Metal-Semiconductor (n) junction at equilibrium.
The height of the barrier (e b) = Ec(semiconductor) EFm . Hence
from Fig. 9.1 we have;
e b = e m - e s + (Ec EFs) = e m - es
-----------------------9.1
The build-in potential for electron transport is;
eVbi = e m - e s -----------------------------------------------------9.2
And will change with bias.
In the case of p-type semiconductor the profile is shown in Fig. 9.2
below.
108
Fig. 9.2 Metal-Semiconductor (p) junction at equilibrium.
The build-in potential for hole transport is,
eVbi = e s - e m -----------------------------------------------------9.3
and will change with bias.
The barrier height, e b , is essentially dependent on the properties
of materials used and does not much change with bias.
Capacitance Voltage characteristics
109
Using Poissons Equations and a similar approach to p
+
-n junction
(as there is no depletion region on the metal side), we obtain, in the
presence of a bias V (see Eq. 8.13 and 8.19, with Na >> Nd );

) (
) (
x W eN
x F
d


and

) (
) 0 (
W eN
F
d

--9.4
2 / 1
) ( 2
1
]
1

d
bi
eN
V V
W

---------------------------------------9.5
Using the maximum field value Fm = F(0),when x = 0, then;
) 1 ( ) (
W
x
F x F
m

-------------------------------------9.6
where;

W eN
F
d
m
------------------------------------------9.7
and now substituting for W we get;
2 / 1
) ( 2
1
]
1

V V eN
F
bi d
m
------------------------------9.8
The depletion region charge is given by;
Qd = AeNdW = A[2eNd(Vbi V)]
1/2
-----------------------------9.9
The capacitance is then given by;
W
A
V V
N e
A
dV
dQ
A C
bi
d

1
]
1

,
_

2 / 1
) ( 2
------------------------------9.10
where A is the device area. Rearrange Eq. 9.10 to get;
110
bV a
N e A
V
N e A
V
N e A
V V
C
d d
bi
d
bi

2 2 2 2
2 2 ) ( 2 1
---9.11
where a and b are constants for the system, and a = bVbi .
Hence, a plot of reciprocal of capacitance square (1/C
2
) against
Voltage (V) is a straight line and provides information on both the
Vbi and Nd.
Example 9.2
A metal-silicone Schottky barrier with a 100 m diameter has
1/C
2
V plot with a slope measured as 3 10
24
F
-1
V
-1
.
Calculate the doping density in the silicone.
Solution
Regarding the 1/C
2
V plot the slope is given as (see Eq.9.11);
Slope = -2/A
2
eNd , and Nd = -2/ A
2
e(slope), where
permittivity() = relative dielectric constant of Si (11.9 ) x
permittivity of vacuum, o (8.85 10
-12
F m
-1
) = 105 .3 F m
-1
.
Nd = 2/(3 10
24
)[(50 10
-6
)
2
]
2
(1.6 10
-19
)(105.3 F m
-1
) = 6.42 10
20
m
-3
=
6.42 10
14
cm
-3
.
9.3 CURRENT FLOW IN A SCHOTTKY BARRIER
The most important mechanism of current flow is the thermionic
emission, where electrons with energy greater than the barrier
height (Vbi V) pass across the junction, as shown in Fig. 9.3
below.
111
Fig. 9.3 Schottky barrier under forward and reverse bias, and I-
V characteristic
The current is limited to junction barrier and only that fraction of
electrons, nb, with energy greater than the barrier height e(Vbi
V) will pass over the barrier. That is;
112
T k
V V e
b
B
bi
e n n
) (
0

--------------------------------------------9.12
where n0 is the electron density in the neutral region of the
semiconductor, and is given by;
T k
E E
c
B
Fs c
e N n
) (
0

-------------------------------------------9.13
Hence;
T k
V e
c b
B
b
e N n
) (

--------------------------------------------9.14
(since e b = eVbi + (Ec EFs).
If the average flux of electrons towards the barrier is;
4
b
av
n
v
,
where vav is the average speed of the electrons; then current, Ism,
(semiconductor to metal) is given by, for diode area A;
4
b
av sm
n
eAv I and using Eq. 9.14 we have;
T k
V e
c
av sm
B
b
e
N
eAv I
) (
4

