A Coupled Multiphase Fluid Flow And Heat And Vapor Transport Model

For AirGap Membrane Distillation

Sumit Mukhopadhyay

Citation: AIP Conf. Proc. 1254, 109 (2010); doi: 10.1063/1.3453795
View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3453795
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Published by the American Institute of Physics.

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A Coupled Multiphase Fluid Flow And Heat And Vapor
Transport Model For Air-Gap Membrane Distillation
Sumit Mukhopadhyay
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
Abstract. Membrane distillation (MD) is emerging as a viable desalination technology because of its low energy requirements
that can be provided from low-grade, waste heat and because it causes less fouling. In MD, desalination is accomplished by
transporting water vapour through a porous hydrophobic membrane. The vapour transport process is governed by the vapour
pressure difference between the two sides of a membrane. A variety of configurations have been tested to impose this vapour
pressure gradient, however, the air-gap membrane distillation (AGMD) has been found to be the most efficient.

The separation mechanism of AGMD and its overall efficiency is based on vapour-liquid equilibrium (VLE). At present, little
knowledge is available about the optimal design of such a transmembrane VLE-based evaporation, and subsequent condensation
processes. While design parameters for MD have evolved mostly through experimentations, a comprehensive mathematical
model is yet to be developed. This is primarily because the coupling and non-linearity of the equations, the interactions between
the flow, heat and mass transport regimes, and the complex geometries involved pose a challenging modelling and simulation
problem. Yet a comprehensive mathematical model is needed for systematic evaluation of the processes, design
parameterization, and performance prediction. This paper thus presents a coupled fluid flow, heat and mass transfer model to
investigate the main processes and parameters affecting the performance of an AGMD.
Keywords: Membrane distillation, desalination, porous medium flow, multiphase flow and transport, multicomponent
diffusion, mathematical modeling
PACS: 47.55-t, 47.56+r, 47.11-j, 44.30+v, 44.35+c, 44.05+e
INTRODUCTION
Sustaining the growing need for freshwater is one of
the most critical challenges of our times. Today, about
three billion people around the world have no access to
clean drinking water [1]. According to the World
Water Council, by 2020, the world will be about 17%
short of the fresh water needed to sustain the world
population. Moreover, about 1.76 billion people live in
areas already facing a high degree of lacking water. It
is predicted that an even larger population will be
affected soon because of the rapid depletion of
groundwater and surface water resources [1].

While no one single approach (reduction in usage,
recycling and reuse, rainwater harvesting, etc.) is
expected to alleviate the problem of freshwater
scarcity, low-cost desalination and purification of
seawater is emerging as an important and viable
source of fresh water. While traditional thermal
desalination technologies (such as multi-stage flash
evaporation, multiple-effect distillation, and vapor
compression) are energy intensive processes, the
emergence of membrane-based separation
technologies (such as reverse osmosis, RO) have
reduced the energy requirements associated with
desalination. Consequently, desalination through
membrane processes as a source of freshwater is
becoming economically more viable [2].

Desalination has received a further impetus through
the recent advent of a low-cost, energy-efficient
membrane-based separation technology, membrane
distillation. (MD). Even though the energy
requirement for MD is comparable to RO processes,
RO requires electrical energy, however, MD requires
only low-grade heat with a temperature of 50-90
o
C
(waste heat or solar energy can be used to heat up the
feed in MD). Also, because MD operates in counter-
current mode, efficient use of the energy supplied is
obtained. Consequently, it has been predicted that MD
will be able to produce freshwater at about $0.26/m
3

[2]. Additionally, MD provides some operational
advantages (such as less susceptibility to fouling) over
109
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CREDIT LINE (BELOW) TO BE INSERTED ON THE FIRST PAGE OF EACH PAPER
EXCEPT THE ARTICLES ON PP. 109 114, 266 271, 287 293, and 293 - 298


CP1254, Porous Media and Its Applications in Science, Engineering, and Industry 3
rd
Intl Conference, edited by K. Vafai
2010 American Institute of Physics 978-0-7354-0803-6/10/$30.00



CREDIT LINE (BELOW) TO BE INSERTED ONLY ON THE FIRST PAGE OF
THE ARTICLES ON PP. 109 114, 266 271, 287 293, and 293 - 298


CP1254, Porous Media and Its Applications in Science, Engineering, and Industry 3
rd
Intl Conference, edited by K. Vafai
2010 American Institute of Physics 978-0-7354-0803-6/10/$30.00

RO (where fouling and compaction of the fouling
layers poses major operational challenges).
Considering all these factors, MD presents substantial
potential as a viable desalination technology.

