CHAPTER 1 Seismology for Civil Engineers

1.1 INTRODUCTION In a broad sense, the Earthquake Engineering is a part of engineering devoted to mitigating earthquake hazards. From this point of view, it must provide means for analyzing and solving the problems involved by damaging earthquakes. Therefore, the civil engineers use Earthquake Engineering findings in all stages of earthquakeresistant structures' existence: planning, designing, constructing, and managing. From the point of view of a structural engineer, the Earthquake Engineering is a part of Structural Dynamics concerned with the determination of the strain and stresses state for the structures subjected to earthquakes, and it gives the ways to optimize the earthquake-resistant structures. Notions and knowledge from geophysics, geology, seismology, vibration theory, structural mechanics, and construction techniques are needed in Earthquake Engineering. As a part of Geology, the Seismology is the science concerned with the study of earthquakes (causes, propagation, recording, Earth's structure, generation mechanisms, history, prediction, etc.). Although there are many sources of external load that must be considered in the design of civil engineering structures, the most important by far in terms of its potential for disastrous consequences is the earthquake. During the human history, the earthquakes had been a major source of fear because of the severe consequences generated by strong earth shakings. Even during the 20th Century seismic activity caused many damages. Table 1.1 shows a list of such events that happened and the losses of human life because of them from the year 1900 until now. 1.2 STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH It is believed that the beginning of the Earth coincides with that of our galaxy, i.e. approximately 4500 millions years ago. The nowadays Earth's body shape is formed at the start of Paleozoic Era. Table 1.2 shows a geologic history of the Earth. A general internal structure of the Earth is shown in Figure 1.1. Three main spheres compose the Earth: the crust, the mantle, and the core. Each part has different composition. The spheres from the Earth's structure are separated through discontinuities. The Mohorovicic (or Moho) discontinuity is located between the crust and mantle. It is strongly influencing the earthquake waves transmission mechanism.

The crust may be classified into two distinct parts: the continental crust and the oceanic crust. The first one is mainly composed from Silicon and Aluminum and therefore it is also named SIAL. It has a density of about 2.7 g/cm3. Table 1.1 A list of major earthquakes and life losses caused by them during the 20 th Century
Year 1906 1908 1915 1920 1923 1925 1927 1929 1931 1933 1939 1940 1940 1943 1944 1944 1945 1946 1948 1949 1950 1952 M 8.3 7.5 7.5 8.5 7.9 7.1 7.5 7.1 7.9 8.3 8.0 7.1 7.4 7.4 8.0 7.4 7.1 8.1 7.3 7.1 8.6 7.7 Area, Country San Francisco, USA Messina, Italy Avezzano, Italy Kansu, China Kanto, Japan Yunnam, China Kitatango, Japan Iran - former USSR border Hawke's Bay, New Zealand Sanriku, Japan Erzincan, Turkey Imperial Valley, USA Vrancea, Romania Tottori, Japan Tonankai, Japan Turkey Mikawa, Japan Nankaido, Japan Fukui, Japan Olimpia, USA India Kern County, USA Dead People 700 120,000 35,000 100,000 143,000 6,500 2,925 3,253 Year 1957 1959 1960 1960 1962 1963 1964 1964 1965 3,008 23,000 8 1,000 1,083 998 4,000 1,961 1,432 3,895 8 574 12 1968 1968 1970 1971 1972 1976 1976 1976 1976 1977 1978 1994 1995 M 7.9 7.1 8.3 5.9 7.3 6.0 8.4 7.5 6.5 7.9 7.4 7.6 6.5 6.2 7.5 7.6 7.3 6.5 7.2 7.4 6.7 7.2 Area, Country Mexico City, Mexico Hebgen Lake, USA Chile Agadir, Morocco Northwest Iran Skoplje, Yugoslavia Prince William Sound, USA Niigata, Japan Caracas, Venezuela Tokachi-Oki, Japan Iran Peru San Fernando, USA Nicaragua Guatemala Tangshan, China Iran-USSRTurkey borders Fruili, Italy Vrancea, Romania Miyagiken-Oki, Japan Northridge, USA Kobe, Japan Dead People 68 28 1,743 14,000 12,000 1,200 131 26 266 49 11,000 70,000 65 5,000 23,000 650,000 5,000 968 2,000 27 61 6055

