METAPHYSICS OF MULL ADR: II Author(s): MUHAMMAD 'ABDUL-HAQ Reviewed work(s): Source: Islamic Studies, Vol. 10, No.

4 (DECEMBER 1971), pp. 291-317 Published by: Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20833041 . Accessed: 14/01/2013 21:12
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METAPHYSICS

OF MULLA n
'ABDUL-HAQ

SADRA

MUHAMMAD

Introduction Metaphysics or Hikmah, according toMulla Sadra, is intended to gain knowledge of the ultimate reality and meaning of the objects of the universe and to judge their ontological status according to human capacity. In a consistent intellectual understanding of the asserts that his Sadra universe according to human capacity. 1 Mulla or Hikmah is neither scholastic polemic, nor sophistic fallacy, metaphysics nor pedantic and discursive philosophy, but basically it is intellectual and gnostic intuition buttressed by revealed tradition.2 Because meticulous truth. For it ratiocination can never be the purveyor of metaphysical moves along its narrow grooves step by step groping and weighing factors an effort comparable with the vain effort of the eye to for and against ? see itself or of a kitten chasing its own tail. As Shakespeare has said, "there other words, Hikmah means

are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in your philosophy." But Intellectual intuition fulminates infinitely and is, therefore, capable knots of metaphysical mysteries. That is why of cutting the Gordian Mulls Sadra

asserts thatwhoever is not endowed with intuitive vision, has V *J J?S~ V^) Thus a vision of themetaphysical trans no knowledge. (*) ^ parency of things can be gained primarily with the help of revelation and

intellectual intuition. To trust reason alone in philosophizing about the ultimates is to unleash the dark forces of the irrational and the arbitrary. truth is Sadra , the quest for metaphysical In the view of Mulla as old as humanity itself. It is the Sophia perennis which has always been an esoteric aspect of the Prophetic phenomenon. He, therefore,maintains that Hikmah handed began with the Prophet Adam and his Son, s^eeth, who it over to Hermes or to the Prophet Idris, who, in turn, spread it throughout the world.4 According to him, there were five pillars of Hik

mah among the Greek

thinkers?Pythagoras, Empedocles, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle?who acquired Hikmah from different Prophets, as Empe Thus it docles received it from David and Pythagoras from Solomon.5

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to be diversified in different forms so as who has caused ?ikmah tomake a thinker understand according to his particular genius.6 The religious point of view emanates from God, whereas themeta physical point of view proceeds primarily from the intellectual intuition of man. That is why Mulla Sadra compares metaphysics with the phenome non of man. Just as man

is a Being composed of divine spiritual form or (-ajjJ tjye) and of created sensible matter, ~<oL?) otherwise put, human soul has two dimensions, material and immaterial (*j*> 3 likewise Hikmah also has become divided into two aspects or two sciences, one being theoretical and transcendental C**^** and the other practi The aim of the former is to enrich human cal and physical "4^)7 soul with metaphysical wisdom in order to actualize its ontological integrity tradition, 'Oh, God, show as things as they are,' indicates this aspect The latter is a practical procedure whose aim is tomake soul of Hikmah. rule over the body or tomake the kernel dominate over the carnal. The

world (J* and thus become an intelligible ^)

itself.The Prophetic

Prophetic tradition, "adorn yourselves with the attributes of God," refers to this aspect of Hikmah.8 Thus the bipolarization ofman intomatter and soul, divinity and dust, accounts for the division ofHikmah into two aspects fact to which the Qur'an refers categorically. theoretical and practical?a The Qur'an describes the pre-temporal spiritual form of man as the 'best the archytypal station of man stature' (piy* Cr^]) which was in theworld of divine command (^Vl ^JU) and calls his terrestrial condition JA-t) which is the temporal, spatial in which he has been exiled to matter and ignorance. The verse, 'except those who believe' (yJ" d3-^ ^ ) refers to and the verse, 'those who do good the purpose of Hikmat Nazariyyah indicates to the Hikmat deeds,' (oUJUJi^U 3) 'amaliyyah.9 condition 'the lowest of the low' station of man and worldly Mulla Sadra maintains that all

theosophs have spoken of these two aspects of Hikmah of which the aim is to become Godlike in gaining a comprehensive knowledge of everything (oLjUJIj -<a>uVi)and in transcend ing the bondage ofmatter (oyu~*j| ^ ^*xJl). That iswhy God calls Himself Hakim in the Qur'an because He is the inexhaustible source of all know 10 ledge and wisdom and describes Hikmah as His great gift formankind. man can become Godlike only in the sense that It should be noted that with he is a theomorphic Being and this theomorphism must not be confused can become Godlike Man in some of His anthropomorphism. Man has something of God but God

qualities but God is not man-like. has nothing of man.

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importance of Hikmah lies in the fact that it gives supreme to the knowledge of Being. According to Mulla Sadra, the priority source of all the principles ofmetaphysics; it is the problem of Being is the centre around which all the principles of metaphysical doctrines such as the knowledge of God, problem of soul, problem of creation and eschatology that whoever is ignorant of the etc, revolve. He, therefore, maintains of Being is ignorant of all the basic problems of metaphysics.H problem

Theoryof Being orOntology

In our previous article, we discussed a great deal Mulla Sadra's we will furnish an account of those or Ontology. Here theory of Being which have not yet been touched on. According to Mulla Sadra, points Being (-w) is an objective reality and the source of all power and action and

quiddity is the limitof Being, only to be abstractedby mind without

having any reality independent of Being and is, therefore, accidental and ambiguous. What includes all objects under one reality is their Being and what limits and separates them is the quiddity of their Being. Every thing is understandable only when it is considered in terms of Being, other wise everything seems ambiguous, problematic and fictitious. Because Being is the raison de'tre of everything. Being is invariably non-mani of fested but metaphysically real, while quiddity is the manifestation Being is infinite in nature and as such Being but metaphysically unreal. no object, which is finite, can be equated with it and therefore no object can be equated with God, who is theAbsolute Being. Being encompasses everything under one reality in such a manner that there is not to be found anything outside of it. That is why one cannot prove Being because one cannot go outside of it. It transcends logical categories such as genus,

is,

therefore, principial

(J^')-

While

Mahyiyyah

("^^)

or

it is the self-evident a priori truth, clearer than defin ingwords, prior to all concepts and the reality of everything!3 which other wise would not exist. No thought can circumscribe it and no language itself upon us because can exhaust it. Now the question arises: how do we know a Being? The

no definition and what has no species, differentia etc, and therefore it has no logical proof and direct evidence. 12 Now it is clear that definition has Being is non-manifested, metaphysical and undefinable, nonetheless itforces

our Mulla thatit is thefirst object thatstrikes understanding.That iswhy asserts that theknowledgeof Being can be gained only by keen ?adra

reply is

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observation and intuitive vision and by drawing conclusions from its effects, procedure by which a partial knowledge of Being signs and symbols?a can be obtained. Thus the intuitive and visionary knowledge of Being the grasp of the ambiguous character of its quiddity will leave no doubt about the objective reality of Being. Being is the reality itself and a thing that has been made real. 14 While elaborating this point, not and Mulla Sadra argues that Being as it is Being has no cause, no matter to be transformed into it, no place to alight upon and no form to be confused with it, rather it is the cause of all causes, form of all forms and the ulti mate reality of all. 15 Being has no matter and, therefore, has no form, rather it is the reality of form itself and confers forms on others. It does not need anything to be introduced and pointed out, rather everything is knowable and understandable on account of it. It does not need any evidence because

