Learner Variables for Second Language Learnitg and Literature

Abdul Ghani Haji Abu

Abstract: Learner variables can affect ESL

leamers'

communicative competence in learning the English language and

the ability of the leamers to

(McDonough

comprehend literary texts

1993). There are variables like intelligence difficult to measure and may have significant effects on which are

& Shaw,

the leamer's ability, while other variables like the

success oflearning a language.

learning environment can influence motivation which can determine the

Keywords: Learner variables, literature learning]

INTRODUCTION
Research on learner variables is quite an interesting area of study because it can provide an insight into how these variables can affect learners in the process of mastering a language. It is even more interesting since all these variables do not necessarily have similar effects on different learners. The learner variables, besides affecting the learners' communicative competence, may have played some roles regarding the ability of the learners to comprehend literary texts (McDonough & Shaw, 1993). Some variables like intelligence are difficult to measure and may not have obvious effects on the leamer's ability, while other variables like the learning environment

All these variables are factors in explaining differences among learners which might influence types of language instructions and learning styles to be employed by teachers in language classrooms (McDonough & Shaw, 1993).
can influence motivation.

Iinglish l,anguagc Journal

f,cat'trcr Varilblcs

LEARNER VARIABLBS
Studies in second language learning have examined several learner characteristics or variables that have implications for the language

?r
{

classrooms and the teaching of literature in Second-Language (ESL) setting (McDonough

an

Fnglish_as_a_

&

Shaw, lgg3).

Motivation, aptitude, learning ability and intelrigence which are the focus of this paper are among the key learner variables which could become influential factors in determining whether the learning process is successful or not (Skehen, 1989; McDonough & Shaw,
1e93).

Attitude and Motivation

Attitude is an abstract concept. It serves to influence what learners say or think on a particular subject matter (Henerson & FitzGibbon, 1987). Although it is an abstract concept, attitude is one of the factors which is important in second language leaming (Littlewood, 1998). Attitudes have been defined as "...a disposition or tendency to respond positively or negatively towards a certain thing (idea, object, person, situation)" (Concepts cognitive at http:l/ tip.psychology.org/attitudes.html). usually attitudes are related to ones' opinions and beliefs, which are shaped by experiences. An understanding of this concept is significant since learning involves acquiring and changing attitudes (Heider, 1959). when beliefs are unbalanced, stress appears which creates pressure to change
attitudes.

the answers can shed some light on the learners'

one may ask how factors like attitude and motivation are related to the success ofthe learning process. This is a good question since

academic reading. In the nutshell, the learners have to have a positive attitude towards reading since research has shown that positive attitude is an important requirement in improving learners'

academic achievement. In order to get good results, leamers no doubt have to acquire a competent reading ability since they will be doing a lot of

reading comprehension -ability and therefore, instilling positivc attitude is as important as improving reading comprehension skills (Smith, 1988). Attitudes belong to one of the categories of learning outcomes in Gagne's theoretical framework. Although Gagne's theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, he focused on intellectual skills. There are five main categories of learning, namely: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. For each category he suggests different types of instructions as different intemal and external conditions apply to each particular category of learning. He propose that learning tasks for intellectual skills be organised in some kind of learning hierarchy, based on tasks' complexity and learners' ability (Gagne, 1967, 1912,1985). Motivation, on the other hand, is about motive (Stevenson & Palmer, 1994). It refers to the underlying reason or motive that explains learners' behaviour, reasons which directly influence the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of a particular behaviour. In many studies, it has been shown that attitude and motivation do play important roles (Bandura, l99l; Brown, 2000; Dornyei,2001). Motivation activates a person's attention to specific goals (Simon, 1967; Rheinberg,1997} and it does not only affect what a person learns, but also the intensity and the duration of the learning activities (Bandura, l99l). In other words, motivation can influence or dictate how a learner learns a given task; motivation may or may not evoke a learner's interest (Schiefele, 1991). To generate the learner's interest it may well depends on the learner's attitude and motivation. There are two parts which make up motivation - goal-setting and self-regulatory activities - deciding what to do and finding ways to get it done (Stevenson & Palmer, 1994).In the process, it is believed that leamers' beliefs, attitudes and emotions are also crucial (Richards & Lockharts, 1995). Beside the leamers' beliefs, attitudes and emotions, their self-attributions with regard to their ability and feelings of self-worth can also influence how they
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l,carner Variablcs

would decide on their learning goals and how much ellbrt thcy
were going to put in to achieve those goals. specifically, how much the learners will be motivated to achieve their goals depends on

their beliefs on their own ability and level of intelligence. The leamers will be more motivated to learn in a friendly, conducive and supportive classroom environment (stevenson & palmer,
re94).

places a significant focus on classroom practices as an indicator ol' learners' personal goal beliefs. These beliefs in turn will determinc learners' motivational behaviours including learning preferences.

