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Writing
ESSAY-WRITING The word essay is defined in The Concise Oxford Dictionary as a literary composition (usually prose e short) on any subject. Accordingly, it is a written composition giving expression to ones own personal ideas or opinions on some topic, an event a situation, an object or a problem. It is a presentation based on ones experience and perceptions. Here more than the originality of an idea, the approach of the writer is valued. Essay is written in a personal style. Characteristics of a Good Essay:UNITY: - An essay must have unity, i.e. developing on them with a definite purpose. ORDER: - The essay should follow a certain ordered line of thought e come to a definite conclusion. It should not consist of haphazard reflections put down any how. These should not only the unity of subject but also unity of treatment. BREVITY: - Essays should not the exceptional long. The limit should be maintained. It should be a brief exercise, concisely expressed. STYLE: - The style of an essay should be dignified e literary. A long, colloquial terms, and free a easy instruction should be avoided. Also it is mistake to attempt any flights of fine writing. The language a sentence construction should be simple, directs natural. PERSONAL TOUCH: - An essay should serve the personal feelings of the writer. It should have the individuality of the writer. Essay is written in a personal style with the reader in mind. If a reader does not enjoy reading it, then the purpose in defeated. Essays are generally classified into the following five types: (i) Narrative Essay:- incidents or happenings are narrated chronologically in a narrative essay. We try to give a sequential account of the happenings. We adept the approach as style of a narrator or story letter, trying to

gradually move towards the main events or climax. Narrative essay may deal with (a) Historical stories or legend (the reign of Akbar). (b)Biographies (life of Babar). (c) Incidents (a street quarrel). (d)An accident or natural disaster (flood, fire). (e) A journey & voyage. (f) A story (real/imaginary). (ii) Descriptive Essay:- Here the writes describes an object, a place, an event or a natural phenomenon. One tries to create visual images and works on the subject like a painter. e.g. Organic life, My favorite film star. (iii) Expository/Reflective Essay:- it contains the thoughts of its author on some subject- an idea arising in the mind. It consists of reflections or thoughts on a particular topic, which is generally of an abstract nature for e.g. (a) Habits, qualities (thrift, cowardice, heroism). (b)Social, political & domestic topics (riches & poverty, government). (c) Philosophical subjects (reality, consciousness). (d)Religious & theological topics. (iv) Argumentative Essay:- It deals with subject on which people hold conflicting views and opinion. They are written on topics which can be debated and on which people can advance heated arguments for & against the view. e.g. (a) Should banks be privatized? (b) Should India go Nuclear? (v) Imaginative Essay:- here we imagine ourselves in a situation or take up a hypothetical position. One can indulge in flights of fancy & give expression to ones faculty of imagination. e.g. (a) The autobiography of horse. (b) If I were a multi-millionaire.

STRUCTURE OF ESSAY An essay should have an appropriate structure. If ideas are presented loosely, they will not carry conviction. Hence it is necessary to arrange ideas systematically & ensure the essay gets unity. Hence we should follow the three tier structure in essay: (i) Introduction/Beginning. (ii) Middle/Main Body. (iii) End/Conclusion. Introduction:- Should inform the reader of the topic. A good beginning is very necessary. Some ways of beginning are: (a) Define the topic. This introduction is effective in reflective essays. (b)Pose a question to arouse the interest of the reader. But later in the essay, you have to supply an answer to the question raised. This beginning in effective in reflective & argumentative essays. (c) Begun an essay with a quotation relevant is the topic. (d)Start with a personal anecdote or experience. (e) Begin by describing a scene or a situation. Introduction is followed by the Main body:- It contains ones description of an object, scene, events, natural phenomenon or ones views on any problem. The ideas collected are presented in the section. The ideas are arranged in a logical order & presented in different paragraphs. One paragraph should have one main idea or theme. All the paragraphs should be connected- one leading to another. This gives unity to the essay. The ideas should be discussed properly & supported with examples illustration Discussion is the main body leads to conclusion. It must emerge naturally. The conclusion can tie a brief summary, a restatement of ones viewpoint or emphasis upon the solution to a problem. It can also be a brief reminder of the main events. PLANNING THE ESSAY First understand the topic, & decide whether one has sufficient ideas on the topics. Determine the line of thought one wishes follow. Next get down the ideas as they occur. The ideas that have been