Three main layers are composing the continental crust: a 15 20 km thick sediment layer, a 5 20 km thick granite layer, and a 10 40 km thick basaltic layer. The oceanic crust has a basaltic structure and is primary composed from Silicon and Magnesium, being named SIMA. Its density varies from 2.9 to 3.0 g/cm3. It is thinner than the continental crust, even from 5 20 km. The crust plus some of the upper part of the mantle is divided in plates. These plates are floating on the mantle, moving, determining the continental drift, and generating the majority of the strong earthquakes. As a second major internal sphere of the Earth, the mantle has a superior 900 km and an inferior 2000 km part. The superior part has a structure similar to the oceanic crust.

Crust Mantle Outer core Inner core 3500km Mohorovicic discontinuity 2900km 5 60km

Figure 1.1 Internal structure of the Earth

The superior mantle has a lower layer with a mainly viscous consistency, called the athenosphere. The crust and the upper mantle form lithosphere and have a thickness of about 70 km. The athenosphere is located under the lithosphere until 400 km depth. Table 1.2 Geologic history of the Earth
Precambrian Era

ArcheozoicEra Proterozoic Era

Paleozoic Era (242-564 Ma)

Cambrian Period Ordovician Period Gotlandian (Silurian) Period DevonianPeriod Carboniferous Period Permian Period

(Era of trilobites) (Era of fishes) (Era of amphibia)

Mesozoic Era (64-242 Ma)

Triassic Period JurassicPeriod CretaceousPeriod

(Era of reptiles)
PaleoceneAge Eocene Age OligoceneAge MioceneAge Pliocene Age

Cenozoic Era (0-64 Ma)

PaleoceneEpoch Tertiary Period (1.7 - 64 Ma) NeoceneEpoch QuaternaryPeriod (0 - 1.7 Ma) Diluvial Epoch AluvialEpoch

The core of the Earth is less known than the other parts of the Earth's structure. From the measurements it was deduced that the inner core is solid, made mainly from iron, while the outer core must be liquid. The density of material the in the Earth's core might be about 17.65 g/cm3, while the temperature could be at around 6000 C at millions of atmospheres pressure. 1.3 SEISMIC AREAS

The Earth's crust is divided into some very large tectonic plates, see Figure 1.2: Pacific plate, Eurasian plate, Philippine plate, African plate, Antarctic plane, Indian Australian plate, North American plate, South American plate. Together with these large plates, there are many other smaller plates as: Caribbean plate, Arabian plate, Juan de Fuca plate, Cocos plate, etc.
70 N

50 N 30 N 10 N 10 S 30 S 50 S

NORTH AMERICAN PLATE

EURASIAN PLATE PILIPPINE PLATE INDIAN AUSTRALIAN PLATE

PACIFIC PLATE

SOUTH NAZCA PLATE AMERICAN PLATE

AFRICAN PLATE

ANTARCTIC PLATE ANTARCTIC PLATE

120 W 60 W 0 60 E 120 E

Figure 1.2 Main tectonic plates

The movement of the plates generates the changing in the relief configuration and leads to earthquakes at the fault lines. New faults can appear while others become active or inactive. 1.4 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES Major causes of earthquakes might be classified as it follows from Figure 1.3.
endogenous natural exogenous Causes of earthquakes blasts artificial other, i.e. - volcanoes - tectonics - fall of underground cavities - impact with meteorites - sudden changes of atmospheric pressure - influences from other planets, Sun, Moon, etc. - useful explosions - destructive explosions - accidents - collapse of mines - fall of underground cavities due to extraction of water, oil, gas, etc. - construction of dams

