Bone

It is specialized C.T. which is characterized by the rigidity and hardness . In adult its
constituent of skeleton of the body . The main functions of bones :1- It supports fleshy structures as ribs . 2- To permit locomotion as long bones . 3- To provide protection to vital organs such as brain in the skull , heart & lungs in the thorax and urinary & reproductive organs between the pelvic bones . In addition , bones function in hemopoiesis ( blood cell formation ) .
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It play a vital role in the mineral metabolism of the body . It considered as a reservoir for several mineral of the body such as calcium & phosphate (99 %) of calcium in the body is stored in bones .

The bone composed of calcified intercellular material ( fibers , extracellular matrix & four cell types ) . The bone matrix : It is composed of approximately 35 % organic and 65 % inorganic components . The inorganic material contain abundant of hydroxyapatite crystals & the bicarbonate ,citrate , magnesium , potassium and sodium are also found and Capo4 . The surface ions of hydroxyapatite are a layer of water & ions forms around this crystal . This layer the hydration shell , facilities the exchange of ions between the crystal & the body fluids . The organic matter embedded in the calcified matrix is type I collagen & ground substance which contains proteoglycan aggregates & glycoprotein including osteonectin . Calcium binding glycoproteins notably , osteocalcin & the phosphatase released in matrix vesicles by osteoblast promote calcification of the matrix . - The association of minerals with collagen fibers is responsible for hardness & resistance of bone tissue .

Bone Cells :1)

Osteoprogenitor cells are flattened undifferentiated stem cells derived from the C.T. mesenchyme , with lightly staining , elongate or ovoid nuclei & inconspicuous acidiophilic or slightly basophilic cytoplasm . These cells are located on the inner layer of C.T. periosteum & in the single layer of internal endosteum that lines the marrow cavities , osteons ( haversian system) & to perforating canals in the bone . The main functions to provide continuous supply of new osteoblasts for growth , remolding & bone repair . Osteoblasts are responsible for the synthesis of the organic components of bone matrix . These cells derived from osteoprogenitor cells & located at the surfaces of bone matrix usually side by side in layer somewhat resembling a simple epithelium . These cells have a cuboidal to columnar shape & basophilic cytoplasm with fine granules & large rounded nucleus during actively engaged in matrix synthesis & when their synthesizing activity declines , they flatten & cytoplasmic basophilic is reduced . Osteocytes are mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts . The individual osteoblasts are gradually surrounded by their own secretion & become osteocytes enclosed singly within spaces called lacunae in the calcifying matrix . The osteocyte have flat , almond shape & exhibit a reduced RER & Golgi apparatus & more condensed nuclear chromatin & flattened darkly staining nucleus & have numerous slender cytoplasmic processes giving rise to canaliculi radiating form in the bony matrix . These processes of adjacent cells make contact via gap junctions & molecules are passed from cell to cell . The exchange can provide nourishment for a chain of about ten cells . These cells are involved in maintaining the bony matrix & their death is followed by resorption of this matrix . Osteoclast are vary large , motile cells with multinucleated & origin from the fusion of bone marrow derived cells . In areas of bone undergoing resorption . the osteoclast lie within enzymatically etched depressions or crypts in the matrix know as resorption bays ( formerly called Howship lacunae ) .

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In active osteoclast , the surface against the bone matrix is folded into irregular projections which form a ruffled border & this border surrounding by a clear cytoplasmic zone rich in actin filaments which is the site of adhesion to the bone matrix , this zone creates a

microenvironment between the osteoclast (secretes collagenase & other enzymes & pumping protons, for dissolving hydroxyaptite & digestion of collagen) & the matrix in which bone resorption occurs . Coorperation between osteoclast & osteoblast is responsible not only for formation remodeling & repair a bone but also for the long- term maintenance of calcium & phosphate homeostasis of the body .

Surfaces of bones : Periosteum : It is a sheath covering the external surfaces of bone , which consist of two layers . The outer layer is a dense irregular C.T. contain mostly of fibroblasts interspersed with type I collagen fibers . Bundles of periosteal collagen fibers called perforating or sharpeys fibers penetrate the bone matrix binding the periosteum to bone & this layer contains many large blood vessels , nerve & lymphatics . The innermost cellular layer of loose , richly vascularized C.T. contains osteoprogenitor cells with the potential to divide by mitosis & differentiate into osteoblasts . Endosteum : It is a thin sheath lines the internal surface of cavities of the bones . the endosteum is a single very thin layer of C.T. containing flattened osteoprogenitor cells & osteoblast which covers the small trabeculae of bone that project into these cavities as a one layer . The principle functions of periosteum & endosteum are nutrition of osseous tissue & provision of a continuous supply of new osteoblast for repair or growth of bone .