jotted fall into a certain category try to arrange the ideas into different categories. Than arrange these ideas & prepare an outline. The arrangement should be logical. The essay must have an impression that it is a well integrated pattern of thought. Think of an attractive beginning. It should be fresh, original & arresting. Give the different aspects of the topic, one idea in one paragraph. Decide on the examples & illustration. Your thought should show logical development & must not the jumbled. The conclusion must be stated clearly & firmly. It should not be vague & shabby. Never be irrelevant. Vague generalizations, violent statement etc. should be carefully avoided. Do not overload an essay with statistics. Lastly use simple language, avoid difficult & unfamiliar words. The sentences should be short & simple. Avoid all repetitions, be concise & to the point. The language should be free from grammatical & spelling mistakes. Complex sentence structure should be avoided. To conducts, essay is a very sensitive form of self expression. It is harmonious blending of thought & expression. PRCIS WRITING The word prcis is derived from French, meaning exact or terse. It is pronounced Pray see. A prcis may be defined as a restatement in shortened form of the main idea and points in a piece of writing. There are no fixed rules about the length of a prcis but ordinarily it should contain one third of the number of words in the original passage. Prcis is not putting in different words, neither is it a paraphrase, nor a list of the main points. It is a piece of continuous writing & to be effective. It should have proper organization of ideas, logical sequencing of points & the use of simple language. But at the same time prcis is not creative writing. It is merely a condensed reproduction of the original writes ideas, views etc. Prcis writing is an exercise in compression. It is a gist of the passage, expressed in ones own language. It should be lucid, succinct & full i.e. including all essential points. Qualities of a Good Prcis (i) Completeness:- A prcis should cover the essential contents of the given passage. It should not omit any important facts or ideas.

(ii) Clarity:- It should express the meaning of the original passage clarity & be free from all ambiguities. Without reading the original one should be able to get the main message through the prcis. (iii) Conciseness:- A prcis must be brief & concise. It should be a coherent piece of writing, presenting the arguments logically. A smaller version of the original by mere omission of words, phrases/ clauses gives a poor show.

TEN STEPS TO PRECIS WRITING (I) To understand the passage, read it carefully. Put down the main theme in a phrase or sentence. Think of a suitable title. Read through the passage again, this time underline the key words, phrases, clauses and sentences. Select the essential points, got them down, & reject the rest. Prepare your first draft on the basis of underlined key words, Phrase etc. Compare your draft with the original for any omissions, Irrelevancies etc. Check the length of the prcis. If it is more then the sequential limit, go through the draft again and delete unnecessary details. Cut it down to the required length. Read the revised draft paying attention to punctuations, spellings, and grammar. Prepare the final draft neatly. Write in brackets, in the right hand corner the number of Words used. Write rough on the top of your first draft and cross them Out. DOS FOR PRECIS WRITING (I) Use your own language as for as possible. (II) Keeps the same sequence of events, ideas, arguments etc, as the original passage, change only for the lack of clarity.

(II) (III) (IV) (V) (VI)

(VII) (VIII) (IX) (X)

(III) Drop figures of speech, examples and illustrations. In a passage devoted entirely to illustrations, use the same in a compressed form. (IV) Give maximum information within the required limit. (V) Use indirect speech and third person. DONTS FOR PRECIS WRITING Avoid copying from the original. Do not give any title unless specifically required. Do not divide your prcis into paragraphs unless the original passage is very long. Do not change any facts. Do not make any comments.

(I) (II) (III) (IV) (V)

LETTER WRITING NEED OF A BUSINESS LETTER:Correspondence is one of the chief means of keeping oneself in contact. With those separated by distance. Every business, big or small, has to maintain contact with the external world including other businessmen, customers and government departments. Of course there exists other means of communication, like telephone, telex, telegraph etc. but they can make only a temporary impression on the receivers mind & they are quite expensive too. Hence despite the availability of modern means of quick & convenient ways of transmitting humans sound, letters are as important ago. A letter is really, a piece of conversation by post. Hence conversing with friends/relations by post, are called personal letters. Letters written to other firms and companies, customers, suppliers, govt. offices etc. are called business letters. Their aim is to achieve a definite purpose, such as selling a product, making an enquiry, seeking information or advice, creating good will etc. A business letters must therefore appeal to the readers interest & induce in him the proper mood. The ability to adapt oneself to the readers point of view is the basic requirement of a good letters.

PRINCIPLES: Courtesy & consideration:- One must observe the basic principle of social relationship & regard for others feelings. They should have necessary tact & courtesy. Courtesy softens the sting of an unpleasant piece of information, creates good will and produce a favorable response. Good will is a great asset for an organization and courtesy in correspondence is one of the most natural & economical means of building it. Consideration for the readers interests, needs & desires is known as the you-attitude. This does not mean that the writer should completely suppress his own interests. Sincerity & truthfulness convince the most. Directness & Conciseness: Transmission of maximum information by using minimum words should be ones aim in letters writing. Clear and concise letters are able to arrest the attention of the reader. (a) Avoid Verbosity:- a study reveals that there is lot of deadwood & verbosity in business correspondence. One should avoid these & try to be direct & simple. (b)Positive & Direct Statement:- It is more polite to directly state the information one needs or the action required, than to suggest it by a negative statement. Clarity & Precision: A simple expression & a clear thinking are the two most important virtues of effective writing. Promptness: Respond to the letters the day it is received or else acknowledge the letter. Accuracy, Completeness & Clarity: All fact, figures, statement, etc. must be accurately mentioned. It is a good practice to verify them before including it in the letters. Salesmanship: Every letters one sends should be an ambassador of ones firm. It must carry a message & enhance ones reputation. The language of a business letters should be familiar, avoid using formal style.