Figure 1.3 Causes of earthquakes

Tectonic earthquakes are phenomena of strong vibrations occurring on the ground due to release of a large amount of energy, within a short period of time through a sudden disturbance in the Earth's crust or in the upper part of the mantle. They amount more than 90% of the total number of the earthquakes. Figure 1.4 is showing how the tectonic plates are developing. Such phenomenon is in progress in Pacific Ocean.

mid-oceanic ridge plate (lithosphere) trench island arc volcanic zone marginal sea athenosphere plate (lithosphere)

continent mesosphere

Figure 1.4 Plate tectonics

The process in which a plate is moving against and under another plate is named subduction. During this process, because of the compressing that takes place, many shallow or deep earthquakes are generated as shown in Figure 1.5.
plate subduction zone plate 0 70 km shallow earthquakes hypocenters 300 600 km deep earthquakes

Figure 1.5 Model of subduction zone

The place where an earthquake is generated is named hypocenter or focus. Corresponding to the hypocenter, the projection on the external part of the crust (the vertical of the hypocenter) is named epicenter.

a) normal fault

b) reverse fault

c) right lateral fault

d) left lateral fault

Figure 1.6 Types of fault displacement

1.5 EARTHQUAKE MECHANISM As a result of plate tectonics the geological structures show ruptures caused by strain beyond the deformational capacity. The ruptures are followed by sliding motions between the opposite sides and create what is called geological faults. Figure 1.6 shows the type of faults. A normal fault (Figure 1.6a) is showing mainly a tensile stress state and a reverse fault (Figure 1.6b) is generated by compression. It is possible that the movement to be lateral, as presented in Figure 1.6c and Figure 1.6d.

Fault line

c) compression and tensile forces

d) double couple a) before slip b) after slip

Figure 1.7 Earthquake mechanism due to fault slip In Figure 1.7 a plan view of the area around a fault line is shown. Before the slip of the fault (Figure 1.7a), the accumulation of energy is proved by the strain. The forces and couples are released creating the fault and earthquakes. For clarifying what happens after an earthquake in the neighborhood of a fault, Figure 1.8 shows the situation of a road constructed after the straining. It is observed that there is an elastic rebound of the soil around the fault and this determines the shape of the road after the earthquake.
Direction of motion Fault line

Direction of motion a) before straining

Road

Road c) after earthquake

b) strained (before earthquake)

Figure 1.8 Elastic-rebound theory mechanism

1.6 SEISMIC WAVES Earthquake energy is dissipated from the hypocenter through seismic waves. Deep into the earth the seismic waves are identified of two major types: P waves (or primary waves) and S waves (or secondary waves).

As it is seen from Figure 1.9, a movement of material particles along the wave propagation inducing alternative tension and compression deformations characterizes the P waves. P waves produce volume modification of the layers they cross. These waves have the highest velocity in their travel, being based on normal stress. They arrive first in any earthquake surface area.
compression P-wave

dilatation

S-wave

wavelength
Love wave

Rayleigh wave

Figure 1.9 Ground motion for different types of seismic waves The propagation velocity of the P waves varies from 5 to 7 km/s and can be calculated with the next equation

VP

E (1 ) (1 )(1 2 )

(1.1)

where: E is the Young's modulus, is the mass density of the soil, and is the Poisson ratio. In the case of S waves the movement of material particles is perpendicular to the propagation direction, creating shear deformations, see Figure 1.8. Because of the shear stress they create, the S waves are felt later on the earth surface and they do not modify the density of the material involved into the movement. Velocity of S waves may vary from 3 to 4 km/s and Equation (1.2) gives the calculation formula

