Assignment 3

[502]

Computer Networks

Submitted To : Ms. Arti Dua Submitted By : Mayank Jaitly Roll No : 1002049 BSc(H), Computer Science III yr

Ques : What is marshaling? Ans : Marshalling is the process of gathering data and transforming it into a standard format before it is transmitted over a network so that the data can transcend network boundaries. Marshalling can be described as the process of gathering data from one or more application s or non-contiguous sources in computer storage, putting the data pieces into a message buffer, and organizing or converting the data into a format that is prescribed for a particular receiver or programming interface. Marshalling is usually required when passing the output parameters of a program written in one language as input to a program written in another language. Ques 2 : Write a short note for (i) RTC Ans: The Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP) is an Internet protocol standard that specifies a way for programs to manage the real-time transmission of multimedia data over either unicast or multicast network services. RTP is commonly used in Internet telephony applications. RTP does not in itself guarantee real-time delivery of multimedia data (since this is dependent on network characteristics); it does, however, provide the wherewithal to manage the data as it arrives to best effect. RTP combines its data transport with a control protocol (RTCP), which makes it possible to monitor data delivery for large multicast networks. As a rule, RTP runs on top of the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), although it can use other transport protocols. RTP components include: a sequence number, which is used to detect lost packets; payload identification, which describes the specific media encoding so that it can be changed if it has to adapt to a variation in bandwidth; frame indication, which marks the beginning and end of each frame; source identification, which identifies the originator of the frame; and intramedia synchronization, which uses timestamp to detect different delay jitter within a single stream and compensate for it. Both the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) and H.323 use RTP. (ii) RPC Ans: Remote Procedure Call (RPC) is a protocol that one program can use to request a service from a program located in another computer in a network without having to understand network details. (A procedure call is also sometimes known as a function call or a subroutine call.) RPC uses the client/server model. The requesting program is a client and the service-providing program is the server. Like a regular or local procedure call, an RPC is a synchronous operation requiring the requesting program to be suspended until the results of the remote procedure are returned. However, the use of lightweight processes or threads that share the same address space allows multiple RPCs to be performed concurrently. When program statements that use RPC are compiled into an executable program, a stub is included in the compiled code that acts as the representative of the remote procedure code. When the program is run and the procedure call is issued, the stub receives the request and forwards it to a client runtime program in the local computer. The client runtime program has the knowledge of how to address the remote computer and server application and sends the message across the network that requests the remote procedure. Similarly, the server includes a runtime program and stub that interface with the remote procedure itself. Results are returned the same way.

RPC spans the Transport layer and the Application layer in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model of network communication. Ques : What is collision domain? Ans: A computer network can be segmented physically and logically. A collision domain is one of the logical network segments in which the data packets can collide with each other. One of the most common protocols used when referring to a collision domain is the Ethernet protocol. Collision domains are often referred to as Ethernet segments. The term collision domain is also used when describing the circumstances in which a single network device sends packets throughout a network segment and forces every other device in that network segment to pay attention to those packets. Using CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) is an efficient way of avoiding network collisions, but it is not foolproof. It is obvious that if two devices follow the exact procedure at the exact same time, their transmissions will collide and they will both become unusable. A jam signal will be sent in order to let everyone else know that a collision took place and they should not send any data. The hosts that collided will each start a random timer and when that ends, each host will begin to listen on the network again. Reducing the collision domain size can be the result of installing network devices (usually switches and/or network bridges) that use microsegmentation. Unlike network hubs and regular repeaters that usually broadcast every single packet, LAN switches are able to filter and forward packets by their MAC address (Media Access Control). The switch basically reads the 48-bit MAC address from the network card and filters or stops frames inside the LAN or a certain network domain. Ques : Explain the working of TCM (Trellis Coded Modulation)? Ans : - With many points in the constellation pattern, even a small amount of noise in the detected amplitude or phase can result in an error and, potentially, many bad bits. To reduce the chance of an error, standards for the higher speeds modems do error correction by adding extra bits to each sample. The schemes are known as TCM (Trellis Coded Modulation). Thus, for example, the V.32 modem standard uses 32 constellation points to transmit 4 data bits and 1 parity bit per symbol at 2400 baud to achieve 9600 bps with error correction. Its constellation pattern is shown in Fig. (a). the decision to ''rotate'' around the origin by 45 degrees was done for engineering reasons; the rotated and unrotated constellations have the same information c

(a) V.32 for 9600 bps. (b) V32 bis for 14,400 bps.

