STUDY ON THE PERFECT NUMBERS AND MERSENNE'S PRIME WITH

NEW DEVELOPMENTS.
POSSIBLE MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS WITH SOME SECTORS OF
STRING THEORY

Pier Francesco Roggero, Michele Nardelli1,2, Francesco Di Noto

1

Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra

Universit degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Largo S. Marcellino, 10
80138 Napoli, Italy
2

Dipartimento di Matematica ed Applicazioni R. Caccioppoli

Universit degli Studi di Napoli Federico II Polo delle Scienze e delle Tecnologie
Monte S. Angelo, Via Cintia (Fuorigrotta), 80126 Napoli, Italy

Abstract

In this paper we show that Perfect Numbers are only even plus many other interesting relations
about Mersennes prime. Furthermore, we describe also various equations, lemmas and theorems
concerning the expression of a number as a sum of primes and the primitive divisors of Mersenne
numbers. In conclusion, we show some possible mathematical connections between some equations
regarding the arguments above mentioned and some sectors of string theory (p-adic and adelic strings
and Ramanujan modular equation linked to the modes corresponding to the physical vibrations of the
bosonic strings).

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Index:
1 PERFECT NUMBERS ......................................................................................................................... 3
2 NUMBERS OF FORM 2 p - 2: PREDICTION AND FREQUENCY 'OF PRIME NUMBERS......... 8
2.1 SUMMARY: ........................................................................................................................ 24
3. CONNECTION NUMBERS 2 p - 2 WITH MERSENNE PRIMES................................................. 25
3.1 PREDICTION MERSENNE NUMBERS............................................................................ 26
3.2 FACTORIZATION OF 2 521 - 2 (A NUMBER OF 157 DIGITS)....................................... 29
3.3 PRIME NUMBERS ARISING FROM OTHER FORMULAS .......................................... 31
3.4 PREDICTION OF THE FACTORS P WHICH GIVE RISE TO PRIME NUMBERS
WITHIN A GROUP a p b ...................................................................................................... 42
4. ON SOME EQUATIONS, LEMMAS AND THEOREMS CONCERNING THE EXPRESSION OF
A NUMBER AS A SUM OF PRIMES...48
4.1 ON SOME THEOREMS AND EQUATIONS CONCERNING THE PRIMITIVE
DIVISORS OF MERSENNE NUMBERS.61
5. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS WITH P-ADIC AND ADELIC STRINGS AND WITH
RAMANUJAN MODULAR EQUATION (APPROXIMATION TO ).65
5.1 MATHEMATICAL OBSERVATIONS OF FRANCESCO DI NOTO..70

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1 PERFECT NUMBERS
We show that the perfect numbers are just even.
Consider any integer positive number n and we see to divide it by all the divisors of the powers of 2
summing all its proper divisors, i.e. except for n:

1+2+

n
n
n
n
n
+ 4 + + 8 + + 16 +
+ 32 +
+=n
2
4
8
16
32

If we divide n by 2 we add, obviously,

n
and so on.
2

The sum of all the powers of 2 gives, with p elements:

2p - 1

While leading to the second member all the (p-1) factors in n we have:

n(

n n n
n
n
n
+ + +
+
+) = p 1
2 4 8 16 32
2

then:

n n n
n
n
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + = n ( + + +
+
+)
2 4 8 16 32

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2p - 1 =

n
2 p 1

And this is proved the formula that a perfect number is calculated by the following equation:

2 p 1 ( 2 p - 1) = n

with p prime.

p must be prime because 2 p - 1 should give a prime number.

In fact, multiplying 2 p - 1 * 2 p 1 we must not have other divisors except the powers of 2, or, 2 p - 1
and the prime number 2 p - 1.
We see some examples:
1) If we choose p = 3 (p prime) we have:

1 + 2 +4 = n (

7=

n n
+ )
2 4

n
4

23 - 1 =

n
2 31

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And we get the perfect number n = 28

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2) If we choose p = 4 (p is not prime) we have:

1 + 2 + 4 + 8= n (

15 =

n n n
+ + )
2 4 8

n
8

24 - 1 =

n
2 41

n = 120 abundant number.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------If we now repeat the algorithm with any integer positive number n and we see to divide it for all
divisors of powers of 3 by summing all its proper divisors, i.e. except for n, we have:
n n n
n
+
+ +)
1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 + = n ( + +
3 9 27
81

3p 1 (3p-1 3p-2 3p-3 ....) n

=
2
3 p 1

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Now it is IMPOSSIBLE that the numerator of the 2nd member goes to 1.

More precisely it is not possible to have an integer number but only a fractional number, because at
numerator we have a number divisible by 3, while at denominator we have a prime number different
from 3.

For example, for p = 3:

1+3+9=n(

13 =

n n
+ )
3 9

5n
9

33 1 (33-1 33-2 1) n
=
2
331

n=

117
5

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If we now repeat the algorithm with any integer positive number n and we see to divide it for all the
divisors of the powers of another prime number (5, 7, ...) summing all its proper divisors, i.e. except
for the same n we ALWAYS have:
It is IMPOSSIBLE that the numerator of the 2nd member goes to 1.
More precisely it is not possible to have an integer number but only a fractional number, because at
numerator we have a number divisible by the prime number p that we have chosen, while at
denominator we have a prime number different from p ( p).
If we choose any integer positive number n and we see to divide it for all the divisors of the powers of
another composite number (6, 9, ...) summing all its proper divisors, i.e. except for the same n we
have ALWAYS and a FORTIORI (because between the factors we have also the factors of the
composite number) that:
It is IMPOSSIBLE that the numerator of the 2nd member goes to 1.
More precisely it is not possible to have an integer number but only a fractional number, because at
numerator we have a number divisible by the composite number k that we have chosen, while at
denominator we have a prime number.
This shows that the only perfect numbers are of the form:

2 p 1 ( 2 p - 1) = n

with p prime and that can be only EVEN.

These are therefore perfect numbers that can only be EVEN, the odds cannot be there for what that we
have seen before and then it comes to seeking out the Mersenne primes to find a perfect number.

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2 NUMBERS OF FORM 2 p - 2: PREDICTION AND FREQUENCY OF PRIME

NUMBERS

We see the characteristic of the numbers:

2p - 2
with p positive integer with p> = 2
Tab 1:

2^p2

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

2
6
14
30
62
126
254
510
1022
2046
4094
8190
16382
32766
65534
131070
262142
524286
1048574
2097150
4194302
8388606
16777214

Factorizationof2^p2
2
23
27
235
231
23^27
2127
23517
2773
231131
22389
23^25713
28191
2343127
2731151
23517257
2131071
23^371973
2524287
235^2113141
27^2127337
232389683
247178481

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25
26
27
28
29
30

33554430
67108862
134217726
268435454
536870910
1073741822

23^2571317241
2316011801
2327318191
2773262657
2352943113127
223311032089

31

2147483646

23^271131151331

32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64

4294967294
8589934590
17179869182
34359738366
68719476734
137438953470
274877906942
549755813886
1099511627774
2199023255550
4398046511102
8796093022206
17592186044414
35184372088830
70368744177662
140737488355326
281474976710654
562949953421310
1,1259E+15
2,2518E+15
4,5036E+15
9,0072E+15
1,80144E+16
3,60288E+16
7,20576E+16
1,44115E+17
2,8823E+17
5,76461E+17
1,15292E+18
2,30584E+18
4,61169E+18
9,22337E+18
1,84467E+19

22147483647
2351725765537
272389599479
2343691131071
23171127122921
23^35713193773109
2223616318177
23174763524287
27798191121369
235^21117314161681
213367164511353
23^27^2431273375419
243197192099863
23523893976832113
27317315163123311
23471784812796203
22351451313264529
23^257131797241257673
21274432676798593
23113125160118014051
27103214311119131071
23553157161327318191
263616943120394401
23^47197387211262657
22331898813191201961
23517294311312715790321
27323775242871212847
2359233110320893033169
21799513203431780337
23^25^2711133141611513311321
22305843009213693951
237158278832147483647
27^27312733792737649657

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65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104

3,68935E+19
7,3787E+19
1,47574E+20
2,95148E+20
5,90296E+20
1,18059E+21
2,36118E+21
4,72237E+21
9,44473E+21
1,88895E+22
3,77789E+22
7,55579E+22
1,51116E+23
3,02231E+23
6,04463E+23
1,20893E+24
2,41785E+24
4,8357E+24
9,67141E+24
1,93428E+25
3,86856E+25
7,73713E+25
1,54743E+26
3,09485E+26
6,1897E+26
1,23794E+27
2,47588E+27
4,95176E+27
9,90352E+27
1,9807E+28
3,96141E+28
7,92282E+28
1,58456E+29
3,16913E+29
6,33825E+29
1,26765E+30
2,5353E+30
5,0706E+30
1,01412E+31
2,02824E+31

23517257641655376700417
2318191145295143558111
23^2723678968320857599479
2193707721761838257287
2351379532631743691131071
274717848110052678938039
231131437112728186171122921
222847948544121212885833
23^357131719377310924143338737
243922980419361973132
23223177725781083616318177
2731151601180110080110567201
235229457174763524287525313
22389127581283643249112959
23^27792731819112136922366891
226872020297031113491139767
235^211173141257616814278255361
277325937111926265797685839
2383133671645113538831418697
216757912614113275649087721
23^257^21329431131273371429541914449
2311310719520972806333758431
23431971920998632932031007403
272331103208941779857737155463
235172389353397683211329315424127
2618970019642690137449562111
23^37111931731513316312331118837001
2127911819111290115323140471537
2354727710131657302691784812796203
272147483647658812288653553079
232832351451313264529165768537521
23119152428742077875130327152671
23^2571317971932412576736553722253377
21144713842607235828485645766393
234312743639531272974432676798593
2723738919915364959974933057806959
235^3113141101251601180140518101268501
27432339208719341117531003194129
23^271033072143285765291111943691131071
225501837993976656429941438590393

10

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105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137