FUNCTION OF A BUSINESS LETTER (I) A business letter serves as a record for future reference. (II) It leaves a more lasting impression on the receivers mind than an oral message. (III) Since it can reach anywhere, it is used to widen the area of operations. (IV) It is used as a legal document. (V) It is used to build good will. KINDS OF LETTER Broadly speaking letters can be classified as personal and nonpersonal. Personal letters are informal, written to exchange news or to seek-favor. They are written to friends/relations etc. in a friendly, informal style. Business letters are non-personal letters. Business letters can be classified as official letters, demiofficial (D.O.) letters, internal letters or memos, form letters etc. Official letters are written to govt. or semi-government bodies. Demi-official or D.O. letters are official in purpose but are addressed to a person by name. D.O. letters may be written if (i) The matter require personal attention of the addressee, (ii) The matter is of confidential nature. (iii) The matter is urgent and requires immediate disposal. Internal letters or memos are used both in govt. offices & business houses for internal communication. Form letters are used for correspondence of recurring or routine nature. They are used in case of acknowledgements, reminders interviews, notices, appointments etc. they have a standard form with some blanks left in them which are filled in and sent to the addressees. Form letters lack personal touch, but save lot of time & labour.

STRUCTURE & LAY-OUT First as apparel off proclaims the man, the appearance of a letters often reveals the characters of the writer & the organization. Elements of Structure:The following elements usually constitute the structure of a business letters. (i) Heading. (ii) Date. (iii) Reference. (iv) Inside address. (v) Attention line. (vi) Salutation. (vii) Subject. (viii) Body. (ix) Complimentary close. (x) Signature. (xi) Identification marks. (xii) Enclosure. (i) Heading:- Most business organizations use printed letter heads for correspondence. It contains the name, address, the telephone no., telegraphic address etc. Date:- Some letters heads contains a printed line indicating where the date should be typed. The date, month & year is indicated e.g. 3 march, 2004/ March 3, 2004. Both methods are acceptable. References:- It is the number assigned to a letter. The purpose of reference is to enable replies to be linked with the previous correspondence & also to send replies to these letters to the proper office or department. Stating the reference helps quick & easy future reference. e.g.

(ii)

(iii)

CHAUKSE OIL MILLS

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Gokhale Market, Bombay Road Akola - 444001 Your Ref:Our Ref:(iv) Inside address:- The full address of the person or organization addressing to should be written two spaces below the date. The names of persons, firms, streets, roads etc. should be written. These details should not be abbreviated. And special attention should be given to spellings of names, for if you misspell a name, it gives an impression that you have little respect for the person. Mode of address: (a) Mr. or Shri for men both married/unmarried Miss for unmarried women. Miss./ Shrimati for married women. Ms. For married/unmarried women. Messrs. plural of Mr. Misses plural of Mrs. e.g. Shri G.C. Honolli Commerce College Gadag. (b)titles of rank are used as under: (i) Dr. J. K. Frani. (ii) Col. B. Shetti (M.A. Ph.D.) Some titles used are: Sir, Reverend, Doctor, Professor, Colonel, Rao Bahadur, Padma Shri, etc. (v) Attention Line:- To ensure prompt attention, sometimes a letters which is addressed to a firm/company is marked is a particular officer. This is done by writing an attention line two spaces below the inside address & two spaces above salutation. e.g. Attention: The sales Manager. Salutation:- It is an essential ingredient in a letter, its like greeting a person when one meets another. It is placed two spaces below attention line or if not below inside address. The choice of salutation depends upon the personal relationship between the writer & the reader. Sometimes

(vi)

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sales & circular letters are addressed as Dear Customers, Dear Member, Dear Reader, Dear Subscriber, etc. (vii) Subject:- The purpose of subject line is to let the reader know immediately what the message is about. (viii) Body:- The main purpose of a letter is to convey a message & the main purpose of the message is to produce a suitable response in the reader. This is done through the body of a letters. Therefore, it is important to organize & arrange the material very carefully. In the first paragraph, reference to any correspondence should be given & in the second the main message should be stated. The paras that follow should contain further details, if any. The closing paragraph should indicate your expectation, wishes or intentions. (ix) Complimentary Close:- It is a courteous leave taking a polite way of ending a letter. The close must agree with the salutation. e.g.

Salutation (i) Sir

Complimentary Close Yours faithfully, Yours obediently Yours faithfully, (or) yours truly, Yours sincerely, Yours sincerely, (or) Yours ever, Yours sincerely,

(ii) Dear sir, Dear Madams/Madam, (iii) Dear Sri/Smt./Kum. XYX, My dear Sri/Smt./Kum. XYX, (iv) Dear XYZ, My dear XYZ, (v) Dear member/Customer/ Reader/Subscriber

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(x)

Signature:- It is the signed name of the writes. It is below the complimentary close. Identification Marks:- These marks are put in the left margin to identify the typist of the letter. The initials of the offices who dictated the letters are put first. e.g. If the letter has been dictated by Shri L. N. Goswami & typed by Ms. Honey Shah, then the identification marks will be as follows: LNG/HI (or) LNG:HI. Or HI/hi. The last two initial slow only the typists initials.

