Nils Bckman

for the D-OA Yahoo group

2009-10-20

Real loop gain or true return ratio? Middlebrooks Design Oriented Analysis algebra has brought advanced circuit theory to practising analog electronics design engineers for decades. The set of theorems and short cuts contains now also the General Feedback Theorem, (GFT), [1]. The GFT represents a breakthrough in linear feedback theory. As a side effect it includes also the reverse gain in the forward path which is a significant contribution to the basic understanding of high frequency broad band amplifiers with feedback. What is the GFT and why is it so useful? The importance of the GFT can perhaps best be illustrated by looking back on the history behind, [3]. It was at 4 am on July 31st 2001 Dr. Middlebrook had that 'Eureka Moment,' when he realized that the Two Extra Element Theorem (2EET) is the GFT. Later on he formulated the more general Dissection Theorem (DT) [2] which unifies the Extra Element Theorem (EET), GFT, Chain Theorem (CT), and may generate many other not yet formulated theorems. But the story begins already 1964 with the publication [4] of the first version of the "feedback theorem". This paper shows that the closed-loop gain could be assembled from three transfer functions calculated by breaking the loop at an ideal point, and applying a test signal at the break. In the follow up [5], it was shown that the loop gain could be found by injection of both voltage and current test signals at a "non-ideal" point, that is, one that is not at an ideal dependent generator. In parallel, the EET [6] was developed and it became clear that it is expressing just the same as the "feedback theorem." Extension of the EET to the 2EET [7] and the N:th Extra Element Theorem (NEET) [8] followed. Dr. Vatch Vorprian's book Fast Analytical Methods in Electrical and Electronic Circuits [9] was published 2002. This book includes further explanations, extensions and useful examples of the Design Oriented Analysis Techniques Even though all these publications cover much of linear feedback theory, there was still a need for further developments. Among others the telecom industry pushes the limits for analogue circuit design theory by the need for very high frequency broad band amplifiers that enable radio base stations broad casting at GHz frequencies. The fundamental problem is that in circuits operating at very high frequencies one can no longer assume unidirectional signal flow. In addition to forward gain there exists also reverse gain since the active components can not be modelled as ideal unidirectional dependent voltage or current sources. Instead, hybrid- models forming complex electrical equivalent circuit models with admittances allowing signal flow in both directions through the transistor are more adequate. The very concept of having a loop gain seems to fall apart if there is no single feedback path, where you can break the loop and measure loop gain, because there are feedback everywhere, also in the forward path. Valid electrical equivalent circuit transistor models might not even exist for the entire frequency range for some high frequency applications. The characterization of the transistor may instead be made by scattering measurements. Loop gain was abandoned in the Embedding Network Method of Feedback Assessment (ENM) proposed 1982 in [10]. Here, the analytic framework was instead based on nodal analysis and Bodes general definition of return ratio, with the active devices represented by files of admittance matrices derived from measurements.