VS

E 2 (1

(1.2)

where G is the shear modulus. Because of discontinuities inside the Earth, two other different types of seismic waves are observed: Love waves and Rayleigh waves. These waves are propagating near the surface of the Earth. As a general notice it might be said that Rayleigh waves correspond to P waves generation tension/compression stresses but their amplitudes are decreasing with the depth. Similarly, Love waves are corresponding to the S waves, generating shear stresses decreasing with the depth. It should be observed that there are other types of waves created by reflection and refraction of the main type of waves and by their combinations. Based on Equations (1.1), (1.2), and on measurements from at least three observation points, the position of the focus and of the epicenter can be deduced. 1.7 EARTHQUAKE MEASUREMENT Measurement of the earthquakes is very useful for getting knowledge about the structure of the Earth. The main instrument used in earthquake measurement is the seismograph. From the seismograph's record, the earth movement is theoretically calculated.

mass direction of vibration damper

paper advancing

Figure 1.10 Principle of the seismograph

In principle, a seismograph is composed from a mass with oscillations recorded on paper, Figure 1.10. The earthquake is shaking the seismograph's mass and the recorded line is showing the intensity of the seismic activity. Because the dynamic characteristics of the seismograph are influencing the record, it can be easily understand that the range

of availability of a record is limited. Therefore some seismograph will better record accelerations (for short natural periods of the seismograph), or velocities, or displacements (for long natural periods of the seismograph). Some seismographs will be more suitable for weaker earthquakes and other will reflect more accurately stronger earthquakes.
600 400

KOBE NS 1995

acceleration (gal)

200 0

-200 -400 -600 -800

0 10 20

818 gal
30 time (s) 40 50 60

Figure 1.11 Kobe 1995 earthquake, NS acceleration record

Figure 1.11 is showing the recorded accelerations, the North-South component, for the earthquake from January 1995, in Kobe, Japan. The time with large peaks is relatively short. However, the peak ground acceleration (PGA) is the largest ever known, 818 gal (cm/s2), almost 1 g (9.81 m/s2). Of course this large value is questioning if the recording is proper or not.

1.8 SEISMIC SCALES Because earthquakes are so complex and almost unpredictable phenomena, many scales were proposed for measuring earthquakes. An intensity scale is a scale for measuring the seismic intensity based on human feelings and by the effects the ground motion has on structures or living beings. In 1564, Gastaldi proposed an intensity scale, followed by Pignafaro (1783). A 10 grade intensity scale is the Rossi-Forel Scale (1883). Another scale is the MercalliCancani-Sieberg Scale, based on proposals of Mercalli (1902) and Cancani (1904). F. Neumann (1931) did modifications on this scale. This 12-grade scale, Modified Mercalli (MM) Scale, is largely adopted today, see Table 1.3. The Medvedev-Sponheur-Karnik (MSK) scale is also a 12-grade seismic intensity scale, proposed in 1964. The Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA) is using an 8-grade scale. Figure 1.12 shows the equivalence between the three seismic intensity scales (MM, MSK, JMA) and an approximation for the maximum recorded acceleration. One of the most used based on measurements scale is the Magnitude Scale, or Richter Scale. Charles Richter proposed it in 1935. The Richter Scale is defined as the (base 10) logarithm of the maximum amplitude, measured in micrometers (10-6 m) of

the earthquake record obtained by a horizontal Wood-Anderson seismograph with magnification 2800, the natural period T = 0.8 s, damping coefficient 0.8, and corrected to a distance of 100 km. The next equation shows the way the magnitude is calculated

log 10 A

(1.3)

where A is the trace amplitude in microns, for an epicentral distance of 100 km. Table 1.3 Abbreviated description of the Modified Mercalli intensity
Intensity I II III Description Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. Delicately suspended objects may swing Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibration similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably. Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows broken. Unstable objects overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations. Rails bent. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent greatly. Damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown into the air.