(xi)

(xii) Enclosure:- If anything is attached to the letters, it must be indicated against the enclosure line, e.g.,. Encl: 1. Mark sheets of B.E. 2. Resume Apart from this some other things are to be kept in mind while writing a letter. For making a favorable initial impression, it is necessary to choose a good quality paper. The standard size of paper used is 8 by 11 inches. Secondly most business letters are typed coz typing saves time & gives a tidy appearance to the letter. Margins in a letter add to its attractiveness. Generally, a one inch margin is left on the sides & 1 inches on the top & bottom. Lastly the modern tendency is to omit unnecessary commas & full stops & to use Open punctuation. Here punctuation marks are used only in the body of the letter. Mixed punctuation is that where a coma is put after date, house no., salutation and complimentary close & a full stop follows the last line of the inside address. The third style is Close punctuation, which is conventional where the main parts of the letter are punctuated. The most commonly used style by business houses is the mixed punctuation. Envelopes used should be of a suitable size & minimum folds must be there in a letter. STYLE OF PRESENTATION There are several styles for writing business letters. They are:-

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(1) Indented style. (2) Block style. (3) Complete-Block style. (4) Semi-Block style. (5) Hanging-Indented style. (1) Indented Style:- Oldest form of business letter. Each new element is indented (space from margin) 2 or 4 spaces. Closed punctuation is used.

Bhauderi Trading Co. Ltd. 434, Mathura Road, New Delhi-110001

October 30,2004 The United Commercial Bank Ltd, 1133, Mahatma Gandhi Road, New Delhi - 110001 Dear sir, Please refer to --- ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- --- - -- -- - - - - - - - - - -- -- -We are grateful --- ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - --- ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ----------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - --- ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ---. Yours faithfully XYZ. Secretary. ASB/1g.

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(2) Block Style:- Here the date line, complimentary close & signature are aligned, with right margin, all other elements excepts head are set flush left. Divisions between elements & paras of body of letter are indicated by double spacing. Mixed punctuation is used. Bharat Aluminum Corporation 303, Jahangir Road Ahmedabad -380003 10 September 2004, Your Ref: 43-PA/04 Our Ref: POC-30u

The General Manager Shahi Cements Sarangpura Ghaziabad 201001.

Dear sir, I regret ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -damaged condition ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - -- - - I shall be ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ --------- - - - - - - - - --- - - - ------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ---

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--------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ -----.

Yours Faithfully XYZ Purchase Officer

(3) Complete Block:- All parts, except the printed letters head are aligned with the left margin. Letter saves more time, Coz indentation is not required. But some dont like it for it appear imbalanced & heavy on left side. Open punctuation used.

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(4) Semi-Block:- This is like the block style except that the paragraphs of the letter are indented. Mixed punctuation used.

Social Correspondence Letters are written to fulfill social obligations or to meet personal need which may not be directly related to our official or professional activities. Some letters are like, letters of congratulations, invitations, introductions, recommendations, condolences, letters conveying acceptances & regrets, etc. The format & style of these letters is same as the business letters, but they have an air of ease & intimacy, casualness. Promptness is the key to success in social correspondence. The following seven parts usually constitute the structure of a social letters: senders address, date, salutation, body, complimentary close, signature, & receivers address. e.g. Senders Address Date

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Salutation ( Body) ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - - -- - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - -- - - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - -- - - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - -- - - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ------------ - - - - - - -- - - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ----------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - ------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- ------ ----------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -. (v)Complimentary close Signature Receivers Address.

TESTIMONIAL:- It is a recommendation made for a person in general terms. Usually it is a statement about the experience, abilities and qualities of a person. It may be written by an officer for an employee. It is a certificate testifying the character & qualifications of the person/applicant. It can be referred to as a letters of recommendation from a reliable & respectable third party.

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BUSINESS & TECHNICAL REPORT Characteristics:The word report is derived from the Latin reportare which means to carry back. Re = back + portare = to carry. A report is a description of an event carried back to someone who was not present on the scene. Thus broadly speaking many memos, letters and news items are reports. Many have tried to define report: A report is a communication from someone who has information to someone who wants to use that information. - C. A. Brown The essential points are: A report is a formal statement of facts or information or an account of something. It is presented in a conventional form. It is written for a specific audience. Includes information about procedure of collecting data & significance of such data. It contains conclusion of the writer. Often includes recommendations. A report differs from other composition, it is a conventional form written to meet some specific need or requirement. Importance:A report is a basic management tool used in decision-making. A large no. of important decision in business, industry or govt. are taken on the basic of information presented or recommendations made in reports. A commission or committee, a study group or a panel is required to present its findings/recommendations in the form of a report. It has rightly been said that for running an industry or business efficiently the skill of report writing is as necessary as good equipment & quality raw materials. Report writing develops the power of discrimination, organization, judgment & communication & decision making.

