1 s2.0 0308016184900280 Main

Int. J. Pres. lies.
& Piping 17 (1984) 197-328
The Significance of Residual Stresses in Relation to the Integrity of LWR Pressure Vessels
D. P. G. Lidbury
Risley Nuclear Power Development Laboratories, United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority, Risley, Warrington WA3 6AT, Great Britain (Received: 19 June, 1984)
A BSTRA CT This review is concerned with assessing the significance of residual stresses in relation to the integrity of nuelear reactor pressure vessels. The discussion is largely centred on light water reactors (LWRs), with particular emphasis on pressurised water reactors (PWRs); moreover, residual stresses are only explicitly considered in connection with PWR primary pressure vessels. However, much that is discussed is of general relevance to other reactor systems and pressure boundary components. The level and distribution of residual stresses in heavy section weldments and the factors affecting their relaxation with post-weld heat treatment (P WHT) are discussed; residual stresses are also considered in relation to the deposition of austenitic strip cladding and repair welding. A brief survey is made of currently available methods of measuring surface and sub-surface residual stresses in heavy section weldments; the effects of compressive residual stresses on the detection and sizing of planar defects are similarly considered. Available fracture mechanics methodologies with the capability of evaluating defect significance in the presence of residual and other secondary stresses are reviewed in some detail. On-going experimental investigations of the effects of residual stresses on structural integrity are also described. Following a general discussion, the desirability of internationally agreed Codes and Methods for assessing defects in the presence of residual and other self-limiting stresses is pointed out. It is argued that 197 Int. J. Pres. Ves. & Piping 0308-0161/84/$03-00 Elsevier Applied Science Publishers
Ltd, England, 1984. Printed in Great Britain
198
D. P. G. Lidbury
before such agreement could be achieved, however, further work is necessary in order to." ( i) establish the level and distribution of surface and sub-surface residual stresses due to fabrication and repair welding. (ii) relate material properties, especially those influencing relaxation behaviour, to the level and distribution of residual stresses following PWHT; (iii) develop (or improve), and suitably validate, numerical and analytical methods for quantifying residual stresses and their effects on fracture behaviour. Within this context, a number of recommendations are given in Appendix 1 concerning areas requiring further research or engineering investigation.
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1. The origin and significance of residual stresses in welded structures Residual stresses are inevitably associated with fusion welds and, in aswelded structures, may be up to yield magnitude in tension; with postweld heat treatment (PWHT), however, they are generally relaxed to about 10-25 ~o of this value. The magnitude and distribution of residual stresses introduced into a structure by welding operations are strongly influenced by the geometry of that structure. Residual stresses are of fundamental importance in understanding and analysing the integrity of welded structures, especially heavy section structures such as large pressure vessels. In particular, they can combine with stresses due to service loads, increasing susceptibility to failure by modes such as brittle fracture, corrosion fatigue or stress corrosion cracking. Moreover, even before a weldment enters service, they are an important factor in connection with the potential causes of weld cracking, e.g. hydrogen cracking, reheat cracking, etc. 1 The accurate determination of the magnitude and distribution of residual stresses in welded joints both before and after PWHT, and the application of fracture mechanics in their presence, pose technological challenges which have yet to be fully met. Nevertheless, the significance of residual stresses in connection with the brittle fracture of welded structures is widely recognised, largely through the work of Commission X of the International Institute of Welding and a number of extensive reviews, e.g. Refs 2 and 3. Many service failures by brittle fracture are reputed to have occurred in as-welded structures under the action of tensile residual stresses with negligible external loading. 4 A number of
Residual stresses in relation to the integrity of L WR pressure vessels
199
service failures have been reported where the action of residual stresses was considered a contributory cause owing to PWHTs having been either incorrectly specified, or incorrectly carried out, e.g. Refs 5 and 6. There are yet other cases where failures attributable to the action of residual stresses have occurred, apparently with P W H T correctly applied. An example of the latter may be found in Ref. 7, which describes the failure of a high pressure boiler drum that occurred during a hydraulic test. The cause of failure was attributed to the presence of a large flaw (330 m m long and approximately 90 m m high), 'typical of that associated with stress cracking of highly restrained nozzle welds'. With the benefit of hindsight, it seems most probable that the flaw occurred as a result of reheat cracking during approximately 6 h of P W H T at 650C. An important general conclusion arising from analysis of this failure concerns the importance of carrying out a thorough non-destructive examination of a vessel prior to its hydrotest, but as late as possible after PWHT, at every location where severe restraint conditions are expected. The origin of residual stresses in welded joints is basically due to the shrinkage of hot weld metal which occurs during cooling. During heating, the material in the region of a weld yields in compression because its expansion is resisted by the colder metal surrounding it. On cooling, the material unloads from yield in compression and, with sufficient shrinkage, will yield in tension. This results in a contraction of the component or structure which is accompanied by locked-in tensile residual stresses of up to yield magnitude in the region of the weld. This mechanism is illustrated in Fig. l, where the behaviour of a small portion of weld is represented by the effect of a thermal cycle on a uniaxially restrained element. (The effect of transformation on the distribution of residual stresses in ferritic weldments is dealt with in Section 2). Clearly, if the temperature change, AT, is such that A T > AT 0 (where AT 0 -Cro/E~; tr0 = yield stress, E = Young's modulus and ~ = the coefficient of thermal expansion) the element will yield in compression before eventually ending up in tension. If A T > 2AT0, the element will yield in tension. For steels, 100 < A T O< 200 C, confirming that the temperatures reached during welding are indeed sufficient to induce yield magnitude tensile residual stresses wherever free thermal movement is resisted. It is usual to distinguish between longitudinal and transverse shrinkage. The effect of the former is to produce a distribution of longitudinal residual stresses which, in the as-welded state, comprises a localised zone of up to yield magnitude in tension. These tensile stresses
200
D. P. G. Lidbury
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decrease away from the weld, becoming compressive after a distance which is typically of the order of a few times the width of the fusion zone--see Fig. 2(a) and (b). The effect of transverse shrinkage is to produce a distribution of transverse residual stresses which is tensile and of relatively low magnitude in the middle part of the member, and compressive at the ends--see Fig. 2(a) and (c), Transverse shrinkage also tends to produce an angular distortion about the weld line in an unrestrained joint. The resultant force and resultant moment produced by the stresses arising from the residual strains in a welded joint must be zero for equilibrium. With external restraint, however, reaction stresses will be generated which will depend upon the stiffness of the structure as well as
Residual stresses in relation to the integrity o f L W R pressure vessels
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the principal weld shrinkage parameters. The distribution of residual stresses in a welded structure may therefore be regarded as being comprised of: 'short range' stresses, induced by the non-uniform plastic strains in and around the weld; and 'long range' reaction stresses, induced by external restraint. The latter, of course, would be relieved if the weld was cut away from the rest of the structure. External restraint may have a marked influence on the distribution of transverse residual stresses, as shown schematically in Fig. 2(c) for the case of in-plane restraint applied transverse to the weld line. In general, external restraint causes a linear distribution of stresses to be added to an otherwise self-balancing, through-thickness distribution of transverse residual stresses. This is a point which will be returned to later in connection with heavy section welds,
202
D. P. G. Lidburv
such as nozzle attachment welds in reactor pressure vessels. It should be noted that these linear components of stress are balanced by membrane and/or bending stresses elsewhere in the structure, which may be computed by standard techniques. 3
1.2. The significance of residual stresses in assessing the integrity of nuclear reactor pressure vessels
Fabrication by fusion welding was introduced into the boiler and pressure vessel industry by the A. O. Smith Organisation in 1925. 8 The first rules for the construction of fusion welded steel pressure vessels were published by Lloyds Register in 1934. Present day Codes have therefore resulted from the distillation of more than 50 years' experience in the design, manufacture and operation of welded steel pressure vessels. They cover every aspect of pressure vessel technology from design, through material selection, fabrication, heat treatment~ inspection and testing, to inservice monitoring. In particular, light water reactor (LWR) pressure vessels supplied for use in the United States are designed to comply with Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulations, which include meeting the requirements of Sections III and XI of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code as well as supplementary NRC requirements and guides. Many, but not all, countries have adopted the relevant Sections of the ASME Code as part of their licensing requirements for LWR systems. LWR pressure vessels are fabricated from heavy section (generally > 150 mm thick) steel plates and forgingswelded together asshown in Figs 3 and 4. In the United States, steels for use in LWR primary vessels must first be described in an American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) specification and subsequently adopted by the ASME, either directly into Section III of the Code, or through an individual Code Case which describes permissible or required changes to existing specifications. The choice of plate and forging materials has resulted from a gradual evolutionary process which may be traced from the reviews of Steerne and Steele, 9 Steele ~ and Druce and Edwards,~l and is currently restricted to a number of steels containing Mn, Ni and Mo. These ASME/ASTM and equivalent European grades are listed in Table 1. In addition to plate and/or forging materials, LWR primary vessels contain a number of other materials including: weld metals, and their associated heat affected zones (HAZs); austenitic cladding materials; and nozzle safe-end materials.