-----------------------------------------9.15
Now when the bias V = 0, the currents semiconductor to- metal Ism
and metal -to semiconductor Ims are equal and given by;
ms
T k
e
c
av sm
I e
N
eAv V I
B
b

) (
4
) 0 (
-----------------------------9.16
113
Even with bias, the Ims(=Is) remains constant as it mainly depends
on the barrier which essentially remains unchanged. Hence the net
current, from Eq. 9.15 and 9.16, can be written as;
1
1
]
1

1
T k
eV
s ms sm
B
e I I I I
--------------------------------------9.17
Eq. 9.17 is very similar to the diode equation (for p-n diode) we
have derived before (see Eq. 8.34). The most important
differences between the normal p-n diode and the Schottky diode
may be summarised as below;
p-n diode Schottky diode
Forward bias current is due to
minority carrier injection
Forward bias current due to
majority injection from the
semiconductor
Reverse current due to minority
carrier diffusion, and strongly
temperature dependent
Reverse current due to majority
carriers, and weakly
temperature dependent
Cut-in voltage is high Cut-in voltage is low
Switching speed is slow Switching speed is fast
Some recombination in the
depletion region
Essentially no recombination in
the depletion region
114
9.4 SMALL SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
The small signal equivalent circuit of a Schottky diode is printed
below in Fig. 9.4.
Fig. 9.4 Small signal equivalent circuit of a Schottky diode.
For depletion region resistance Rd, and differential capacitance Cd,
we have;
dI
dV
R
d
-----------------------------------------------------9.18
2 / 1
( 2
1
]
1

V V
eN
A C
bi
d
d

(from Eq. 9.10) -----------------------9.19
Rs is the contact resistance together with resistance of the neutral
region of the semiconductor, and Ls, is parasitic inductance.
The capacitance due to geometry of the device is given by;
L
A
C
geom

-------------------------------------------------------9.20
where L is the length of the device.
115
The absence of any diffusion capacitance makes these devices much
faster than the normal p-n diodes.
9.5 OHMIC CONTACTS
A metal-semiconductor junction which has a linear, non-
rectifying I-V characteristics, as shown in Fig. 9.5 below are called
Ohmic contacts.
Fig. 9.5 I -V characteristic of an Ohmic contact
For a build-in potential, Vbi, the depletion width on the
semiconductor side is;
2 / 1
2
1
]
1

d
bi
eN
V
W

----------------------------------------------------9.21
which is much dependent on the level of doping.
Hence, W will decrease with increasing Nd. Using this
dependence, the semiconductor interface can be heavily doped to
reduce W, so that electrons can tunnel through the barrier as shown
in Fig. 9.6 below.
116
Fig. 9.6 Band structure of an Ohmic contact
The resistance, R, of the contact of area A, defines the quality of an
ohmic contact.
The specific contact resistance rc is given by;
rc = RA -----------------------------------------------------------9.22
and under heavy doping has the dependence that;
F
V
m
T
r
bi
c
2 / 3
2 / 1
) (
*) (
) ln(
1
) ln( --------------9.23
where the field is;
2 / 1 2 / 1
) ( ) (
d bi
bi
N V
W
V
F -------------------------------9.24
Hence, from Eq. 9.23 and 9.24 we have;
d
bi c
N
V r
1
) ln(
-------------------------------------9.25
117
Example 9.3
A silicone diode is fabricated by starting with an n-type (Nd = 10
16
cm
3
) substrate, into which indium is diffused to form as a p-type
region doped at 10
18
cm
3
. Assuming that an abrupt p
+
n junction is
formed by the diffusion process, calculate;
Fermi level position in the p- type and n-type regions
The build-in potential in the diode
Depletion widths Wp and Wn.
( Nc = 2.8 10
19
cm
3
, Nv = 1.0 10
19
cm
3
at 300 K, Eg = 1.1 eV,
= 11.9 x 8.84 10
12
F m
1
).
Solution
First we will assume that all the dopants are ionised, that is;
nn = Nd ; pp = Na .
a) We have from;
1
]
1