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TYPES OF REPORT Reports may be oral or written. An oral report is a piece of faceto-face communication. It is simple & easy to present. It may be about something seen or absorbed. But a written report is always preferred. It is relatively more accurate & permanent. It enjoys several advantages over oral reports: 1. An oral report can be denied at any time. But a written report is a permanent record. The reporter cannot deny what he has reported first. 2. Oral report tends is be vague. In written report, the write tries to be accurate & precise. 3. A written report can change hands without any danger of distortion during transmission. 4. A written report can be referred to again & again. Types of Business Report:We can classify business reports into(1) On the basis of legal formalities we can have; Formal & Informal reports: Formal reports: it is prepared in a prescribed form & is presented according to an established procedure to a prescribed authority. Formal reports can be statutory (presented according to the form & produce laid down by low) or non-statutory (not required under any low). Informal reports: It is usually in the form of a person-to-person communication. it may range from a sheet, fragmentary statement of facts on a single page, to several pages of detailed information. They may be in the form of a letter, memo etc. (2) On the basis of the frequency of issue: Periodic/Routine reports: They are prepared & presented at regular, prescribed intervals. They may be submitted annually, semi-annually, monthly, fortnightly, weakly or daily. Such reports contain a mere statement of fact without any recommendation. Special reports: They are related to a single occasion/situation. They deal with non-recurrent problems.

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(3) On the basis of function: If a report merely presents facts pertinent to an issue or situation, it is informative on the other hand, if it analyses the facts, draws conclusions, & makes recommendations, it may be described as Analytical/interpretative or investigative report. An informational report contains only the data collected or the facts observed in an organized form. Whereas an interpretative report contains facts, but it also includes an evaluation/interpretation or analysis of data & the reporters conclusion. It may have recommendations for action. Such a report is also called recommendation or recommendatory report. (4) On the basis of the nature of the subject draft with, we have problem determining report, fact-finding report, performance report, technical report. (5) On the basis of the number of persons entrusted with the drafting of reports, we have reports by individuals and reports by committees/sub-committees. Types of Routine Report:Progress Report:- In any long term project work, the administration keeps itself informed through progress reports. The project may be construction of bridges, buildings, lay-out of a residential colony or installation of an equipment in a factory. Laboratory Report:- Is the experiment carried out in a laboratory to last a theory, verify the modifications or to examine the validity of the research findings. A lab report is an account of the various steps, findings & conclusions, put together in a logical order. The following elements generally constitute a lab report: (i) Heading (ii) Experiment No. (iii) Date (IV) Object (v) Apparatus used (vi) Method/Procedure (vii) Observations (viii) Conclusion (ix) Signature. Inspection Report:- They are of 2 types: (i) Inspection done on a piece of equipment to find out whether it is functioning properly or requires some repairs/replacement.

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(ii) Report which indicates the result of inspection of a product as a part of quality control. Inventory Report:- It is customary to take stock of equipment, furniture, stationary etc. at regular intervals. Annual Confidential Report:- Periodic evaluation of the performance & general conduct of the employees are made at appropriate times for rewards such as increments, promotions, transfer etc. It is done to determine whether a person is efficient or not.

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE Reports are mainly divided into: front matter, main body, back matter. Front Matter:1. Cover 2. Frontispiece. 3. title Page 4. Copy Right Notice 5. Forwarding Letters 6. Preface 7. Acknowledgements 8. Table of Contents 9. List of Illustrations 10. Abstract & Summary. Main Body:1. 2. 3. 4. Introduction Discussion/Description Conclusions Recommendation.

Back Matter:-

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Appendices List of References Bibliography Glossary Index. From the above elements, the title page, introduction & discussion/description are obligatory. These elements are generally applicable to formal writings such as articles, research papers, memo-graphs, books etc. FRONT MATTER Cover:- It is usually made of white or some soft, neutral-colored card. It protects the manuscript from damage & gives the report a neat appearance. The cover usually contain the title of the report, number (if any), date, classification (secret, top secret) etc. The cover is the first impression, hence we should not crowd it with information. The inside of the front cover & both the insides & outside of the back cover are usually left blank. Frontispiece:- It generally appears in bound reports meant for wide circulation. It is a window display which ignites the curiosity of the reader. The form most of times used are map, photographs, articles, drawing etc. Title Page:- It is usually the first right hand page of the report. It contains all information given on the cover, and also, the subtitle, authors name, job no. etc. Copyright Notice:- It is given in the inside of the title page as: @ 1999, The McGraw-Hill companies, Sometimes the following note is added:
All rights reserved. No part of this report may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher..