MD is a separation process that involves transport of
water vapour through a porous hydrophobic
membrane. The vapour transport process is governed
by the vapour pressure difference between the two
sides of the membrane. A variety of configurations
have been tested to impose this vapour pressure
gradient, however, the air-gap membrane distillation
(AGMD) has been found to be the most efficient. The
main advantage of the AGMD against other
configurations is that it allows the collection of
condensate on a cold surface rather than directly in a
cold liquid [1-6].

In an AGMD configuration, the expected mass transfer
steps involve movement within the liquid feed toward
the membrane surface, evaporation at the membrane
interface, and transport of the vapour through the
membrane pores and the air-gap prior to condensation.
Thus, the separation mechanism of membrane
distillation and its overall efficiency is based on
vapour-liquid equilibrium (VLE).

Although the potential of AGMD has been recognized
for some time now, its growth at the industrial scale
has been rather limited [3]. This slow growth is mainly
because of the lack of reliable optimal design
parameters. While design parameters for AGMD have
been evolving mostly through experimentations, a
comprehensive conceptual and mathematical model is
yet to be developed. To date, the modeling studies
reported in literature on AGMD mainly investigate the
temperature polarization phenomena, and heat and
mass transport processes based on empirical
relationships [4,5]. These previous modeling
approaches do not actually solve for the multiphase
flow distribution associated with AGMD. This is
primarily because the coupling and non-linearity of the
equations, the interactions between the flow, heat and
mass transport regimes, and the complex geometries
involved pose a challenging modelling problem. Yet a
comprehensive mathematical model that solves for the
coupled equations is needed for systematic evaluation
of the processes, design parameterization, and
performance prediction. This work thus proposes the
development of a coupled flow, heat and mass transfer
model to investigate the main processes and
parameters affecting the performance of an AGMD.


COUPLED PROCESSES IN AGMD
Figure 1 presents a schematic drawing of a single
AGMD module [6]. The water on the high temperature
side of the hydrophobic membrane vaporizes from the
liquid-vapor interface. The vapor is transported
through the membrane pores and is condensed on the
cold surface, separated from the membrane by the air-
gap. A porous hydrophobic membrane is used because
it allows permeation of vapor only, not liquid. Highly
hydrophobic membranes with an appropriate pore size

Figure 1. Schematic representation of AGMD processes [6]

are therefore generally used.

In general terms, understanding the physics of flow in
an AGMD module requires an analysis of fluid flow,
heat and mass transport processes through a porous
medium in a multiphase, multicomponent system.
More specifically, we need a conceptual model
consisting of two phases (liquid and gas) and two
components (water and air). The liquid phase consists
of water, which can have some dissolved air and a
number of dissolved solutes (in the feed seawater).
The gas-phase may be consisted of air plus any water
vapor generated through evaporation.

For an accurate description of the coupled fluid flow,
heat and mass transport processes in AGMD, a
conceptual model needs to account for the following
physical processes: Fluid flow by advection under
pressure, viscous, and gravity (if any) forces; heat
transport through conduction and convection,
vaporization and condensation, phase change and
latent heat effects; transport of dissolved solutes, and
their concentration changes because of evaporation;
capillary pressure and relative permeability effects at
the vapor-liquid interface and in the membrane pores;
110
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and multicomponent diffusion in a multiphase system.
In addition to these physical processes, the conceptual
model also needs to account for the complex and
tortuous flow paths in the membrane and condenser
channels, resulting from the placement of the spacers.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF AGMD
COUPLED PROCESSES
In developing the mathematical model, while
including most of the physical processes described
above, we make some simplifying assumptions. First,
we will conceptualize both the membrane and
condenser channels as equivalent porous media, with
the effective porosities, permeabilities, and tortuosities
estimated from the shape and configuration of the
spacers. Second, we will assume that evaporation does
not alter the dissolved solute concentration in the
membrane channel, and that the impact of the
dissolved solutes on vapor pressure is negligible.
Third, it will also be assumed that the feed water has
no particulate solids. Fourth, membrane fouling
resulting from deposition/adsorption of solutes on the
membrane surface will be excluded from the model.