IV

V VI VII

VIII

IX

X XI XII

The magnitude is directly linked to the energy in the focus by Equation (1.4).

log 10 E 11.8 1.5M

(1.4)

where E is energy and M is the magnitude. As a consequence, an increase in magnitude with one unit means an increase by a factor 32 for the energy, and an increase with only 0.2 of the magnitude means a double energy. An other way to measure an earthquake is the seismic moment, see Figures 1.6c and 1.6d. The seismic moment is produced by the couple of forces that appear when a fault slips. Between the Richter magnitude, M, and the seismic moment, m, the next equation was established:

log 10 m 16.1 1.5M

(1.5)

The Spectral Intensity Scale, proposed by Housner, and the Spectral Action Scale, proposed by Medvedev, are two other scales in use. When describing an earthquake, the seismic scales are giving only a general image of it. There are many other aspects that must be taken into consideration. The

measurements may refer to time domain or frequency domain characteristics. As an example, in Figure 1.13 the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) of El-Centro NS 1943 earthquake acceleration record is presented. It shows that peaks of frequency components for this earthquake are concentrated in the range 1 2.5 Hz.

MM MSK JMA

0 I 0

I II I

II III

III

IV IV

VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII III IV V VI VII

II

PGA 0.5

10 20

50 100 200 500 1000 cm/s 2

Figure 1.12 Equivalence between different seismic scales

A frequency analysis of an earthquake shows what is the range of frequencies that are most influenced by the seismic activity. If the natural frequency of a building is closed to high peaks in the frequency diagrams of an earthquake then high structural response it is expected.
El-Centro NS 1940 180 160 140 120

FFT amplitude

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 2 4 6 Frequency (Hz) 8 10

Figure 1.13 FFT of El-Centro NS 1943 earthquake acceleration record The total time duration of an earthquake is showing important aspects. A very short duration of an earthquake might represent a concentration of the earthquake energy. A high number of zero crossings for the acceleration, velocity, and displacement record is also a measure of the damaging potential of an earthquake. Especially the number of the high-value peaks in the records is relevant for judging an earthquake.

1.9 MAJOR ROMANIAN EARTHQUAKES. SEISMIC ZONATION Romania is a seismic area with relative frequent strong earth shakings. Table 1.4 presents the major known Romanian earthquakes starting from 15th Century, along with their estimated or measured magnitude (Richter), M, and epicentral intensity (MM), I0. Location of Romania is on the large Eurasian tectonic plate. This plate in its South-West part collided with the African plate and determined the chain of mountains in Europe: the Alps, Carpathians, and Caucasus. While the North-West of Europe is almost seismic inactive, Romanian area is dramatically marked by the Carpathians curved shape, especially the area named Vrancea. In Vrancea the faults are active, with a return period estimated from 15 to 30 years for a strong earthquake. However, the number of felt and measured earthquakes is much larger, 300 to 400 every year.
200

Acceleration (cm/s2)

Vrancea NS, March 4, 1977

100 0 -100

195 cm/s2
-200 0 10 20 30 40

Time (s)
Figure 1.14 Acceleration record of Vrancea NS, March 4, 1977 Romanian Earthquake The studies done for the Vrancea seismic area led to an approximate relation between the magnitude (M) and the epicentral intensity (I0) of the earthquakes, as in Equation (1.6).

0.56 I 0

2.18

(1.6)

The earthquake from 1940, November 10th, made many victims (more than 1000, but the real figure is not known). Bucharest, the capital of Romania, and other towns (Galai, Focani, Panciu, Mreti, etc.) were very affected. In central Bucharest the reinforced concrete made, 12 stories and 45 m tall, "Carlton" building collapsed. 136 people died under the ruin and the fire started immediately after the earthquake. Another bitter lesson from the history of the earthquakes was that from March th 4 , 1977, see Figure 1.14. It was considered the strongest earthquake felt in Europe. The shakings were felt even at Moscow, 1500 km from Vrancea, the epicenter's location. Important damages had been recorded in many counties of Romania: Buzau, Dolj, Iai, Ilfov, Prahova, Rmnicu-Srat, Putna, Teleorman, Vaslui. In Bucharest, 33 multi-story buildings, built before the Second World War II, were destroyed during the 1977 earthquake. The true number of deaths is not really known, but it is believed that more than 3000 people died. Injured people were more

than 11000. The number of lost houses was more than 32000 and many other social, cultural, industrial, agricultural, historical, and governmental buildings had been damaged. The transportation's infrastructure, industrial equipment, and many others were severe damaged.