Types of Bone : The gross observation of bone in cross section shows dense areas without cavities corresponding to compact bone & areas with numerous interconnecting cavities corresponding to cancellous (spongy) bone .
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In long bones , the bulbous ends called epiphysis are composed of spongy bone covered by a thin layer of compact bone . The cylindrical part of the long bones called diaphysis is almost totally composed of compact bone , with a thin component of spongy bone on its inner surface a rounded completely by compact bone .

- The flat bones have two layers of compact bone called plates , separated by a thick layer of spongy bone called the diploe . The microscopic examination of bone shows two types :
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Primary bone tissue ( Immature bones , or woven bone ) : It is the first bone tissue to appear in embryonic development & in fracture repair . It is characterized by random disposition of fine collagen fibers , therefore often called woven bone . Primary bone tissue is temporary & is replaced in adult by secondary bone tissue except in a very few places in the body near the sutures of flat bone of the skull & in tooth sockets & in the insertions of some tendons . This bone tissue has irregular array of collagen fibers in the matrix therefore this bone nonlamellar & are a lower mineral content & a higher proportion of osteocytes than that in secondary bones .

2) Secondary bone tissue or mature bones or lamellar bones (compact bone) : It is the type usually found in adults & characteristically shows multiple layers of calcified matrix ( each 3 7 m thick) and is often referred to as lamellar bone .It is composed of structural units called osteons or haversian systems , where the calcified bone matrix organized into lamellae . The osteon consist of concentric lamellae of bone matrix surrounding a central canal called haversian canal ( osteonal canal) . Which contains the blood vessels and nerves and loose C.T. . The function of Haversian system is to bring nutrients to compact bone . In Haversian system , the Haversian canal is surrounded by varying number (4-20) of concentric lamellae . Each Haversian canal lined by osteoblasts & osteoprogenitor cells , associated with C.T. Within the lamellae there are small cavities called lacunae which contain the osteocytes . Radiating from each lacunae are numerous narrow channels called canaliculi containing the processes of osteocytes which penetrate adjacent lamellae to join with canaliculi of neighboring lacunae , which serves for the vessels which allow cells to be in contact with the source of nutrients and oxygen in the osteonic canal (haversian canal). The Haversian canals communicate with each other and with bone marrow and periosteum through transverse or oblique canals called Volkmann's canals (perforating canal). The outer boundary of each osteon is a more collagen rich layer called the Cement line . The intervals between Haversian system are filled with numerous irregularly shaped groups of parallel lamellae called interstitial lamellae , which act as packing between adjacent Haversian systems .Also there are inner circumferential lamellae , located around the marrow cavity . And outer circumferential lamellae beneath the periosteum these structures are lamellae left by previous Haversian systems destroyed during growth & remodeling of bone .

The immature bone differs from mature bone in several respects : Immature bone does not display an organized lamellated appearance . on the basis of its collagen fibers arrangement such bone is designated nonlamellar , also referred to as bundle or woven bone because of the interlacing arrangement of collagen fibers .

Immature bone contains relatively more cells per unit area than does mature bone . tend to be arranged with their long axes in the same direction as the lamellae .

The cells in immature bone tend to be randomly arranged , whereas cells in mature bone The matrix of immature bone has more ground substance than does the matrix of mature bone & the matrix of immature bone stains more intensely with hematoxylin whereas the matrix of mature bone stains more intensily with eosin . The bone consist of two distinct structural arrangement of bone tissue can be recognized :1-

Spong Bone (Cancellous) :-

Mature Spong Bone is similar in structure to mature compact bone except it Consist of slender , irregular trabeculae or bars which branch and unite with one another to form network . These trabeculae consist of several lamellae in which the lacunae containing osteocytes .If the trabeculae are sufficiently thick , they will contain osteons . These trabeculae surround spaces called marrow cavities which filled with bone marrow . 2- Compact Bone (lamellar bone) :Its features as mention in secondary bone. Development & Growth of Bone : According to the embryological origin , there are two types of development :
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Intramembranous ossification :