T k
E E
c n
B
Fn c
e N n
) (
and,
1
]
1

T k
E E
v p
B
v Fp
e N p
) (
and hence;
118
eV E E
N
n
T k E E
c c
c
n
B c Fn
206 . 0 ) 0 . 7 )( 026 . 0 ( ln +
and
eV E E
N
p
T k E E
v v
v
p
B v Fp
06 . 0 ) 3 . 2 )( 026 . 0 ( ln + +
b) The build-in potential eVbi is given by;
eVbi = Eg 0.06 0.206 = EFn EFp = 1.1 0.06 0.206 = 0.834 eV
c) The depletion width Wp(Vbi) is given by(see Eq. 8.17);
2
1
6 24 6 18
3 6 16
19
1 12
2
1
) 0110 . 1 ( 10 10
10 10
610 . 1
) 834 . 0 ( 8410 . 8 9 . 11 2
) (
2
) (
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

m
m
C
V Fm x x
N N N
N
e
V
V W
d a a
d bi
bi p

= 3.2 10
9
m = 32 Angstrom.
And;
2
1
6 24 6 18
3 6 18
19
1 12
2
1
) 0110 . 1 ( 10 10
10 10
610 . 1
) 834 . 0 ( 8410 . 8 9 . 11 2
) (
2
) (
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

m
m
C
V Fm x x
N N N
N
e
V
V W
d a d
a bi
bi n

= 0.32 10
-6
m = 3200 Angstrom. Showing that most of the
depletion region is on the lightly doped side of the junction, Wn .
119
Example 9.4
A silicone p-n diode has a diameter of 20 microns. Donor and
acceptor densities are 10
16
cm
3
and 10
18
cm
3
respectively.
Calculate;
Wp and Wn and the electric field profile under a reverse
bias of 10 Volts and a forward bias of 0.5 Volts.
The charge in the depletion region.
( ni = 1.45 10
10
cm
3
, T = 300 K, = 11.9 x 8.84 10
12
F m
1
)
Solution
To calculate the depletion width , first we need to know Vbi, which
is give by;

n
p
B
bi
p
p
e
T k
V ln
where we are given, pp = 10
18
cm
3
and using
the mass action law we can calculate pn = ni
2
/nn = (1.4510
10
)
2
/10
16
= 2.1 10
4
cm
3
.
Hence;
120
V x V
bi
819 . 0 5 . 31 ) 026 . 0 (
110 . 2
10
ln ) 026 . 0 (
4
18

a) Eq. 8.17 gives the depletion widths, and for the Reverse bias
case we have (Vtot = Vbi + Vr) where Vr = 10 V;
2
1
6 24 6 18
3 6 16
19
1 12
2
1
) 0110 . 1 ( 10 10
10 10
610 . 1
819 . 10 8410 . 8 9 . 11 2
) (
) 10 ( 2
) 819 . 10 (
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

m
m
C
V x Fm x x
N N N
N
e
V
W
d a a
d bi
p

= 115.2 Angstrom.
And
2
1
6 24 6 18
3 6 18
19
1 12
2
1
) 0110 . 1 ( 10 10
10 10
610 . 1
819 . 10 8410 . 8 9 . 11 2
) (
) 10 ( 2
) 819 . 10 (
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

m
m
C
V x Fm x x
N N N
N
e
V
W
d a d
a bi
n

= 1.151 micron.
And for the Forward bias case (Vtot = Vbi Vf ) where Vf = 0.5 V;
2
1
6 24 6 18
3 6 16
19
1 12
2
1
) 0110 . 1 ( 10 10
10 10
610 . 1
319 . 0 8410 . 8 9 . 11 2
) (
) 5 . 0 ( 2
) 319 . 0 (
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

m
m
C
V x Fm x x
N N N
N
e
V
W
d a a
d bi
p

= 20.3 Angstrom.
And
2
1
6 24 6 18
3 6 18
19
1 12
2
1
) 0110 . 1 ( 10 10
10 10
610 . 1
319 . 0 8410 . 8 9 . 11 2
) (
) 5 . 0 ( 2
) 319 . 0 (
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

m
m
C
V x Fm x x
N N N
N
e
V
W
d a d
a bi
n

= 0.203 micron.
121
The electric field profile is a straight line on both sides of the
junction and decrease to zero value at -Wp and Wn .
The maximum value of the electric field is given by;

p a
n d
W eN
W eN
F
max
and depends on values of the
depletion widths ( or the bias ).So the values of the maximum field
at reverse and forward bias cases are;
Fmax (Vr = 10 V) = -1.78 10
5
V/cm.
Fmax (Vf = 0.5 V) = -3.14 10
4
V/cm
b) The charge in the depletion region depends on the bias
condition and is given by;
Qr (Vtot=10.819V) = eNdWnA = eNaWpA = (1.6 10
-19
C )(10
22
m
-3

