EE207 Electrical Power

EE207 Electrical Power
Lecture 4 Transformers Part I
Introduction Transformers
A transformer essentially consists of two or more windings coupled by a mutual magnetic field. Ferromagnetic cores are used to provide tight magnetic coupling and high flux densities. Two types of core construction are normally used:
Core type: windings are wound around legs of a magnetic core of rectangular shape formed using L shaped stack of thin laminations. Shell type; the windings are wound around the center leg of a three legged magnetic core formed using E shaped stack of thin laminations.
Core Type
Shell Type
Electrical Schematics
/2
/2
Flux
windings
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Flux
windings
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Typically a transformers have two or more windings, the one connected to the supply is called primary, and the one at the load side is called secondary. Transformers are used in many electrical application such as:
(1) To change the voltage levels (step up/ step down) in power transmission and distribution.
Step Up Transformer Step Down Transformer
Small industries & Residences
AC Generator 20-30 Kv
345-765 kv Transmission stage
2.4-69 kv
240-600V
Distribution stage To Medium and Heavy industries
Generation stage
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(2) To provide isolation in low power electronic or control circuits between low power and high power circuits (e.g. Pulse transformers are used in Gate drive circuits for IGBT and MOSFET power Transistors). (3) To provide impedance matching, and thus maximum power transfer between source and load (e.g. in communication circuits matching transformers are used to between a transmitter as source and antenna as load).
1 10 V Matching Transformer Equivalent cct. Of Amplifier a Rsp= 25
(4) Transformers are also used to measure voltages and currents and are known as instrumentation transformers.
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Ideal Transformer
Ideal transformers (practically they do not exist) have the following properties:
(1) Winding resistances are negligible, i.e. the have no power loss (efficiency =100%). (2) All fluxes are confined to the magnetic core and link both primary and secondary windings, i.e. no leakage flux. (3) Core losses are negligible, no Eddy current and Hysteresis losses, and also the permeability of the core is infinite (). Therefore the exciting current required to establish flux in the core is negligible and thus the net mmf is zero.
Consider the ideal transformer shown in the figure below, with the primary coil (N1) is connected to a time-varying voltage source and the secondary is open circuited.
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Ideal Transformer
i1 v1 e1 i2 e2 N2 v2 Load Zl
N1
Time-varying flux is established in the core, and then according to Faradys Law this flux will induce voltage equal to the source voltage (ideal transformer), and is given by:
v1 = e1 = N 1 d dt
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Ideal Transformer
The same flux () will link the secondary coil (N2) and induce a voltage (e2)in the secondary coil which is similar to the terminal voltage (v2):
v2 = e2 = N 2 d dt
The ratio of the primary induced voltage to the secondary induced voltage gives the transformation ratio (a) as:
v1 N1 = = a ( turns ratio ) v2 N 2
If the load Zl is connected to the secondary, then a current i2 will flow in the secondary coil and this will in turn produce an mmf =N2i2
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Ideal Transformer
Immediately, a current i1 will flow in the primary to produce an mmf which will counter the effect of the secondary mmf and maintain the net mmf in the transformer core zero. Thus, N1i1= N2i2 and,
i1 N 2 1 = = i2 N1 a
Similar results can be obtained if the apparent power is considered, i.e.

S1 = S 2 v1i1 = v2i2 v2 i1 N 2 1 = = = v1 i2 N 1 a
One of the transformer properties, is load transfer. A load connected to the secondary of a transformer will be seen by the primary as:
Rajparthiban Kumar EE207 Electrical Power 8
Ideal Transformer
The load voltage is given as:
v2 = i2 Z l Z l = v2 , thus replacing v2 & i2 by substituting for them i2 v1 = Z l1 is the impedance seen at the primary side , i1
in terms of v1 , i1 ,& a gives : Zl = v2 v1 / a v1 1 = = 2 i2 a i1 i1 a Zl = setting Z l1 a2
or Z l1 = a 2 Z l
The above equation shows that an impedance connected at the secondary side, will appear at the primary scaled by a2. And an impedance connected at the primary side will appear at the secondary scaled by 1/a2.
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Power & Electrical Machines II