it is the evidence itself and is, therefore, evidence for all. 16 is with all objects because it is their reality but at the same time Being it is irreducible to any object. For it is ubiquitous metaphysically and a mysterious dimension or an infinite sphere whose centre is possesses everywhere and circumference nowhere, and we, therefore, touch it every where and nowhere. Likewise, God, who is the Absolute Being, is ubi quitous despite His Ineffable transcendence and inviolable mystery and we, therefore, touch Him everywhere and nowhere.17

to Mulla Sadra, Being is one reality and Ontological According but it has different gradations such as Absolute and relative, homogeneity perfect and imperfect. It eludes our sense-perception on account of its it is anterior to metaphysical nature. Our eye cannot catch it because or it is identifiedwith the reality of the eye and the eye cannot see itself, eye "The eyes attain Him not, that is its reality. As God says in the Qur'an. attains the eyes; He is All-subtle and AU-aware."i8 As Being eludes our sense-perception likewise it transcends our mental comprehen sion. Our mind is very prone to remain confined to abstract concepts and we are incapable of thinking any Being without enclosing it in our abstract but He concepts which is not Being, rather it is the quiddity of Being. That is why Mulla Sadra asserts that for Being there is no other mental or subjec tive existence.^ It is invariably an objective reality and the source of all power and effect. We find that objective fireburns and reduces things to ashes, whereas the abstract concept of firecannot produce such result. Thus as an objective reality Being is themost evident and clearest of all, but its in our mental analysis, Being comprehension is the poorest. Moreover,

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OF METAPHYSICS MULLS SADR5

are inseparable from each other. That is why Being categories of quiddity; in itself it is a very subtle (^) To

295

and its quiddity are different thingsalthough in objectiveworld they

is irreducible to the thing.20

sum up, we can have a glimpse of Being with the help of intuitive vision and can be faintly conscious of it by observing its effect and action. Being is not the product of human mind; it exists independently of any think ingmind. Our senses and mind can grasp only the quiddity of Being, while Being is inaccessible to our sense-perception and mental comprehension. In fact, it is quiddity which tends to be an impenetrable veil between us and our Being. Though quiddity in itself does not have the wherewithal to exist apart from Being, it appears in Being, with Being and from Being and in itself its status is very problematic and ambiguous,21 nonetheless it is identified with the limits and determinations of Being, and hence, its role of being an impregnable veil. And what is veil between us and our and the Absolute As a poet has said

is, in the ultimate analysis, a veil between us Thus quiddity is a veil between us and God.22 Being. 1*U. jlyi Jm c-Hlji jl). (jio J^Uj Being

time, space, motion etc. Quiddity and its categories are called non-Being is the because they lack independence of existence. Thus God?who no quiddity or quiddity is inconceivable for Him, Absolute Being?has The because He is Infinite and above all limitation and determination. Absolute The is also called Necessary Being. (*y?J\v^ij) Being mixed with the characteristics of non-Being, that relative Being is one who is is quiddity and its categories.23 All relative Beings are created and are

In a general sense, Being partakes of two gradations, Absolute and The Absolute Being is one who is immune relative or real and quasi-real. from and transcendent of the characteristics of non Being, that is quiddity accidents and its categories such as universals and particulars,

also called possible Beings (oi^C^ ). A possible Being is one whose both same time.24 Thus all possible Being and nothingness are possible at the Beings are tinged with accidents and mingled with contingency. They are ontologically dis-integrated and impoverished because their Beings are In other embedded in quiddity or Beings diffused in separative illusion. words, creation is woven of ontological unity and homogeneity and accidental

But the transcendent unity of separation and mutliplicity. Being lies hidden under the veil ofmuliplicity which is nothing but a sepa rative illusion. In one sense, Being is ambiguous because it is Absolute

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essentially, while being situated in relativity. Likewise God, despite His and indecipherable mystery, is present, incommunicable Absoluteness active and the decisive factor at the centre of every creaed order.

It should noted thatBeing and unity are identical be with and

inseparable from each other. But the unity of possible Beings is weak, rather their unity is union and union implies composition and all possible in multiple forms Beings are, therefore, subjected to composition j1)- For &j cf~ JO ("^asfy V5" are composed of Being and quiddity, unity and multiplicity, example, they matter and form, substance and accident, body and soul, potentiality and actuality. Thus Mulla Sadra maintains that the unity of possible Beings and varied combinations

is very poor and may be called a mere shadow of the perfect unity of the Absolute Being.24 According toMulla Sadra, there is no possibility ( oKJ ) or possible aspect in the Absolute Being. He is the Necessary and the Absolute ^ (Thus God from all points of view. There is no waiting state -aJU)i.e., potential state inHim, because He is theperfect Actuality.26 (^1^1)

alone is the acme of all perfection, beauty and power; He alone is ontological plentitude, Infinite knowledge and unbounded consciousness

and He alone is theAbsolute Being of which the Beings of creation are a Mulla mere reflection and manifestation. Sadra maintains that to God, known (and the knowledge (pi*) are one and the knower (the the same thing. His knowledge knows Beings of the different ontological strata in their simultaneity as well as in their succession through temporal

Mulla knowledge is subject to change because creation is changeable. asserts that only God can furnish perfect definition of the creation, ?adra while creation can define Him only symbolically and in an imperfect manner. Because cause contains the effect totally, while effect does not contain the cause.28 Thus God is unqualified and unqualifiable as He is undefined and undefinable. According to Mulla Sadra, there is a certain object of knowledge but it is unknown and unknownable, while there is a known thing but it As God is infiniteknowledge and light, but is unknow is not knowledge. able by others,29 while there is falsehood which is known but is not know ledge. He classifies knowledge into two categories, the one is subtle ()

While knowing their Beings, He equally knows their becom while knowing their substance, He equally knows their accidents; ing; and while knowing their ontological unity, He equally knows their tem poral multiplicity. Thus nobody should raise the question that God's duration.27

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METAPHYSICS and the other is mixed tion

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The former implies congition or percep (v^V*). of something while one is unconscious of this cognition and is on it. Everybody possesses incapable of passing any judgement (ji^) this subtle cognition cognition which is ingrained ?-*V0 of God?a in his primordial nature.("<>>*)30

Sadra, a direct cognition of an object implies or the cognition of its Being, whether that cognition be sensible or imaginative, (JW^) or intellective (J**) or intuitive empirical (Jy**-) that a relative Being is the reflection of the Ab (<Sjy**). It is obvious In the view of Mulla solute Being, and the cognition of a relative Being will therefore, lead to the cognition of the Absolute Being in a certain manner, although one is unconscious of and indifferent to it. But this subtle cognition does not at all mean the cognition of the Ineffable Divine Aseity.31