122
-Wp Wn
Fmax
)(1.151 10
-6
m)( )(1010
-6
m)
2
= 5.78 10
13
C.
Qf (Vtot=0.319V) = eNdWnA = eNaWpA = (1.6 10
-19
C )(10
22
m
-3

)(0.203 10
-6
m)( )(1010
-6
m)
2
= 1.02 10
13
C.
Example 9.5
A metal-silicone Schottky junction device is disc shaped with
radius 100 microns. The device has a capacitance(C) - voltage(V)
relationship of C
-2
= 2 (Vbi - V ) ( A
2
e Nd )
-1
where A is the
barrier area. This relationship is plotted below. Calculate :
a- the build-in potential Vbi of the barrier.
b- the donor density Nd . ( e = 1.6 10
-19
c , = 105.3 10
-12
Fm
-1
)
123
Reciprocal of( capacitance square) against the bias voltage
bias voltage(V)
1
/
C
2
*
1
0
2
4

F
-
2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0 0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6
Solution
a) From Eq. 9.11,
d
bi
N e A
V V
C
2 2
) ( 2 1

, we see that when V = Vbi,

then C
2
= 0. So from the plot we have Vbi = 0.6 Volt.
b) The slope from the plot is, 1.8 10
24
/ 0.6 = 3 10
24
But the slope is also given by Eq. 9.11 as;
Slope =
d
N e A
2
2
where the area of the device, A, is given by;
124
A = r
2
= (100 10
6
m)
2
= 10
8
m
2
and, A
2
=
2
10
16
m
4
.
Hence,
Nd = 2 / (3 10
24
F
2
V
-1
)(
2
10
16
m
4
)(1.6 10
19
C)(105.3 10
12
F
m
1
) = 0.4 10
20
m
3
= 0.4 10
14
cm
3
.
Example 9.6
a- Draw a small signal equivalent circuit of a Schottky diode and
clearly label the parameters.
b- When a forward bias of Vf = kBT/e was applied it was found that
the net current flow was 10.95 10
-8
A. What is the net current
flow when Vf = 0.3 volts and T = 300 degrees Kelvin.
Solution
a)
b) The Schottky diode current is given by Eq. 9.17 as ;
1
1
]
1

1
T k
eV
s
B
e I I
125
Here, when we set V = Vf = kBT / e , then, from the diode equation
the corresponding current, say Ix, will be given as;
Ix = Is (e 1 ) . But this current is also given as 10.95 10
8
amp.
Hence;
Ix = Is (e 1 ) = 10.95 10
8
amp.
So, Is = Ix / (e 1) =10.95 10
8
amp. / (e 1) = 6.37 10
8
amp.
Is = 6.37 10
8
amp.
When Vf = 0.3 Volt, then
I(0.3) = 6.37 10
8
amp.(e
(0.3 / 0.026)
1) = 6.37 10
8
amp(e
11.53
1)
= 6.53 10
3
amp. = 6.53 mA.
Example 9.7
126
Schematically show the current voltage (I-V) characteristics and
Energy band diagram of an Ohmic contact. Clearly indicate energy
levels and all regions of importance.
Solution
127
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a simple device, consisting
of two junction regions; one having a forward bias, and the other
having a reverse bias.
Consider now the reverse current Io (as in Equation 8.35) in a
reverse biased p-n junction.
1
1
]
1