The next step above 9600 bps is 14,400 bps. It is called V.32 bis. This speed is achieved by transmitting 6 data bits and 1 parity bit per sample at 2400 baud. Its constellation pattern has 128 points when QAM-128 is used and is shown in Fig. (b). Fax modems use this speed to transmit pages that have been scanned in as bit maps. QAM-256 is not used in any standard telephone modems, but it is used on cable networks. Ques : What is multipath fading? How to overcome it? Ans : The physical phenomenon is the reflection of radio waves (that are transmitted from an antenna) off structures like buildings, mountains, trees, what not. Thus the received signal is a sum of several reflections with different delays, different phase changes and different amplitude attenuations. The typical scenario affected by multipath is a cell phone receiver. Causes of multipath include atmospheric ducting, ionosphere reflection and refraction, and reflection from terrestrial objects, such as mountains and buildings. The effects of multipath include constructive and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal. This causes Rayleigh fading, named after Lord Rayleigh. The standard statistical model of this gives a distribution known as the Rayleigh distribution. To overcome multipath fading, the only solution is to shut off links that are being rained on and route around them. It can also be overcome by shifting the location of one node, or by switching the communication carrier frequency.

Ques : Describe connection establishment as well as connection termination process for TCP? Ans : To establish a connection, TCP uses a three-way handshake. Before a client attempts to connect with a server, the server must first bind to and listen at a port to open it up for connections: this is called a passive open. Once the passive open is established, a client may initiate an active open. To establish a connection, the three-way (or 3-step) handshake occurs:

SYN: The active open is performed by the client sending a SYN to the server. The client sets the segment's sequence number to a random value A. SYN-ACK: In response, the server replies with a SYN-ACK. The acknowledgment number is set to one more than the received sequence number (A + 1), and the sequence number that the server chooses for the packet is another random number, B. ACK: Finally, the client sends an ACK back to the server. The sequence number is set to the received acknowledgement value i.e. A + 1, and the acknowledgement number is set to one more than the received sequence number i.e. B + 1. At this point, both the client and server have received an acknowledgment of the connection. The steps 1, 2 establish the connection parameter (sequence number) for one direction and it is acknowledged. The steps 2, 3 establish the connection parameter (sequence number) for the other direction and it is acknowledged. With these, a full-duplex communication is established. The connection termination phase uses a four-way handshake, with each side of the connection terminating independently. When an endpoint wishes to stop its half of the connection, it transmits a FIN packet, which the other end acknowledges with an ACK. Therefore, a typical tear-down requires a pair of FIN and ACK segments from each TCP endpoint. After both FIN/ACK exchanges are concluded, the side which sent the first FIN before receiving one waits for a timeout before finally closing the connection, during which time the local port is unavailable for new connections; this prevents confusion due to delayed packets being delivered during subsequent connections.

A connection can be "half-open", in which case one side has terminated its end, but the other has not. The side that has terminated can no longer send any data into the connection, but the other side can. The terminating side should continue reading the data until the other side terminates as well.