4,05648E+31
8,11296E+31
1,62259E+32
3,24519E+32
6,49037E+32
1,29807E+33
2,59615E+33
5,1923E+33
1,03846E+34
2,07692E+34
4,15384E+34
8,30767E+34
1,66153E+35
3,32307E+35
6,64614E+35
1,32923E+36
2,65846E+36
5,31691E+36
1,06338E+37
2,12676E+37
4,25353E+37
8,50706E+37
1,70141E+38
3,40282E+38
6,80565E+38
1,36113E+39
2,72226E+39
5,44452E+39
1,0889E+40
2,17781E+40
4,35561E+40
8,71123E+40
1,74225E+41

2351753157161327318191858001308761441
27^2317112715133729191106681122921152041
231076361694312039440128059810762433
2162259276829213363391578010288127
23^4571319377310987211246241262657279073
2745988807870035986098720987332873
2311^22331896838812971319120196148912491
2722332167926295457319020217616318177
23517294311312725751531579032154410972897
23391232796599318685691066818132868207
23^27571323771747635242871212847160465489
231471495117848140369612646507710984041
23559233110320893033169107367629536903681
27737993765538191861131213697830118297
2328333717117995118247260413203431780337
21272392023113107162983048367131105292137
23^25^271113173141611512413311321616814562284561
223897271786393878363164227858270210279
237686143364045646512305843009213693951
27133673887047164511353177722253954175633
23555818681494773847737158278832147483647
23160118012690898060014710883168879506001
23^37^219437312733754199273764965777158673929
2170141183460469231731687303715884105727
2351725764165537274177670041767280421310721
274319719209968311053036065049294753459639
23113113127314098917623851145295143558111
226310350794431055162386718619237468234569
23^257132367893976832113208573127095994794327489
2127524287163537220852725398851434325720959
2373276571937077217618382572876713103182899
2731731512716312331126265734803149971617830801
23517^213795326317436911310713546892879347902817

11

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Tab 1b:

factors

frequency

2
3
3,5
7
11,31
5,7,13
3,5,17
7,19,73
23,89
3,5,43,29,113,127
31
37,109
31,41
43,127
47,178481
53,157,1613
59,3033169
61,1321
67,20857
71,122921
7,73
79,121369
83,8831418697
97,673
101,8101,268501
103,2143,11119
107,28059810762433
127
131,409891,7623851

always
2k+1
4k+5
3k+4
10k+11
12k+13
8k+9
18k+19
11k+12
28k+29
5k+6
36k+37
20k+21
14k+15
23k+24
52k+53
58k+59
60k+61
66k+67
35k+36
9k+10
39k+40
82k+83
48k+49
100k+101
51k+52
106k+107
7k+8
130k+131

137,953,26317

68k+69

139,168749965921
149,593,184481113,231769777
31,151

138k+139
148k+149
15k+16

12

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167,57912614113275649087721
191,420778751,30327152671
193,22253377
199,153649,599749,33057806959
223,616318177
229,525313
233,1103,2089
239,20231,62983048367,131105292137
17,241
251,4051
17,257
263,
10350794431055162386718619237468234569
271,348031,49971617830801
277,1013,1657,30269
281,86171
283,165768537521
307,2857,6529
31,331
127,337
353,29315424127
397,2113
431,9719,2099863
433,38737
439,2298041,9361973132
571,160465489
577,487824887233
601,1801
631,23311
641,6700417
89,683
881,3191,201961
911,112901153,23140471537
937,6553,86113,7830118297
1429,14449
1777,25781083
2351,4513,13264529
2593,71119,97685839
2687,202029703,1113491139767
2731,8191

83k+84
95k+96
96k+97
99k+100
37k+38
76k+77
29k+30
119k+120
24k+25
50k+51
16k+17
131k+132
135k+136
92k+93
70k+71
94k+95
102k+103
30k+31
21k+22
88k+89
44k+45
43k+44
72k+73
73k+74
114k+115
144k+145
25k+26
45k+46
64k+65
22k+23
55k+56
91k+92
117k+118
84k+85
74k+75
47k+48
81k+82
79k+80
26k+27

13

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2833,37171,1824726041
3391,23279,65993,1868569,1066818132868207
4177,9857737155463
5153,54410972897
127,5419
6361,69431,20394401
8191
11447,13842607235828485645766393
14951,4036961,2646507710984041
13367,164511353
29191,10668,152041
32377,1212847
43691,131071
31,61681
17,65537
87211,262657
92737,649657
100801,10567201
131071
174763,524287
179951,3203431780337
228479,48544121,212885833
7,262657
32167926295457319020217
524287
89,599479
724153,158822951431,5782172113400990737
858001,308761441
178481,2796203
246241,279073
127,15790321
31,18837001
7,22366891
48912491
107367629,536903681
715827883,2147483647
745988807,870035986098720987332873
193707721,761838257287
2147483647
2550183799,3976656429941438590393

118k+119
113k+114
87k+88
112k+113
42k+43
53k+54
13k+14
97k+98
115k+116
41k+42
105k+106
57k+58
34k+35
40k+41
32k+33
54k+55
63k+64
75k+76
17k+18
38k+39
59k+60
71k+72
27k+28
111k+112
19k+20
33k+34
143k+144
104k+105
46k+47
108k+109
56k+57
90k+91
78k+79
110k+111
116k+117
62k+63
109k+110
67k+68
31k+32
103k+104

14

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31,4278255361
4375578271,646675035253258729
61,4562284561
2099863,2932031007403
127,4363953127297
127,4432676798593
2690898060014710883168879506001
7432339208719,341117531003194129
7,10052678938039
31,145295143558111
127,581283643249112959
7,658812288653553079
,2305843009213693951
31,9520972806333758431
7,11053036065049294753459639
,618970019642690137449562111
,162259276829213363391578010288127
127,163537220852725398851434325720959
31,2679895157783862814690027494144991
,170141183460469231731687303715884105727

80k+81
141k+142
120k+121
86k+87
98k+99
49k+50
125k+126
101k+102
69k+70
65k+66
77k+78
93k+94
61k+62
85k+86
129k+130
89k+90
107k+108
133k+134
145k+146
127k+128

15

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TAB 2:

factors
2
3
7
3,5
31
127
3,5,17
7,73
11,31
23,89
5,7,13
8191
43,127
31,151
17,257
131071
7,19,73
524287
31,41
127,337
89,683
47,178481
17,241
601,1801
2731,8191
7,262657
3,5,43,29,113,127
233,1103,2089
31,331
2147483647
17,65537
89,599479
43691,131071
71,122921
37,109

frequency
always
2k+1
3k+4
4k+5
5k+6
7k+8
8k+9
9k+10
10k+11
11k+12
12k+13
13k+14
14k+15
15k+16
16k+17
17k+18
18k+19
19k+20
20k+21
21k+22
22k+23
23k+24
24k+25
25k+26
26k+27
27k+28
28k+29
29k+30
30k+31
31k+32
32k+33
33k+34
34k+35
35k+36
36k+37

16

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223,616318177
174763,524287
79,121369
31,61681
13367,164511353
127,5419
431,9719,2099863
397,2113
631,23311
178481,2796203
2351,4513,13264529
97,673
127,4432676798593
251,4051
103,2143,11119
53,157,1613
6361,69431,20394401
87211,262657
881,3191,201961
127,15790321
32377,1212847
59,3033169
179951,3203431780337
61,1321
,2305843009213693951
715827883,2147483647
92737,649657
641,6700417
31,145295143558111
67,20857
193707721,761838257287
137,953,26317
7,10052678938039
281,86171
228479,48544121,212885833
433,38737
439,2298041,9361973132
1777,25781083
100801,10567201
229,525313

37k+38
38k+39
39k+40
40k+41
41k+42
42k+43
43k+44
44k+45
45k+46
46k+47
47k+48
48k+49
49k+50
50k+51
51k+52
52k+53
53k+54
54k+55
55k+56
56k+57
57k+58
58k+59
59k+60
60k+61
61k+62
62k+63
63k+64
64k+65
65k+66
66k+67
67k+68
68k+69
69k+70
70k+71
71k+72
72k+73
73k+74
74k+75
75k+76
76k+77

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127,581283643249112959
7,22366891
2687,202029703,1113491139767
31,4278255361
2593,71119,97685839
83
167,57912614113275649087721
1429,14449
31,9520972806333758431
2099863,2932031007403
4177,9857737155463
353,29315424127
,618970019642690137449562111
31,18837001
911,112901153,23140471537
277,1013,1657,30269
7,658812288653553079
283,165768537521
191,420778751,30327152671
193,22253377
11447,13842607235828485645766393
127,4363953127297
199,153649,599749,33057806959
101,8101,268501
7432339208719,341117531003194129
307,2857,6529
2550183799,3976656429941438590393
858001,308761441
29191,10668,152041
107,28059810762433
,162259276829213363391578010288127
246241,279073
745988807,870035986098720987332873
48912491
32167926295457319020217
5153,54410972897
3391,23279,65993,1868569,1066818132868207
571,160465489
14951,4036961,2646507710984041
107367629,536903681

18

77k+78
78k+79
79k+80
80k+81
81k+82
82k+83
83k+84
84k+85
85k+86
86k+87
87k+88
88k+89
89k+90
90k+91
91k+92
92k+93
93k+94
94k+95
95k+96
96k+97
97k+98
98k+99
99k+100
100k+101
101k+102
102k+103
103k+104
104k+105
105k+106
106k+107
107k+108
108k+109
109k+110
110k+111
111k+112
112k+113
113k+114
114k+115
115k+116
116k+117

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937,6553,86113,7830118297
2833,37171,1824726041
239,20231,62983048367,131105292137
61,4562284561
2690898060014710883168879506001
,170141183460469231731687303715884105727
7,11053036065049294753459639
131,409891,7623851
263,10350794431055162386718619237468234569
127,163537220852725398851434325720959
271,348031,49971617830801
139,168749965921
4375578271,646675035253258729
724153,158822951431,5782172113400990737
577,487824887233
31,2679895157783862814690027494144991
149,593,184481113,231769777

19

117k+118
118k+119
119k+120
120k+121
125k+126
127k+128
129k+130
130k+131
131k+132
133k+134
135k+136
138k+139
141k+142
143k+144
144k+145
145k+146
148k+149

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These numbers have the particularity that we can "predict" the prime factors of which they are
composed and we thus obtain a their fast factorization.
In fact there is a FREQUENCY (periodicity) of the individual prime factors.

These numbers end all with even digits 0, 2, 4 and 6 (8 is excluded).