+
p
n
n
n
p
p
o
n
L
D
p
L
D
eA I
10.1a
Io is dependent on the minority charge, pn and np.
In other words, the reverse biased p-n junction current is determined
by the minority carrier that diffuse into the depletion region edge
and then swept away by the field to contribute to current.
If the minority carrier density can be altered the current can be
changed as shown in Fig. 10.1.
Remembering now that a forward biased p-n junction involves
injection of minority carriers, then it is possible to use such an
additional junction to supply (change) the minority carrier
concentration in the reverse biased junction.
Consider now a forward biased junction with doping profile as, n
+
-p
so that np >>pn, then Eq. 10.1a can be rewritten as,
128
1
]
1

p
n
n
n o
n
L
D
eA I I
10.1b
so that any change in minority carrier concentration np (due to
forward bias injection) will be reflected in Io, as shown in Fig. 10.1.
129
The two junctions together is shown in Fig. 10.2, where the forward
biased junction is emitting minority carriers (Emitter part) and the
reverse biased junction is collecting them (Collector part). The
region in between is called Base and it is made so thin that most
electron will diffuse through before recombination, e.g. base-width
<<Ln and reach the depletion region of the reverse biased junction.
Since the injected minority carriers are proportional to emitter
current then we can write,
En C
BI I
10.2
where IEn is the electron part of the emitter current, and B is called
the base transport factor (less than unity since some electrons will
recombine before reaching the collector).
The emitter current has another component, IEp, due to holes
injected from p- to n
+
- side of the emitter.
The collector current is only related to electrons injected and the
emitter efficiency, e, can be defined as,
Ep En
En
e
I I
I
+

10.3
Both B and , e , are close to unity in well performing devices.
130
Using these parameters the ratio between the collector and emitter
currents can be written as;

+

e
Ep En
En
E
C
B
I I
BI
I
I
10.4
where is called the current transfer ratio also close to unity in
good transistors.
131
The ratio between the collector current and the controlling base
current is most important. The base current, IB, is made up of the IEp
and the hole current ( = (1-B) IEn ) due to recombination with
electrons injected from the emitter, which can be written as;
IB = IEp + (1-B) IEn 10.5
while we assumed negligible current associated with the base-
collector junction under the reverse bias.
Now, the ratio between the collector and base currents will be;
( )

,
_

1 1
1
) (
1
e
e
E
En
E
En
En Ep
En
B
C
B
B
I
I
B
I
I
B
I B I
BI
I
I
10.6
where, , also denoted as, hFE, is called the base to collector current
amplification factor and can take large values of the order of 100.
Now consider the device in Fig. 10.3 that will help to understand
how IB can be used to control collector current.
Let,
132
t : transit time of electrons through the Wb region.
B : recombination time of electrons with holes in the base region.
np : concentration of electrons injected into the base region.
A : area of the device.
vn : electron velocity through the base (Wb/ t ).
The collector current is now given by,
t
b
p n p C
W
e An ev An I

10.7
133
The base current due to minority recombination with total excess
charge in the base is then,
B
p b
B
n AeW
I

10.8
Hence, IB and IC are related, and a decrease in base current (by
lowering the potential at base-emitter terminal) also leads to a
decrease in injected electrons and collector current. The current gain
is;
t
B
B
C
I
I

10.9
So, a high gain requires large B (low rate of recombination) and a
short transit time, t (thin base region).
10.2 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF BJT
134
A mathematical modeling of the device is complex so, we will make
certain assumptions and use a 1-dimensional analysis. We will
assume;
1- uniform cross-section
2- no drift in the base region (field is small)
3- the injected minority carriers in the base is much larger than
the equilibrium concentration, but much smaller than the
majority (p) carriers.
4- electric fields only in the depletion regions
5- collector injection currents are negligible
6- applied voltages are all steady state.
In general, currents in a BJT can be identified as in Fig. 10.4.
135
Base current: holes recombining with electrons injected from the
emitter (component I) and holes that are injected across the emitter-
base junction into the emitter (component II).
Emitter current : electrons recombining with holes in the base
(component III) and electrons injected into the collector (component
IV).
Also, components (V) and (VI) representing minority electrons and
holes respectively, are important but only when the emitter currents
is at low levels.
In general, BJT operate in three distinct biasing modes as listed
below.
136
MODE EBJ BIAS CBJ BIAS
active FB, VBE > 0 RB, VCB> 0
cut-off RB, VBE < 0 RB, VCB> 0
saturation FB, VBE > 0 FB, VCB < 0
10.3 CURRENT FLOW IN A BJT
Using the notation adopted in the p-n diode study, Fig.10.5 shows
the structure and concentration profiles of a BJT, where equilibrium
minority concentrations are noted as, peo, nbo, nco in the emitter, base
and collector regions respectively. Also;
137
pe ( xe = 0 ) = excess hole density at the emitter side of the EBJ
(emitter-base junction)
=
1
1
]
1