Governing Equations For Multiphase Flow
And Transport
For a flow system with two components (water and
air) and two phases (liquid and gas), Gibbs phase rule
dictates that two degrees of freedom (e.g., pressure and
temperature) are needed. Additionally, there are the
phase saturations (s
l
and s
g
) that need to be
determined. However, only one of the saturations
needs to be resolved as the two are related by
(1)
1 = +
g l
s s
In other words, there are three unknowns (e.g.,
pressure, temperature and one of the phase
saturations), and thus to resolve the flow system
completely, we need to have three equations. These
equations could be the mass conservation equations of
the two components and the energy balance equation
[7].

The mass balance equation for water in any arbitrary
subdomain (with dimensions Ax, Ay, and Az) of the
flow system can be written as

| |
| |
l
w
g
w
g g
w
l
w
l l g
w
g g l
w
l l
w
g g g
w
l l l
q X D X D X X
X s X s
t
+ V V + V
= +
c
c

|
u u
(2)
where | is porosity, s is saturation, is density, X is
mass fraction, u is specific flux (or fluid velocity), D is
for air can be similarly
pressed as
the diffusive strength factor (see below), and q is the
source or sink term. Subscripts l and g refer to the
liquid and gas phases, respectively. Superscripts w
and a are used to specify the water and air components
in the system, respectively.

The conservation equation
ex
| |
| |
a
a
g
a
g g
a
l
a
l l g
a
g g l
a
l l
g g g
q X D X D X X + V V + V u u
(3)
Finally, The energy balance equation for th
subdomain is
a a
l l l
X s X s
t
= +
c
c
|
e same

( ) | |
l l
U U s U s
t
+ +
c
c
| | | 1
| |
h g g g l l l
s s g g g l
q T h u h u + V + V =
(4)
ion 3, U is the internal e
enthalpy, is the thermal conductivity, and T is
d that the phase velocities can be
etermined from Darcys law such that
In Equat nergy, h is the
temperature.

It is assume
d
( ) g u
| |
_
|

A = P
k
k
r
(5)
where k is ility, k
r|
is the relative the absolute permeab
velocity of phase |, and g is the acceleration due to
gravity. The fluid pressure in phase | (P
|
) is the sum
of a reference pressure P (assumed equal to the
pressure of the gas phase) and the capillary pressure,
i.e.,

| | C
P P P + = (6)

Multicomponent Diffusion

The Ficks law of molecular diffusion works well for
iffusion of tracer solutes that are present at low
mponent systems may
epend on all concentration variables, leading to non-
d
concentrations in a single-phase aqueous solution.
However, many subtleties and complications arise
when multiple components diffuse in a multiphase
flow system, as in AGMD [7].

Effective diffusivities in multico
d
linear behavior especially when some components are
present in significant (non-tracer) concentrations.
Additional nonlinear effects arise from the dependence
of tortuosity on phase saturations, and from coupling
between advective and diffusive transport. For gases
and vapors, the Fickian model has serious limitations
even at low concentrations, which prompted the
development of the dusty gas model [8,9], and
111
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accounts for molecular streaming effects (Knudsen
diffusion) that become very important when the mean
free path of gas molecules is comparable to pore sizes
[8,9,10].

We have use
fl
d a pragmatic approach in which diffusive
ux of component (water or air) in phase (= liquid,
gas) is written as [7]

k
|
k
| |
k
|
X D f A = (7)
where

k
| |
k
|
t |t d D (8)
0
=
Diffusion coefficients ( )
k
|
d of
follows [11]
gases depend on
pressure and temperature as
( ) ( )
80 . 1
15 . 273
15 . 273
, ,
0
0 0
|
|
|

|
+
+
=
T
T
P
P
T P d T P d
k
|
k
|
0 . \
(9)
, for general two-phase conditions, th
flux for component k is written as
Equ ral
finite difference method [7,12]. Time is discretized
NUMERICAL MODEL
In this pap le AGMD
module, consisting of a feed channel, a condenser
te and at a specified temperature. Cooling water is