The cadence, to be precise, is always 2, 6, 4, 0.
These are all divisible, obviously, by 2.
Are also divisible by 3 all the numbers with p that is odd because:

2 p - 2 = 2 ( 2 p-1 - 1) = 2 ( 2 2n - 1)

We can consider the even exponent 2n, because with p that is odd, p - 1, gives an even exponent:
a
( 2 2n - 1) = k 3

If a = 1: 2 2n = 3k + 1 always verified. For any n, we have k, and therefore always divisible by 3.

If a = 2: 2 2n = 9k + 1 verified only for n = 3h. For h = 1, 2, 3 ..., we have k that satisfies the precedent
equation.
So are divisible by 3 when the exponent p satisfies this equation:
2k + 1 = p
and thence when p is equal to:
p = 3, 5, 7, 9,...
k is a positive integer k> = 1.
Are therefore divisible by 3 all the numbers with p that is odd

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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Instead, the numbers are divisible by 5 when the exponent p satisfies this equation:
4k +5 = p
and thence when p is equal to:
p = 5, 9, 13, 17,...
k is a positive integer k> = 0.
On the other hand the number 2 p - 2 ends with 0.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Instead, the numbers are divisible by 7 when the exponent p satisfies this equation:
3k +4 = p
and thence when p is equal to:
p = 4, 7, 10, 13,...
k is a positive integer k> = 0.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Always divisible by p prime:

Since we can consider the even exponent 2n, because p is odd and prime, p - 1 gives an even exponent
and we have:
( 2 2n - 1) = k (2n+1) always verified by (2n +1) prime, we have an integer k that satisfies the equation,
and thence are always divisible by (2n +1) for any n and therefore for any p prime.
p - 1 = 2n
p = 2n +1

Thence 2 p - 2 is always divisible by p, which is a prime number.

We can then "PREDICT" the prime factors of an arbitrary big number 2 p - 2.
If then we choose p prime we know that is already divisible by p, as well as for 2 and 3 (because p is
also odd).
This can be seen from the fact that:

( 2 2n - 1) = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + . + 2 2n-1

If there are no prime factors already known a priori we have NEW PRIME NUMBERS VERY
LARGE THAT HAVE ALSO THEIR A FREQUENCY INSIDE THE GROUP OF NUMBERS 2 p - 2
Examples:
If we want to factorize 2121 - 2 = 2.658.455.991.569.831.745.807.614.120.560.689.150 (a number of
37 digits) we have:

2 3^2 5^2 7 11 13 17 31 41 61 151 241 331 1321 61681 4562284561

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Obviously it's divisible by 2, 3 (121 is not good because it isnt prime number).
Looking at the Table 2 we know ALREADY A PRIORI that is divisible by all the factors 2 3^2 5^2 7
11 13 17 31 41 61 151 241 331 1321 61681 and 4.562.284.561

Divisible by 3 because p = 121 odd (2k + 1 = 121; k = 60)

Divisible by 5 because 4k +5 = 121, k = 29
Divisible by 7 because 3k +4 = 121, k = 39
Divisible by 11 because 10k +11 = 121, k = 11
Divisible by 13 because 12k +13 = 121, k = 9
Divisible by 17 because 8k + 9 = 121, k = 14
Divisible by 31 because 5k +6 = 121, k = 25
Divisible by 41 because 20k +21 = 121, k = 5
Divisible by 61 and 1321 because 60k +61 = 121, k = 1
Divisible by 151 because 15k +16 = 121, k = 7
Divisible by 241 because 24k +25 = 121, k = 4
Divisible by 331 because 30k +31 = 121; k = 3
Divisible by 61 681 because 40k +41 = 121; k = 2
Divisible by 4,562,284,561 because 120k +121 = 121; k = 0

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2.1 SUMMARY:

With these numbers therefore it is possible:

1) Factorize quickly because we know already a priori certain factors of the number 2 p - 2.
2) There are, obviously, also all the prime numbers and they have all a their FREQUENCY, simply
because 2 p - 2 is divisible by p when p is prime.
3) Find large prime numbers arbitrary and that have in their prime factors also their frequency.

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3. CONNECTION NUMBERS 2 p - 2 WITH MERSENNE PRIMES

2 p - 2 = 2 ( 2 p-1 - 1)
Consequently, the prime numbers 2 p - 1 are simply "shifted of one" with respect to the numbers 2 p 2.
The prime factors that give rise to the Marsenne primes Mp of the group 2 p - 2 are only two: 2 and
Mp.
For example, for p = 13 we have:
213 1 = 8191
214 2 = 16382 = 2*8191
We may use the Mersenne primes ( 2 p - 1) and we obtain prime numbers A, B, ...Z larger then the
MAX Mersenne prime yet known:
2 ^ ( 2 p 1) -2 = 2*3* * ( 2 p 1) * A*B*

Then choosing the largest Mersenne prime known, we have:

( 2 p 1) = ( 2 43112609 - 1)
and thence its factorization:
22

43112609

-2 = 2*3* * ( 2 43112609 - 1) * A*B*

It is therefore to perform a gigantic division to find prime numbers larger than those of Mersenne.
The frequency of Mersenne prime, inside of ( 2 p - 2) is then given by the following equation:
( 2 43112609 - 2) * k + ( 2 43112609 - 1) = p

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3.1 PREDICTION MERSENNE NUMBERS

If we look at the Mersenne numbers highlighted in blue in Table 1b with their frequency in the groups
2 p - 2, or 2 p - 1 which is equivalent because the prime factors are simply shifted by 1, we can
observe:
To be a Mersenne number, the prime number p must obey the following rule:
1) When the first number is unique is a Mersenne prime Mp.They are, of course, connected with the
prime p.
2) When we have a pair of prime numbers only one of the two may be a Mersenne prime number
(except for the pair 3, 5 but the 3 is the default for p odd).
So if there is already a known prime number Mersenne the other cannot be a Mp.
If there isnt already a known prime number Mersenne it isnt said that one of the two can be.
3) When we have 3 or more factors may happen that only one of the new factors give an Mp based on
the decomposition of the associated prime number and see the TAB. 1b

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We see cases with a pair of prime numbers with given a certain frequency.

11, 31

10k+11

p = 11 cannot give an Mp because it is accompanied by 31 which gives M31.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23, 89

12

11k+12

4094

2 23 89

In the decomposition of p = 12 there is the prime 89 which gives M89, thence 23 cannot be.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43, 127

14k+15

p = 43 cannot give an Mp because it is accompanied by 127 which gives M127.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

61, 1321

61

2,30584E+18

60k+61

2 3^2 5^2 7 11 13 31 41 61 151 331 1321

From the decomposition we have many factors (7, 31 exist).

One of the two, 61 and 1321, could be a Mersenne number. In fact, the 61 is a Mersenne prime.

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83, 8831418697

83

9,67141E+24

82k+83

2 3 83 13367 164511353 8831418697

We already know that 83 is not a Mersenne prime.

The 83 is accompanied by 13367, 164511353, 8831418697
13,367 164,511,353 and their frequency 41k + 42. 13367 we know that it is not, but 164,511,353
might be a Mersenne prime.
Remains 8,831,418,697
p = 8.831.418.697 can be A NEW prime that give an Mp:

(As in the decomposition of p = 83 there isnt Mersenne primes, except of course that there is always
3, p = 8831418697 and new Mersenne prime)
M = 28.831.418.697 - 1

107, 28059810762433

107

1,62259E+32

106k+107

2 3 107 6361 69431 20394401 28059810762433

The factor 28059810762433 can not give an Mp because it is accompanied from 107 that give M107
In the decomposition of p = 107 there arent Mersenne numbers (remember that a priori we do not
know yet!), so 107 is a Mersenne prime.

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3.2 FACTORIZATION OF 2521 - 2 (A NUMBER OF 157 DIGITS)

The procedure is the following:

Before we factorizes 520
520 = 2^3 5 13
We can find all its factors and connect to the TAB 2:
Factors of
520
2
4
8
5
13
10
20
40
26
52
104
65
130

Factors of di 2521 - 2
3
5
17
31
8191
11
41
61681
2731
53, 157, 1613
858001, 308761441
145295143558111
131, 409891, 7623851

So we already know the following factors, including the 521 because it is a prime number:
520 = 2^3 5 13
2521 - 2 = 2 3 5 11 17 31 41 53 131 157 521 1613 2731 8191 61681 409891 858001 7623851
308761441 145295143558111,
Surely 521 is a single prime number of TAB. 2, i.e. the first time that it appears is only factorizing 2521
- 2.
The Mersenne prime comes from the factorization of 2 522 - 2 = 2 M521
The TABLES 1b and 2, thence, have a new record with:

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521, another factors.

520k+521

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3.3 PRIME NUMBERS ARISING FROM OTHER FORMULAS

From the above considerations there are infinitely many other groups such as 2 p - 1 as those of
Mersenne.
For example, inside 3p - 2 (see TAB. 5a,b) and 1999 p - 2 (see TAB. 6a,b), 12 p - 1 (TAB 7a,b), 12 p 5 (TAB 8a,b) and 12 p + 5 (TAB 9a,b) have a periodicity of their factors and we can compile lists of
prime numbers.
With the group 3p - 2 there are prime numbers with:
p = 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 22,
Let's see the TAB 5a:

3^p -2

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

7
25
79
241
727
2185
6559
19681
59047
177145
531439
1594321
4782967
14348905
43046719
129140161
387420487
1162261465
3486784399

Factorization of 3^p -2
7
5^2
79
241
727
5 19 23
7 937
19681
137 431
5 71 499
113 4703
197 8093
7 17 40193
5 2869781
89 483671
29 47 94747
23 3617 4657
5 232452293
7 498112057

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21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

10460353201
31381059607
94143178825
282429536479
847288609441
2541865828327
7625597484985
22876792454959
68630377364881
205891132094647
617673396283945

3719 2812679
31381059607
5^2 3765727153
31 6679 1364071
19 44594137339
7^2 401 1033 125231
5 43 2693 13170403
4273 5353801183
23 101 7103 4159349
17 263 46050353857
5 419491 294487079

TAB 5b:
p prime

frequency

5
7
17
19
23

4k+3
6k+2
16k+14
18k+7
11k+7

Group numbers 3p - 2 all end with the numbers 7, 5, 9 and 1 (the series has this cyclical).
All group numbers 3p - 2 have sum of their digits 5.
Therefore are never divisible by 3, 11 and also 13 for the rules of divisibility.
In addition, there are other factors that are NEVER divisible by all the numbers of the group - 3p - 2.