1
T k
eV
eo
B
BE
e p
10.10
nb ( xb = 0 ) = excess electron density at the base side of the EBJ
(emitter-base junction)

138
=
1
1
]
1

1
T k
eV
bo
B
BE
e n
10.11
nb ( xb = Wb ) = excess electron density at the base side of the CBJ
(collector-base junction)
=
1
1
]
1

1
T k
eV
bo
B
CB
e n
10.12
pc ( xc = 0 ) = excess hole density at the collector side of the
CBJ(collector-base junction)
=
1
1
]
1

1
T k
eV
co
B
CB
e p
10.13
As in the case of a p-n diode, the continuity equation can be used to
get;
( ) ( )
( )
0
2 2
2

b
b b
b b
L
x n
x n
dx
d

10.14
with solution;
( )
b
b
b
b
L
x
L
x
b b
e A e A x n
+
+
2 1

10.15
The boundary conditions as described by equations Eq. 10.11 and
Eq. 10.12, can be used to solve for A1 and A2 .
139
Hence, the emitter current can be calculated through the following
operations;
( ) ( )
0

b
n x
b
b
b
EB
n E
x n
dx
d
eAD I I
10.16
( ) ( )
0

e
x
e
e
BE
p Ep
x p
dx
d
eAD I I
10.17
Similarly, the collector currents;
( ) ( )
bn b
W x
b b
b
b
BC
n
x n
dx
d
eAD I


10.18
( ) ( )
0

c
x
c
c
p
BC
p
x p
dx
d
eAD I
10.19
The solution for currents can be obtained readily if some
simplifying assumptions are made. For example, assuming that the
e = 1, and Wbn << Lb, leads to equations;
1
1
]
1

1
T k
eV
bn
bo b
E
B
BE
e
W
n eAD
I
10.20
1
1
]
1

1
T k
eV
bn
bo b
C
B
BE
e
W
n eAD
I
10.21
which gives IB = IE - IC = 0
But, a better analysis gives;
140
1
1
]
1

1
2
2
T k
eV
b
bn bo b
B
B
BE
e
L
W n eAD
I
10.22
10.4 OPERATING MODES
Some operating modes commonly used in signal amplification,
digital applications and switching circuits are shown in Fig. 10.6.
For switching applications, cut-off (not conducting) modes are used,
whereas the active mode is used in signal amplification.
In Fig.10.7, in common-base configuration cut-off mode occurs
when IE = 0. In the common-emitter configuration cut-off occurs
when IB = 0
10.5 EBERS-MOLL MODEL
This model represents BJT operation using an equivalent circuit.
The equivalent circuit has dependent parameters as shown in Fig.
10.8.
141
142
143
144
Example 10.1
Consider an npn Si bipolar transistor which is to be designed with an emitter
injection efficiency of e = 0.995. To maintain a reasonable base resistance,
the base is doped p-type with Na = 10
16
cm
-3
. Calculate the n-type doping
needed in the emitter. Assume that Le Wbn and De Db. Assume that e
1 peo/nbo .
145
Example 10.2
A silicone pnp transistor at 300 Kelvin has a device area of 10
-3
cm
2
, base
width of 1m, and minority carrier diffusion length (for both electrons and
holes) of 10m. The doping profiles are Nae = 2 x 10
18
cm
-3
, and Ndb = 10
17
cm
-3
, Nac = 10
16
cm
-3
. Calculate the collector current for the active mode
cases where, a) VBE = 0.6 V; b) IB = -2.0A . Assume that Db = 6 cm
2
s
-1
, and
ni
2
= 2.25 x 10
20
cm
-3
for Si.
146
A Sample of Midterm-Examinations
EEE245 Physical Electronics
Answer ALL Questions-Equal Marks
Time:90 Minutes
1- a- Two different cubic structures have lattice constants a1 and a2 where a2 = 2
a1 . If the first one have a bcc structure and the ratio of atom number
densities Nd1 /Nd2 is 2 , what is the type of the second structure ?
b- Plot the plane (020) and calculate the surface density per cm
2
of atoms for
fcc structure with basis one, given that the lattice constant is 5.0 Angstrom.
2- A direct- conduction band electron initially has energy Ec . It gains kinetic
energy and the k value becomes 0.25 10
10
m
-1
. Show all the energy levels, involved,
on a diagram, and clearly identify them, if the total energy of the electron, relative to
the vacuum energy level, is now 5 eV. Find the electron affinity of the material in
eV. ( h/2 = 1.05 10
34
Js , m* = 0.09 10
30
kg , eV = 1.6 10
19
J )
3- Explain what is meant by;
a- Work function
b- Electron affinity
c- Fermi energy
147
d- Intrinsic concentration
e- Fermi Dirac distribution function
4- a) If the simple spectrographic designation of an element is :
1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2
4p
1
what is the valency and the number of electrons per atom ?
b) What is the type of proportionality between the concentration of intrinsic
carriers and the energy Band Gap ?
5- a- A device made of Si is designed to be used for outdoor operations. The device
can operate reasonably accurate if the concentration of intrinsic carriers are less than
10
13
cm
3
. Looking at the data sheet (other side) calculate the maximum temperature,
in Kelvin, at which the device can be used accurately.
b- If the maximum operating temperature of the device is increased by 31.5 %,
what is the percentage increase in the concentration of the intrinsic holes ?
148
Data Sheet: Intrinsic carrier concentration of Si as a function of 1000 times
reciprocal temperature in Kelvin.
1000/T
c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