Transformers Part II
Practical Transformers
Practical Transformers do not possess the three properties of ideal transformers discussed earlier. However, they still maintain same relationships that govern currents and voltages transformation. Practical Transformer have the following differences from ideal transformer:
1. Windings of the primary and secondary coils have resistance that can be modelled in series with each coil. Thus, the equivalent circuit is modified as:
i1 R1 i2 R2
v1
e1
e2
v2
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2. There is a leakage flux in the transformer. i.e. the flux produced by the primary windings consists of mutual flux links both the primary and secondary coils, and leakage flux that links only the primary. Similarly, the flux produced by the secondary will be the mutual flux and leakage flux that links the secondary coil only. Thus to model this effect an inductance is added on the primary and secondary sides. the inductances jXl1 and jXl2 are corresponding to the fluxes l1 and l2 respectively.
jXl1 jXl2
i1 v1
R1
i2 e1 a e2
R2 v2
l1
l2
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3. The magnetic core is having a finite permeability, and thus a magnetising current is required to establish a flux in the core. Also as the core is not ideal there will be iron losses in the core due to the Eddy currents ( this justifies why a practical transformer even under no load will be warm). Both effects, the core losses and the finite permeability, can be modelled by adding a shunt branch consisting of resistance (for core losses) in parallel with an inductance (finite permeability). R2 i2 jX i1 jX i R1
p l1 l2 I 1
v1
Ic1
Im1
Rc1
e1
jXm1
e2
v2
The above equivalent circuit represents a practical transformer which consists of an ideal transformer plus external impedances to represent the imperfections.
To simplify the analysis of the transformer equivalent circuit, all impedances, voltages and currents are referred either to the primary or secondary side. Transformer circuit referred to Primary side
i1 R1 jXl1
I 1
i2 /a
Im1
ja2Xl2
a2R2
i2 av2 v2
v1
Ic1
Rc1
jXm1
e1= ae2
a Ideal Transformer
Note that when Secondary quantities are referred to the primary side:
Secondary impedances (including load) are multiplied by factor a2
Secondary voltages are multiplied by a Secondary Currents are divided by a