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With the group 1999 p - 2 there are prime numbers with:

p = 6,
Let's see the TAB 6a:

1999^p2

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

3995999
7988005997
15968023991999
3,19201E+16
6,38082E+19
1,27553E+23
2,54978E+26
5,09701E+29
1,01889E+33
2,03676E+36
4,07149E+39
8,13891E+42
1,62697E+46

Factorizationof1999^p2
7^281551
13016139897
31515097548129
75641808369335731
,63808239840059987999
113837332463110224911640033
736425398601302793158854857
4799771425328891522894723612447
171475912410815101711641366256161263
749916191259646026059285921477916895449
231271393869041933111497127923285943260519
41532163987895190562742418641960720244186499
73174975502265216588683543300128811120222875447

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TAB 6b:
factors

frequency

7
31

3k+2
10k+4

Group numbers 1999 p - 2 all end with the digit 9, 7 (the series has this cyclical).
All group numbers 1999 p - 2 have sum of their digits 8.
Therefore are never divisible by 3, 5, 7, 13, 19 and 29 for the rules of divisibility.
In addition, there are other factors that are NEVER divisible by all the numbers of the group - 1999 p 2.
What is important, however, is that there exist a periodicity of factors within each group so it is easier
the decomposition of very large numbers.

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Examples with other groups:

12 p - 1
Let's see the TAB 7a:

12^p -1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

143
1727
20735
248831
2985983
35831807
429981695
5159780351
61917364223

Factorization of 12^p -1
11 13
11 157
5 11 13 29
11 22621
7 11 13 19 157
11 659 4943
5 11 13 29 89 233
11 37 157 80749
11 13 19141 22621

TAB 7b:
p prime

frequency

11
13
157
5
22621

always
2k+2
3k+3
4k+4
5k+5

The group 12 p - 1 does not create NEVER any prime number, because all the number of this group are
always divisible for the factor 11

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Let's see the TAB. 8:

12 p - 5

12^p5

Factorizationof12^p5

2
139
139
3
1723
1723
4
20731
20731
5
248827
248827
6
2985979
2985979
7
35831803
75118829
8
429981691
429981691
9
5159780347
17617491923
10 61917364219 61917364219
11 743008370683 743008370683
12 8916100448251 18149260223471
13 106993205379067 7103451147748631
14
1,28392E+15
,1283918464548859
15
1,5407E+16
44425273468076069
16
1,84884E+17
401461058002232011
17
2,21861E+18
2281197260580717217
18
2,66233E+19
239464713747416396631
19
3,1948E+20
7953264353181162577461
20
3,83376E+21
31139439886908807261419
21
4,60051E+22
7115658935878311533329791
22
5,52061E+23
2713041669887234744392949
23
6,62474E+24
137223823289485619101572091
24
7,94968E+25
107097423367933830501833359
25
9,53962E+26
7178016488793619244786565533
26
1,14475E+28
412102135913282130758446719341
27
1,37371E+29
177469000977405378556711860467
28
1,64845E+30
59400113812191262715055821620319
29
1,97814E+31
,19781359483314150527412524285947
30
2,37376E+32
73915652127594113694951543054744811
31
2,84852E+33
74317354702355646827293913302546371
32
3,41822E+34
1795696079128294303379311190382528811
70
3,48889E+75
,

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93

2,3113E+100

3488889569322095618800250852305904679826716343134391016285174746322068045819
2,3113E+100

TAB. 8b:
factors frequency
7
17

6k+1
16k+9

This group creates different prime numbers much more than group 2 p - 1
In fact, we have prime numbers with:
p = 2, 3, 4, 5 , 6, 8, 10 , 11, 14, 29, 70, 93
Group numbers 12 p - 5 all end with the digit 9, 3, 1, 7 (the series has this cyclical).
All group numbers 12 p - 5 are the sum of their digits 4.
Therefore are never divisible by 3, 5, 11, 13, 19 and 29 for the rules of divisibility.
In addition, there are other factors that are NEVER divisible by all the numbers of the group - 12 p - 5.

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TAB 9a:
12 p + 5

12^p + 5

Factorization of 12^p + 5

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

149
1733
20741
248837
2985989
35831813
429981701
5159780357
61917364229
7,43008E+11
8,9161E+12
1,06993E+14
1,28392E+15
1,5407E+16
1,84884E+17
2,21861E+18

149
1733
7 2963
23 31 349
41 67 1087
47 762379
429981701
241 647 33091
7 43 983 209263
12211 60847463
83 227 473228621
503 1523 5783 24151
61 21047843681129
5281 2917443964133
7^2 23 487 521 4441 145589
17 3259 3677 35491 306857

18

2,66233E+19

718303 37064210063003

19
20

3,1948E+20
3,83376E+21

109 113 11119 20269 115090819

229 16741310010687664289

21

4,60051E+22

, 46005119909369701466117

22

5,52061E+23

7 107 737064671445175457401

23

6,62474E+24

53 257 317 2161 4401923 161288423

24

7,94968E+25

5743 13842390249589211933387

25
26

9,53962E+26
1,14475E+28

272693 464749 4699081 1601864461

, 11447545997288281555215581189

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27

1,37371E+29

23 2333 292093891 8764529244253877

28
29
30
31
32

1,64845E+30
1,97814E+31
2,37376E+32
2,84852E+33
3,41822E+34

7 3263489 25859347 2790468614805121

61 199 8761 1763979017 105445033432399
47 63863 79084287742201409975992589
2,84852E+33
1081361 31610340290769550697101931701

33

4,10186E+35

17 265662474811 90824284270044415147471

34

4,92224E+36

7 587 1197915610355810830868121986644441

35

5,90668E+37

36

7,08802E+38

541381 1309247784804217077033261800856641

37

8,50562E+39

857 8243 482539 494687 70138307 71915381041697

38
39

1,02067E+41
1,22481E+42

23 16787 2868823 92147311622592251480162007383

40

1,46977E+43

7 1283 449987 3636848233340175350757842502204923

41
42

1,76373E+44
2,11647E+45

67043 2630738304614805036617255591214669891319

43

2,53977E+46

44
45

3,04772E+47
3,65726E+48

46

4,38871E+49

47

5,26646E+50

48

6,31975E+51

49

7,5837E+52

50

9,10044E+53

61
7 41 2447 15823
3949413660673918418259816481655385496187
1229 3334549
1542093916154946885481589246579451875332981
17 23 271 15919 1910267
235355933701142664251639322060916316169
9,10044E+53

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The corresponding table TAB. 9b is located in the next paragraph.

There are prime numbers with
p = 2, 3, 8, 21, 26, 31, 50

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SUMMARY
Obviously, no group can give always consecutive prime numbers.
In general, therefore, we have:
ap b

p 2 with a integer also not prime;

b a; b must be chosen so that ( a p b) give an odd number. Better to choose at the
beginning a number b so that the first number of the group gives a prime
number.
It is therefore not necessary to have a and p prime, as for Mersenne numbers
To find out what p give rise to prime numbers, we need to build a table of the
frequencies of the factors such as the TAB. 1b.

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3.4 PREDICTION OF THE FACTORS P WHICH GIVE RISE TO PRIME NUMBERS WITHIN
A GROUP a p b

To be able to "predict" in a group which is the next p which gives rise to a prime number is necessary
to construct a table of factorization of the numbers of the group, as TAB. 1b.
The factors in this table are periodic.
To give origin to a prime number within the group, the factors of the table that we have built, are
subject to the following rules:
1) When the factor is unique is a prime number Gp. From the Table 1a we can obtain the
corresponding number p that originate.
2) When we have a pair of factors, only one of the two may be a prime number within the group Gp.
Surely if there is already a known factor that gives a Gp the other cannot give rise to another Gp.
So or neither of them is, or one of them is a factor that gives rise to a prime number within the group
Gp.
3) When we have 3 or more factors, only one of the new factors give rise to a prime number Gp based
on the decomposition of the associated prime number and we must see the table in construction.
Note: only those of the first rule give p also not prime numbers, but this is possible because we derive
Gp. From rules 2 and 3 we obtain, instead, always a prime p.

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For example for the group 12 p +5 or the equivalent group 12 p +60 that is simply "shifted of 1" with
respect to the other.
In fact:
12 p + 60 = 12 ( 12 p-1 +5)
Consequently the factors of 12 p +5 are simply "shifted of 1" with respect to the numbers 12 p +60.
All the odd numbers of the group 12 p +5 end all with the digit 9, 3, 1 and 7 (the series has this cyclical
trend). Consequently they arent never divisible by the factor 5. All the odd numbers of the group
12 p +5 have as the sum of their digits 5. Therefore they arent never divisible by 3, 11 and not even for
13, 19 and 29 for the rules of divisibility.
The table TAB. 9b is the following:
Note that the table has been intentionally left under construction because only in this way we can find
factors with a certain frequency and "predict" new Gp.
TAB. 9b:

101,

factors

frequency

7
17
23
31
41
43
47
7^2
53
61
67
83

6k+4
16k+17
11k+5
30k+5
40k+6
42k+10
23k+7
42k+16
104k+23
15k+14
330k+6
41k+12

1,8834971362468120345740775576647e+315

43

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103
107
109
113, 11119, 20269, 115090819
127, 115747627,

204k+100
53k+22
54k+19
19

7,2334624677246455649146160305763e+112

114

139, 151, 263 5,4193210793765865882211347744511e+367

347

149

296k+2

167, 4,0816765767719200915746817911127e+322

301

173,

289

2,3848363646359265621260676968025e+306
181

270k+57

197, 1879,
1826682224420056636340606072329665597625019155355023010129959

61

199
227, 473228621
229, 16741310010687664289
241
257, 317, 2161, 4401923, 161288423