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204
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significant residual stresses will be generated in, and adjacent to, the heavy section seam and nozzle welds. It will also be clear from the preceding discussion that these stresses are likely to be of a magnitude sufficient to cause yielding locally. Residual stresses will also arise during strip cladding and in the event of repair welding. Since most of the flaws which may develop during fabrication are most likely to be associated with weld regions, including clad regions, it is clearly important that the effects of residual stresses are properly taken into account in fracture mechanics assessments.
205
TABLE 1 Summary of Ferritic Steels Most Widely Used in Fabrication of LWR Primary Circuits 1. A533 Grade B Class I--ASME/ASTM specification for quenched and tempered low alloy steel plate. 2. A508 Class 3--ASME/ASTM specification for vacuum treated, quenched and tempered steel forgings. 3. 20MnMoNi55--DIN specification for vacuum treated, heat treatable steel for plates and forgings. 4. A508 Class 2--ASME/ASTM specification for vacuum treated, quenched and tempered steel forgings. 5. 22NiMoCr37--DIN specification for vacuum treated, heat treatable steel for plates and forgings. Notes Steels 1, 2 and 3 are comparable in terms of specified chemistry, as are steels 4 and 5. Supplementary requirements, specified by the customer, are usually placed on the above ASME/ASTM and DIN (Deutsches Institut fiir Normunge) grades. Vacuum treatment to remove dissolved gases, notably hydrogen, and to allow non-metallic impurities to float out, is usually specified for A533 Grade B Class 1 plate material. It is current practice to specify low levels of C, and to place tight limits on the levels of certain residual and impurity elements, notably Sb, Sn, As and P, S, Cu. Because the consequences of failure of a nuclear reactor pressure vessel are unacceptable, considerable effort is taken at every stage of manufacture to ensure that vessels entering service do not contain high levels of residual stress or significant flaws in critical locations. To this end, very careful attention is paid in particular to welding and associated heat treatments and non-destructive examinations. Although stress relieved in accordance with the provisions of Article NB-4622 of Section III of the A S M E Code (or the appropriate national Code), a L W R primary vessel inevitably enters service bearing the remnants of the residual stress distribution resulting from fabrication. However, nothing is said in these Codes as to the acceptable magnitude of residual stresses in this distribution. Two important questions arise concerning the residual stress distribution remaining in a reactor pressure vessel following the final P W H T . First, it may be asked whether or not P W H T has been correctly carried out in accordance with the Code provisions in force. This question largely conccerns the effectiveness of the quality control procedures followed. Secondly, it is pertinent to enquire as to whether the stipulated P W H T s , properly executed, are capable of ensuring that the vessel will be safe throughout its design lifetime. In order
206
D. P. G. Lidbury
to answer this latter question satisfactorily it is essential to have: (i) accurate information concerning the magnitude and distribution of residual stresses in the vessel before, but most particularly after, the final PWHT; (ii) fracture toughness data relating to all weldments in the final heat treatment condition; and (iii) the appropriate fracture mechanics methodology to assess the significance of flaws, postulated or otherwise, with regard to vessel integrity in the presence of the remanent residual stresses and stresses arising from the various loadings applied to the vessel. There is little quantitative information available on the magnitude and distribution of residual stresses in restrained, heavy section welds after PWHT. This is a particular point which was raised by the Marshall Study Group in its Second Report assessing the integrity of pressurised water reactor (PWR) pressure vessels,12 where a positive recommendation was made that: 'Further research should be undertaken to measure the levels and effects of residual stresses in post-weld heat treated heavy section nozzle attachment and repair welds'. This recommendation further went on to say that: 'It is desirable to improve fracture mechanics techniques in dealing with residual and other self-limiting stresses. Further experimental validation of proposed and existing methods for including residual stresses in fracture mechanics assessments would be desirable' (Recommendation 71). Notwithstanding the above reservations, the Marshall Study Group reached a number of conclusions concerning the levels of residual stress in PWR primary vessels as a result of a review carried out by The Welding Institute of the limited information which was available (R. H. Leggatt, unpublished work). It was noted that there was no evidence to suggest that the plates and forgings used in vessel construction contained significant tensile residual stresses after tempering, but prior to welding. For typical PWR pressure vessel welding procedures, residual stresses parallel to the welds were expected to be tensile in a region spanning up to 25 mm either side of the fusion zone, with peak values up to yield magnitude--see Fig. 5(a). It was pointed out that the through-thickness distribution of transverse residual stresses (Fig. 5(b)) depended on the restraint applied during welding, and could be tensile throughout the thickness of a heavily restrained weld such as a nozzle attachment weld--see Fig. 5(c) for schematic details. It was concluded that for all welds a uniform throughthe-weld thickness distribution of residual stresses parallel and transverse to the welding direction (corresponding to the radial and hoop directions

Z
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Fig. 5. Typical residual stress distributions near welds.12 (a) Longitudinal stresses in welded plates; (b) No restraint: transverse stress. (c)In-plane restraint, e.g. nozzle attachment welds, repair welds: transverse stress. relative to a nozzle), of magnitude 50 M P a tensile, should be assumed for the purposes of fracture mechanics assessment. N o allowance was made for fall-off to compressive values away from the fusion zone. The above figure was supported by measurements made by Westinghouse workers 1,13 of the residual stresses in an unrestrained butt weld in 279 mm thick A533 G r a d e B Class 1 steel plate. These showed that the peak values had been relieved in accordance with uniaxial stress relaxation data for this material to a maximum value of 50 + 20 M Pa after 6 h o f P W H T at 595-620 C--see Fig. 6. It was noted that for a more typical P W H T time of 20 h at 620 C, yield magnitude stresses would be relaxed to a value of 40 M Pa. This latter figure was a b o u t 10 % of the mean r o o m temperature yield stress o f the plate material (450 M Pa). In view o f possible uncertainties in the values of residual stress adopted
208
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D. P. G. Lidbury
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for the purposes of fracture mechanics assessment, the Marshall Study Group conducted a sensitivity analysis to determine the effect of varying residual stress levels. The vessel location chosen for this analysis was an inlet nozzle inside corner, since, as well as being a highly stressed region during plant operation, it also represented a region of high restraint where levels of tensile residual stress in excess of 50 M Pa might conceivably remain after PWHT. Three plant conditions were considered: normal operation; the hydrotest; and the small steam line break transient. Initiation sizes for a semi-circular flaw, oriented normal to the direction of the maximum principal stress, were calculated by the R6 method. 1.14 In this method, a flaw is assessed in terms of two parameters, Sr and Kr, which are evaluated independently. The quantity Sr is a measure of the severity of loading of the uncracked ligament, normalised with respect to the load for plastic collapse of the flawed structure; Kr is a measure of the severity of crack tip loading, normalised with respect to initiation toughness. A flaw is assessed according to which side its assessment point (S, Kr) lies in relation to a 'failure' curve joining the points S~ = 1 and K~ = 1. In calculating Sr and Kr, a distinction is made between those loads which are considered capable of contributing to plastic collapse and those which are not. Residual, and other secondary, stresses are not considered to be associated with loads giving rise to plastic collapse, i.e. residual stresses affect the value of Kr, but not St. Four assumed levels of residual stress were considered in the Marshall Study Group's sensitivity calculations: 0, 50, 100 and 150 M Pa. The results of these calculations are
Residual stresses in relation to the integrity o f L WR pressure vessels
209
presented in Table 2, where it will be seen that initiation defect sizes are significantly reduced by assuming high values of residual stress. However, the following two points should be noted in connection with this analysis. First, the flaw sizes quoted in Table 2 are with respect to ductile crack initiation, and the sizes that can be safely tolerated for the cases considered will be significantly larger by virtue of the effective increase in toughness occurring with small amounts of stable, ductile crack extension ( < 2 mm, say). Secondly, the R6 route is only one of a number of fracture mechanics methodologies with provisions for analysing the significance o f flaws in the presence o f residual stresses. For example, the methods o f A S M E XI Appendix A 15 or Published D o c u m e n t PD 6493 of the British Standards Institution 16 acknowledge the possible presence of residual stresses. However, the appropriateness of a particular method in a given situation is hard to assess, due to a general lack of supporting evidence concerning the fracture behaviour of test structures in the presence of residual stresses.