EE207 Electrical Power 14
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Note also that the ideal transformer at the end of the previous circuit is not having any significance in analysing the circuit, and therefore can be removed from the circuit to become:
i1 R1 jXl1
I1
i2 /a
Im1
ja2Xl2
a2R2
If Load is connected
v1
Ic1
Rc1
jXm1
e1= ae2
av2
a2 Zl
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Transformer circuit referred to Secondary side
R1 a2 jX l1 a2
aI1 aIc1 aIm1
ai1
v1 a
i2
jXl2
R2
Rc a2
jX m1 a2
e1 =e2 a
v2
Zl
Note that when Primary quantities are referred to the secondary side:
Primary impedances are divided by factor a2 Primary voltages are divided by a Primary Currents are multiplied by a
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An approximate model of referred transformer circuit (either to primary or to secondary side) is possible in order to simplify the analysis. The simplification is based on two assumptions:
1. The voltage drops I1R1 and I1Xl1 are normally small when compared to v1, thus v1 e1. This allows us to safely move the shunt branch to be connected across the supply as below.
i1
Ic1 Rc1
i2 /a R1
I 1 Im1 jXm1
jXl1
ja2Xl2
a2R2
v1
av2
a2 Zl
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2. The excitation current I1 is usually very small compared to the full load (rated) current, thus further approximation is possible by removing the shunt branch completely, and circuit becomes:
i1 i2 /a R1 jXl1 ja2Xl2 a2R2
v1
av2
a2 Zl
Further the resistances of the primary and the referred secondary can be lumped together giving a total resistance of Req1 . Similar treatment for the inductances produce Xeq1. The final simplified circuit referred to the primary side becomes:
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i1 v1 Req1 jXeq1
Zeq1=Req1 + jXeq1
av2
a2 Zl
Simplified equivalent circuit referred to Primary side Where Req1 =R1+a2R2 and Xeq1 =Xl1+a2Xl2
Similarly a simplified version of the transformer equivalent circuit can be shown referred to the secondary side as below.
ai1=i2
v 1 a
Req2
jXeq2
Zeq2=Req2 + jXeq2
v2
Zl
Simplified equivalent circuit referred to Secondary side
where
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R1 Xl + R2 and X eq 2 = 21 + X l 2 a2 a EE207 Electrical Power Req 2 =
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Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameters
Equivalent circuit parameters can be determined experimentally by performing two tests:
1. Open Circuit Test This test is used to determine the shunt parameters (Rcoc and Xmoc) of the transformer s equivalent circuit. In this test the rated voltage is applied to one side of the transformer and the measurements of input voltage, current , and power is taken while the the other side of the transformer is kept open. The test circuit and the transformer equivalent circuit under this condition is shown below. ioc Poc ioc
W voc A Ioc
voc
voc Poc
Icoc Rcoc
Imoc jXmoc
Test Circuit configuration
Equivalent circuit
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Rcoc and Xmoc can be calculated from the test data as it follows:
1. From the input power (Poc) which is absorbed only by Rcoc
2 voc = Poc
Rcoc
2. Now knowing Rcoc allows the calculation of Icoc as,
I coc =
voc Rcoc
and thus I moc can be det er min ed as
2 2 I moc = ioc I coc
3. Knowing Imoc we can find Xmoc as,
X moc =
voc I moc
Note that all the calculated parameters are referred to the side at which the voltage is applied (in this case it was assumed the primary side, thus parameters are automatically referred to the primary side). Therefore: Rcoc=Rc1 and Xmoc=Xm1
2. Short Circuit Test This test is conducted to determine the windings impedance. The test is carried by applying a low voltage to the one side of the transformer and monitoring the current not to exceed the rated value (to avoid over heating of the windings) while the other side is short-circuited. Measurement of the input current, voltage, and power at the side where the voltage is applied is taken. The test circuit and the transformer equivalent circuit under this condition is shown below. Note in class we did take the measurements on the secondary side while the primary is short-circuited.
Psc
W
isc
A
isc
Secondary is Shortcircuited
Reqsc
jXeqsc
vsc
vsc
vsc Psc
Zeqsc=Reqsc + jXeqsc
Short circuit test configuration
Equivalent circuit
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Calculation of the equivalent circuit parameters from the measurement data is done as it follows: 1. The input power (Psc)is dissipated in the resistive element Reqsc, thus,
Reqsc =
2. Zeqsc can be obtained as,
Psc 2 isc
v sc i sc
Z eqsc =
3. From step 2, we can determine Xeqsc as,
2 2 X eqsc = Z eqsc Reqsc
Again, note that all the calculated parameters are referred to the side at which the voltage is applied (in this case it was assumed the primary side, thus parameters are automatically referred to the primary side). Therefore: Reqsc=Req1 and Xeqsc=Xeq1
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Also it is usually assumed that the resistances and the inductances are distributed equally between the primary and the secondary side thus,
Req 1 = R1 + a 2 R2 R1 = and X eq 1 = X l 1 + a 2 X l 2 Xl1 = X eq 1 2 and a 2 X l 2 = X eq 1 2 Req 1 2 and a R2 =
2
Req 1 2
In case that the measurements are taken at the secondary side and the primary is short-circuited, then Reqsc=Req2 and Xeqsc=Xeq2
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Voltage Regulation
Voltage Regulation: is a figure of merit used to identify how the voltage changes in a transformer when the load changes. It is calculated as the change in magnitude of secondary voltage as the load current changes from the no load to load conditions.
V2 NL V2 L V2 L
Voltage Re gulation ( VR ) =
The value of V2L is usually taken as the rated voltage at the secondary of the transformer.
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EE207 Electrical Power - Lecture 4

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Lecture 4 Transformers Part I