264k+29
12
20
120k+9
23

269, 3061, 361183,

4,4974799275077547551990045354328e+85

90

271

270k+49

347 6,5786701127698449161492276653878e+315

295

349
487
503, 1523, 5783, 24151
521

5
324k+16
13
40k+16

563 3,4872853759150355165260105110196e+345

324

569,

2,6367165468644414707750566063508e+337

571, 10384831, 691302947,

492537764995317183769525316847343568915263971492503179

44

316
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587

293k+34

617 2,0425365328028013701323274806668e+339

317

643,

5,5309215361761632723751858201297e+321
647

653

302
323k+9

1,0254984706772788443545658245073e+339

857, 8243, 482539, 494687, 70138307, 71915381041697

319
37

863,

3,1953908642004486090866668168237e+356

340

887

6,1091578353177625574063553696315e+347

325

983, 209263

10

991, 3,7972467484631512700551051216946e+345

323

1009 4,1828891403874064657222449978451e+332

311

1087

1229, 3334549, 1542093916154946885481589246579451875332981

48

1283, 449987, 3636848233340175350757842502204923

40

1733
2333, 292093891, 8764529244253877

3
27

2447, 15823, 3949413660673918418259816481655385496187

46

2963
3259, 3677, 35491, 306857
4441, 145589

4
17
16

5281, 2917443964133

15

5743, 13842390249589211933387

24

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6113, 9511, 40849, 4598133134266162731878198827432870008884899

51

8761, 1763979017, 105445033432399

29

9829, 3,5942204095045724000233044826838e+109

106

12109,

3,3022237531905189371496987959636e+131

129

12211, 60847463

11

15919, 1910267, 235355933701142664251639322060916316169

49

16787, 2868823, 92147311622592251480162007383

38

33091
63863, 79084287742201409975992589

9
30

67043, 2630738304614805036617255591214669891319

41

142501 4,3181765961840496961375100657485e+114

111

272693, 464749, 4699081, 1601864461

25

541381, 1309247784804217077033261800856641

36

608483,

2,9607654251870647490509711547547e+53

57

718303, 37064210063003
762379
1081361, 31610340290769550697101931701

18
7
32

1949777, 52530409 7,5574047262360940881577088455687e+79

87

3263489, 25859347, 2790468614805121

429981701
265662474811, 90824284270044415147471
, 1197915610355810830868121986644441

28
8
33
57

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factors

frequency

7
23
61
17
47
31
41
521
83
43
7^2
107

6k+4
11k+5
15k+14
16k+1
23k+7
30k+5
40k+6
40k+16
41k+12
42k+10
42k+16
53k+22

109

54k+19

53
241
103
199

104k+23
120k+9
204k+100
264k+29

271

270k+49

181

270k+57

149

296k+2

587

293k+34

647

323k+9

487

324k+16

67

330k+6

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Here are some examples:

2985989

41 67 1087

The factor 1087 could give rise to a GP, while 41 and 67 have not given (Rule 3).

4. On some equations, lemmas and theorems concerning the expression of a number as a

sum of primes. [1]

Lemma 1
If = R (Y ) > 0 then

where

f ( x ) = f1 ( x ) + f 2 ( x )

f1 ( x ) =

(n )x log (x

( )

(4.1)

q , n >1

f 2 (x ) =

+ x + ... ,

2 + i

1
Y s (s )Z (s )ds ,
2i 2 i

Y s has its principal value,

h

Z (s ) = C k
k =1

Ck depends only on p, q and k ,

C1 =

L'k (s )
,
Lk (s )

(q )
h

(4.3)

(4.4)

(4.5)

and
Ck

q
. (4.6)
h

We note that from (4.1) and (4.3) we obtain the following expression:

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f ( x ) = f1 ( x ) + f 2 ( x ) =

log (x
(n )x

( q , n )>1

2 + i

+x

1
+ ... +
Y s (s )Z (s )ds .
2i 2 i

eq ( pj ) (lq + j )e (lq + j )Y =

(4.6b)

Now, we have
f 2 ( x ) = f ( x ) f1 (x ) =
= eq ( pj ) (lq + j )
j

( q , n )=1

(n )x n =

1 j q , ( q , j )=1

l =0

2 + i

2 + i

1
1
s
Y s (s )(lq + j ) ds =
Y s (s )Z (s )ds ,

2i 2 i
2i 2 i

where

Z (s ) = eq ( pj )
j

(4.7)

(lq + j )
. (4.8)
(lq + j )s

Thence, we rewrite (4.7) also as follows:

f 2 ( x ) = f ( x ) f1 (x ) =
= eq ( pj ) (lq + j )
j

( q , n )=1

(n )x n =

1 j q , ( q , j )=1

eq ( pj ) (lq + j )e (lq + j )Y =
l =0

(lq + j )
1
1
s
ds . (4.8b)
Y s (s )(lq + j ) ds =
Y s (s ) eq ( pj )
s

2i 2 i
2i 2 i
j
l (lq + j )

Since (q, j ) = 1 , we have

2 + i

2 + i

1 h
(lq + j )
L ' (s )
=

k ( j ) k ;
l (lq + j )s h
Lk (s )
k =1

and so
h

Z (s ) = C k
k =1

L'k (s )
,
Lk (s )

(4.9)

(4.10)

where
1 q
Ck = eq ( pj ) k ( j ) . (4.11)
h j =1
Thence, we can rewrite the eq. (4.8b) also as follows:

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f 2 ( x ) = f ( x ) f1 (x ) =
= eq ( pj ) (lq + j )
j

( q , n )=1

(n )x n =

1 j q , ( q , j )=1

eq ( pj ) (lq + j )e (lq + j )Y =
l =0

h
L ' (s )
1
1
s
s
s
(
)(
)
(
)
Ck k ds .
Y

s
lq
+
j
ds
=
Y

Lk (s )
2i 2 i
2i 2 i
k =1
2 + i

2 + i

(4.11b)

Since k ( j ) = 0 if (q, j ) > 1 , the condition (q, j ) = 1 may be omitted or retained at our discretion. Thus
1
1
(q )
. (4.12)
C1 =
eq ( pj ) =
eq (m ) =

h 1 j q , (q , j )=1
h 1 m q , (q.m )=1
h
Again, if k > 1 we have

Ck =

1 q
k ( p) q
(
)
(
)
e
pj

j
=

q
eq (m) k (m ) . (4.13)
k
h j =1
h m =1

If k is a primitive character,
q

e (m) (m) = (q, ) ,

m =1

(q, k ) = q , (4.15)
Ck =

If is imprimitive, it belongs to Q =

(4.14)

q
. (4.16)
h

q
, where d > 1 . Then k (m ) has the period Q , and
d

d 1

m =1

n =1

l =0

eq (m) k (m ) = eq (n ) k (n ) eq (lQ ) .

(4.17)

Lemma 2
If 0 <

1
, then
2
f (x ) =

where

(q )
hY

+ Ck Gk + P , (4.18)
k =1

Gk = ( )Y ,
k

50

(4.19)

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P < A q (log(q + 1))

1
1 1

1 h
bk + 2 + Y 4 2 , (4.20)
h

k =1

= arctan

. (4.21)

We have, from (4.3) and (4.4),

h
h
Ck
L ' k (s )
1
s
s
f 2 (x ) =
Y (s )Z (s )ds =
Ck f 2 , k ( x ) ,
Y (s ) Lk (s ) ds =
2i 2 i
k =1 2i 2 i
k =1
2 + i

2 + i

(4.22)

say. But
1
b
1
L' (s )
Y s (s )
ds = + R + ( )Y +

2i 2 i
2i
L (s )
Y

2 + i

where

{ f (s )}0

1
+ i
4

Y s (s )

1
i
4

L' (s )
ds ,
L (s )

(4.23)

L' (s )
R = Y s (s )
, (4.24)
L (s ) 0

denoting generally the residue of f (s ) for s = 0 .

Now
c
c
L ' (s )
1 s + a 1 1 s + a L ' (1 s )

log
log
= log + s
+ 1 s
, (4.25)

L(s )
Q =1 =1 2 2 2
2 L (1 s )
where Q is the divisor of q to which belongs, c is the number of primes which divide q but not
1
Q, 1 , 2 ,... are the primes in question, and is a root of unity. Hence, if = , we have
4
L ' (s )
A
< A log q + Ac log q + A log( t + 2) + A < A(log(q + 1)) log( t + 2) + A . (4.26)
L(s )
1
Again, if s = + it , Y = + i , we have
4
1

Y s = Y 4 exp t arctan , (4.27)

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Y s (s ) < A Y

1
4

( t + 2)

exp arctan

1

t 2
t
t < A Y 4
e ; (4.28)

log( t + 2 )

and so

1
2i

1
+ i
4

1
i
4

Y s (s )

L' (s )
A
ds < A(log(q + 1)) Y
L (s )

1 1
2 t
4

t e dt < A(log(q + 1)) Y 4

A

1
2

. (4.29)

Theorem A

If r is an integer, r 3 , and

so that

( f (x ))r = vr (n )x n ,

vr (n ) =

log

1 + 2 + ...+ r = n

(4.30)

log 2 ... log r ,

(4.31)

then
r 1+ 34

n r 1
n r 1
B

(log n ) ~
S r , (4.32)
vr (n ) =
S +O n
(r 1)! r
(r 1)!
where
(q )
cq ( n ) . (4.33)
S r =
q =1 (q )
r

Thence, we can rewrite (4.32) also as follows:

n r 1 (q )

cq ( n ) . (4.33b)
vr (n )
(r 1)!
q =1 (q )
r

It is to be understood, here and in all that follows, that O s refer to the limit-process n , and that
their constants are functions of r alone. If n 2 , we have
vr (n ) =

1
( f (x ))r dx
, (4.34)

2i
x n +1

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the path of integration being the circle x = e H , where H =

1 x =
Using the Farey dissection of order N =
N

vr (n ) =

1
, so that
n

1
1 1
+ O 2 ~ . (4.35)
n
n n

[ n ], we have

1
1
( f (x ))r dx
( f (x ))r dXn +1 = eq ( np ) j p , q (4.36)
= eq ( np )
n +1

2i p ,q
x
X
p , q =1 2i p ,q

( )

q =1 p < q ,

say. Now

) (

f r r f r 1 + f r 2 + ... + r 1 < B f r 1 + r 1 . (4.37)

Also X n = e nH < A . Hence

j p , q = l p , q + m p , q , (4.38)
where

l p,q =

mp,q

dX
1
r n +1 , (4.39)

2i p ,q X

p ,q
= O f r 1 + r 1 d .