TABLE 2 Fracture Assessment Results for PWR Inlet Nozzle Inside Corner with Variation of Residual Stress Level, Assuming Nominal Material Properties~2
Plant condition Initiation crack size (mm) Semi-circular .[taw at deepest point Semi-circular flaw at surface intersection point
Normal operation 0 MPa residual stress 50 MPa residual stress 100 M Pa residual stress 150 MPa residual stress Hydro test (21.53 MPa) 0 MPa residual stress 50 M Pa residual stress 100 MPa residual stress 150 MPa residual stress Small steam line break 0 MPa residual stress 50 MPa residual stress 100 MPa residual stress 150 MPa residual stress
> 160 > 160 > 160 160 > 160 > 160 123 90 > 160 140 68 50
> 160 > 160 151 106 160 109 80 62 51 41 34 29
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D. P. G. Lidbury
1.3. Objectives and scope of the review
The purpose of the present review is to assess the significance of residual stresses in relation to the integrity of nuclear reactor pressure vessels. The discussion is largely centred on LWRs, with particular emphasis on the PWR. Moreover, residual stresses are only considered in connection with the primary pressure vessel; they are not explicitly considered in connection with components such as steam generators, piping, vales, etc. For this reason, the study is primarily concerned with components fabricated from medium strength, low alloy ferritic steels--A533 Grade B Class 1, A508 Class 3, etc.; reference to austenitic materials is only made in relation to strip cladding. Finally, it should be emphasised that although the study deals with residual stresses and their significance in fracture mechanics assessments of LWR primary vessels, its terms of reference preclude any direct discussion of possible effects on sub-critical crack growth. Indeed, the role of residual stresses in boiling water reactor (BWR) pipe cracking problems, etc., is a subject which deserves a separate updating review. However, whilst the possible effects of residual stresses on crack growth by fatigue, corrosion fatigue, stress corrosion, etc., are not covered in the present study, they are considered in a concluding section dealing with areas requiring additional research or engineering investigation.
2. THE DISTRIBUTION OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN HEAVY SECTION W E L D M E N T S DUE TO FABRICATION WELDING 2.1. Residual stresses prior to welding
An explanation of how the major components of LWR primary vessels are fabricated from heavy section rolled plates and/or forgings is given in Section 1--see Figs 3 and 4, and also Table 1. These components are austenitised, quenched, tempered and cooled after forming and prior to welding. Austenitising heat treatments, which are typically carried out in the temperature range 860-910 C, are sufficient to remove any residual stresses that may have resulted from the forming operations. Spray quenching with water causes rapid cooling of surface layers which will
211
yield in tension, and then go into compression as the bulk of the material cools. Appreciable relaxation of induced stresses in sub-surface layers will occur during subsequent tempering heat treatments, which are typically carried out in the temperature range 620-670 C. Furnace cooling after tempering is carried out for forged components, but not always for rolled components. In the latter case, more rapid air cooling could conceivably enhance the level of any compressive residual stresses remaining in the surface layers; these would be balanced by tensile stresses in the bulk of the material where the cooling rate is lower. There appears to be a general lack of published information concerning the likely level of these tensile residual stresses. However, as mentioned in Section 1, the Marshall Study Group reviewed in detail the residual stress levels resulting from the manufacturing processes used to fabricate PWR primary vessels, and concluded that the tensile stresses existing after tempering and prior to welding would be negligible.17 This conclusion was reflected directly in the assumptions made by the Marshall Study Group concerning the distribution of residual stresses in a PWR primary vessel for the purposes of fracture mechanics assessment.
2.2. Residual stresses due to welding
The general description of residual stress formation presented in Section 1 suggests that in heavy section weldments prior to PWHT, yield magnitude tensile residual stresses are likely to occur throughout the fusion zone in the longitudinal direction, and in a significant proportion of the joint thickness in the transverse direction (see Figs 1 and 5). Moreover, although not explicitly stated in Section 1, stresses in the throughthickness (Y) direction should be small in a multi-pass weld due to a lack of restraint against contraction of individual weld beads along this axis at the time of deposition. In practice, peak values of tensile residual stress in weldments ofA533 Grade B and similar steels may be less than yield magnitude in the aswelded state. Jones and Alberry is have suggested that below yield magnitude residual stresses in ferritic steel weldments may results from the positive volume change accompanying transformation from austenite to ferrite, bainite or martensite in the rapidly cooling weld metal. Residual stresses, which accumulate during cooling as yield strength increases, are relaxed by the volume change which occurs during transformation. Thus, residual stress build-up has more or less to start anew once
212
D. P. G. Lidbury
transformation is complete, the magnitude of the stresses ultimately developed depending upon the difference between the temperature corresponding to the end of transformation and the temperature of preheat used during welding. Macherauch, 19 has argued that the build-up of residual stresses during cooling is even more complicated than the above model implies, on the basis that the specific effect of surface quenching (this refers to the more rapid cooling experienced by the surface of the weld compared with its interior) as well as effects due to shrinkage and transformation must be considered. This latter point is illustrated in Fig. 7, which is a schematic illustration of these effects in respect of transverse surface residual stresses in a simple weldment.
2.3. Post-weld heat treatment
After joining, weldments are normally heat treated in order to relieve residual stresses, temper hard microstructures and ensure dimensional stability. During fabrication LWR primary vessels receive several intermediate heat treatments as well as a final PWHT, e.g. see Fig. 8 for the case of a vessel manufactured from ring forgings. The July 1980 Edition of ASME Section III, Division 1 specifies P W H T with a holding temperature in the range 595-675C, with a minimum holding time at temperature of 2 h plus 15 min per inch of thickness over 2 in (Table NB4622.1-1). Heating and cooling rates are limited to 55 C/h. The variable holding time is presumably intended to compensate for a possible retardation of stress relaxation occurring due to the biaxial/triaxial constraints present in narrow gap welds in heavy section weldments. It is c o m m o n practice in the USA to use similar temperatures for both intermediate and final PWHTs, resulting in a cumulative time of up to 40 h in the temperature range 590-620 C. Longer heat treatment times are avoided since a progressive deterioration in some mechanical properties is known to occur. In Europe, intermediate PWHTs are typically carried out in the temperature range 500-550 C for a maximum cumulative time of about 30 h. The final P W H T is generally conducted in the temperature range 605-620 C, usually for 12 h. Heating and cooling rates are mostly in the range 20-60 C/h. In both the USA and Europe, it is usual fabrication practice for PWHTs to be carried out in an enclosed furnace in order to avoid residual stresses being generated during cooling as a result of localised heating.
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2.4. Reported measurements of residual stresses in heavy section weldments before and after PWHT Accurate information concerning the magnitude and distribution of residual stresses in heavy section weldments, typical of LWR construction, both before, and most particularly after, P W H T is essential to the assessment of stress relieving heat treatments used in vessel fabrication. Relatively few determinations of the distribution of residual stresses with thickness have been conducted with weldments thicker than about 40 mm. The reason for this lies with the techniques currently available for measuring residual stresses: through-the-thickness information must be obtained by either deep drilling and/or trepanning to expose the surface on which measurements are to be made. Obtaining the distribution of residual stresses in a heavy section weldment is therefore a destructive, time-consuming and costly process.
2.4.1. B u t t welds
Grotke et al. 13 measured the distribution of residual stresses in an unrestrained, narrow gap butt weld in 279 m m thick A533 Grade B Class 1 steel plate. The submerged-arc weldment originated from a nozzle cutout which had been removed from the cylindrical shell of a commercially fabricated pressure vessel. Prior to removal of the cut-out, the vessel had received an intermediate P W H T for 1 h at 590 + 30 C. Surface residual stress measurements by a hole drilling technique 2 showed that the maximum co-ordinate stress was in a direction transverse to the weld, of value ~5, = 47 M Pa; after an additional P W H T of 5.5 h at 610 ___15 C, the corresponding value was reduced to 11 M Pa--see Fig. 9. Internal measurements were made by installing strain gauges in 6.4 m m diameter holes in 84 locations up to 280 m m deep. These strain-gauge regions were then sectioned from the weldment, and the change in strain pattern due to the relief of stresses caused by sectioning was related back to the original residual stress distribution. The limits of experimental error for the measurements quoted in this study were estimated as being no greater than + 21 MPa. Values of maximum internal co-ordinate stress in the fully heat treated condition were reported as being 19 M Pa transverse to the weld (ax) and 51 M Pa parallel to the weld (trz). The measured stress distributions are shown in Figs 10 to 12. Inspection of these figures shows that: (i) longitudinal (trz) stresses are mainly tensile within a 75 m m wide band lying across the centre line of the weld, and compressive outside this

WELD METAL
217
-AFFECTED
ZONE
I
10
7,
O'1
I.-trl I
-10
trl uJ
Gz
1 h h h
STRESS STRESS STRESS I 2.0
RELIEF RELIEF RELIEF I 3.0 OF WELD, # 4.0 in
O'x 6 ~ O" 6 ~ Z I 1.0
-20
5.0
DISTANCE
FROH
CENTRELINE
mm = in . 2 5 . / *
MPQ = k s i x 6 . 9
Fig. 9.