Nils Bckman

for the D-OA Yahoo group

2009-10-20

However, also high frequency broadband amplifiers utilize the benefits from feedback, such as reduced sensitivity for temperature variations, component tolerances, power supply fluctuations and ripple, flat gain within a broad frequency band, etc. The design engineer is bound to design a feedback network, identify a summation point, and a principal feedback loop, just as in the classical feedback block diagram. Feedback theory based on loop gain design should therefore play an important role also for this class of applications. In summary, the missing piece of the puzzle was a way to model a feedback circuit that includes also reverse gain (Trev) in addition to the forward loop gain (Tfwd). The General Feedback Theorem, GFT, includes this possibility, and in addition, one is no longer restricted to break the loop at an ideal point. To take the full advantage of the GFT, one should identify the summation point and the two error signals in the form of an error current and an error voltage. Reverse gain in the forward direction was also the focus for Dr. Michel Tian and his distinguished group of co-authors in the paper Striving for Small Signal Stability [11](January 2001). This paper is interesting because it represents the state of the art of academic knowledge at the time, and it deals with exactly the same problem as is solved by the GFT. It is also interesting to note that it seems like the authors, come to a different conclusion regarding the expression for loop gain (T) compared with what is predicted by the GFT. The paper includes a historical retrospect on Bodes work and definitions of return difference, feedback factor, return ratio, and loop gain T, which is 180 degrees phase shifted compared to the definition of return ratio. Note that return ratios may, and may not have a physical interpretation. It is with these original definitions in mind, the concept of a True Return Ratio, here T(true), was developed. However the result is at first sight, quite different from Middlebrooks loop gain, T, in the GFT. In summary: The True Return Ratio T(true) = Trev + Tfwd Midlebrooks T = Tfwd/(1+Trev), as given by the GFT. What information can we gain from these two formulas? Inspection of the expression for T(true) leads us to believe that either Trev or Tfwd dominates. If Trev is smaller then Tfwd, we can just as well ignore Trev. Example, Tfwd = 100 and Trev = 10 gives T(true) = 110. Ignoring Trev would in this example lead to a 10% error which is well within the tolerances for other engineering assumptions and uncertainties. The GFT teaches that if Trev is less then 1, one can just as well forget about it. But, if Trev is larger then 1, you should absolutely not ignore it, because it will have a significant impact on the overall loop gain. As an example, lets consider that T = Tfwd /(1+Trev) = 100/11 = 9.09. Trev makes quite a difference! If we break the loop and measure loop gain, by injecting a signal and measure how the signal is amplified all around the loop, what will we measure? 9.09 or 110? The answer is 9.09! This example shows that a relatively small reverse gain in the forward loop, may have a large impact on overall loop gain. No wonder that the whole loop gain concept was questioned when measurements and

Nils Bckman

for the D-OA Yahoo group

2009-10-20

predictions according to the old uni-directional classical feedback loop model can differ with factors more then 10. The intention is now to find a relation between the GFT expression for loop gain T and T(true), and try to clarify the true meaning by a physical interpretation of the two. The relation is easily obtained through the discrepancy factor (D). D can be derived from the school book model of closed loop gain (H), of an ideal feedback circuit, as in H = A/(1+AK). Substitute AK for loop gain T and we get H = (1/K)*T/(1+T) = (1/K) * 1 / (1 + 1/T) = Hinf * D, Hinf is the limit of H when T goes to infinity. Plug in Middlebrooks T = Tfwd/(1+Trev) in D and we get D = 1 / (1 + (1+Trev)/Tfwd ) Multiply nominator and denominator with Tfwd and Tians expression Trev + Tfwd appears as a return ratio in the denominator: D = Tfwd / (1 + Trev + Tfwd) The physical interpretation of T = Tfwd /(1+Trev) is the gain we would get when performing a standard measurement of loop gain. In other words, the loop gain is measured by breaking the feedback loop at an ideal point, use series voltage injection or shunt current injection, depending on what is appropriate, and measure the gain around the loop. The measurement result would then be equal to the combination of forward and reverse loop gain as predicted by the GFT. A loop gain measurement must be made at an ideal break point, meaning that one of the two methods of measuring loop gain, voltage or current injection would result in infinite gain. Another way of expression this is that either the error current or the error voltage is zero, if the loop is broken at the feedback summation point. The non-infinite gain will then represent the real loop gain. In a non-ideal breakpoint one needs to do four different calculations to get the total loop gain. The four quantities needed are forward voltage and current loop gain and reverser voltage and current loop gain. The calculations are based on applying a voltage or current test signal in the forward direction or the reverse direction with the output in either an open or a short circuit condition. Note that, this is a different measurement as compared with series voltage or shunt current injections as mentioned before. Measurements are easily done if an ideal break point is accessible and only one measurement is enough. In a non-ideal point one can in theory do four single injection measurements of the four loop gains, but this will in practise be very difficult to achieve. Instead, one can either do the four calculations on a linear model of the feedback system or which may be easier, do four computer simulations to establish the four quantities, [12]. The forward loop gain, Tfwd, and the reverse loop gain, Trev, can then be obtained by the parallel combination of the current (Tfwd(i) and Trev(i)) and voltage loop gains (Tfwd(v) and Trev(v)). Tfwd = Tfwd(i) // Tfwd(v) Trev = Trev(i) // Trev(v)