The mixed cognition (u^r* ?-*V0may be acquired by intuitive vision and observation.a realizable specially by sages and knowledge ? a procedure saints. It may be gained by genuine discursive method errors and blunders. As a poet has which is invariably vulnerable to Ijsib jfcb . olf cSjlai ljoiji j? jiil.>)32. It should be said," noted that nobody can know God with the help of formal empirical know ledge, (cSj^t Jy^i\ pU)l). Every possible Being can be conscious of the Absolute Being according to the degree of its ontological awareness. explaining the nature of Divine ubiquity, Mulla Sadra main tains that the encompassing (~aIU) of every thing by God and His together ness with all can be compared symbolically with the enompassing While of body by soul. The soul is neither inside the body, nor outside of it, not attached to it, nor detached from it,nonetheless it permeates thewhole fact body and no particle of the Body can be independent of the soul?a which symbolizes the mysterious ubiquity and metaphysical togetherness without thereby being in of God with the whole created order (ob^) or penetrated into (Jy->) carnated into (J>K). or united with or attached order.

to (<JWI) or detached from (juai) any object of the created Thus His everlasting presence with the creation is humanly ineff

able and unimaginable.33 Quoting Ghazali, Mulla Sadra writes that in a whirlwind we only see themass of dust but we don't see the wind which is the real generator of thewhirlwind. While the dust does not participate in producing this movement, nonetheless it is manifested but the wind which is the real producer of thewhirlwind is invariably non-manifested.34

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ismysteriously present and immanent everywhere in the universe as a Motionless Mover and as an Absolule subconscious. Creation

Now let us discuss the crucial problem of creation of which Mulla Sadra has expounded a very consistent and systematic idea. According to him, creation has come into existence through two processes, one is called of a chain may be called non-formal creation which is the emanation {^) of subtle Beings from God starting from intellect, soul, nature and in prime matter. The process of Takwin may be called ultimately ending chain of composed Beings (otT^) starting from matter, natural bodies, plant kingdom, animal world and ending in human beings. The Beings of the former are subtle (kn) because they are not composed of matter and form, rather they have formal creation which only Being which is their form and are, therefore, totally immune from matter.35 And what is not composed of matter is not composed of oppo sites because matter is thematrix of all opposites and what is not composed Thus of opposities is immune from change, decay and disintegration.36 * * * * the chain of subtle Beings ( ) are imperishable and incorrup tible. But the chain of composed Beings are primarily composed of consists of a

IbdS' (?i^0 and theother is calledTakwin

The process of Ibda'

matter and form and they are, therefore, subject to change, decay, corrup It should be noted that the subtle Beings are tion, death and dissolution.

subject to death only once and at a single point. While the formal com posed Beings have four causes,?active, material, formal and final?, the non-formal subtle Beings have only two causes, active and final.37 To

sum up, creation as a whole startswith intellect and ends in human beings In fact, crea who are the bearer of this intellect, because extremes meet. tion is the journey of the soul form God towards God traversing many ontological ups and down, rises and falls.38 Thus the process of Ibd5' means that there is a chain of Beings starting from intellect but it has been diminished to the pole of matter; wh?le the process of Takwin, means that there is a chain of Beings starting frommatter but has been elevated to the rank of intellect. In other words, Ibda' means becomes that intellect falls and reduced tomatter and Takwin means matter rises to that intellect

again. While explaining the process of creation, Mulla Sadra maintains that the first emanation from God could not be other than intellect. Be cause soul lacks independence in producing any effect, body lacks unity,

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lacks actuality and accident lacks independence of Being, but intellect possesses all these qualities in a perfect manner because pure Being contains all the possibilities of weak Beings, as the higher presupposes the lower39. As becomes the chain of Beings in the process of Ibda' descends down and further removed from the centre, the principle of Being in each of

is, thus, the crystallization of fall, of the process of Ibda* because it is the extreme limit or border of this process.40 The Ontological integrityof the process of Ibdl' has been blurred through fall because it is a movement the most weighted and themost broken existence of all. As a result, the its unity ambiguous41. Being of matter has become problematic and Its ontological status has become That is why Plato called it non-Being. so obscure thatmatter as such is nowhere to be found or seen, it is invari ably hidden under some form. Now it is clear that the non-formal subtle Beings were at the origin of this segmented and coagulated substance we call In fine, matter is a Being most remote from God?a remoteness accounts for its fallen state. That is why, according o Mulla

successive stage becomes weaker and poorer, while the manifestation Prime matter quiddity, in turn, becomes stronger and cumulative.

to to of which isconsidered be from fluidity thesolidity matter ontological

matter. which

Sadra, it has become dissipated through all directions, its parts have sepa rated from one another; it is, as itwere, indifferent to itself,absent to itself and is unable to remember and recollect itself42. Mulla Sadra calls by different or the 'sacred Effusion' such as the 'extended Being' or the 'First Intellect' (JjVi j*Jl)-the manifestation of ^i) (j-urtl is the strongest becauses of its supreme contiguity to the centre, the Being influence of quiddity is not at all discernible in it except inmental analysis. Since in the first emanation?which names But at the level of prime matter, the influence of quiddity has become the strongest and most cumulative, while the influence of Being is not at all

or contin perceptible. Thus, matter is almost indentical with quiddity gency and quiddity is, according to Mulla Sadra, akin to possibility and it is clear now that matter, matter is, therefore, akin to possibility.43

To sum up, matter is the why created Beings are called possible Beings. source of opposites, multiplicity, embodiment of chaos and disorder?a

possibility and quiddity are identical with one another and they go hand In other words, matter is the crystallization of possibility of in hand. the trace is to be found in the phenomenon of creation. That is which

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But Divine cosmic economy has evil, corruption, decay and death.44 conferred upon it a kind life in order to prevent it from drifting into nothingess. Thus it has been given the potentiality to accept different forms one after the other. Matter is, therefore,mere potency determinable is its actuality and neither matter nor form can exist by form?which for they are inseparable as our body cannot dissociate itself from apart,
senses.

cosmic economy desires to start a new process of creation from matter and with matter called Takwin in order to save the process of Divine Ibda' back and to effectuate the return journey of the fallen possible Beings to their Absolute Being. Thus the chain of formal or composed

Primarily Beings starts from prime matter and ends in human Beings. this is the process of combination of opposite elements and forces. As mentioned above, matter, possibility and quiddity are identical with one that matter wants form, possibility another. Mulla Sadra maintains needs composition which is its form and quiddity seeks all kinds of acci dents.45 Thus the Beings of Takwin are composed of multiple elements, subjected to manifold accidents and are, therefore, victim of various limi tations and determination at one and the same time Just as water when shaken becomes dispersed in innumerable drops, so likewise, the Being of becomes segmented and solidified in innumerable particular sub fact which accounts for the endless and ceaseless multiplicity of jects?a the world. As speech and book represent the knowledge and creative intellect of a speaker and a writer, likewise all the gradations of Beings represent the infinite knowledge and inexhaustible creative power of God .46 But the gradations of composed Beings are, as itwere, words of God written by Him with the ink of matter.47 As God says in the Qur'an, "Say: If the sea were ink for the words of my Lord, the sea would be spent before the words of my Lord are spent, though we brought replenishment the like of it."48 To sum up, the process of Ibda' is a transition from unity to multiplicity multiplicity point of the whole process of creation. cosmogonic unfolding. Man Creation of According toMulla Sadra, man is the last creation in the processes of IbdS' and Takwin. He is like a reduced image of the cosmogonic (^l^l to unity and the process of Takwin man >*~?y)49 Because He is a movement is from the culminating is the synthetic totality of the