Co-ordinate residual stresses on the nozzle cut-out surface prior to, and after,
final stress relief.13
region; (ii) transverse (ax) stresses near the fusion zone are tensile in the upper third o f the weld, but compressive near the middle; and (iii) through-thickness (o'r) stresses are mostly compressive. The low levels of residual stress measured were shown to be consistent with the results of a uniaxial stress relaxation test conducted on a base metal tensile specimen which was heated to 620C, loaded to the 0-2 % p r o o f stress at this temperature, and then held at a constant displacement corresponding to this initial load. The decrease in stress due to load relaxation was plotted as a function o f time: after 1 h the stress had relaxed to 68 M P a ; after a further 5.5 h the stress had dropped to 50 M P a (see Fig. 6). The work o f G r o t k e et al. confirmed the results of a similar study which had been reported earlier by Ferrill et al. 21 These latter authors measured the distribution of residual stresses in a weldment of A302 Grade B steel which was designed to simulate the effectiveness of P W H T in relieving stresses in a deep, narrow gap, multi-pass weld situated in a 125 m m thick cylindrical shell. The m a x i m u m internal residual stress in the as-welded condition (a~) corresponded to the r o o m temperature yield stress in
218
D. P. G.
o
Lidbury
1.0 i
~
~
TEV W''O
,
T T
2.0
3.0
g.O
s.o
Y,
:~z x
J _[-10.0 ksi STRESS
SCALE
6.01 AXIS ORIENTATION

7.0 ~ ~
8.0
90
~
b i
10.0 EF T Et FSTAINLESS S E L 11.0 ~ A D D I N G 1

l
MPo=ksi
x 6.9 l,.O S.O
.5.0
Fig. 10.
I,.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
DISTANCE FROM CENTRELINE O WELD,in F (7: residual stresses (parallel to the weld length) plotted with reference to the x axis. 13
tension; after 6h of PWHT at 627 + 8C, the maximum stress (trx) was about 56 MPa. It was noted that the triaxiality of residual stresses in the as-welded state appeared not to affect the effectiveness of the PWHT. Notwithstanding this observation, arguments are presented in an appendix to Ref. 21 suggesting that triaxial residual stresses in the interior of a deep, narrow gap weld may inhibit the relaxation of stresses as compared with uniaxial stress relaxation data. Beaney 22 measured surface residual stresses Ca= and ax) in both clad and unclad 150mm thick butt welded A533 Grade B Class 1 steel plate following: (i) an initial, short PWHT; and (ii) a subsequent, longer heat treatment more typical of PWR primary vessel fabrication. In the case of the unclad submerged-arc weldment, these PWHTs consisted of
219
0V10 [
1T
i . [ I "--~---WELD
I
',
T
/
.E
w
3.0 /,.0
50.
'
' 0
Yf,~ z / ~
STRESS SCALE
7.0
'r u-
B.O
w u z
9.0
[:3
1 6
l
~
2.0 3.0 DISTANCE
1"/
o
1~'=~5'x~'l
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 ~,.0 S.O EENTRELINE OF WELD, in
lo.o
r-STAiNLESS STEEL /
CLADDING
11.0
5.0 /*.0 1.0 FROM
Fig. 11.
crx residual stresses (transverse to the weld length) plotted with reference to the x axis. 13
595-610 C for 45 min and 595-620 C for 16 h, with the corresponding furnace cooling rates in the range 600-300 C, being 40 C/h and 30 C/h, respectively. Before the final P W H T , the peak values of residual stress measured were cr= = 270 M P a and cr=--230 M P a , corresponding to the fusion zone on the 'root-side' and the 'top-side', respectively, of the unclad weldment. Following the final P W H T , values ofcr= and crx on both sides of the weldment were reported as being essentially compressive and within the range 0 to - 40 M Pa, although in the case o f one measurement a value o f crx ~ + 20 M Pa was recorded on the weld centre line at the 'root-side' surface. G o t t 2a'24 measured the distribution of residual stresses (crz, crx and cry) in submerged-arc weldments of A533 G r a d e B Class 1 steel. Three
220
D. P. G. Lidbury
'
I "-+'WELD
I _....~
'
1
o
=_
1.o
MET.AL
- .... ' I
POSITION ~3"0 N"

-
'
]~
0
5.0
1-1_0.0 ksil I STRESS SCALE
6.0
}...
AXIS ORIENTATION
11 12 ~ I-5 - 0
7.0
z.L
....--- ~
8.0
z
---------~16 17
,
]
~
20
MPo=ksi x 6.9
J
Ca-- 9.0
10.01REF
11.0 S.O ~,.0
OR,E
JELAOD'NO i
| I ~
FSTAINLESS STEEL
I
0
'o:,o x2S
2.0 3.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
~,.0
5.0
DISTANCE FROM CENTRELINE OF WELD,in
Fig. 12.
try Residual stresses (through thickness) plotted with reference to the x axis. 13
weldments were examined: the first was 0.4 m x 0.4 m x 172 mm and was reported to have received 5 h of PWHT at nominally 620 C; the second was 0.4m x 0.4m x 130ram and was in the as-welded condition; and the third, also 0.4m 0.4m x 130mm, had received 20h of PWHT at 620 C. Stresses were measured by a double exposure X-ray technique.25 The weldments were examined at 11 levels through the thickness, following layer removal by milling. The freshly exposed surfaces were electropolished to remove cold worked material. A correction procedure due to Johansson 26 was used to allow for the relaxation which occurred during sectioning; the procedure was made unduly complicated, however, by the absence of any information relating to the change in curvature occurring with layer removal. Larsson and Sandstr6m 27 have recently reanalysed the data obtained from the first of these weldments, using an alternative correction procedure to that developed by Johansson. Their results are shown in Figs 13 and 14, where it is apparent that the
221
MPcz
,.P\ ;
200 100 0 -100 -200 -300
CENTRE OF JOINT x=Omm
f~\
~l/ \
\ \
o
I / \ \ !
/
\
o\ o
/
/ ,,
\6 j /
200
/
100 0 -I00 -200 -300
"-X
,,, ,, ', \ Q\
x : 20 mm / / / / /" \ o\ X / o/
/a,/
I
_/~.f ~ c ~ ~ .~
100 0 -100 -200
x = ~0 mm
"\
O\ /0 /
, I
-lOOJ0
o,___o_.._
O
i =SOmml
0.5 d/h
1.0
Fig. 13. The true transverse residual stress of weldments 1 (O) and 2 (O) vs the normalised distance d/h from the original upper surface at various distances from the welded joint. The full drawn line represents the mathematical function obtained by the present method of correction. 27
222
D. P. G. Lidbury
600
o'1(
MPo
Z,O0
200
T ET U T A S E S S R S / ~ \ H R E RNVRE T E S I T EW L E J I T N H ED D ON /
(WELDMENT 1 )
J HNS N O A SO / f P EE T RSN
" ' / ~
-200
',
"-~ ... / \ \ \ / / /
-t,O0
-600
600
o" z
MPo.