Figure 1.15 Seismic zonation of Romania After the 1977, March 4th, the Earthquake Engineering in Romania was strongly developed. The field was introduced as a compulsory independent course in all Civil Engineering education. One of the most active people, a real pioneer of the domain, was Professor Alexandru Negoi, who was the first to teach Earthquake Engineering in the Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture of Iai. Also, after 1977, the Earthquake Engineering Romanian Code, the P-100 Code, was issued and this led to an important increase in safety and quality of building in Romania. The observation, measurement, and study of earthquakes in Romania have become more and more enlarged since then. For every Civil Engineer in Romania, the knowledge of the Earthquake Engineering is a must. As a result of the intensive studies, seismic countries are establishing the seismic risk for each area. Figure 1.15 is showing the maximum probable earthquake measured on MSK scale with a return period of 50 and 100 years for Romania. The map from Figure 1.15 confirms that the Vrancea area is the most seismic area and an earthquake with the intensity 9 on MSK scale is probable to occur once every 100 years.

Table 1.4 Major Romanian earthquakes

Date Aug Aug Nov Jun Jul Aug Aug May Dec Jan Nov Feb Aug Aug Jun Oct Jun Apr Oct Nov Jan Dec Aug Sep Aug Mar Oct May May Apr Aug Mar May Nov Mar Sep Oct Nov Mar Sep Dec Mai Oct Mar Aug May May 29 29 24 9 19 17 10 3 24 13 8 1 9 18 12 11 11 16 26 26 23 25 17 10 31 11 6 25 25 18 9 30 20 1 29 5 22 10 12 7 9 29 1 4 31 30 31 1471 1473 1516 1523 1545 1569 1590 1604 1605 1606 1620 1637 1679 1681 1701 1711 1738 1790 1802 1829 1838 1880 1893 1893 1894 1896 1908 1912 1912 1919 1919 1928 1929 1929 1934 1939 1940 1940 1945 1945 1945 1948 1976 1977 1986 1990 1990 Time 10: 12: 08: 05: 20: 03: 15: 01: 13: 02: 01: 00: 01: 01: 10: 19: 10:55 01:40 18:45 14:30 14:35 03:40 12:20 23:00 21:40 18:02 20:15 06:20 14:38 09:38 12:17 06:57 20:06 06:02 90:37 01:39 20:51 15:48 06:08 04:48 17:50 21:22 00:28 13:40 03:18 45.7 45.6 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.5 45.7 45.7 47.7 45.7 45.9 45.8 45.9 45.8 45.9 45.9 45.9 45.6 45.9 45.7 45.8 45.8 45.8 45.5 45.8 45.8 Epicenter Latitude Longitude 26.6 25.4 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.5 27.2 27.2 27.2 26.6 26.5 26.5 26.5 26.5 26.7 26.4 26.7 26.4 26.5 26.8 26.5 26.5 26.7 26.5 26.9 26.9 Depth (km) M 7.4 6.4 7.2 6.1 6.7 6.7 6.9 6.7 6.7 6.4 6.9 6.4 6.7 6.7 6.4 6.1 6.9 6.7 7.5 6.4 6.7 6.1 5.7 5.7 6.1 5.5 6.8 6.4 5.8 5.7 5.6 5.6 5.6 6.6 6.9 6.1 6.2 7.3 5.8 6.5 6.2 6.0 5.5 7.2 6.9 6.7 6.1 I0 8 8 9 7 8 8 9 8 8 8 9 8 8 8 8 7 9 8 9 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 8 7 6 6 6 6 6 7 8 6 7 9 6 8 7 7 6 9 7 8 7

125 90 100 100 120 120 100 160 90 120 125 135 125 80 80 130 140 110 131 91 79