Takwin

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unveiling because all the ontological possibilities that have been unveiled in the processes of Ibda' and Takwin?intellect, soul, matter, natural ele ments, vegetative soul, animal soul and the rational soul?are synthetically That is why man is called the qualitative epitome of integrated inman. the whole creation. He reflects cosmic totality despite his littleness and limitations.50 Though he ismade of matter and is, therefore, corruptible

and perishable, nonetheless in the centre of his Being there is an opening soul. Human intellect towards the Infinite, that is his intellect?bound flashes out like lightning in the heaviness, hardness and opacity of matter as fiint produces fire. Mulla Sadra maintains that the supreme aim of the creation of man

is that human intellect would give unqualified witness Because other species of the to the unity and Absoluteness of God.51 even capable of being conscious of theAbsolute. process of Takwin are not For they are tied to many barriers of fall, imprisoned in natural blemishes and swathed inmany bondages As mentioned ofmatter.

above, matter is the crystallization of fall; it is and forgetful of itself and is therefore, unconscious and obli unconscious vious of God too. It is obvious that what ismade of matter will also be the qualities of matter. That is why the process of from the bondage of aimed at the riddance (j^w) Takwin has been matter in successive stages of Beings. Thus God created with matter four characterized with kinds of species in successive stages,?inanimate objects, plant kingdom, animal world and human beings and each one is swathed in some bondage or other?in order to prove that human beings are very near to the emanci pation from the bondages of matter, from the dumbness and sedantary character of plant kingdom, and from the sensual desire and blind passion of the animal world.52 These four stages of Takwin are, as it were, four legs tied to the various bondages born of matter and fall. Thus the process of Takwin at the human level has freed itself from the bondages of three legs and the human leg remains imprisoned and it is upto man to realize com Sadra maintains plete riddance Explaining these points, Mulla that the barrier of three legs are to be found in animal world?which implies that animals are rooted inmatter and steeped in the fallen state; while man possesses three signs of riddance frommatter. Firstly, in animal there is the barrier of blindness to observe and understand the meaning, and symbols (obi) of God in creation, secondly there is to be found signs the barrier of deafness to listen to discussions, lectures and proof of God; there is to be seen the barrier of ignorance and forgetfulness ofGod. thirdly

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says in the Qur'an, "They have hearts, but understand not with them, they have eyes, but perceive not with them; they have ears, but they hear not with them. They are like cattle ;"53 But man possesses these indicate to his attaining riddance from these three

three qualities which barriers.

Mulla ?adra maintains that these three barriers are strengthened other three barriers giving witness to them. The first is the barrier of by their tongue which is a witness to their deafness because tongue is the agent blindness because crookedness

of the ear; the second is the barrier of their hand which is a witness to their the forking hand is the agent of the eye; the third is the of their body which is a witness to the crookedness of their

man

soul because body is the agent of the soul, as the curve of a scabbared is a proof of the curve of a sword.54 Thus their natural and congenital blemishes and horizontal position suffice to rivet them to animality. Only is freed from these barriers and is, therefore, capable of restoring the broken linkwith theDivine kingdom. Thus plant kingdom is condemned

to fixity and sedentariness and animal kingdom is rivetted to animality?a fact that symbolizes their inability to become a total and perfect Being capable of having an access to theDivine kingdom. But man with his gift of speech, mutual communication, his vertical position, detached from the ground, symbolizes his eligibility to reestabish the broken link with God.55 It should be noted that those who are inmatter and form ("^ j "^u) animal

are not wretched and accursed, rather those humans who have assumed the Qur'an says, "They are like cattle; nay, rather they are the heedless."56 Thus it is form, are further astray. Those_they animal form. As rather than matter, which Thus man That iswhy God work of matter. is important and a determining factor.

is very near to attaining complete riddance frommatter. has opened many windows in his hard and heavy frame Some windows are projected to the sensible world such

designed to be an outlet for his soul to grasp a certain cosmic reality,wonder * and secret.57 It is only man who can actualize complete freedom ( *) frommatter and can, thus, neutralize the fallen state. That iswhy Mulla ?adra tion asserts that in this sense the human stage is, as itwere, the resurrec of the whole process of Takwln,58 Because on the one hand

as the external five senses and some others to the intelligible world such as intellection and intuition. Every door is imagination, apprehension,

man can become imaginatively and intellectually conscious of theAbsolute, His mysterious ubiquity and and ineffable transcendence, and on the

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other hand, he can be aware of his littleness, limitations, fallen state and blemishes. This manifold imaginative and intellectual consciousness outsidedness and withdrawl from matter?a fact implies detachment, that will lead to complete and total riddance. While ing,Mulla

explaining thatman is the totality of the cosmogonic unfold ?adra maintains that man has two faces or two forms, one is

depends on the latter and if their connection is cut off, the former at once meets death and disintegration. The physical form of man originates from sperm, which is like prime matter; and then through gradual becom ing, itundergoes five stages of transition such as prime matter, natural body,

physical and as such is changeable, corruptible, and mortal and the other is psychic and is, therefore, subtle and immortal. The life of the former

Thus man, besides his human faculties, integrates plant, animal and man. into himself all the faculties of previous stages, because the higher presup poses the lower. Likewise, the psychic form ofman begins with the descent of the soul in thewomb ofmother and getting it merged with the sperm? a stage of ambiguity like prime matter and it is, therefore, called 'pure From the stage of 'pure nature', the soul goes ahead stage by nature.' stage, accumulating various faculties and assuming new names at every the vegetative stage such as the power ofmixed temperament ("^el)^ the practi soul or growing soul (^Ul jl ?g'Ul animal soul (v'x*M^0 ^i), cal intellect (J^Jl J*Ji), the theoretical (<s^ cH?)> the imaginative soul the remembering soul (a&wi^l), the rational soul (opsji ^i), ^l) and at lastwhen the soul actualizes its intuitive vision and observation and thereby experiences union with theDivine kingdom, it is called "the exalted or 'Acquired Intellect' (^Ux^Jl ji*Jl). This is the highest soul" (cr-^i c^O59 of the soul in which all bipolarization between body and soul, stage

matter and form, unity and multiplicity would disappear. Body would become identified with the soul, senses would merge together, potentiality would by actuality and all multiplicity would be fused into an ontological unity. Mulla Sadra quotes a poet to depict the idea *X 3 3 i3& j yM\ cij 3 Jft&j ItAAd Oj".60 CJLiVjs? It is now clear that at the highest stage of the soul, man becomes imma Accord culate Intellect, while body and soul recede into the background. be absorbed

ing to the Prophet of Islam, Intellect was the first creation of God and it was like a seed of creation. As seed contains the whole tree, likewise Intellect contains the whole universe. Thus at the stage of 'Acquired intellect,' man contains the whole univese and that is why he is called the

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image or synthetic totality of the whole cosmogonic process. creation begins with intellect and ends in human being who is the Thus bearer of this intellect. Man, therefore, completes at the end what was initiated at the beginning. It should be noted that the process of Ibda' is pretemporal, non spatial and motionless, while the process of Takwln is temporal, spatial and Likewise man had also a pre-temporal, non is subjected to motion. spatial stage, an archetypal state, a state of ontological integrity and of immaculate intellect while has been described by the Qur'Sn as the 'best men are stature' (p*y> ). While quoting a prophetic tradition that j c-^i ojUTlpU^ treasures of gold and silver o-ui) treasures, like the Sadra maintains that gold and silver are sacred metals and they Mulla symbolically reflect the sun and moon, spirit and soul, and also the heavenly But through fall theywere exiled to matter human pair, Adam and Eve. state which a has been described by the and condemned to ignorance?a Qur'an Thus they fall from ofmatter, frommetaphysical conscious multiplicity ontological unity to the ness to the scandalous physical consciousness and from eternity to time, as the "lowest of the low". Space and motion. To

sum up, from the point of view of 'Ahsan Taqwim* man is a priori intellect, pure and simple: while from the point of view of Asfali Safilin, man is intellect but bipolarized into body and soul, divinity and dust.