Theories on Motivation
There are several theories, which can provide an explanation on motivation such as Behavioural Theory Attribution Theory, SelfEfficacy Theory and Goal-Setting Theory. The first theory is the Behavioural Theory which could be the most popular theory with regard to motivation (Sang, lg96).It stresses the fact that desired

One important aspect in this theory is that the beliefs can be influenced by teaching practices. Ames (1990, cited in Tombari & Borich, 1999) showed that using task-focused leaming methods can instil positive attitude among leamers which will make them more intrinsically motivated to complete challenging tasks. Leamers' belief about language leaming, on the other hand, refers to their beliefs about the way to learn a language and the kinds of activities and approaches the learners believe to be useful. Lastly, the learners' belief about their own self specifies their own
abilities as language learners. These beliefs can influence how they exploit available opportunities for language leaming (Richards & Lockharts, 1994). In discussions of factors which contribute to the success of language learning in general or literature learning specifically, motivation is without any doubt one favourite factor often included in the discussions (for examples: Hubbard et al., 1987; Simmons & Deluzine, 1992; Brown, 2000). The subject of motivation touches

behaviours can be obtained if some kind of reinforcement is involved. Human beings can be influenced to change for the better if they are being rewarded for having desired behaviours. Likewise, if learners are to practice desired behaviours for making them comprehend better, they should be rewarded for doing so. Next, the Attribution Theory is also concemed with learners' motivation. Learners' motivation could be affected by two different factors either internal or external, and also affected by whether these factors can be controlled by the learners (weiner, 19g6; cited in Tombari & Borich, 1999). Learners can actually understand why they fail or succeed in any undertaking. The learners' reasons could originate within the learners themselves in terms of their ability and effort or beyond their control in terms of luck and assigned tasks (Tombari & Borich, 1999). The third theory which is the Self-Efficacy Theory posits that a leamer's motivation depends greatly on his/rrer beliefs that they can succeed in their given tasks; these learners have the confidence to succeed based on experiences, verbal persuasion from lecturers and task difficulty (Bandura, 1986; cited in Tombari & Borich, rggg). The fourth theory - Goal-setting Theory - focuses on learners, academic goal orientation as a source of motivation (Diener & Dweck, 1978, 1980; in Tombari & Borich, lggg). The theory also
104

upon the different types of motivation integrative and instrumental (Baker, 1988; Littlewood, 1998), integrative,
instrumental, intrinsic and resultative (Ellis, 1987), or simply strong or weak set to learn (Klare, 1969). No matter what the term educationists are using, motivation can help determine whether a
learner can either succeed or fail in the learning process. Motivation

is simply a major determining factor in learning

Palmer, 1994; Brown, 2000).

(Stevenson

&

Leamers' level of motivation and attitude might be affected when the leamers found out that they do not have to master the language in order to survive and this might affect their future success (Fincham et al, 1989; cited in Tombari & Borich, 1999). In Malaysia, educators may find learners may not have the right level of motivation and appropriate attitude to excel in the subject since they know they can survive without mastering the language. When they are in secondary schools, they are required to sit for an English

105

rngl

islr l.irrrgrnrglc .lout.rlrl

?,
not have to pass the examinations (Lembaga peperiksaan
Malaysia,l978). For sorne prograrns in higher learning institutions, learners can avoid taking English courses since courses are conducted in Bahasa Malaysia. Even if they do have to take English courses, it is most probably a basic proficiency course. There may be a way out for these learners to improve on their language proficiency. One good possibility is to help them to acquire a positive attitude in their study by helping them to like learning the language in class - by using their preferred way of leaming or their preferred learning styies, not their lecturer's. Learners who are motivated and have positive attitude in their study produce better
results than those who do not (Brown, 2000). language exarnination including its oral examination but tlrey do