Nils Bckman

for the D-OA Yahoo group

2009-10-20

What is then the physical interpretation of Tians true return ratio = Tfwd + Trev? It can not be the real loop gain as described above. The answer can maybe be found in the way the expression was derived. Tians expression was derived by the use of an equivalent 4 connections, 2 port Y-parameter model with two gain factors for two voltage dependent current generators, and two admittances. Since loop gain is the focus, all original inputs are de-activated (put to zero). With feedback, modelled as the output connected to the input, and common ground, the 2 port Y-parameter model collapses to a 1 port model! All components are then connected in parallel and it is obvious that the total return ratio is the sum of the current generators divided with the sum of the admittances, in other words: the True Return Ratio = Tfwd + Trev. In summary: Tian models the return ratio as the relation between the dependent current generators trans-conductance gain factors and the total admittance seen looking into the two terminals to which the current generators are connected to. This is one of the results one gets when applying the Extra Element Theorem (EET)! The EET is an extension of the formula on page 10 in Bodes famous book from 1945 [13]. The formula states that every single linear component has an influence on any transfer function in the system in the form of a bi-linear function. This bi-linear function is easily derived by applying the EET. Since it is bi-linear, one gets more information then just the local return ratios formed around the individual circuit elements. However this requires the restoration of the original input and output, since the nominator is calculated by setting the output to zero by null-double injection. If Tian and his co-authors had used the 2EET and considered the two dependent current generators used for modelling forward gain and reverse gain as extra elements, they would have derived their local return ratio expression in just one line of algebra, without any assumptions and discussions. In addition they would have got the result from the GFT, almost for free. On top of that, they would have seen the effect of the forward gain through the feedback network. In summary, feedback analysis is more then just about stability. Feedback is used for many good reasons. The design engineer has specification to fulfil, with specific requirements for gain, frequency band width, temperature range, output and input impedance. Electronic circuits processing energy are basically analog by nature. A key element for designing them to fulfil the requirement specification for different operating and load conditions is feedback. And that is why The General Feedback Theorem is yet another important tool in the analog toolbox of Design Oriented Algebra.

Nils Bckman

for the D-OA Yahoo group

2009-10-20

References: [1] R.D.Middlebrook, "The General Feedback Theorem: A Final Solution for Feedback Systems," the April 2006 issue of the IEEE Microwave Magazine. [2] R.D.Middlebrook, "The New Structured Analog Design Course, Chapter 9, 2006, Dr. Middlebrooks Website, www.ardem.com . [3] R.D.Middlebrook, "Where Did GFT Come From Dr. Middlebrooks Website, www.ardem.com, January 1, 2007. [4] R.D.Middlebrook, "Design-Oriented Analysis of Feedback Amplifiers," Proc. National Electronics Conference, vol. 20, Oct. 1964; pp. 234-238. [5] R.D.Middlebrook, "Measurement of Loop Gain in Feedback Systems," Intl. J. of Electronics, vol. 38, Apr. 1975; pp. 485-512. [6] R.D.Middlebrook, "Null Double Injection and the Extra Element Theorem," IEEE Trans. on Education, vol. 32, no. 3, Aug. 1989; pp. 167-180. [7] R.D.Middlebrook, "The Two Extra Element Theorem," Proc. IEEE Frontiers in Education, 21st Annual Conf., Purdue Univ., Sept. 21-24, 1992; pp. 702-708. [8] R.D.Middlebrook, Vatch Vorprian, and John Lindal, "The N Extra Element Theorem," IEEE Trans. on Circuits and Systems, vol. 45, no. 9, Sept. 1998.; pp. 919-935. [9] Vatch Vorprian, Fast Analytical Techniques for Electrical and Electronic Circuits,, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002. [10] D. H. J. Maclean, "Broad Band Feedback Amplifiers," Chichester, NY: Research Studies Press, 1982. [11] Michel Tian, V.Visvanathan, Jeffrey Hantgan, Kenneth Kundert, "Striving for Small Signal Stability," IEEE Circuits & Devices Magazine, Jan. 2001; pp. 31-41. [12] R.D.Middlebrook, "GFT Template Users Manual ver. 1 Dr. Middlebrooks Website, www.ardem.com, January 1, 2007. [13] H. W. Bode, Network Analysis and Feedback Amplifier Design, Princeton, New York: Van Nostrand, 1945