THE TRUE LONGITUDINAL STRESS IN THE WELDED JOINT /
i/z\,
Z,O0
J H N S N/ O A SO / f ~
200
woRK-.../4
\
\ \ /
P EE T RSN
-200 ~
I
0.5 d/h
1.0
Fig. 14. The true transverse and longitudinal stress at the centre of the welded joint of weldment 1 vs the normalised distance d/h from the original upper surface calculated according to the present method and that of Johansson (Ref. 26). 27
223
temperature of P W H T used was probably much lower than the reported value of 620 C. It should be noted that Larsson and Sandstr6m point out that: (i) no records of the P W H T received by the first weldment appear to have been kept; and (ii)there are several numerical errors in the 'corrected' values of residual stress relating to the first weldment presented in Refs 23 and 24. Although no re-analysis of data is presented in Ref. 27 in respect of the third, fully stress relieved, weldment, measured values of tensile residual stress are quoted as being in the range 50-125 _+ 40 MPa, with little systematic variation in the through-thickness direction. Renjun Zhou and Pense 2a measured surface residual stresses (~rz, o" x and at) in submerged-arc weldments of A543 Class 1 high strength steel (a o ~ 700 MPa) and A737 Grade B and Grade C micro-alloyed steeds (go ~ 440-470 MPa). Stress measurements were made by the 'blind hole' drilling method. The 595mm x 256mm x 150mm thick weldment of A543 Class 1 steel received 6 h of P W H T at 316 C followed by air cooling. (This heat treatment was not carried out at a sufficiently high temperature to produce any significant stress relief: it was presumably intended to remove any possible build-up of hydrogen that occurred during welding.) Residual stress measurements were made at various points along five directions as follows: (i) two orthogonal lines, each parallel to and centred on the fusion zone, and lying in the top face and a cut-end face, respectively; (ii) three lines, each transverse to the fusion zone, two lying in the top face and the other lying in a cut-end face and 43 mm below the top surface. Maximum values of tensile stress corresponded to top surface measurements ( a z ~ 4 0 0 M P a = 0.60ao) with the general trend in the distribution of a z and a x being as expected--see Figs 15 and 16. Stresses measured on the cut-end face, however, were predominantly compressive, with values of ax being close to yield in compression at depths of about 50 m m and 100 m m below the top surface. Measurements made on the weldments ofA737 Grade B and A737 Grade C steel were less definitive than those described above, principally because fewer were made, but also because they were sectioned into 75 m m thick blocks prior to testing, a procedure which caused an unknown relaxation in the original stress distribution. However, these latter measurements were stated as demonstrating that residual stresses were substantially relieved by 2 h of P W H T at 550 C, there being little further change in stresses following an additional 8 h of P W H T at this temperature. Ueda e t a / . 29'3 studied both experimentally and theoretically the distribution of residual stresses (az, ax and at) in multi-pass weldments of
+ (7, ksi
o O"Z
(7x
70 C-O
60
~
o C-5 40 -10 80 120 ~ ' + ~ 160 C-6" ~ - 200 ~ . . . .
C-4
-410
41,..-.
2/+0
280
C-8
~ "
C-3
-20 DISTANCE FROM -30 -40 CENTRE POINT, m m
C-4
Fig. 15.
Surface residual stresses in A543 pressure vessel steel. 28
225
'7,
4. 0
/
J /J
~/ 4,
~'I <I
9 w
,.d
~
<+ :#+< / ~O.~o >
~ 0
E Z ~J
":'/
il
,~ I
.
ON
I<~ I
< I i
,4' s +,<
\
, I I I
tt%
~~~
_
.=.
+' + +
,~
"<
~ tT_
~D
I
\+o:
<\
<~
\
o r i \
,d
m
=
I
i\
226
D. P. G. Lidbury
FOR
ANALYSIS
S
. . . . . . . . . . .
ON GITUDINAL
Ax,s
l~i ~\
]i
i/
/i ! / ////
300
C< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
(o) (b)
Fig. 17.
(a) Welded cylinder-head connection of a pressure vessel. (b) ldealised research model. 29
2~Cr-1Mo, A336 Grade F22 steel (% --~ 360 M Pa) which were specially designed to simulate the restraint of the welded joint between a cylindrical vessel and hemispherical end-dome--see Fig. 17(a) and (b). These studies showed the transverse stress (ax) to be the largest transient stress during welding (approximately yield magnitude), occurring just below the weld metal of the last deposited layer as illustrated by the sequence 1 4 in Fig. 18(a) and (b). Moreover, the final distribution of transverse stresses was
Q Q ..... .... AFTER 5TH LAYER WELDING ( T = 200C ) AFTER 9TH LAYER WELDING ( T = 200E) AFTER 13TH LAYER WELDING AFTER 17TH LAYER WELDING (T : 150E)
O"x ~,0 - 3 0 - 2 0
( k g f / m m2) -10
o-x
~0 30 20 10
(T : 200C)
MNlm 2
10 20
30
~0
150 Y {mm) 100
ATx:0
( kg f/mn~}
1 oo
Jl00
50
ANALYSIS [IN E L E M E N t _ _
~ ~
0 ~_/~__.__.
ANALYSIS IN ELEMENT
6t0
~=
--s__7~-~r,.~.._
]o
180
120 X(mrn)
0
-300 (b) -100
la)
100 I MN/m z )
300
Fig. 18.
Transverse welding transient stresses (ax): (a) on the top surface (M-300); (b) at the cross-section (M-300, at x = 0). 19
227
reported to be such that the highest value of a~ on the top surface was about 20 m m remote from the toe of the weld, with the greatest value for the entire weldment occurring just below the finishing run--Fig. 19(a) and (b). The conclusion~drawnTrom these observations, said to be supported by reports concerning cracks in actual structures, was that delayed weld cracking was unlikely to initiate in the weld toe region on the surface of a weldment, but rather initiation was more likely to occur several layers below this. These authors also reported on the effectiveness of different PWHTs in relieving residual stresses. For a P W H T at 650C, stresses were said to be largely relieved during the heating stage (rate = 30-100C/h); however, P W H T was said not to be effective at 550C, even with prolonged holding times at this latter temperature.
:ANALYSIS (IN ELEMENT) : EXPERIMENT ( 3 - DIMENSION) : EXPERIMENT (2-DIMENSION)
(kgf~'~m =)
i
(MN/m 1 =
M-300 |
30 20 / ~ ' ~ ' ~ .
O S R A E"-1300 N UFC -~200
,o,,
-10
I
-1o 1o
- 00
60
120
10
(a)
X (ram}
150 -
- 4 0 - 3 0 - 2 g x l O kgf/mm2)20 30 40 0 10 o "
INE EMENT
o 10(]
,I,
EXPERIMENT I (2_DIMENSION)y o
50
I
/*00-300-200-100
(b)
L-7, J
A X=0 T M-300
J I I
0 100 200 300 400
( M N/m = )
Fig. 19.
Transverse welding residual stresses (trx): (a) on the top surface (M-300); (b) at the cross-section (M-300, at x = 0). 29
228
D. P. G. Lidbury
2.4.2. Nozzle welds In the case of the important inlet/outlet nozzle-to-shell course welds in LWR vessels, only one measurement attempt appears to have been reported to date: this relates to the work of Gott 24'3' on PVRC/PISC (Pressure Vessel Research Committee/Plate Inspection Steering Committee) Nozzle Specimen 204. The weldment consisted of a stress relieved, full thickness, nozzle attachment weld between an A508 Class 2 forging and A533 Grade B plate material. Figure 20 shows the relevant geometrical details, together with a summary of the measurement programme. Values of residual stress as high as 154 M P a were reported, which would be interpreted as meaning that the high level of restraint in a nozzle weld promotes triaxiality and thereby inhibits stress relaxation during PWHT. However, doubts have been expressed about these results for a number of reasons. First, in the case of a set-in PWR nozzle, analysis has shown 12 that the mean radial stress across the attachment weld is limited by equilibrium considerations to about half the value of the mean hoop stress in the nozzle corner region, which, on the basis of uniaxial relaxation data, would be expected to be of the order of 40 M Pa after PWHT; moreover, the stress component parallel to the nozzle axis is likely to be small. Secondly, Hirsch and Leggatt 32 have expressed doubts as to the validity of the data presented in Ref. 31 with regard to: (i) surface preparation prior to residual stress measurement by an X-ray technique; (ii) allowances for mechanical stress relaxation during sectioning; and (iii) inconsistent use of terminology/notation in describing the measured components of residual stress. These latter authors, by using simple curved beam theory, argued that calculated values of tangential (hoop) stressed reported in Ref. 31 were in fact about a factor of four too large in absolute value; they also pointed out that details given of the X-ray diffraction method used were insufficient to assess the validity or accuracy of measurements of stresses in radial or axial directions relative to the nozzle.
2.5. Summary
There have been relatively few determinations of the distribution of residual stresses in heavy section weldments, as will be apparent from an inspection of Table 3 which summarises the measurements surveyed in this section. From the published work, that is available for review, it is apparent that the study of Grotke et al.13 constitutes the only welldocumented source of data directly relevant to the fabrication of LWR
229
L--
/.57
_d
A508-2 FOROINfi PHASE l a
_PL
!
r
I
I
I
I
I
I I t
.J
I
I. REDUCE O T 710mm D O 2. C T O F NOZZLE&0mm U F ABOVE PLATE SURFACE 3. INCREASE iD T 360mm O
I
360 J
\
A533 B PLATE
~.