Ques : Explain in detail different types of ISDN (Integrated Service Digital Network)? Ans : ISDN is a system with digitized phone connections which has been pure analogue connection for a decade. This is the first protocol defines on a digital communications line that allows for the transmission of voice, data, video and graphics, at very high speeds, over standard communication lines simultaneously, carried by bearer channels (B channels) occupying a bandwidth of 64 Kbits per second (some switches limit it to a capacity of 56 kb/s). A data channel (D channel) is defined handles signaling at 16 kb/s or 64 kb/s, depending on the service type. ISDN is not restricted to public telephone networks alone; it may be transmitted via packet switched networks, telex, CATV networks, etc. There are two basic types of ISDN service: Basic Rate Interface (BRI) - consists of two 64 kb/s B channels and one 16 kb/s D channel for a total of 144 kb/s. This basic service is intended to meet the needs of most individual users. The U interface provided by the telco for BRI is a 2-wire, 160 kb/s digital connection. Echo cancellation is used to reduce noise, and data encoding schemes (2B1Q in North America, 4B3T in Europe) permit this relatively high data rate over ordinary single-pair local loops. Primary Rate Interface (PRI) which is intended for users with greater capacity requirements. Typically the channel structure is 23 B channels plus one 64 kb/s D channel for a total of 1536 kb/s. In Europe, PRI consists of 30 B channels plus one 64 kb/s D channel for a total of 1984 kb/s. It is also possible to support multiple PRI lines with one 64 kb/s D channel using Non-Facility Associated Signaling (NFAS). Ques : Difference between in-bound signaling and out-bound signaling? Ans : In telecommunications, in-band signaling is the sending of metadata and control information within the same band or channel used for voice (e.g. DTMF tones) and can be heard by the callers, as opposed to out-ofband signals (e.g. SS7 control signals) which cannot be heard as they are on a different channel or band. For example, when dialing a modern telephone, the telephone number is encoded and transmitted across the telephone line as Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency (DTMF) tones. The tones "control" the telephone system by instructing the telephone company's equipment where to route the call to. These control tones are sent over the same channel and in the frequency range (300Hz to 3.4kHz) as the voice and other sounds of the telephone call. In-band signaling is also used on older telephone carrier systems to provide inter-exchange information on how to route calls. Examples of this kind of in-band signaling system are SS5 and R2. The term out-of-band has different uses in communications and telecommunication. In case of out-of-band control signaling, signaling bits are sent in special order in a dedicated signaling frame. D-channel in ISDN is an example of out-of-band and CCS signaling method. In personal communications, methods other than e-mail (such as telephone or snail-mail) are sometimes called "out-of-band.

Ques : Explain the services provided by B-ISDN (Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network)? Ans: Network (B-ISDN or Broadband ISDN) is designed to handle high-bandwidth applications. BISDN currently uses ATM technology over SONET-based transmission circuits to provide data rates from 155 to 622Mbps and

beyond, contrast with the traditional narrowband ISDN (or N-ISDN), which is only 64 Kbps basically and up to 2 Mbps. The designed Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) services can be categorized as follows: Conversational services such as telephone-like services, which was also supported by N-ISDN. Also the additional bandwidth offered will allow such services as video telephony, video conferencing and high volume, high speed data transfer. Messaging services, which is mainly a store-and-forward type of service. Applications could include voice and video mail, as well as multi-media mail and traditional electronic mail. Retrieval services which provides access to (public) information stores, and information is sent to the user on demand only. No user control of presentation. This would be for instance, a TV broadcast, where the user can choose simply either to view or not. User controlled presentation. This would apply to broadcast information that the user can partially control.

Ques : Explain access method used in FDDI. Also give brief description about FDDI Time register and Timer? Ans : In FDDI, access is limited by time .A station may send as many as it can within its allotted access period, with the proviso that real time data may be send first. To implement this access mechanism. FDDI differentiate between two types of data frames: synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous here refers to information that is real-time; while asynchronous refer to information that is not. These frames are usually called S-frames and A-frames. Each station that captures a token is requiring sending S-frames first. In fact, it must send its S-frames whether or not it times allotment has run out. Time Register:

FDDI defines three time register to control circulation of the token and distribute link-access opportunity among the nodes equitably. a. Synchronous Allocation (SA), the SA register indicates the length of time allowed each station for sending synchronous data. This value id different for each station and is negotiated during initialization of the ring. b. Target Token Rotation Time (TTRT), the TTRT register indicate the average time required for a token to circulate around the ring exactly once. c. Absolute Maximum Time (AMT), the AMT register hold a value equal to twice the TTRT. A token may not take longer time to make one rotation of the ring. -

Timers:

Each station contains a set of timer that enables it to compare actual timing with the value contained in the register. Two timer used by FDDI are a. Token Rotation Timer (TRT), the TRT runs continuously and measures the actual time taken by a token to complete a cycle. b. Token Holding Timer (THT), the THT begin running as soon as the token is received. It function is to show how much remains for sending asynchronous frames once the synchronous frames has been sent.

Ques : Difference between forward learning and backward learning?