Most flat bones of the skull and parts of the occipital & temporal bone & the mandible and maxilla are formed by this process . Also this process contributes to the growth of short bones and the thickening of long bones . This type of ossification occur within mesenchymal condensation layer or membrane.The start point for bone formation is called an primary ossification center ., these sites where bone is formed , some mesenchymal cells aggregate into clusters and differentiated into osteoprogenitor

cells that then differentiate to become osteoblasts . These osteoblasts begin to secrete the bone matrix as bars or trabeculae . These osteoblasts present as a layer on the surface of developing bone . This matrix is not calcified so called osteoid . Later the matrix undergo calcification where the minerals salts (calcium phosphate crystals ) are deposite in osteoid . The calcified matrix surround the osteoblasts which then become osteocytes which found within lacunae in this matrix . These areas of developing bone are known spicules that delineated elongated cavities containing capillaries,bone marrow cells & undifferentiated cells . The fusion of these spicules forming a network of trabeculae resulting bone is a spongy bone . The spaces between the trabeculae are occupied by undifferentiated mesenchymal cells that develops into bone marrow , also these regions penetrated by blood vessels . The C.T. that dose not undergo ossification gives rise to the endosteum & the periosteum .
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Endochondral ossification :

This type of ossification occur within a cartilage model (template) whose shape resembles a shape of bone to be formed . This type is responsible for the formation of short and long bones This process include both removal of the cartilage model and deposition of bone matrix . The bone formation is initiated within band-shaped area of perichondrium surrounding the center of the cartilage model that called diaphysis . In perichondrium , the chondrogenic cells become osteoprogenitor cells that differentiated into osteoblasts that secrete bone matrix forming the periosteal bone ring or collar which surround the surface of the middle of the diaphyseal region of the cartilage . The perichondrium surround this area becomes periosteum . The result of these changes a thin layer of bone is formed around the cartilage model . Within the forming of bone collar , changes occurs in the cartilage itself . In the center of diaphysis , the chondrocytes hypertrophy and then degenerate and die due to new bone collar prevents the diffusion of nutrients into the chondrocytes within the matrix . This lead that chondrocytes resorb their surrounding matrix causing enlarged lacunae . The matrix between these lacunae becomes reduced in amount and become thin septa . The cartilage matrix undergo calcification where the calcium deposit in this matrix and become calcified matrix.

The periosteal or osteogenic bud consisting of osteoprogenitor cells and blood vessels migrate from the periosteum through holes made by osteoclasts in the bone collar . These buds penetrate the calcified cartilage matrix forming cavities called primary marrow cavities . These spaces contain blood vessels and osteoprogenitor cells which proliferate and differentiate into osteoblasts that form a continuous layer on the surface of calcified cartilage matrix remnants . These cells start to synthesis bone matrix . At first the matrix is deposited as osteoid and then becomes calcified bone . the calcified cartilage can be distinguished as basophilic , whereas the bone tissue formed is acidophilic . When the spongy bone matrix develops , the cartilage matrix is removed by continued resorption of calcified cartilage through the activity of osteoclasts . The deposition of bone in the center of diaphysis is called primary ossification center . The zone of endochondral ossification extends toward both ends of the cartilage that called epiphysis by process similar to that take place in the primary ossification center , except that bone collar is not formed . The osteoprogenitor cells invade the cartilage of epiphysis , differentiate into osteoblasts which begin secreting bone matrix . This process is called secondary ossification center . Increase in the length of long bone is due to continued endochondral bone formation at each end of these bones . The continued growth of long bone also depends on the presence of epiphyseal plate . During the endochondral ossification , the cartilage remain restricted in two places include articular cartilage that persist through adult life , and epiphyseal plate which connect epiphysis to diaphysis .

The epiphyseal plate ( epiphyseal cartilage ) is responsible for maintaining the growth process . The epiphyseal cartilage is divided into five zones :1)

Resting Zone : Consist of hyaline cartilage with typical chondrocytes , without morphologic changes in the cells . Proliferation Zone : This is an active zone where chondrocytes undergo division and produce cells arranged into rows or columns parallel with the long axis of the bone . Each row consist of a number of flattened cells and separated by a small amount of matrix . Hypertrophy Zone : The cartilage cells enlarge and becoming cuboidal in shape and the lacunae enlarge . The matrix is reduced to thin septa between the chondrocytes due to resorption it by these cells . Calcification Zone : In this zone the matrix surrounding the enlarged lacunae become calcified due to deposition of minerals within it and appear deeply basophilic in staining . Ossification Zone : The bone tissue appears . The osteoprogenitor cells and blood vessels from the periosteum invade the spaces or cavities left by the chondrocytes . The osteoprogenitor cells differentiate into osteoblasts and then begin to deposit bone matrix .

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