'

p ,q

(4.40)

Thence, we can rewrite the eq. (4.38) also as follows:

j p, q = l p, q + m p, q

We have = H =

p ,q

1
r dX
r 1
r 1

. (4.40b)
=

O
f

n
+
1
'

2i p ,q X
p ,q

1
and q n , and so, by the following expression:
n

< A q (log(q + 1))

1
1

q + 2 + Y 2 log + 2 ; = arctan

53

(4.40c)

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we have:
3

< An 4 (log n ) + A(log n )

A

where = arctan

qY

1
2

log + 2 , (4.41)

. We must now distinguish two cases. If , we have

Y > A ,

> A , (4.42)

and
qY

1
2

+
1

log + 2 < An 4 = An 4 . (4.43)

If on the other hand < p , q , we have

>A

qY

1
2

1
1

+
1

log + 2 < A q 2 2 log n = An 2 log n(q )2 <

< An

A
> , Y > A , (4.44)
n

1
2

log n n

1
4

= An

1
4

log n , (4.45)

since q q p , q < An 2 . Thus (4.45) holds in either case. Also

< An

1
4

(log n )A .

1
and so, by (4.41),
2

(4.46)

Now, remembering that r 3 , we have

p ,q

' p ,q

r 1

d < Bh

( r 1)

p ,q

' p ,q

( r 1)

d < Bh (r 1) 2 + 2
0

and so

54

1
( r 1)
2

d < Bh (r 1)n r 2 ;

(4.47)

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p ,q

r 1

d < Bn

r 2

p , q ' p ,q

(Max ) h

(r 2 )

< Bn

r 2++

1
4

(log n )

= Bn

r 1+
4

(log n )B .

(4.48)

Again, if arg x = , we have

p ,q

f d =

' p ,q

f d = 2 (log ) x
2

< A(1 x ) m log m x

2m

< A log m (m ) x

m=2

< A1 x

m=2

1
A
log
1 x
1 x

<

2m

) log k(k ) x

m=2 k =2

2m

< An log n . (4.49)

Similarly
f log x < (m ) x <

A
< An .
1 x

(4.50)

Hence
p ,q

r 1

d Max f

r 3

p , q ' p ,q

d < Bn

1
4

log n n

r 3

n log n < Bn

r 1+
4

(log n )B .

(4.51)

From (4.36), (4.38), (4.40), (4.48) and (4.51) we deduce

vr (n ) = eq ( np )l p , q

r 1+ 34

B
+ O n (log n ) , (4.52)

where l p , q is defined by (4.39).

In l p , q we write X = e Y , dX = e Y dY , so that Y varies on the straight line from + i p , q to

i ' p , q . Then, by =

(q )
hY

l p,q

and (4.39),
1 (q )
=

2i h

r i ' p , q

+i

r nY

p ,q

Now

55

e dY . (4.53)

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r 1

r nY
+ i r d = 2i n
+ i r d ,
Y
e
dY
O
O
+
+

(r 1)! q
i
q

i ' p , q

+ i

+ i p , q

(4.54)

where

q = min ( p , q , ' p , q )
p<q

1
. (4.55)
2qN

Thence, from (4.53) and (4.54), we obtain also:

l p,q

+ i r d =
Y
e
dY
=
Y
e
dY
+
O

+ i p , q
i
q

r 1

n
r
= 2i
+ O + i d . (4.55b)

(r 1)! q

1 (q )
=

2i h

r i ' p , q

+ i

r nY

r nY

Also

( + i )

( )

d < r d < B q1 r < B q n

r 1

. (4.56)

From (4.53), (4.54) and (4.56), we deduce

e ( np )l
q

(q )
n r 1
e ( np ) + Q , (4.57)

(r 1)! p , q (q ) q
r

p,q

where
Q < B h q n
r

p,q

r 1

1
( r 1)
2

< Bn

1
( r 1)
2

q
q h

r 1

< Bn 2

( r 1)

B
B
(log q ) < Bn 2 (log n ) .
r

(4.58)

q =1

3
1
1 1

Since r 3 and , r < r 1 r 1 + ; and from (4.52), (4.57) and (4.58) we obtain
4
4
2 2

r
r 1+ 34

(q )
n r 1
B
eq ( np ) + O n (log n ) =

vr (n ) =

(r 1)! p , q (q )

r
3

r 1
r 1+

(q )
n
B
cq ( n ) + O n 4 (log n ) . (4.59)

(r 1)! q N (q )

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In order to complete the proof of Theorem A, we have merely to show that the finite series in (4.59)
may be replaced by the infinite series S r . Now
1
r
(q )
B
1 r
r 1
2

(
)
(
)
(log n )B ,
c

n
<
Bn
q
log
q
<
Bn

(q ) q
q> N
q> N

r 1

(4.60)

1
3

r < r 1 + . Hence this error may be absorbed in the second term of (4.59), and the
2
4

proof of the theorem is completed.

In Goldbachs Problem we have to study the integral
and

1
( f (x ))2 dx
, (4.61)

2i
x n +1
where
f ( x ) = logx ,

x = Re

=e

1
+ i
n

, (4.62)

or
1
2

f (Re ) f (Re )e
i

1 ni

d .

(4.63)

The formal transformations of this integral to which we are led may be stated shortly as follows. We
divide up the range of integration into a large number of pieces by means of the Farey arcs p ,q ,

2 p
2 p
varying over the interval
' p,q ,
+ p , q when x varies over p, q . We then replace f ( x )
q

q
by the appropriate approximation

(q )
(q )

1
1
(q )
=
e ( p ) (q ) 1
2 p

i
log q
n
q
x

, (4.64)

2 p
by u , and the integral
q
eq ( np )

p ,q

' p , q

e1 niu
1

iu
n

57

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(4.65)

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by

e1 iw
dw = 2neq ( np ) . (4.66)
2
(
)
1

iw

neq ( np )

We are thus led to the singular series S 2 . Now suppose that, instead of the integral (4.63), we consider
the integral
2
1
J (R ) =
f (Re i ) f (Re i )e ki d , (4.67)

2 0
where now k is a fixed positive integer. Instead of (4.65), we have now
p ,q

du
e kiu
du ~ eq (kp )
= neq (kp ) . (4.68)

1
1
1

2
' p ,q

+u
iu + iu
n2
n

eq (kp )

We are thus led to suppose that

(q )
1
eq (kp ) , (4.69)
J (R ) ~ n
2
(q )
2

when R = e n , n . Thence, we have also the following mathematical connections:

2

1
J (R ) =
2

f Re

) f (Re )e
i

ki

p ,q

e kiu
1 1 du ~
' p , q
iu + iu

n
n

d eq (kp )

(q )
1
eq (kp ) . (4.69b)
~ eq (kp )
= neq (kp ) ~ n
1
(
)
q
2

+u
2
n

du

The series here (which we call S '2 ) is the singular series S 2 with k in the place of n . On the other
hand
J (R ) =

1
2

logR

logR e i e ki d = R k a R 2 ,

where

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a = log log( + k )

(4.71)

if both and + k are prime, and a = o otherwise. Hence we obtain

1

a R ~ 1 R
2

S '2 . (4.72)

1
n

Here R = e , but the result is easily extended to the case of continuous approach to the limit 1, and
we deduce
a ~ nS '2 . (4.73)
<n

And from this it would be an easy deduction that the number of prime pairs differing by k , and less
than a large number n , is asymptotically equivalent to
n
S ' . (4.74)
(log n )2 2
We are thus led to the following
Conjecture 1.

There are infinitely many prime pairs

, ' = + k , (4.75)

for every even k . If Pk (n ) is the number of pairs less than n , then

Pk (n ) ~ 2C2

p 1
n

,
2
(log n ) p 2

(4.76)

where C2 is a constant and p is an odd prime divisor of k .

With regard the existence of an infinity of primes of the form m 2 + 1 , we have now to consider the
following integral
2
1
J (R ) =
f (Re i ) (Re i )e i d , (4.77)

2 0
where f ( x ) is the same function as before and

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(x ) = x m . (4.78)
2

m =1

The approximation for (x ) = Re i on p , q is

(Re i )

S 1
1
2 p 2
, (4.79)
p , q + i
~
q n
q
2

where
q

( )

S p , q = eq h 2 p

(4.80)

h =1

and S p , q is the conjugate of S p , q : and we find, as an approximation for J (R ) ,

e iu du
(q )
(
)
S
e
p

p,q q
1 1
4 p , q q (q )
'
p ,q

p ,q

. (4.81)

+ iu
iu
n
n

We replace the integral here by

du

+ iu
iu
n
n

= 2n ;

(4.82)

and we are led to the formula

J (R ) ~

where S is the singular series

1
2n S , (4.83)
4

(q )
S p , q eq ( p ) . (4.84)
p , q q (q )

S =

From the eqs. (4.77), (4.81), (4.82) and (4.83) we obtain the following relationship:
1
J (R ) =
2

f (Re ) (Re )e
0

e iu du
(q )
S p , q eq ( p )
d

4 p , q q (q )
1
1
'
p ,q

p ,q

60

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(q )
(
)
S
e

p,q q

4 p , q q (q )
1

du

1
+ iu
iu
n
n

= 2n ~

1
2n S . (4.84b)
4

This expression can be rewritten also as:

1
J (R ) =
12

f (Re ) (Re )e
i

1
d
24

e iu du
(q )
(
)
S
e
p

p,q q
1 1
p , q q (q )
'
p ,q

p ,q

+ iu
iu
n
n

1
1
du

2n ~
=
2n S .

6 1
6
24
1
+ iu
iu
n
n

(4.84c)

Thence, we conclude that the number P(n ) of primes of the form m 2 + 1 and less than n is given
asymptotically by
n
P(n ) ~
S . (4.85)
log n

4.1 On some Theorems and Equations concerning the primitive divisors of Mersenne
numbers. [2]

In his interesting paper: On the sum

(1971), Erdos considered the divisor function

d 2 n 1

1 (m ) = 1 / d

(4.86)

dm

restricted to Mersenne numbers; that is, numbers m of the form 2n 1 .

THEOREM 1.
There is a set of natural numbers S of logarithmic density 1 such that

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lim nE (n ) = 0 .