F
ngle
flow channels are initially
turated with water. Initial pressure in the entire flow
iscosity, and saturated vapor pressure) are calculated
=0 C), the diffusion coefficient for air-water vapor
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Figure 3 shows the temperature profile in the feed and
ndenser channels. For this simulation, we assumed a
Finally e diffusive

k k k k

g g g l l l
k
X D X D f A A = (10)
Spatial and Temporal Discretization
ations 2, 3, and 4 are discretized using the integ
using a fully implicit finite difference scheme. Such a
discretization approach yields a set of three coupled
nonlinear algebraic equations per volume element of
the overall flow system. These equations are solved
using a stabilized bi-conjugate gradient solver [7].

er, we consider only a sing
channel, a membrane and an air-gap, of the AGMD
design (see Figure 2). We assume that flow in both the
feed and condenser channels can be represented by
flow between two flat rectangular plates (see Figure
2). In other words, it is assumed that flow is one-
dimensional. Because the lengths of the feed and
condenser channels (1. 5 m) are significantly larger
than their widths (0.002 m), this is a reasonable
assumption. The hydrophobic membrane and the air
gap are 150 m and 0.001 m wide.

Seawater is input into the feed channel at a constant
ra
sent through the condenser channel countercurrent to
the flow in the feed channel. Simulations are
performed for both the scenarios where the flow rates
are same in the two channels or different. The
membrane and the air gap are initially saturated with





chematic representation of one-dimensional,
module of AGMD



igure 2. S
si

air, whereas the two
sa
system is assumed to be 0.5510
5
Pa, and initial
temperature is 30
o
C.

All water properties (density, specific enthalpy,
v
from the steam table equations as given by the
International Formulation Committee [13]. Air is
approximated as an ideal gas, and additivity is
assumed for air and vapor partial pressures in the gas
phase, Pg = Pa + Pv. The viscosity of air-vapor
mixtures is computed from a formulation given by
Hirschfelder et al. [14]. The solubility of air in liquid
water is represented by Henry's law.

At standard conditions (P
0
=1.0132510
5
Pa and
T
o
0
mixture is 2.3410
-5
m
2
s
-1
. Diffusion at any other
pressure or temperature is calculated using Equation 9.
Liquid- and gas-phase relative permeabilities are
assumed to be linear functions of saturation.

co
flow rate of 1.08 lit hr
-1
for both the feed and
condenser channels. As indicated earlier, the whole
system was initially at 30
o
C. Hot water was fed at
85
o
C at the left hand side of figure 3, and was flowing
left to right (in Figure 3). Cold water at 30
o
C was
flowing from right to left (see Figure 3). After 1000
seconds of operation (as shown in Figure 3), the
maximum temperature within the feed channel was
72
o
C and declining gradually from left to right along
the length of the channel. As expected, temperature
was rising from right to left in the condenser channel,
with the temperature being about 65
o
C at the exit of
the condenser channel. In other words, a temperature
difference was created at any location between the
Condenser
Mem brane
Air-gap Air-gap
x
y z
Feed
y z
x
112
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feed and condenser channel. After continuing with the
operation for a significant time, a steady state
temperature profile is achieved as shown in Figure 3.
When steady state conditions are reached, feed water
was entering the system at 85
o
C and exiting at about
35
o
C, whereas condenser water (that was entering the
system at 30
o
C) was leaving the system at about 80
o
C.
A constant temperature difference of about 5
o
C was
thus established across most of the lengths of the feed
and condenser channels.

Figure 3. Simulated temperature profile in the feed and
condenser channels
Fi d
lines) and gas (da on profiles in the
gure 4 shows the gradual evolution of liquid (soli
shed lines) saturati
feed channel at different times during operation, and
also at steady state. Note that gas saturation includes
contributions from both water vapor and air. With
continued operation more and more vapor is generated
(gas saturation increases and liquid saturation
decreases) until a steady state is reached, where liquid
saturation varies between 0.4 (at the feed water entry
side) to 0.2 (at the feed water exit side).


Figure 4. Liquid and gas saturation profiles in the feed
channel.
Ini n
of air is one and the tion of air in the gas
tially, the air-gap contained only air (gas saturatio
mass frac
phase is one). However, vapor generated in the feed
channel diffused through the membrane and entered
the air-gap, where it condensed, and the condensed
water drained out into a collection bucket
(conceptually). Consequently, the liquid and gas phase
saturation (plus the mass fraction of air and water
vapor) changed with time in the air-gap during
operation. This is illustrated in Figure 5, which shows
the transient change in saturation and mass fraction
profiles in the air-gap.