He is, therefore, dualism and multiplicity. But the state of 'Asfali As fire is dormant in Safilin' is not the total negation of 'Ahsan Taqwim'. If he frees himself from the a flint, likewise intellect is dormant inman.

God, otherwise he is liable to become the disciple of Satan. That is why Mulla Sadra asserts thatman is a road leading either toGod or to the hell.62 He, therefore, compares Satan with an evil or wretched tree ("^V^1 >/*?Ji) or a blessed tree and compares intellectwith a holy tree (<^>"^) -aTjU); it is rooted in the immutable and unfathomable divine mystery, j c^ti wm); it is timeless, while its branches envelop the heaven (*i?~j!J ). non-spatial, dimensionless, neither eastern nor western ("a^Vj It becomes metaphysical the whole of creation.63 Thus human intellect

illusory bondages of matter and purifies his soul from the dross of nature, he would regain his lost station of 'Ahsan Taqwim. Thus the intellect-bound man is like a double-edged sword. If he realizes his intellect, he would reach

is the

is, therefore, the synthesis of the whole creation. Man greatest sign ofGod and an abridgement of the 'Guarded Tablet" (j^~ ^3).

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he alone can give witness towhat is unseen, unheard, unimaginable indescribable.64

should not be confused with the fragmentary intellect <j^) that has Mulla Sadra dis been spoken of as 'reason' by Descartes.65 Moreover, cusses the idea of 'fall' in his metaphysics which should not be confused with the Christian concept of fall. His concept of fall is of Qur'anic

It should be noted that Mulla Sadra has never used the word sense. To him it is intellect (j**) in its commonplace something divine and universal and is what the Greeks used to call 'Nous'. It, therefore,

origin. According to him, fall, whether be it on the global or human level, is a necessary manifestation of evil. But in another sense, it is an ineluct drama and an indispensable mode able aspect of the cosmogonic It is the crystallization of the of the divine veiling and unveiling. exteriority of the manifestation of Being. The mystery of life and death, secret of creation, illusion of time, space and motion, and the ephemeral, life?all these problems ambiguous and precarious nature of mundane are understandable and explainable only when they are considered in terms cosmic fact and not mere story. It would be to recoil from such an idea on the plea that ithas biblical absurd, therefore, of fall. origin. Soul above, man is a priori intellect but bipolarized into on account of the loss of the state of 'Ahsan Taqwlm'. body and soul According toMulla Sadra, body is likematter and soul is its form, and soul As mentioned is likematter of which intellect is the form.66 In other words, body con tains soul as flint contains fire; and soul contains intellect as fire contains light. That is why Mulla Sadra maintains that the entelechy of body is soul and the entelechy of soul is intellect. to him, human soul is created with the mortal body According j op*)l but it is immortal spiritually ("^kjj "aJL^ ^\ biologically 67 The creation of the soul implies its descent in the womb of *iiJ!) mother and getting identifiedwith the sperm and this descent is, as itwere, a transition of the soul from the state of 'Ahsan Tawqim' to that of Asfal safilin. But in a deeper sense, the soul is, as it were, implanted in the human soil in order to bring about a maximum flowering of the intellect. Though it has a very lowly and poor birth, nonetheless it is pregnant with unlimited possibilities. In fact, the soul is a traveller towards God passing It is an undeniable

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through many ontological stages and overcoming many barriers of the state of 'Asfal safilin' 68 While describing its lowly birth and the poor beginning of its journey, Mulla Sadra maintains that there is a time when prima unable to perform any function It then, gradually acquires the power except the preservation of itsbody. of growth, assimilation of food, procreation, voluntary movement etc, and, thus becomes the source of all physical powers. Viewed metaphysically, it lacks sensation and consciousness, but gradually it acquires sensations thereby becomes distinct from vegetative soul. It, then, develops inner perception of thinking, memory, imagination and apprehension and thereby becomes distinct from animal soul. While and viewed again as a source of knowledge, the soul gradually develops the and intellection.69 faculties of discernment, analysis, contemplation Thus it is clear that human soul is pregnant with polyvalent faculties. At the intial stage, it is hardly distinguishable from the body, but themore it acquires new set of faculties, themore its undifferentiated state is abolished and, in turn, themore its immaterial nature is actualized. there is a time when the soul is at the level of materia

Because perception implies separation, outsided ness and a sort of detachment frommatter and its illusion.70 According of riddance frommatter.

The gradual acquisition of a series of faculties by the soul, on the one hand, implies its riddance from the bondage of matter and the neutra lization of the state ofAsfal Asafilin' and, on other hand, means its ontolo Sadra maintains gical and intellectual perfection. That is why Mulla that every perception (<-*Vl) whether sensible or intellectual, is a kind

to him all kinds of perception belong to the soul, while intellectual percep tion is the highest, and in sensible perception the faculty of touch is the
lowest.7l

therefore, explains that when the pre fell to the state of Asfali Safilin, he o^'i) and equilibrium and his self, therefore, extended, lost his ontological unity his sense-faculty became dissipated in five places, and his inner faculties Mulla space and motion. 'Intellect-man' ( temporal Sadra, became our mysterious and assumed different names. Hence to be other than ouerselves, to live two lives, and to be inmore inability the one places at the same time.72 We are unable to prevent old-age divided

soul, however, at the human level acquires many faculties and, In spite of all this in turn, realizes riddance from matter a great deal. the soul still seems to be swathed in matter, multiplicity, time, progress, The

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But essentially our soul is intellect-bound soul and this is and death. a sign of its eventual success in realising complete riddance from matter. above, the soul is the source and the totality of all human faculties. Using various organs as tools, it is the soul which is in reality instinctive, sensitive, imaginative, and intellective, for its power en compasses thewhole body. When an act of sensation is necessary it comes As mentioned down to this level and by using sensory organs becomes identified with the eyes, ears, hands etc. In like manner, it is the same soul which rises to Thus the level of imagination, apprehension and intellection when need arises. the soul is the real doer of all these activities without losing its

oneness and sameness and without getting reduced to any of the faculties.73 soul is, thus, unity under multiplicity because it is the one and the same soul which is active under the veil of multiple faculties. Likewise The Being is unity under the veil ofmultiplicity of creation. That is why Mulla Sadra maintains that the unity of the soul is the shadow of Divine Unity. Human soul is to God what symbol is to reality or ray is to the sun. The domination of the soul over the senses and organs is a symbol of God's over the angelic world. The perfect knowledge of the human domination Thus soul will serve as a ladder thatwill lead to the knowledge of God.74

whoever

is capable grasping the unity of the soul will also be able to grasp It is a meeting point between matter and spirit, seen the unity of God. It is a and man. and unseen, subtle and heavy and lastly between God gateway towards theDivine all kinds of hell.75 kingdom but it can also be a gateway towards