(4.87)

nS , n

With regard some equations concerning the proof of this Theorem, has been utilized the following:

p x , q |l

nT

p) p 1

( ) p 1 = O ((log x )
p

11 / q

),

(4.88)

p x , pP q

1 1
p
1
11 / q
<
= Oq (log x )
, (4.89)

p x 3 , q |l ( p ) p 1

,q ,n x n

( )

T ( ) T ( , q ) q N.

(4.90)

COROLLARY.
There is an infinite sequence of integers n for which

nE (n ) exp (1 + o(1)) log log n .

(4.91)

Let t 2 be arbitrary. We apply (4.88), (4.89), (4.90) for each prime q t , so that for any ,
0 < < 1,
1

1 1
p
<
+ q log x . (4.92)

q t p x 3 p 1 q t
nT ( ), n x n
pP ( q )

Form Lagarias and Odlyzko, we have for each > 0 an x0 ( ) such that for all x x0 ( ) and primes
q < (log x )

1 / 6

( )1 =

p x , p P q

Thus uniformly for q < (log x )

1/ 7

x
q 1 x
. (4.93)
+ O
2
q log x
log
x

,
x

1 1
1
1+ 2
=

x p x , pP (q ) 2 y
p x , p P ( q ) p

+ O
2
x

()

p y , p P q

1dy =
2

1 q 1 y
dy +
y 2 q log y

e 1 y
q 1

1
y

dy + O 2
dy =
log log x + O(log q ) . (4.94)
2
2

y log y
y log y
q
2

q7

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It thus follows that uniformly for each q < (log x )

1/ 7

( ) p 1 = (log x )
p

( q 1) / q

q O (1) .

(4.95)

(4.96)

p x , p P q

Let t = log log x . Then

q = exp{(1 + o(1))

log log x

q t

and from (4.95),

p 1 = log x exp{ (1 + o(1))

p

log log x . (4.97)

q t p x 3

pP ( q )

Thus from (4.92),

( ) n log x exp{ (1 + o(1))

1

log log x . (4.98)

n x , nT

We apply this inequality with = 1 / 4 . If M ( x ) is the maximum value of nE (n ) for n x , then from
the following inequality:
1
1
M 1

log x E (n ) =
E (n ) +
E (n )
+
= + o(1) log x

2
4

n x
n x , nE ( n )1 / 4
n x , nE ( n )>1 / 4
n x 4n
n x , nT (1 / 4 ) n
(4.98b)
we have
1
1

log x + M ( x )exp (1 + o(1)) log log x log x , (4.99)

2
4

so that

M ( x ) exp (1 + o(1)) log log x .

(4.100)

Thus our result is established.

THEOREM 2.
For all large n ,

1/ d < exp( log n log log log n / 2 log log n ) .

d 2 1, d > n
n

63

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Recall that we have denoted the sum in the theorem A(n ) . For each m n , let

Am (n ) =
so that

1 / d

(4.102)

l ( d )= m , d > n

A(n ) = Am (n ) .

(4.103)

mn

There is a Theorem that asserts that there is an x0 such that for all x x0 and any m ,

3 + log log log x

, (4.104)
# {d x : l (d ) = m} x exp log x
2 log log x

or

3 + log3 x
. (4.104b)
# {d x : l (d ) = m} x exp log x
2 log 2 x

Thus by partial summation

1
1
3 + log3 x
3 + log 3 n
1
2
dx (log n ) exp log n

1dx exp log x
Am (n ) = 2
dx

2 log 2 x
2 log 2 n n x log 2 x
x n < d x , l ( d )= m
x

n
n

3 + log3 n
3 + log log log n
= log n exp log n

= log n exp log n

2 log 2 n
2 log log n

(4.105)

for all n x1 x0 . Therefore

3 + log log log n

A(n ) = Am (n ) d (n )log n exp log n

2 log log n
mn

(4.106)

for n x1 , where d (n ) is the number of divisors of n . Using the well-known fact that
d (n ) 2(1+ o (1)) log n / log log n , (4.107)
we have

A(n ) exp( log n log log log n / 2 log log n )

for all large n , which is what we wanted to show.

64

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For each x 3 there is an n = n( x ) x such that

# {d x : l (d ) = n} > x exp{ (1 + o(1))log x log log log x / log log x} . (4.109)
It therefore would follow that
E (n ) exp{ (1 + o(1))log x log log log x / log log x}.

(4.110)

It does not seem unreasonable to ask also that for an unbounded set of x we have n( x ) x1 o (1) . It thus
would follow that for infinitely many n ,
E (n ) exp{ (1 + o(1))log n log log log n / log log n}.

(4.111)

This is the true maximal order of E (n ) and also that Theorem 2 can be strengthened to
A(n ) exp{ (1 + o(1))log n log log log n / log log n}

(4.112)

for all n .
5. Mathematical connections with p-adic and adelic strings and with Ramanujan modular
equation (approximation to ). [3] [4]

The crossing symmetric Veneziano amplitude for scattering of two ordinary open strings is:
A (a, b ) = g 2 x 1 x d x = g 2
a 1

b 1

(1 a ) (1 b ) (1 c )
, (5.1)
(a ) (b ) (c )

s
where a = (s ) = 1 , b = (t ) , c = (u ) with the condition a + b + c = 1 , i.e. s + t + u = 8 .
2
In eq. (5.1), ... denotes the ordinary absolute value, R is the field of real numbers, kinematic

variables a, b, c C , and is the Riemann zeta function. The corresponding Veneziano amplitude for
scattering of p-adic strings was introduced as p-adic analogue of the integral in (5.1), i.e.
a 1
b 1
Ap (a, b ) = g 2p x p 1 x p d p x , (5.2)
Qp

where Q p is the field of p-adic numbers, ... p is p-adic absolute value and d p x is the additive Haar
measure on Q p .

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The scattering of two real bosonic strings in 26-dimensional space-time at the tree level can be
described in terms of the path integral in 2-dimensional quantum field theory formalism as follows:
2i
4
2i ( j )

k X ( j , j ) , (5.3)
S0 [X ] d 2 j exp
A (k1 ,..., k 4 ) = g 2 DX exp
h
j =1
h

where DX = DX 0 ( , )DX 1 ( , )...DX 25 ( , ) , d 2 j = d j d j and

S0 [X ] =

T
d 2 X X
2

(5.4)

with = 0,1 and = 0,1,...,25 . The crossing symmetric Veneziano amplitude is:
A (k1 ,...k4 ) = g 2 x 1 2 1 x 2 3 dx . (5.5)
k k

k k

The p-adic Veneziano amplitude is:

Ap (k1 ,...k4 ) = g 2p x p1 2 1 x p2 3 dx . (5.6)
k k

k k

Qp

Expressions (5.5) and (5.6) are Gelfand-Graev beta functions on R and Q p , respectively. The p-adic
analogue of (5.3), i.e.
1
4
1

Ap (k1 ,..., k 4 ) = g 2p DX p S0 [ X ] d 2 j p k ( j ) X ( j , j ) , (5.7)

h
j =1
h

is the p-adic string amplitude, where p (u ) = exp(2i{u}p ) is p-adic additive character and {u}p is the
fractional part of u Q p .
With regard some equations concerning the expression of a number as a sum of primes, we note that
the eq. (5.7) can be connected with the eq. (4.29) and we obtain the following mathematical
connection:
1
4
1

Ap (k1 ,..., k 4 ) = g 2p DX p S0 [X ] d 2 j p k ( j ) X ( j , j )
h
j =1
h

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2i

1
+ i
4

1
i
4

L ' (s )
A
ds < A(log(q + 1)) Y
Y (s )
L(s )
s

1 1
2 t
4

t e dt < A(log(q + 1)) Y 4

A

1
2

. (5.8)

The eq. (5.7) can be connected also with the eq. (4.55b) as follows:

r nY
+ i r d =
Y
e
dY
+
O

+ i p , q
i
q

n r 1
r
= 2i
+ O + i d

(r 1)! q

1
4
1

Ap (k1 ,..., k4 ) = g 2p DX p S0 [ X ] d 2 j p k ( j ) X ( j , j ) .
h
j =1
h

l p,q

1 (q )
=

2i h

r i ' p , q

r nY
Y e dY =

+ i

(5.9)

In conclusion, also the eq. (4.84b) can be related with the eq. (5.7) as follows:
1
J (R ) =
2

f (Re ) (Re )e
0

(q )
e iu du
(
)

d
S
e
p

p,q q
1 1
4 p , q q (q )
'
p ,q

p ,q

(q )

S p , q eq ( p )

4 p , q q (q )
1

du

= 2n ~

+ iu
iu
n
n

1
2n S
4

1
+ iu
iu
n
n
1
4
1

Ap (k1 ,..., k4 ) = g 2p DX p S0 [ X ] d 2 j p k ( j ) X ( j , j ) .
h
j =1
h

(5.10)

With regard some equations concerning the primitive divisors of Mersenne numbers, we note that
the eqs. (4.94) and (4.105) can be related with the eq. (5.7) above described, as follows:
x

1 1
1
=
1+ 2

x p x , pP (q ) 2 y
p x , p P ( q ) p

1 q 1 y
dy +
2
q log y

( )1dy = y

p y , p P q

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eq 1 y
q 1
x 1

+ O 2
dy
+
O
dy
log log x + O(log q )
2
2

y
log
y
y
log
y
q
2

1
4
1

Ap (k1 ,..., k4 ) = g 2p DX p S0 [ X ] d 2 j p k ( j ) X ( j , j ) , (5.11)

h
j =1
h

Am (n ) =
n

1
1
3 + log 3 x
3 + log3 n
1
2

(
)
1
exp
log
log
exp
log

dx
x
dx
n
n
dx

2
2

2
log
2
log
log
x n < d x , l ( d )= m
x
x
n
x
x
2
2

n
n

3 + log3 n
3 + log log log n
= log n exp log n

= log n exp log n

2 log 2 n
2 log log n

1
4
1

Ap (k1 ,..., k4 ) = g 2p DX p S0 [ X ] d 2 j p k ( j ) X ( j , j ) . (5.12)

h
j =1
h

Now, we have the following modular equation (approximation to ) of mathematician Ramanujan:

24
log
142

10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2

+
, (5.13)

4
4

where log represent the natural logarithm (i.e. ln ).