F-"
I
7~o{
I
1030 I
I--
I I
PHASE IB I. INSCRIBE GRID O O N O 2. MAKE FIRST RADIAL C T AT 7~ U 3. MEASURE DS L C M N S I PA E E T
0
15
~71
4 C T INTO 15RADIAL U SG ET E MNS
0 0
I
PHASE I. GRINDEXPOSED FACET O R M V S W MARKS E OE A 2. CENTRAL AREA ELECTROPOLISHED T DEPTH 0.085ram O 3. MEASURE RESIDUAL S R S E USIN6 X-RAYS T ESS
TH,S AREA
I_
ELECTR0- P LS E ~.OI H D
Fig. 20.
PVRC 204: Summary o f measurement programme (all dimensions in ram). 32
TABLE 3
Summary o f R e p o r t e d M e a s u r e m e n t s o f Residual Stresses in Heavy Section W e l d m e n t s Following P W H T
Author(s)
Weldment
Section thickness (ram) Time (h) Temp. (C)
Post-weld heat treatment
Peak stress calculated from measurement (MPa)
ThroughPeak stress Relaxed stress estimated thickness estimated from distribution ? 'theoretically' uniaxial ( MPa) data (MPa)
50 30
Grotke et al. 13 - Ferrill et al. 2~ Beaney22 Larsson and Sandstr6m 2~b Larsson and Sandstr6m 27~ Renjun Zhou and Pense 28 Ueda et al. 29"3 G o t t 24.3 ~ 279 127 a 150 172 130 150 200 210 6-5 6 16.75 5 20 6 4 17 620 625 610 620 ~ 620 315 e 650 600 50 + 20 55 20 400 125 + 40 400 90 154 Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes s Yes Yes
A533B-I A302B A533B-1 A533B- 1 A533B-1 A543-1 A336 F22 A508-2/ A533B-I
-68 ----50 --
20
Effective thickness of weldment; actual thickness 254 mm. b After Gott. 23 c Details of P W H T uncertain. d After G o t t (unpublished work). e Does not constitute a stress relieving heat treatment. Y Limited information only, relating to surface measurements performed on the side faces o f the unsectioned weldment.
This table is based on a compilation of data originally due to R. H. Leggatt (unpublished work).
231
primary vessels using low alloy steels of current specifications. Some of the data which have been surveyed appear to contradict the conclusion reached by these Westinghouse workers that residual stress levels in A533 Grade B Class 1 weldments following PWHT are in accordance with uniaxial stress relaxation measurements relating to the conditions of heat treatment. However, the validity of some of these contradictory data, which relates to weldments of A533 Grade B Class 1 steel or closely similar material, 17'31 may be questioned on a number of grounds. In other cases, the high stresses measured may have been caused by factors other than inadequate PWHT or unsatisfactory experimental technique; these will be discussed in a subsequent section. The validity of reported data aside, the work reviewed in the present section has highlighted holding temperature, rather than holding time, as the dominant variable in PWHT from the point of view of ensuring adequate stress relief.
3.
RESIDUAL STRESSES DUE TO REPAIR W E L D I N G
Repair welding may be necessary following final PWHT, before, and possibly after, a reactor pressure vessel has entered service. These are contingencies which are recognised in the ASME Code, and weld repairs may be made without the necessity of carrying out a further, high temperature PWHT in certain cases. (Within the context of this section, repair welding 'without PWHT' is taken to mean that any heat treatment following repair is carried out at temperatures too low for a significant relaxation of residual stresses to occur.) Specifically, in Clause NB-4622.9 of the Summer 1980 Edition of ASME Section III, repairs without PWHT, or after final PWHT, are permitted where the depth of the repair does not exceed 10 mm or 10 ~o of the base material thickness, whichever is the less, and where the individual area is not greater than 6450 mm 2. Similarly, as detailed in Clause NB-4622.10, as-welded repairs to cladding and the associated, localised base metal areas are also permitted. Under ASME Section XI rules, a full fracture analysis and possible repair are required if a defect is found in a vessel, after installation on site, which exceeds the size of 'Allowable Indications' as detailed in IWB-3510. Where such repairs are permitted in service without PWHT, they may, if feasible, be carried out subject to certain precautions. Table 4 summarises the precautions called for in IWB 4300 in the Summer 1980 Edition of ASME Section XI.
232
D. P. G. Lidbury
TABLE 4 Precautions for In-Service Repair a
(a) Welding procedures to be qualified with additional requirements, including impact tests on HAZ material. (b) Welder qualification to include positional demonstration simulating physical obstructions. (c) Low hydrogen electrodes to be used with bead width not greater than four times electrode core diameter. (d) Electrodes to be baked to given requirements. (e) Electrode tensile strength to be similar to minimum of plate specification. (f) Preheat and interpass area and temperatures to be specified. (g) Temperature recording equipment to be used. (h) Cavity to be buttered using 2.4mm maximum diameter rod, and then half of this ground away; second layer to be deposited using 3-2 mm maximum diameter rod, followed by layers using 4 mm maximum diameter rod laid so as to temper previous beads. One extra layer of reinforcement to be deposited and ground flush with surface. (i) Controlled peening to minimise distortion and residual stresses to be permitted on all except first and final layers. (j) A heated band of widthequal to three times the wall thickness to be maintained at 232-288 C for at least 2 h following repair. (k) Magnetic particle inspection of each layer to be carried out. (1) After repair cools down, weld to be left for 48 h and then subjected to radiographic, ultrasonic and magnetic particle examination. (m) Flawed region to be re-evaluated, with assessment of residual stresses because of low temperature of PWHT. (n) System hydrostatic pressure test to be carried out at one of the following conditions: 1.10 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 Design Design Design Design Design pressure pressure pressure pressure pressure at at at at at 38C 93C 149C 204C 260C
(o) Additional in-service examination to be performed according to defined rules. a These notes, which are summarised from IWB 4300 in the July 1980 Edition of ASME Section XI, are taken from Ref. 12.
233
3.1. The ASME XI half-bead weld repair procedure The ASME XI 'half-bead' manual metal arc (MMA) weld repair procedure is illustrated schematically in Fig. 21. The defect is first removed by grinding or other mechanical means; thermal cutting is not permitted. The cavity so excavated is then buttered with a layer of weld metal using electrodes of 2-4 mm maximum diameter; half of this layer is then removed by grinding. The next layer is deposited using electrodes of 3-2mm maximum diameter; subsequent layers are deposited with electrodes of 4.0mm maximum diameter. The weld repair is finally overfilled by one layer of weld metal which is partially removed by
FLAW R M V D BY MECHANICAL M T O S E OE EH D
I - BUTTERCAVITY WITH O E L Y R N A E O WELD METAL USING 2 ~m F , m MAXIMUM DIAMETER E E T O E LCR D
2 - REMOVE HALF O T E FIRST F H LAYER {grind )
3 - FILL WITH 3.2turn AND /..0ram MAXIMUM DIAMETER E E T O E . L CR D S THE FINAL LAYER OVERLAPS B T U N T BEYOND THE BUTTERING. O DEPOSITED OVERFILL R M V D E OE FLUSH WITH THE SURFACE.
Fig. 21.
Half-bead weld repair technique. 32
234
D. P. G. Lidbury
grinding so that the repair surface is flush with the surrounding base metal. The object of using small diameter welding electrodes is to effect a tempering heat treatment on the previously formed HAZ by each subsequent weld pass, without creating a new region of HAZ which would not subsequently be tempered. As well as specifying preheat and interpass temperatures, the Code calls for a soak at 232-288 C for at least 2 h following repair. The heated band width for this low temperature P W H T must be at least three times the wall thickness in the vicinity of the repair., Egan,33: in a review of the ASME XI weld repair technique, has pointed out that in order to avoid introducing large thermal stresses during local preheat and post-heat it is more relevant to establish guidelines for heated band width in terms of ~ than in terms of t, where R and t are the vessel radius and wall thickness, respectively.
3.2. Measurement of residual stresses due to repair welding
3.2.1. Measurements performed to validate the A S M E X1 half-bead technique Efforts have been made to gather data on the ASME XI half-bead weld repair procedure in terms of material properties, residual stress magnitudes and distributions, and their effect on the failure behaviour of intermediate size pressure vessels tested as part of the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission's Heavy Section Steel Technology (HSST) programme. The work was performed mostly at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). Residual stress measurements made at ORNL on six large repair welds in two HSST intermediate test vessels (Fig. 22) and in two cylindrical vessel prolongations made from A533 Grade B Class 1 steel (nominal wall thickness of vessels and prolongation -- 152 mm) have been reported by Smith and Holz. All repair welding followed the ASME XI half-bead procedure. Residual stresses were determined from pre- and post-weld strain gauge measurements, and from measurements using a hole drilling technique. The two cylindrical prolongations were sectioned in order to expose radial planes through each weld (Fig. 23); the through-thickness distributions of residual stress obtained in the case of these specimens were measured by the hole drilling method, corrections being made for the mechanical relaxation of stresses which occurred during sectioning. Two of the repair welds and two of the qualification (simulated repair) welds involved full penetration of specimens (welds V-7A and V-7B; see

cCESS NOZZLE .Y
235
5/+in.