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Forwarding Letters:- They are of 2 types: Covering & Introductory. Both are written for the primary recipient of the report, the first type serves simply as a record of transmission & is not bound with the report. The introductory letters helps to establish a

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report with the reader. Here besides mentioning the title, we tell the scope, contents & purpose of the report briefly. Preface:- It introduces the report, not the subject-matters. The preface should not be confused with the foreword. While the former is written by the author himself, the letter is usually written by an authority or expert in the field. Acknowledgments:- Here we mention diligently, the memos of persons & organizations who have helped in the production of the report. Table of Contents:- It gives the reader an overall view of the report, & help him locate a particular topic or sub-topic easily. Here page nos are carefully checked against each topic & subtopic. List of Illustrations:- If there are large no. of table & figures a separate listing is done soon after the table of contents. It gives the information about the no., title & page no. of each illustration. Abstract & Summary:- Most reports contain a synopsis (also called abstract, epitome, precis, digest) which is a report in miniature. There are a few differences between abstract & summary according to different writes. The main difference is that of function. An abstract tells in concentrated form what the report is about, and a summary gives the substance of the report. A summary presents the report in a nutshell, without any illustration & explanations. By its nature an abstract is shorter than a summary. It is however generally agreed that the length of an abstract should be about 2-5% of the original, whereas that of the summary between 5-10%. A reader interested in knowing the extent of coverage will be satisfied with the abstract, whereas if he wants to know the method of analysis, significant findings, important conclusion & recommendations made, then he needs a summary. MAIN BODY

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Introduction:- This presents a betters starting point to the reader. The major function here is to tell what the report is about, what work has already been done on the subject & what new grounds have been covered. Here Historical/Technical background. Scope/Limitation & problem & purpose. Origin/Source & method of collecting data. Deference of special terms/Symbols etc. Are included. Discussion or Description:- The information collected is presented & related to the problem it discusses or describes the main business of the report. The main function of this part is to present data in an organized form, discuss this significance and analysis & the result that flows there from. Thus is not set procedure for writing this. Some writes follow the backward order i.e., first stating the result 7 then describing how they arrived at it. Conclusion:- It is the remarks at the end of a piece of writing. Its function is to bring the discussion/description to an end. It refer to the logical inferences drown & the judgments formed on the basis of analysis. Recommendation:- In some reports the conclusions & recommendations are combined as they are closely associated. The function of recommendation is to suggest the future course of action.

BACK MATTER Appendices:- An appendix contains material, needed to support the main body of the report but is too detailed or voluminous to be included in the text. It is such that the reader can safely omit it without any loss of understanding the contents of the report. Generally the kinds of material included in the appendix are questionnaires, statistical data, detailed calculations, derivations, sample documents, specimen, definition etc.

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List of References:- It is essential to give credit to works published/unpublished, which we have used/quoted in our report. This is done by citing such works in the text & listing them in sequential order. If they are small in no. they can be mentioned in the footnotes, at the bottom of the page. Here the attention is drawn by putting a printers mark (a star/asterisk.) e.g. Warner Alan, A Short Guide to English Style, Oxford University
Press, London, ELBS Editor 1964, pp 40-42

Bibliography:- It is a serially numbered list of published/unpublished works which are consulted before/during the preparation of a report. It is distinct from references: 1. Bibliography lists the works which the author has read, to which he is indebted for idea/information, whereas list of references point to out specific location of an idea or piece of information. 2. Bibliography contains works recommended for further study, whereas reference do not perform any such function. 3. Entries in bibliography are in alphabetical order, whereas, in references it is sequential, in the order a suited. 4. Bibliography is often prepared before writing the report, the list of references is prepared while writing the reports e.g.
Mohan, Krishna & N.P. Singh. 19995. Speaking English Efficiently. New Delhi. Macmillan Indian Limited.

Glossary: - Glossary is a list of technical words used in the report & their explanation. If the no of words is small, they are generally explained in the footnotes. Index:- it serves as a quick guide to the material in the report. It helps the reader to locate any topic, sub-topic or important aspects. Entries here are made in alphabetical order & all page nos. on which the information of entries is available is mentioned against it.

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APPLICATION LETTER Importance & Function: Application letters are written when someone needs a job. There is always stiff competition for any job, & a prospective employer will form his first impression about you from your application. These letters are personal letters incorporating a few features of business letters. A letter of application is written to sell ones services. It should, have all the qualities that are required in the sale of any tangible product. The first objective of an application letter is to obtain an interview. So the letter must be distinguished enough to attract immediate attention and to arouse interest. It must convince the employer that he can profit from the talents & services that the writer offers. While writing an application we must keep the employers point of view in mind. In presenting the achievements we should highlight the tracts the employer is looking for. We should be honest & sincere and say only what is true & what can be supported by documents. There are two types of letters of application. In the first, all the information about qualifications, experience & personal details is given in one letters. In the second these are two parts. Part one is short covering letter, containing reference to the advertisement in response to which you are applying & featuring your most significant qualifications for the post. Part two consist of a Resume- a sheet which lists details about you and your qualifications. It generally includes: 1. Personal details: age, fitness, marital status. 2. Educational qualifications. 3. Specialized training. 4. Experience & achievements. 5. Special honors & distinction 6. Personal qualities 7. References: name/address of person who can vouch for your achievements. The second type of application is more effective, the applicant gets a chance to reveal his personality & display his most precious merchandise.