Explaining that soul is the form of body but is immaterial, Mulla asserts that the sense faculties do not exist in the organs, rather or Sadra gans exist on account of them. It is the soul which is in reality endowed with the genuine five senses apart from what is visible and detectable in the body. The senses of body become inactive and listless on account of disease, sleep, unconsciousness and death, while those of the soul always remain alive and active. That iswhy in dream man can perform all the But the senses of the body are not independent of the soul, rather they are mere shadow and veil for the senses of the soul wich to him, the imaginative power are original and genuine.76 According activities of senses. (".ULiai ?yJl) of the soul is like a substance having separate entity or Being from the body essentially and actually. Because implies imagination outsidedness, freedom and detachment from the grip ofmatter. However,

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Sadra maintains that the imaginative faculty is the property of the It survives the death and disintegration of the body and soul exclusively. tastes the bitterness and agony of death. Thus it realizes the death of its own body and remains conscious of its own self even after death as an

extended Being of the soul.77 According toMulla Sadra, human soul is like a spiritual fire, for it has been created by blowing (~**&) As fire is composed of light and heat, likewise the soul is composed of light and heat. (i5?j*?jjy) Light represents If the intellect and heat and burning represent its dark material aspect. soul is able to realize its highest intellective stage of 'Acquired Intellect',

itwould become immaculate lightwithout any heat, burning and darkness; otherwise itwould become pure heat and burning and without any light.78 That is why it has been said that on the day of judgement lightwould be separated from heat. darkness of hell. Every soul undergoes many psychic transitions, and substantial stages. From motions, as it makes journey through many ontological this point of view, according toMulla Sadra, the soul itself is a way (H**) towards God but at the same time it is also the traveller on the same way. 3 dUL/)are one and the same thing in Thus the traveller and theway its actions, theoretical and practical, will be a determining factor inmoulding its form and the form is both the way and the traveller simultaneously. Thus good form will lead to God and the bad form to hellJ9 Every soul is responsible for itselfand it will go alone case of the soul. Because to God as it is born alone and dies alone. As Plotinous has said, of the alone to the alone.' The natural death means the immortal in man independence of the soul from matter or from the mortal limitations. That is why Thus the soul is like a double

or will fall headlong to the it will ascendupwardfulminating infinitely it

edged sword, either

'flight

escapes asserts that death befalls over temporal qualities and flimsy Mulla Sadra over essence and perennial substance, composition and coagulation and not because its function is to cause separation and not annihilation.80 At the early stage, however, the soul is dominated by matter and physical mere potency. But through multiplicity and its intellectual unity remains substantial motion and becoming, it goes ahead acquiring polyvalent faculties and actualizing multiple powers. The most important faculty as among others, which the soul develops is its intellect which is its form

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well as entelechy. Thus the soul gradually actualizes the four stages of its intellect. Briefly these are as follows: Material Intellect: (J^x* js*), Habitual Intellect, (~a$Ojl js*) Actual Intellect, (J**Jij ja*) and Acquired to him, ordinary soul reaches only the Intellect (^u^Jl jsc). According

Intellect in this world and only the Prophets and sages stage of Habitual realize the highest state of 'Acquired Intellect,' or 'the exalted soul' intellect and intelligible stage in which the soul becomes (jj-osjiq9^i')?a become one, distinction (Jj?*j J2*), its knowledge and action (J^j^U) between body and soul disappears and all faculties merge into one whole. As mentioned tree. Thus above, intellect is totality of creation as seed is the totality of the Intellect-man (JfcjUJ!) is the totally integrated man or the

perfect man (JJTuUJi) whose origin and end become one, and whose become 'who he is'? (j* 6-), 'what he is'? (j* U) and 'why he is'? 0* in which knowledge and one.81 This is the state of 'Ahsan Taqwim' coincide and merge together?a realization of ontological fulfilment Being which alone is capable of cutting the Gordian knots of existential mys teries and of the illusions of matter, motion, time, space and death. Motion, As mentioned time and Space

is in a state of 'Asfal above, creation as a whole a fallen state which has given rise to many accidents of which the Safilln, life of creation is woven. Among all accidents, motion, time and space are very important and one cannot exist without the other. Creation as a whole Sadra, is entangled in thewheel ofmotion whose quantitative dimension is time and conditional dimension is space. Motion, according to Mulla JmJI Jl

is the gradual becoming actual of that which is potential Thus motion means a movement ~cy$\ & *{J~A\ ?j>)82 from potency to act. We find that a seed gradually becomes a tree, a baby becomes an old man and every object in the universe in its own way is inmotion?a fact which accounts for the ceaseless and innate struggle and movement of the creation towards God, towards the lost centre and towards the ontological filfilment. Matter is, therefore, in form is seeking body, body is seeking soul, soul is variably seeking form, To sum up, the creation at seeking intellect and intellect is seeking God. large is rooted inmotion of varied forms.

In the view of Mulla Sadra, time is the quantity of motion. Instant is the border or minimal unit of time as point is the border of line. (oT) As motion implies change and movement, it needs an agent or mover to

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bring it into existence, but since ad infinitum (J~1~j) is impossible, there cannot be any motion and time before motion and time. As such they are created by theMotionless Mover, who is one encompassing (Jv^) every thing from eternity to eternity transcending motion, time and space.83

Space, according toMulla Sadra, is the inner surface of a surround ing body in such a manner that nothing remains outside of that surface. This is true only in thisworld in relation to a particular object. But if the whole space which is found in the universe is taken as one thing, nothing can remain situated outside of it (V* j in order to become space for can be no space for the space of the world as there is no all. Thus there The whole space, therefore, becomes a single

number for all numbers.

point when it is taken as one thing.84

According to some Muslim philosophers, time is imaginary and fictitiouswithout having any objective reality. While some others say that But Mulla Sadra time is made up of successive chain of 'nows' ( ouT). maintains that time is the quantity of motion and the measure of objects inmotion as they are inmotion. While motion ismutiple in form, time flows uniformly along the magic thread of before and after?a thread

generally known as duration. Thus we experience the successive chain of the diversity of events as they stretch along this thread of duration. But time is real only an instant (oT) while this instant is almost an unseiz

moment

a thing 'is' and 'is not'. Thus our Being is blended with nothing ness because everymoment we die and are reborn again.85 According toMulla

able entity. That is why Mulla Sadra asserts that time and motion and those who are determined by them are ontologically weak and themoment of their Being is the same moment of their nothingness. That is every