Lcarrtcr Variirblcs

comprehend literary texts may not be the same. However, therc is no strong correlation between the ability to leam with intelligencc

(Gagne, 1967; McDonough & Shaw, 1993), and that intelligencc does not have a clear effect on a leamer's language learning ability (McDonough & Shaw, 1993). What is important is that this stucly did give some hope to the weak learners that there is a chance firr them to do some creditable work in the subject if they are willing to work hard because learners can be successful for many reasons, which are related to motivation and determination (Brown, 2000). One way to have them put in some effort in this subject is to make sure they like what they are doing that is by making sure they learn the subject the way they like it best.

Intelligence and Ability To Learn

mastering a language, intelligence does play a significant role (Brown, 2000; Deary 2001). Howard Gardner,s multi-faceted intelligence theory states that there are seven different ways for a person to demonstrate his or her intellectual ability,

Literary Competence
Leamers' ability in identi$ing and comprehending character(s), plot(s) and setting of a literary text is an important prerequisite in order for anyone to enjoy reading a literary text (Stern, 1984; Guerin et al, 1999; Ban & Richardson, 2001). Once this so-called 'prerequisite' has been achieved, there is a great possibility that learners will acquire a positive attifude and motivation, which can then interest them in reading more literary texts. Character(s), plot and setting are the basic elements that make a discourse a story. Apart from this, through reading literature, one can understand human experience and themselves which is one of popular themes and issues in literary texts (Lye, 1996). Stem (1984) believes that all elements of literature - plot, character, setting and theme - can promote reading comprehension by presenting special challengers to learners as readers. These challenges demand that the learners have the right attitude and level of motivation in order to improve their ability to comprehend the text. A study carried out by Baumann et al., (1999) shows that teaching reading comprehension using literary texts has improved the learners' ability to comprehend literary texts and indirectly improves their attitude towards reading materials in English and literature in general. Besides that, their motivation is greatly

In learning and

namely linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, interpersonal, interpersonal, bodily kinaesthetic and spatial (Bogod, http:/l
www. ldpride.net/learningstyles.Ml.htm; Gardner, 200 I Gardner & ; Maclntyre, 1993). Gardner's theory also suggests that interpersonal

and personal intelligence play an important role in leaming. Therefore, in discussing anything related to the process of leaming, learners' intelligence does play a factor in determining the success
of the leaming process.

This theory

of

multiple intelligences is an approach

to

good musical abilities may not be very strong in logic. This is human nature. No one learner is perfect and the theory goes to show that there are differences between different learners. Learners may have different strengths and abilities and therefore the way they approach learning may not be similar. Their ability to learn may not be the same (Cooper, 1999).In the same argument, the way they
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understanding a person's mind. The theory realises that a learner has his strengths and weaknesses. For example, a learner who has

r07

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Learner Variablos

improved in that after the experiment, the learners develop the habit of reading when they had free time;

If

Acquiring basic literary competence implies that learners have the ability to identify characters, prot and setting ofa riterary text and to comprehend each one,s specific role in the literary text (Guerin et al., 1999). Identifzing these constitute the basic level of competence necessary in order to comprehend the story. The story,s characters, plot and sefting are important elements in the story; that is why they are referred to as riterary signposts. If the rearners do not have this rninimum revel of competence, they wil rikery not be able to enjoy reading or comprehend any riterary text for that matter (Guerin et a1.,1999) There is no doubt that literary competence requires learners to have an advanced knowledge of the lanluage, beyond the minimum requirements for generar communication ability of learners, since reading literary texts is a difficult task (Brumfit & Carter,lgg5). That is why learners need to have a positive attitude towards learning the language, high level of motivation and an appropriate intelligence lever in order to read and comprehend the riteraryiexts.

However, these are some of the key variables which are very significant in determining the success of the learning process. Although many of the studies were done in a second language setting, the findings could affect the teaching of literature as well since the setting is similar. However, the significance of these variables is greater for literature learning since the teaching of literature is much more complex than just teaching for the purposes of mastering the English language. The teaching of literature requires learners to go a step further. They have to be able to acquire literary competence as well in order to comprehend characters, plot and setting at the very least.

REFERENCES
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