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Drafting the Application:The letter of application is a special covering letter; it must be something more than a note forwarding an enclosure. It should possess the qualities of effective sales letter. It should be informative, to the point & short. Its tone should be friendly but not familiar. 1. The introductory paragraph should attract the employers attention besides saying whether you are applying in response to an advertisement or at somebodys suggestion or on your own initiative. 2. If an effective opening paragraph has been written, we have excited the employers interest. Now we have to show with evidence how we are a person he is looking for. This requires emphasizing. Those aspects of our qualities & achievements which the post requires. If any outstanding contribution has been made, one should mention it & for details refer the employer to the resume & prompt him to go through it. 3. In the end we should try to motivate the employer to respond favorably. Ones immediate aim should be to respond favorably. Elements of Structure:The structure of the application letters contain the following parts: (i) Address of the applicant & date. (ii) Employers name & Address. (iii) Salutation. (iv) Body. (v) Complimentary close. (vi) Signature. (vii) Enclosures. (Details of each element is already discussed in letter-writing).

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PREPARING THE RESUME The resume or the personal data sheet is an inventory of the applications personal details, educational qualifications, specialized training, experience, references and any other relevant informations. References:A reference is a person who is ready to vouch for another. The interview conducted enables the employer to select a candidate but before the appointment order is sent. It is necessary for the employer to obtain information about the selected candidates integrity, honestly, ability for the post and any other facts. Hence the applicant is generally requested to name, in their application, persons who are willing to be a reliable source of information about them. The name of those person with whom the applicant has been associated are given. Generally the name of the head of the institution where the applicant last studied and the name of the employers order whom he worked, are cited. The prospective employer writes to those person for their confidential remarks about the applicants characters, conduct & job suitability. These remarks are considered more suitable/reliable than the open testimonial, which do not usually sketch the character & competence of the applicant. It is necessary to obtain the prior consent of the person you wish to cite as your references. Opening: wish to apply for the post of advertised by you in _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ ____ of Nov 3, 2004. Please refer to your advertisement no. 40/92 in the HT of 12 sept, 2004 for a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. I wish to be considered for this post. I should be grateful if you would kindly consider me for the post of a _ _ _ _ _ advt. by you in T01, dated. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. My qualification & 8 years experience as a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of _ _ _ _ _ _ co, makes me confident that I can do the job of a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ advt. by you in HT of dated _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _.

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Closing: I look forward to heaving from you soon. I hope that my qualification will merit your consideration. I would appreciate an opportunity of attending an interview. I trust you will favor me with an interview.

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NOTICE, AGENDA, MINUTES OF MEETINGS. NOTICES:The rules of procedure of every organization clearly states the notice period required for calling a meeting both General body meeting & meetings of smaller groups such as governing body, executive committee, finance committee etc. The notice is usually circulated, a week prior to the meeting, to all the members. The notice should reach the members within a reasonable time before the meetings. The day, date, time & place of meeting & the business to be transacted (agenda), is mentioned in the notice. The items of business is mentioned in the notice if their number is small, otherwise, they are attached in a separate sheet along with the notice. AGENDA:Agenda is a document that outlines the contents of a forth coming meeting. It is usually sent along with the notice of the meeting. It is an official list of things to be done or dealt with at a particular meeting. It is drown up by the secretary in consultation with the chairman. At the meeting the business is normally transacted in the order in which it is listed in the agenda. If the agenda is circulated as an annexure, the following elements are included: (i) Name of organization/date of circulation. (ii) Day, date, time & place of meeting. (iii) Program of business to be transacted. (iv) Background papers or information. (v) Signature of the secretary. Generally the first item on every agenda is confirmation of the minutes of the previous meeting and the last item any other matter with the permission of the chairman. Other items are arranged in their order of importance. Each item is numbered some organizations also indicate the time when each item will be taken up at a meeting. This helps the group to keep to the schedule & cut down meaningless & irrelevant discussions. MINUTES:Minutes are the official record of the proceedings of a meeting. They are generally written by the secretary of the organizational unit. Keeping minutes of the meetings of the board of directors,

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committees of directors, & general body of joint stock company is a legal requirement. Minutes usually contain the main points of discussion, the conclusion reached, the recommendations made & the tasks assigned to individual members & groups. Minutes must be precise & they are not a verbatim record of the proceedings. A clear, concise, accurate & well-organized summary of the business liras acted is all that is required. Types of Minutes:- Minutes are of two types(i) Minutes of Resolution:- Here only the resolutions passed at a meeting are recorded and no reference is made to any discussion preceding to the resolution. (ii) Minutes of Narration:- It is somewhat similar to a report. In addition to the resolutions passed, a brief account of the discussion & voting pattern is also included. Minutes may be recorded either in a tabular/block form or in the form of continuous paragraphs. The following items are listed in minutes: a) Name of organizational unit. b) Date, time & place of meeting c) Number of meeting. d) Name of chairman of the meeting. e) Name of members present. f) Record of transactions. g) Signature of the secretary & the chairman.