Sadra, time and motion are the cause for change, newness, decay of Beings as space is the cause for absence and distance among Beings. Time and motion are connected with death and dis solution because death and dissolution mean the end of time and motion. Moreover time and space are responsible for temporal and spatial absence But on the day of judgement the illusory veil and separation of Beings. and motion will be torn asunder and the creation as a whole of time, space would gather together.86 that the time and eternity, Mulla Sadra maintains Explaining two changeable and mortal Beings is called time as a stan relation between dard to measure the quantity of motion and change. There is, therefore,

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time for the persistent reality of substances as they are substance. The relation between immutable and changeable Beings is called 'dahr' (j*^) which has no temporal beginning and end but has two extremes called mutable 'AzaP and Beings And 'abad' (-^jJji). is called eternity (?Ur)87 the relation between two im

We are helpless before the finite infinityof time and space. Neither can we stop time, nor can we be present everywhere at one and the same time. We are overwhelmed before the tyranny of time, riddle of space and irresitible pull or push of motion towards death and dissolution. These are the scum of all illusions ofmundane Eschatology As mentioned this world accidents. neutralize above, we are in the fallen state of Asfal safllin in and our life is, therefore, rooted in matter and tinged with Death too is an accident among others, but it is designed to and life.

It is, however, liquidate all contingency. ironical that death is the last thing to die, because it is an accident of life which is principle. And ultimately all accidents will perish, while principle survive. Death, however, implies the neutralization of the of Ibda' and Takwm, abolition of the State of Asfal safilln and process cessation of all accidents?time, motion, space etc. It amounts to an existence and rebirth to eternal lifeafter an illusory accidental life. The meaning of death, according to Mulla Sadra, is that it is an inevitable process of nature, a natural endeavour or an instinctive desire of creation to return to its origin.88 Thus the blending of life and death alone will

all accidents

is opposed to life, but is what constitutes our earthly existence. Death In the hereafter all accidents life is principial, while death is accidental. will cease to exist, all opposition will disappear and the distinction between ' So death will be the last thing to die. "I" and 'other will be outstripped. Itwill be brought in the form of a sheep and the Prophet Yahya (one who is alive) will slaughter itby a knife which is the form of life. In the hereafter, lifewill be perfect ontologically and itwill, therefore, absorb death which is an accident and opposite to life. Thus with the death of death eternity

will reign supreme.89 To understand of death. maginable the meaning of life is to understand the meaning is a termendous and uni transition from time to

Sadra, Death, according experience of the soul, for it is a unique

to Mulla

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eternity and from the illusion of accidents to ontological integrity and That is why Mulla Sadra maintains that after death right and left reality. will disappear, every thingwould turn upside down, all secrets will be out, unseen will be seen, knowledge will be crystal clear and everything will be pure ontologically and actual intellectually.90

of paradise will transform itself into a Being of enjoyment Likewise mere desire of some thing by the people of hell will transform itself into a Being that would be totally disagreeable and by the people and pleasure:

will feel, enjoy or suffer from would not be something outside the domain of the soul itself. Everything would be ontologically real, even speech and thought process. Thus themere desire or speaking of something agreeable

In the hereafter, all accidents such as time,motion, space, dimension and extension will cease to exist and, therefore, the question: where is heaven or hell? will be metaphysically absurd and false. What the soul

capable of causing unimaginable suffering^ Thus in the hereafter everything will be pure ontologically. The worldly objects are not perfect ontolo The worldly fire is not the real fire, because it is composed of gically. natural elements and of light and heat. That iswhy it disappears into air or water is capable of extinguishing it. But the ontologically perfect fire is inextinguishable and is pure heat and darkness capable of causing in calculable

suffering. Only Divine mercy can extinguish it. The Prophetic tradition that theworldly fire has been washed seventy times and sent down to earth means that the corporeal fire is the lowest stage of the intelligible fire. O jU).92 In this world, bodies become prepared to accept their soul accord ing to their ontological fitness. But in the hereafter, souls will be architect of their bodies according to their form and mould. Thus in post-temporal man would be either angel or animal, that his soul would assume a life form which would be conformable basis of that form that the soul would

according form, rather than matter, that would be a decisive factor. It is, therefore, on the basis of different forms that human soul would be diversified into different species, angels, satans, and animals93. Thus God is theAlpha and He alone is the Omega, He is the First from whence everything came out and He

to his deeds, good or bad. It is on the be judged Because a dog is a dog to its animal form and not to its particular matter. Thus it is

is the Last whither everything goes. The outward will be absorbed by the inward because outward implies unveiling and manifesta tion that involves a kind of scandal and shame.

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Conclusion

313

been

Sadra and to most of theMuslim Philosophers, ontology is the principle as well as the centre of all metaphysical problems. To be ignorant of to be ignorant of all metaphysical problems. Because everyth ontology is ing is understandable, intelligible and explainable only in terms of it. Be ing is its raison detre, while without Being everything is ambiguous and fictitious. According to him, Being is not subjective but objective and the source of all power and action and is, therefore, principial (J-^i).

The problem of ontology has become obsolete now-a-days and has set aside as meaningless, irrational and arbitrary. But to Mulla

Mulla

However, this principiality of Being (>yjM ~<UW) as expounded by Sadra should not be confused with modern existentialism. These two ideas are basically contradictory and incompatiable with each other. Existentialism has appeared in European philosophy at a time when the question of Being as expounded by S. Thomas Acquinas and other Catho

lic saints ceased to exist. After Descartes and particularly in 19th and 20th centuries, nobody believed Being to be an objective reality independent of the word 'existence' means individual life any thinking mind. Moreover, or individual Being and does not imply an encompassing objective reality. should be interpreted as principiality of life Existentialism, therefore, u ~et*Jl (J^jj cJW ~aJU) and not principiality of Being (>y?J\ -*JUI)94. Thus the existential philosophy of France believes only in the values of the temporal life of man. Because man is alone and he must the fact that his future is threatened by nothingness and total ex accept tinction. For him there is no transcendent, Omnipotent and Absolute

Being to aspire after and feelmostalgia for. He is a poor earthling, an isolated product of biological hazard and a fortuitious mixture of nature

man

his earthly contingency. Whereas according to existential philosophy is condemned to nothingness and subjected to futility. He has no future outside the short span of earthly life.95

dent of and separated from God, who is the Absolute Being. Through his Being, man is always in touch with God and eternity. He will enjoy an eternal lifewhen he realizes his ontological fulfilment by casting aside

devoid of any transcendental orientation. The aim of existential philosophy is, therefore, only to preserve and safeguard temporal human values such as fighting against social injustice and persecution of man. But the doc trine of principiality and unity of Being means thatman is never indepen

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The history of ontology in Islamic philosophy and European philo sophy is different from each other. A contemporary French orientalist has made a deep research in this field which he has written in the introduc He has pointed out tory chapter ofMulla Sadra's book kitab al-Masha'ir. that in European philosophy 'Being' has been used as an infinitive 'to be' but gradually its meaning has become restricted and finally has been narrowed down to a mere mental concept devoid of any meaning and On the other hand, in Islamic thought being has always been used reality. as an imperative 'be' (uO> that Being is a Divine command and, therefore, is a perennial objective reality.96