p
e
r

c
u
b
i
c

c
e
n
t
i
m
e
t
e
r
r
1.00E+08
1.00E+09
1.00E+10
1.00E+11
1.00E+12
1.00E+13
1.00E+14
1.00E+15
1.00E+16
1.00E+17
1.00E+18
1.00E+19
1.00E+20
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
149
A Sample of Final-Examinations
EEE245 Physical Electronics
Answer ALL Question
Time: 120 Minutes
PART A ( Total 60%. 6 pts. each question)
1) Plot (040) plane and calculate the surface density of atoms in a silicone sample
having lattice constant a = 5.4 Angstrom.
2) Distribution function f(E) gives the probability that states with energy E are
occupied, and it is given as;
f(E) = 1/ [1 + exp (E EF )/kBT ]
where EF is the Fermi Energy. Plot f(E) against E for T > 0 and label important
points.
3) The direction and sense of electric field F in an unbiased p-n junction is indicated
below.
F

Show the direction and sense of movement of electron and hole charge carriers. Also
show the corresponding Drift and Diffusion currents.
4) The intrinsic concentration of electrons ni is plot against the reciprocal of
temperature T
-1
, as below, for materials, x, y, and z, with band gaps Ex, Ey, and Ez
respectively.
ni
T
-1

Print the relationship among the band gaps of these materials.
150
x
y
z
5) Clearly draw the energy band of a p-type semiconductor and label important
points.
6) Plot the variation in drift velocity vd of electrons in silicone for low and moderately
high electric fields.
7) Using the plot in question 6 above, explain how you will calculate the electron
mobility at low electric fields.
8) The excess concentration of minority charge carriers with distance x into neutral
n-type region of a p-n diode is shown below. Find the diffusion length of holes.
9) The depletion region of a p-n diode under different bias conditions are shown below.
Explain the bias condition in each one of them.

Wp Wn Wp Wn
(a) (b) (c)
10) Plot the I V characteristic of a Schottky diode, and label reverse and forward
current regions.
PART B ( Total 40%. 10 pts. each question)
1) Plot the energy band diagram of a p-n junction under a forward bias and label all
energy positions, ions, charge and eVf .
2) a- Draw the small signal equivalent circuit of a Schottky diode and label all
parameters.
b- Explain how capacitance measurements at different bias can be used to find
build in potential Vbi.

151

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

x 10

15
micron
concentration
p n
p
n p
n
Wn Wp
3) Clearly draw the energy band diagram of an ohmic contact between metal and n-
type semiconductor, and explain why it is called ohmic contact.

4) A p-n diode is forward biased at 0.4 volts at 300 K, and the current flow is
measured to be 9.6 mA. If the same diode is again forward biased at 0.5 volts at 300
K, what will be the level of current flow.( kBT/e = 0.026 V at 300 K)
152