PARAGRAPHING A paragraph is a group of sentences related to one core idea and arranged in a logical order. The core idea is generally expressed in a sentences called the topic sentence/theme statement. All other sentences clarify the idea, compare & contrast it with other similar ideas, give supporting facts, details & proof, illustrates or provide additional information. Sometimes however the core idea is not expressed in one sentence, one may have to declare it firm the paragraph, as a whole. One thing is essential have, the paragraph must have unity of theme & cohesion. Mere groping of sentences does not constitute a paragraph

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The topic sentence may be located in to beginning, end & occasionally in the middle. The topic sentence occurring in the end usually summaries the contents of the paragraph. The sentence in a paragraph should be semantically linked. However to make a written material attractive, it is advisable to very the length of sentences as well as paragraphs. A paragraph is a number of sentences grouped together and relating to one topic; or, a group of related sentences that develop a single point. There is no rule as to the length of a paragraph. It can be short or long according to the necessity of the case. The essentials of good paragraph construction area) Unity. b) A good topical sentence. c) Logical sequence of thought. d) Variety, and. e) A full & rounded final sentence in conclusion.

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ENQUIRY, QUOTATION, ORDERS, TENDERS ENQUIRY:When a buyer wishes to get some information about the quantity, price, availability etc. of goods to be purchased, or about the terms of sale etc. he writes a letter or enquiry to the seller. Some ways of opening: a) We would be grateful to get details of your prices _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. b) We should appreciate details of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. c) We should be pleased to get information about the prices to terms on which you could supply _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . Hints for drafting an Enquiry State the purpose of your letter, whether you need goods, services or information. Request for price-list, catalogue etc. Ask for sample/demonstration etc. Tell the seller know you got his name. State the details of your business. Ask for terms relating to discount credit, mode of delivery, packing etc. Give an idea of the quantity you require, so as to quote the best possible prices. If you are asking for concession, give reasons- large & continuous order, ability to promote sales in your area etc. Closing Sentence:a) We would really appreciate an early response. b) Should your terms be favorable, we would be pleased to send our first order immediately. c) Since our stocks are exhausted. Pleases treat this enquiry as urgent. d) Since we plan to give you regular business, please quote your most favorable terms.

QUOTATION:-

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It is a specific offer for sale, made in response to an enquiry from a particular person or business house. A quotation includes details about prices of specific goods, terms of payment, conditions of delivery etc. It is customary for a business organization to invite quotations from several sellers before placing an order. The purpose is to find out the cheapest & the best source of supply of goods required. Drafting such a letter needs great care so as to get information we wish to collect, and also locate the right seller. For this: a) Describe your needs clearly & precisely, giving details specification regarding shape, size, colour, quality, make etc. b) Request for the seller prices & terms of payment. c) Ask for a sample. d) Give an idea of quantity required. e) Ask for guarantee period. f) Ask for accessories & parts if any. Sending a Quotation:Give a prompt reply to a letter inviting quotations. Dont forget to mention: a) Mode & terms of payment. b) Place & time of delivery. c) Method of transport. d) Charges on account of sales tax, _ _ _ __, freight, _ _ __ e) Packing & forwarding charges. Placing Orders:After accepting a quotation, next step is to place order. Do not forget to a) Place a clear & firm order. b) Dont hesitate to repeat details as size, color, quality make & description of item. Make reference to catalogue or identification number, if any. c) Specify the quantity stating the price per unit of each item. d) Indicate the mode & terms of payment. e) Mention mode of transport. f) Tell the time-period by which you expect the goods to arrive. g) State the full address & place where you want the goods delivered.

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h) Give details if you wish any extra kind of packing & be prepared to pay extra. i) Goods would be _ _ _ _ _, if specifically instructed. Inviting Tenders:While quotations are sought from a few selected sellers, notices regarding tenders are advertised in newspapers, magazines, inviting prospective sellers of services & goods to quote their rates for doing a job or supplying goods specified in the notice. When a tender is accepted the successful tenderer has to sign a contract, to do what he has promised. Tenders are invited for jobs, whose execution is spread over a period of time, or needs adequate prior preparation. It maybe construction of roads, buildings, bridge or bulk supply of goods or rendering of service. Opening Sentences: Tenders are hereby invited for: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . estimated cost Rs. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _. Sealed tenders in duplicate are invited from _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ______. Sealed tender on work order basis or through rate system are invited from the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . Sealed & separate % rate tenders are invited by the undersigned by date: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ up to time: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ & shall be opened on the same day at time: _ _ _ _ _ _ _______.