Islamic thought, however, tends to take things as they are in reality in order to ascertain their deepest nature and ultimate meaning. It aims at putting everything in its proper perspective. That is why accidents are to usurp the rank of substance and Beings are not relegated to the position of quiddity and contingency. Thus it tries to create a metaphysical vision and judgement of things in order that man may not take himself for what he is not and things may not appear to be what not allowed they are not. metaphysical It is saturated with an acute Absolute and relative, real and un-real. consciousness of theAbsolute and of the unreality and ephemeral character of what is other than theAbsolute. are decentralized earthlings. They try to dispense and, thus, exclude Him from every area of life. They, in turn, create false absolutes which they live by. As decentralized earth mind is embedded with false images and shifting concepts, while lings, their The moderns It therefore, judges things in their ontological context and reality, and, thus, tends to be a discernment between the

with the Absolute

they are oblivious of their origin and ultimate becoming. They are interested in and preoccupied with this world and their passion clings to what is wroldly only. They, therefore, recoil from the idea of the super natural Absolute Being and from the posthumous becoming and suffering. But Islamic thought sets forth a consistent and meaningful idea about creation, mystery of life and death, the miracle of existence and the illusion of time and space. Its mission is tomake man conscious of his origin and end, of theAbsolute and of his lost centre and thereby provide him with something to live for and something to die for.

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METAPHYSICS

OF MULLA Notes :

SADRA 315

1. Mulla 2. Mulla

Sadra: Sadra,

al-Asfdr, Kitdb

vol.-I

p. 20. p. 5.

al-MashdHr,

3. Mulla Sadra, al-Shawdhidal-Rubbubiyyah 14. p.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Mulla Ibid., Ibid, Mulla Sadra, pp. p. Rasdil, p. 67. 69, 73, 75. 103. al-Asfdr, vol. 1, p. 20.

Sadra,

Ibid., p. 21. Ibid., p. 21. Ibid., p. 22.

11. Mulla Sadra, ?ifa6 a/ Mashd'ir, p. 4.

12. Mulla Sadra, al-Asfdr, vol. I, p. 253.

13 Mulla Sadra, Kitdb al-Mashd'ir p. 6, 7, 8, 9,10.

14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. Mulla Sadra, al-Asf&r, vol. I, p. 61, 66. Ibid., p. 54. Mulla Mulla AJ. Mulla Ibid. Mulla Sadra, Sadra Arbery, Sadra, pp. 6, 7. Sadra, 115. 'Ashiyyah, p. 220. al-Asfdr, vol. I, p. 260. a -Asfdr, vol. I, pp. 68-69. 'Arshiyyah, al-Asfdr, The Koran al-Shawdhid vol. p. 220. I, p. 114. the cattle, p. 6. 103.

Interpreted,

al-Rububiyyah,

Ibid., p. Mulla Mulla

Sadra Sadra,

Ibid., pp. Ibid., p.

187, 188. 122.

27. Mulla Sadra, l-Shawdhid al-Rububiyyahp. 145,41. 28. SJ. Ashiyani,Hasti, p. 46

29. 30. 31. 32. Mulla Sadra, al-Asfdr, 116. vol. 8, p. 76. Ibid., vol. Ibid., p. Ibid., p. I, p. 117. 118.

33. Mulla Sadra, RasdUl pp 135, 136, 137.

34. Ibid., p.m.

35. Mulla Sadra, Rasdil, p. 342 36. Mulla Sadra, al-Shawdhidal-Rububiyyah. 224. p.

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316
37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. Mulla Mul'a Sadra, Sadra, 140. Rasdil, al-Asfdr, Rasdil, Rasa'il

MUHAMMAD
p. 342. al-Rububiyyah,

'ABDUL-HAQ

al-Shawdhid

p.

180.

Ibid., p. Mulla Mulla Mulla

Sadra, Sadra, Sadra,

p. 250. vol p. 353. I, p. 180.

43. Mulla Sadra, al-Asfdr, pp. 70, 187,Rasail, p. 363. 44. Mulla Sadra Rasdil p. 354.
45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. Mulla Mulla Mulla Sadra, Sadra, Sadra al-Asfar, al-Mazdhir, al-Asfdr, vol. I, p. 188. p. 32. al-Ildhiyyah,

vol. p. 221. The cave, 109.

Arberry, Mulla Mulla Ibid. Ibid., 325

The Koran

Interpreted, vol. p. 337.

Sadra, Sadra,

al-Asfdr, Rasdil,

8, p. 352.

Arberry, Mulla Ibid,

The Koran Rasdil,

Interpreted, p. 326.

The

Battlements,

178

Sadra, p. 309.

Arberry,

The Koran

Interpreted,

The

battlement,

178.

57. Mulla Sadra Rasdil, pp. 252, 254.

58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. Ibid., Ibid., p. 291. p. 313, 814.

Ibid., p. 314, 315. Mulla Sadra, al-Asfdr, vol. 8. p. 355.

Ibid., p. 356. Mulla Mulla Sadra, Sadra, Rasdil, al-Asfdr, p. 312. vol. 8, p. 356.

65. SeyyedHossein Nasr, Ma'drif Is/ami, Tehran, 1388A.H. p. 211.

66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. Mulla Mulla Mulla Mulla Mulla Mulla Sadra, Sadra, Sadra, Sadra, Sadra Sadra, 'Arshiyyah. al-Shawdhid al-Mazdhir Rasdil, pp. p. 23x. al-Rubibiyyah, al-Ildhiyyah, 303, 320. al-Rububiyyah, vol. 8, p. 81. p. 208. p. 221. p. 62.

al-Shawdhid ai-Asfdr,

Ibid., p. 249. Mulla Mulla Sadra, Sadra, al-Shawdhidal-Rub'biyyah, Al-Asfdr, vol. 8, p. 224. p. 228.

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METAPHYSICS
75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. Mulla Sadra, 'Arshiyyah, p. 246.

OF MULL5

SADRA 317

Ibid., p. 236. Ibid., Mulla Mulla Mulla p. 248. Sadra, Sadra, Sadra, al-Shawdhid 'Arshiyyah, sA-Mazdhir al-Rububiyyah, p. 264. al Ildhiyyah, p. 68. p. 198.

81. Mulla Sadra: al-Shawdhidal-Rububiyyah 241, 200, 249. pp.

82. 83. Mulla Sadra, Rasail p. 304. Ibid., p. 304.

84. Ibid, 303.

85. 86. Ia'far Mulla Sajjadi, Sadra, Mustalahdt-i-Mulla al-Mazdhir Sadra, p. 118. 119,120,121. p. 73.

al-Ildliyyah,

87. Mulla Sadra, Rasdil, p. 305.

88. Ibid., p. 338.

89. Mulla Sadra, 'Arshiyyah 270. p.

90. 91. Mulla Mulla Sadra, Sadra, RasdHl, p. 285. p. 253. 'Arshiyyah.

92.

p. Ibid., p. 286 al-Shawdhidal Rububiyyah, 166,265.

Hossin Islami. p. 207.

93. Mulla Sadra, 'Arshiyyah, 242, 243. pp.

94. Sayyed Nasr, Ma'drif

95.
96.

Ibid., 207, 208.

Henri Tehran, Corbin, 1964. Introductory chapter, Kitab al-Mashd'ir Institute of Franco-Iran,

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