Figure 5. Temperature, liquid and gas saturation, and air
mass fraction profiles in the air-gap.

rate as a
nction of time. This figure shows results from three
Figure 6 s
fu
hows the freshwater collection
operation modes. For these three operations, all the
physical and operational parameters are identical
except the flow rates in the feed and condenser
channels. For Case 1, the flow rate in both the
channels is 1.08 lit hr
-1
. However, these flow rates are
2.16 lit hr
-1
and 3.24 lit hr
-1
for Case 2 and Case 3,
respectively. From Figure 6, it is clear that increasing
the flow rate increases the freshwater collection rates.
However, the freshwater collection rate as a percent of
feed water flow rate remains more or less similar
(because this is governed by thermodynamic
equilibrium between the liquid and vapor phases).
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
a
t
e

0 200 400 600 800
Time (hour)
C
o
n
d
e
n
s
a
t
e

F
l
o
w

R
(
l
i
t
/
h
o
u
r
)
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3

Figure 6. Freshwater collection rates as a function of time
for three different feed water flow rates

113
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A
flow rate , and by
ults s in thi er are all based e
tion t diffusi efficie of ai r
apor mixture is only a function of temperature and
ARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Mem le
desa ess
of memstill as an energy-efficient water purification
The author houghtful
technical d Chris
Dotremont about membrane distillation.
1. C. Charcosset, D 1 (2009).
2. G. W. Meindersma, C. M. Guijt, and A. B. de Haan,
Environmental Progress 2 441 (2005).
emical
6.
roperties
13. International Form
Them
Feed Condenser
e (lit
Conde
Temp.
Collection

hr )
dditional simulations were performed varying the
s in the feed and condenser channels
changing the temperature of the water into the
condenser channel. These simulation scenarios and the
freshwater collection rates from them additional are
shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1. Different Simulation Scenarios and Freshwater
Collection Rates From

The res hown s pap on th
assump hat on co nt r-wate
v
pressure and not of saturation. Diffusion coefficient
has a strong influence on diffusive flux of vapor and
freshwater collection rates. Additionally, we
considered operations only for one fixed pressure.
Changing the operational pressure will also change the
freshwater collection rates. Changing other parameters
(such as porosity and tortuosity, which are functions of
spacer geometries) will also change the diffusive flux
and hence freshwater collection rates. Finally, the
presence of dissolved solid will also influence the
extent of vaporization and the amount of freshwater
that can be collected. These different operational
scenarios will be investigated in a future paper with an
objective to optimize the performance of memstill
operations.

SUMM
brane distillation is emerging as a viab
lination technology. To establish the effectiven
technology and to help optimize the design and
operation of a memstill facility, there is a definite need
for developing a better understanding of the
underlying physical processes associated with
memstill and building a robust mathematical model for
it. The conceptual and mathematical models of fluid
flow and heat and mass transport for memstill to date
have been based on the assumption of steady-state
conditions and/or utilizing some empirical relationship
for heat and mass transport coefficients. These
previous modeling approaches do not aim for actually
solving the temperature and the saturation fields in the
various subcomponents of the overall system. In this
paper, we present an alternative modeling approach,
where the transient temperature and liquid and gas
saturation fields in the subdomains are actually
determined by solving the coupled mass and energy
balance equations. The rate at which freshwater can be
collected is determined from these transient
temperature and saturation fields. Freshwater
collection rates under different operational conditions
were determined in this paper. In future papers, we
intend to investigate further operational and design
issues associated with memstill using the approach
described in this first paper. While this present paper is
concerned about a single AGMD module, we plan to
extend the mathematical model to a system involving
multiple AGMD modules.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Scenario Water
Rate (lit
Water
Rat
nser Rate (lit
-1
hr
-1
) hr
-1
) (
o
C)
Case 3 3.24 3.24 30 0.22
Case 4
Case 5 0.31
3.24
3.24
3.24
6.48
20
20
0.26
wish to acknowledges the many t
discussions with Lou Jing an

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