F
ICK WALL
STRUCTURE
Fig. 22. HSST intermediatevessel(1 in = 25.4mm).34
Table 5, and Figs 23 and 24). One repair weld and the corresponding qualification weld involved only partial penetration of specimens from the exterior surface (welds V-8; see Table 5, and Figs 23 and 24). Figure 25(a) and (b) show the through-thickness distribution of circumferential (tL,) and axial (a=) stresses, respectively, in the V-7A qualification weld, situated in the V-9 prolongation. Figure 26 shows the through-thickness distribution of circumferential (ax) stresses in the V-8 qualification weld, situated in the V-8 prolongation. In general, measurements of residual stress levels in the vicinity of the half-bead weld repairs made to the HSST intermediate test vessels and prolongations showed that comparatively low tensile and compressive circumferential and axial residual stresses were present in the weld mete. However, in the base metal adjacent to the weld repairs and up to 25-50mm from the HAZ, peak tensile stresses were close to yield magnitude (% = 500-570 MPa, depending upon depth, in the base metal of vessel V-7).
236
D. P. G. Lidbury
TABLE 5 Summary of Vessels and Prolongations Used for the Weld Repair Studies in Support of the HSST Programme
Test specimen
Repair weld
Prolongation
Qualification weld (simulation)

V-7A V-7B V-8
Type oJ weld
V-7 V-7A V-8
V-7A V-7B V-8
V-9 V-8 V-8
full penetration full penetration partial penetration
SHELL E N D \
V- 9 PROLONGATION
SHELL END
j Jr
1E
V-8 PROLONGATION
Fig. 23. Schematic of the two prolongations used for the simulation (qualification) repair welds. Numbers indicate the order in which the vessels were cut to allow throughthickness residual stress measurements. Cut 2 for each prolongation removed the ends of the remaining cross bracing. 34
237
V-STYPE
v.
+,n+.+
T
SECTION'A-A"
]gin O0
i Z7in IO
-t
"L__SAWpL.NE_I',~ ~ I ~88K',:
~Sin
'3in. ,,~
___~.'"
3&
13
k",R
_J
--7 + ___]~m
Fig. 24.
LONGITUDINAL SECTION ~SHElL END The V-8 prolongation that was used for the V-7B and V-8 simulation repair welds (1 in = 25.4 mm). 34 (* Nominal wall thickness.)
3.2.2. Measurements performed to validate the E P R I alternate weld repair procedure
Whilst the work of the HSST programme relating to validation of the ASME XI half-bead technique has been acknowledged as demonstrating a possible route for in-service repairs, it has been criticised for not developing sufficiently detailed materials property data, and for not providing consistent quantitative information (e.g., regarding conformity with equilibrium requirements) on associated levels and distribution of residual stresses. 35,1o8 Such information would be fundamental to a fracture mechanics assessment of the service suitability of a repair weld containing either a postulated defect or a defect which developed in service following
238
D. P. G. Lidbury
154 212~
170~/z~s es2 "1~E~24.
~ INDICATES MEASUREMENTS MADE ON
(a)
10mm1 0 ~ m ' - ~ ' ~ -10S
390*'409* , r"'/~22t,*
~,,,
I ~ IS2mm ,dso~.~ t ~ . - _ . - - - - - - - -
I It---
71."
-11 ,o,q
.~,, z~z
~'~'"'"l f
, MEASOREMENTS
SECTIONING.
MADE ON THE SURFACE / BY HOLE-DRILLING '
r 5(]~'~",," ~
I
I
1SS 11t, lt,6 I I I I I 1
I
I I
MTO P I R O EHD R T O
"
1 /
SHELL END
I /
--.?, KJ16 mm 10[.,~ ~mm
(b)
-I01
Fig. 25. (a) Circumferential and (b) axial residual stresses ( M P a ) through the V-7A
simulation repair weld, piece A, Fig. 24 (I M Pa = 145 psi; I m m = 0.0394 in). 34
repair. A major disadvantage with the ASME XI repair technique which has emerged, concerns the near perfect application that it demands on the part of the welder. This implies that the possibility of human error would be of major concern in the event that the technique was used in an active environment after a vessel had seen a period in service. Because of these shortcomings, several research programmes have been implemented to develop alternative weld repair procedures.
239
SEAM WELD
Fig. 26. Circumferential residual stress (MPa) through the V-8 simulation repair weld, piece B, Fig. 24(1 MPa = 145 psi; 1 mm = 0'0394in).a4( * Indicates surface measurements made with weldable strain gauges.)
In particular, development work is being carried out for the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) on the 'alternate weld repair procedure', as detailed in Refs 35 and 36. This latter procedure, which is based on the gas tungsten-arc welding cold wire (GTAW-CW) process, does not require a first layer grinding operation, as does the half-bead technique; instead, it relies on close control of heat input during deposition of the initial layers of the repair weld in order to obtain optimum properties in the base metal HAZ. The procedure is claimed to be capable of producing a high quality weld metal deposit, and to be well suited to automatic/remote operation. This last feature confers a significant advantage in terms of carrying out repairs in an active environment. Another point in favour of the alternate weld repair procedure, compared with the half-bead technique, is that the weld deposit is less susceptible to a pronounced drop in tearing modulus, known to occur at temperatures of around 200C due to strain ageing of the non-stress-relieved weld. 36 Preliminary X-ray measurements made on a plate specimen to assess the levels of residual stress induced by the alternate weld repair procedure are reported in Ref. 36. The specimen, which was fabricated from A508 Class 2 forging steel, was welded to a strong-back to avoid any warping due to the repair welding--see Fig. 27. This geometry was claimed to simulate some of the mechanical restraints involved in a nozzle repair weld. Residual stress measurements were made on machined surfaces of the repair weld which had first been electropolished to remove material containing stresses due to drilling and grinding. Peak values of tensile
240
(&)
D. P. G. Lidbury
STRON6 BACK
W L REPAIR ED
L_
16" 2c'
_I
r. . . . . . . . .
"il
IT
CUT#2 CUT#1 J..~CUT# 3
(b)
SECTION A-A I" RADIUS
FINAL SHAPE
Fig. 27. (a) Flat plate geometry. (b) Preparing repair weld for measurements, a6
stress parallel to the weld (a=) of ~ 590 MPa were measured within 10 mm of the original machined surface as shown in Fig. 28; however, although clearly of yield magnitude, tensile properties relating to the weld metal, HAZ and base metal were not given for comparison with the above figure.
3.2.3. Measurements performed to validate other weld repair procedures The Welding Institute is currently running a research programme of 2-3 years' duration, aimed at providing data for assessing the integrity of repair welds made in heavy section pressure vessels which are returned to service without PWHT. The evaluation of various weld repair procedures, involving both manual and mechanised welding processes, is

B
241
CENTRE OF
WELD
.J tz~
INSIDE SURFACE(A)
-~,
8o
TOP SURFACE (B) o r-, A
70
j-
60
50
I 2
I . t,
I .6
I .8
I 1,
i 1.2
I 17,
DEPTH
FROM APEX
OF
RADIUS ( i n )
Fig.
28.
V a r i a t i o n o f r e s i d u a l s t r e s s w i t h d e p t h ( m m = in. x 25.4; M P a = ksi x 6.9. 36
planned. Both fracture toughness and residual stress data are being obtained as part of this effort. Residual stress measurements reported to date have been made on repair welds centred at the H A Z of previously stress relieved submerged-arc welds in two 7 5 m m thick panels of aluminium treated carbon manganese steel The repair welds were deposited manually using a two layer technique to control the HAZ microstructure. A detailed survey of both surface and internal residual stresses in the repaired test panels is at present being carried out. Repair welds in A533 Grade B Class 1 and A508 Class 3 steel weldments will also be investigated as part of the programme.
3.3. Summary
General comments made in Sections 1.2 and 2.2 concerning fabrication welds are likely to have some bearing on the level and distribution of residual stresses in repair welds To this extent, repair welds made without P W H T may, in general, be expected to contain longitudinal residual stresses which are large and tensile throughout the thickness. Associated values of transverse stress could also be large and tensile at the surface of the repair, but may decrease with distance below the surface, depending upon the restraint configuration. Residual stress levels for the purposes of
242
D. P. G. Lidbury
fracture analysis may be assessed on the basis of relevant tensile properties, bearing in mind defect location and orientation. In some cases it may be possible to argue in favour of a decline in transverse stresses with distance below the surface of a repair weld, but this would have to be subject to appropriate validation. Because of problems with the ASME XI half-bead technique, several research programmes have been commenced to find alternative weld repair procedures. Particular emphasis has been placed on procedures based on mechanised welding processes, since the possibility of human error when operating in an active environment is of major concern. Validation of these procedures must depend in part upon a detailed assessment of the magnitude and distribution of the residual stresses arising from a repair, as well as demonstrating that adequate levels of fracture toughness can be achieved in the weld metal of the repair and associated HAZs.