We note that eqs. (4.84b) and (4.84c), can be rewritten also as follows:
1
J (R ) =
2

f (Re ) (Re )e
i

(q )
e iu du
(
)

S
e
p
d

p,q q
1 1
4 p , q q (q )
'
p ,q

p ,q

(q )
(
)
S
e

p,q q

4 p , q q (q )
1

du

1
+ iu
iu
n
n
du

+ iu
iu
n
n

= 2n

24
log
=
142
1

+ iu
iu
n
n

(q )

S p ,q eq ( p )

4 p ,q q (q )
1

10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2

+
2n .

4
4

(5.14)

1
J (R ) =
12

f (Re ) (Re )e
0

1
d
24

(q )
e iu du
(
)

S
e
p

p,q q
1 1
p , q q (q )
'
p ,q

p ,q

68

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1
1 24
du
=
=
2n ~
2n S =
log
6 1
6
24
6 142
1

+ iu
iu
n
n

10 + 11 2

10 + 7 2

2n .

(5.14b)

With regard the eq. (4.69b), we have the following new expression:
1
J (R ) =
2

f Re

) f (Re )e
i

ki

e kiu
du ~

1
1

' p , q
iu + iu
n
n

d eq (kp )

~ eq (kp )

du

1
+ u2
n2

= neq (kp ) =

p ,q

24
log
142

10 + 11 2

10 + 7 2

neq (kp )

(q )
1
eq (kp ) . (5.15)
n
2
(q )
2

Also for the eq. (4.55b) we have the following new expression:

+ i r d =
l p,q
Y
e
dY
=
Y
e
dY
+
O

+ i p , q
i
q

r 1

n
r
= 2i
+ O + i d =

(r 1)! q

10 + 11 2

10 + 7 2 n r 1
24
+ i r d . (5.16)

log
i
O
= 2
+
+

(r 1)!

4
4
142

1 (q )
=

2i h

r i ' p , q

+ i

r nY

r nY

In conclusion, also the eq. (4.49) can be rewritten as follows:

p ,q

' p ,q

f d =

10 + 7 2
10 + 11 2
(log )2 x 2 <
+

4
4

m
2m
2
< A 1 x log k(k ) x <
m= 2 k =2

24
f d = 2
log
142

< A log m (m ) x
m=2

2m

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< A(1 x ) m log m x

m=2

2m

<

1
A
log
1 x
1 x

< An log n . (5.17)

We note that in all the eqs (5.14) (5.17), there is the number 24, that is the number concerning the
modes corresponding to the physical vibrations of the bosonic strings by the following Ramanujan
function:
cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4anti log
2
t 2
w'

t w'

4
(
)
'
e
itw

'
w

24 =
.
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

5.1 Mathematical observations of Francesco Di Noto

Its very interesting that wrote from Pier Francesco Roggero, is a very good contribution to the final
solution of the unsolved problem concerning the infinity of Mersenne numbers, connected, as seen
before, to the even perfect numbers and other topics.
The Wikipedia article "Mathematical problems still unresolved" shows, among others, also this
problem:
Proof of the infinity of Mersenne primes (conjecture of Lenstra-Pomerance-Wagstaff) or,
equivalently, proof of the infinity of perfect numbers
About the infinity of perfect numbers, see the following reference d1.
Instead, about the infinity of Mersenne numbers, we can say that since the prime numbers are infinite,
are also infinite always the their particular subsets consisting of particular prime numbers (more or less
rare) except in some cases, for example the Fermat prime numbers (now only five of it are known) and
it is thought that there are no more big. In Mersenne primes the prime numbers p are in the exponent,
so we have infinite potential Mersenne numbers.
Since p is always odd, the odd powers p of 2 may create prime numbers, removing a unit (i.e. 1), since
these odd powers of 2 are of the form 6k +2, removing 1 we have 6k +1, which is one of the forms of
the prime numbers (the other is 6k - 1). That is why the Mersenne numbers, except for the initial
number three, are all of the form 6k + 1. The even powers of 2 are, instead, of the form 6k-2 and
subtracting now 1, we have 6k-2-1 = 6k-3, the other form of prime numbers, but in this case are all
multiples of 3 and therefore can never be primes, except the initial 3: 3 = 22 = 4 = 6 * 1-2, and 6 * 1-21 = 3 prime number, the only exception. For 24 = 16 = 6 * 3 -2, and 6 * 3-1-1 = 6k-3 = 18-3 = 15 = 3 *
5 composite and multiple of 3, as for all the subsequent even powers of 2. So the Mersenne numbers

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are almost certainly a subset infinite, although more and more rarefied, of the infinite numbers of the
form 2p - 1, which are together primes and not primes. An example of the latter is
29 -1 = 511 = 7 * 73, also being the exponent 9 an odd number.
About the perfect numbers, we want to bring a little curiosity: the number of digits of the perfect
numbers "is about" the Fibonacci series.
From the work is still in progress "Perfect numbers and the Tartaglias triangle (news and other
properties not well known)"
the first 10 perfect numbers are:

6
28
496
8128
33 550 336 (8 digits)
8 589 869 056 (10 digits)
137 438 691 328 (12 digits)
2 305 843 008 139 952 128 (19 digits)
2 658 455 991 569 831 744 654 692 615 953 842 176 (37 digits)
191 561 942 608 236 107 294 793 378 084 303 638 130 997 321 548 169 216 (54 digits)

We note that the number of digits (highlighted by us in red) of the subsequent perfect numbers "skirts",
at least initially, the Fibonacci series (in green):
1=1
2=2
3=3
45
8=8
10 13
12 13
19 21
37 34
54 = 54
? 89
? 144

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The next perfect numbers, so they should in theory have respectively digit numbers near to the other
Fibonaccis numbers, but is not really so: the relationship begins to fail to the grow of the perfect
numbers. From "perfect Number" of Wikipedia, in fact:
"... The eleventh perfect number has 65 digits, the twelfth and thirteenth have 77 and 314 digits,
respectively. Are known only 47 Mersenne primes, and then 47 perfect numbers. The largest of
these is 243,112,608 (243,112,609 - 1), formed in the base 10 of 25.956.377 digits. "
But such a huge number of digits 25956377, if we divide it successively by 1,618032, at the 29th
division we obtain as result 22.57, very near to 21 that is a Fibonaccis number, and the subsequent
divisions give as a result:
13,95 about 13,
8,62 about 8,
5,32 about 5,
3,29 about 3,
2,03 about 2,
1,25 about 1:
0,77 about 1

If this operation is repeated also with the exponent 43112608, we get a similar result: from the 30th
division, and from the subsequent divisions, we obtain:
23,17 about 21
14,32 about 13
8,85 about 8
5,47 about 5
3,38 about 3
2,08 about 2
1,29 about 1

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0,79 about 1

As can be seen, therefore, a weak connection between the numbers of digits of the perfect numbers
(also the larger) with the Fibonaccis numbers effectively exists, also if this is of little practical use.
We observe, however, that 65 + 77 = 142 very near to 144 that is a Fibonaccis number, and that 314 =
377 63, near to 65, the number of digits of the eleventh perfect number, and that also 377 is a
Fibonaccis number. The relatyionship number of digits and Fibonaccis numbers then continues,
also if indirectly, also after the eleventh perfect number, and could be further investigated, and
possibly also demonstrated.
We take it therefore provisionally as a mere mathematical curiosity, without other claims of discovery,
pending possible future developments.
Another our discovery is the form 6k-2 of all the perfect numbers with the exception of perfect initial
number 6, because of the form 6k, for k = 1, since 6 * 1 = 6.
In fact:
6 * 5-2 = 28
6 * 83 -2 = 496
.... ....
And so on. Our proof is the following:
Since the product being (2 ^ n * 2 ^ (n +1) of an odd power of 2 for an even power of 2, and being the
even powers of the form 6k-2 (for example, 4 = 2 ^ 2 = 6 - 2, 16 = 2 ^ 4 = 18-2 etc.) and the odd
powers of form 6k +2, for example 8 = 2 ^ 3 = 6 + 2, 32 = 2 ^ 5 = 30 + 2, we have that
(6k +2) * (6k'-2) = 36k * k ' - 26k +26k' - 2 = 6k'' - 2, being the sum of the three terms preceding a
multiple k'' of 6. For example, for 28 = 4 * 7 = (6 -2) * (6 +2 -1) = 48-6 -12-2 = 28

References final on the perfect numbers etc.. and Mersenne numbers (section 5.1).

For further details on these numbers, we suggest the following additional references:
a) I NUMERI PERFETTI DISPARI (proposta di dimostrazione della loro inesistenza)
Gruppo B. Riemann Michele Nardelli, Francesco Di Noto
b) ESISTENZA DI UN NUMERO QUASI PERFETTO ( o lievemente difettivo, come problema
matematico ancora irrisolto. La nostra proposta di soluzione) Gruppo B. Riemann *
c) SUI NUMERI LIEVEMENTE ECCEDENTI COME PROBLEMA MATEMATICO
ANCORA IRRISOLTO (con note e tabelle anche sui numeri lievemente
difettivi, perfetti, ecc. e le forme 6k + a con a da 0 a 5)
Gruppo B.RiemannFrancesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli

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d) dal sitowww.atuttoportale.it/, sezione Articoli, Matematica,

1) Infinit dei Numeri Perfetti
A cura del Gruppo Eratostene - http://www.gruppoeratostene.com/)
Con la collaborazione di Eugenio Amitrano
( http://www.atuttoportale.it/)
2) Connessione tra Repunit, numeri di Mersenne e Congettura di Collatz
A cura di Francesco Di Noto,Eugenio Amitrano ( http://www.atuttoportale.it/)
References (sections 4 and 5)
[1] G. H. Hardy and J. E. Littlewood Some Problems of Partitio Numerorum; III: On the
expression of a number as a sum of primes Acta mathematica. 44. 15.02.1922
[2] Carl Pomerance On primitive divisors of Mersenne numbers Acta Arithmetica XLVI (1986)
[3] Branko Dragovich On p-Adic Sector of Adelic String arXiv:0911.3625v1 [hep-th] 18.11.09
[4] Branko Dragovich On Adelic Strings arXiv:hep-th/0005200v1 22.05.2000

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