4.
F A C T O R S A F F E C T I N G THE R E L A X A T I O N OF R E S I D U A L STRESSES D U R I N G P W H T
An examination of Table 3 shows that inadequate P W H T or unsatisfactory measurement technique aside, residual stress levels following stress relief have been recorded which are apparently in excess of the level predicted by uniaxial stress relaxation measurement, It is the purpose of the present section to identify and discuss those factors which may affect the relaxation of residual stresses during PWHT. Factors occurring during cooling~ following PWHT, which may also affect the final distribution of residual stresses in a weldment, will also be considered.
4.1. The effect of restraint
I n - s i t u welds will be subject to some degree of transverse restraint which, in a narrow weld in a thick section, could give rise to a multiaxial state of stress capable of retarding the rate of stress relaxation during PWHT. A simple model due to Ferrill et al., 21 showing the effect of transverse restraint on the relaxation of a uniaxial tensile stress, is illustrated in Fig. 29. A uniform diameter rod of homogenous, isotropic material is imagined to be prestressed to a high value of elastic tensile stress, ~z, at room temperature (T = To) in a suitable fixture of the same material--see Fig. 29(a) and (b). The cross-section of the fixture is assumed to be
243
(=) T :To
(b) T = To
(c) T=T1
(d) T // / /
-
--
To $'
('~////~
I/i/~
------ , / I / / /
///
'~///"/
I
I
Lo
z y
az
i ., i
D._.~.o ~D/~/ "///
VI > V o Vo 0 o > 0~ > Oz
L1
O'z~ 0 L1
I
I/// "// D2
Vo
/7-~"
IIII i
D 1
VOLUME :
VI>Vo
Fig. 29. Illustrating the idealised model of Ferriil et al. 21 describing the effect of transverse restraint on the relaxation of a uniaxial tensile stress. (* Following relaxation at T = T 0.
sufficiently large so that the strains in it are negligible. The rod and fixture are then heated isothermally to a temperature (T = T 1) sufficiently high so as to enable stress relaxation to occur as a result o f the conversion of elastic strains in the rod into plastic (creep) strains. Dimensional changes occurring due to free thermal expansion and contraction of the rod and fixture during corresponding changes in temperature between T Oand T 1 are assumed to be negligible. The application of the longitudinal tensile stress, trz, increases the length of the rod (L 1 > Lo), decreases its diameter (D1 < D o ) but increases its volume ( V I > V o ) since, for elastic deformation, Poisson's ratio v ~ 0 . 3 (<0.5). During the complete relaxation of trz at T = 7"1, there is a further shrinkage in diameter of the rod such that after return to r o o m temperature the final (relaxed) volume is the same as the initial (unstressed) volume due to the conversion of elastic deformation to plastic deformation, i.e. Lo Dg = L ~ D 2 (see Fig. 29(c)). Consider now the effect of transverse restraint applied to prevent the shrinkage in diameter from D~ to D 2 whilst stress relaxation occurs at T = T~ at constant length (L0. Instead oftr z relaxing to zero as before, the m a x i m u m possible stress relaxation that can now occur corresponds to the elimination of all shear stresses, since it is these which provide the driving force for the relaxation process. The final stress state in the restrained rod after cooling to T = T O is therefore one of hydrostatic
244
D. P. G. Lidbury
tension, with principal stress components being equal in value to a=/3-see Fig. 29(d). This latter value corresponds to the hydrostatic c o m p o n e n t of stress which was initially present in the uniaxially strained rod--see Fig. 29(b). Although highly idealised and open to question due to the neglect of thermal strains and the variation of yield stress with temperature, etc., the model described above is useful insomuch that it emphasises the importance of plastic flow during the thermal relief of residual stresses. In this regard, it is apparent that an inward flow of metal (or an equivalent contraction) is needed in a zone where hydrostatic tensile stresses are being relieved; similarly, an outward flow is necessary from a zone where hydrostatic compressive stresses are being relieved. The above metal movements occur by creep deformation during P W H T and, if they are restricted, the extent to which residual stresses are relieved will be affected accordingly. The effect of a triaxial state of stress on relaxation during P W H T may be expressed semi-quantitatively as follows. Consider the relaxation of residual stresses in each of three co-ordinate directions, x, y and z, relative to a long butt weld, and assume that the longitudinal direction, z, corresponds to a principal stress axis. The relaxation of the stress c o m p o n e n t s a x, %, % and zxy may be calculated from the corresponding creep strain rates e~cx,icy, ~c= and ~;cxy, given by the following equations: 3 ~, or/1 g~i- 2 a , ",;cx,.= 3 e , ~x,,
G,
(i = x, y, z) ] (1)
l
(2)
(3)
The equivalent creep strain rate, e~,, and the equivalent stress, a , , will be related by an equation of the type:
~, = A f ( t ) a ,n
where A = A (T) with Tin K, and the exponent, n, is a constant. Now, the equivalent (von Mises) stress may be expressed in the form:
3 a, = x / ~ [ ( ~ )1 2
+ (a~) 2 + (a~) 2 + 2(z~y)2] ~'2
where the deviatoric stresses a~, %1 and a= are given by
cr~ = o-i-- a h
(i=x,y,z)
(4)
Residual stresses m relation to the integrity of L WR pressure vessels
245
and o h = a!(O'x-t- O'y + O'z) is the mean, or hydrostatic stress. It will be clear from the above equations that if the stress field is equi-triaxial then the deviatoric stresses will be zero, and the only non-zero c o m p o n e n t of creep strain rate will be 7cxy. Under such conditions it may be expected that relaxation would be significantly impeded. The above considerations show that in residual stress fields where the three principal stresses are of the same sign and approximately the same value, relaxation will occur largely as a result of relaxation in surrounding material in which the effective stress, ~,, is much higher. The question as to whether relaxation in regions of high triaxiality will proceed at rates predicted by a uniaxial test has been considered theoretically by Mackenzie and Moakler. 37 These authors studied the relaxation of simple, self-equilibrating stress fields in a solid sphere, with a region of high triaxiality at the centre. The relaxation process was modelled by: (i) lowering the yield stress; (ii) allowing creep to occur. Figure 30 shows the results of their computations for an initially parabolic stress field. Figure 30(a) shows the distribution of radial, circumferential and equivalent stresses (all normalised with respect to the initial, peak stress-assumed to be of yield magnitude) following a reduction in yield stress to one third of its initial value. Figure 30(b) shows how the radial and circumferential stresses at the centre of the sphere, and the m a x i m u m effective stress at the outer surface, reduce as a function of the nondimensional time parameter, z, for a creep index, n = 3. It will be noted that the triaxial stress state at the centre of the sphere reduces more slowly than the effective stress at the outer surface, which closely follows the uniaxial relaxation curve. For comparison, a calculation was performed with the time zero stresses taken to be the initial stresses, i.e. without lowering the yield stress. It is apparent from Fig. 30(b) that stresses at large times (z > 50) are not much different whether the initial stresses are followed directly by creep, or by lowering the yield stress and then by creep. During an actual PWHT, of course, the two effects would occur together. In terms of numbers, Fig. 30(b) shows that if the maximum effective stress was initially 375 M Pa, and this was reduced to, say, 37.5 M P a by plastic flow and creep, then stresses as high as 112.5 M P a could still exist at the centre of the sphere. It is pointed out in Ref. 37 that these latter stresses could be reduced to 37.5 M P a by further creep, although the relaxation time might be excessive. A more practically orientated study of the effect of stress state on the relaxation of residual stresses during stress relief has been carried out by
246
1.0
0.8
D. P. G.
Lidbury
i !
(&)
0.6
"
/r
~g
0.4 0.2 0 -0.2

- 0./*
=m w
'~,7,
~J t~
-0.6
- 0.8
-1.0
1.0[ ,
(b)
[~ C E PF O INITIALS R S E RE R M T ESS 0.8rF~ /.~WITHOUTFIRST L W R G O EI N ~ ~ -,~ ~,~,~/ YIELDS R S TES m~ ~
~ u.l
~Z
I--
U 6 0 80 I0 =0 120 TIME 'r Reduced stresses after lowering of yield stress, Y y = 3~.37
0L
20
10 .
Fig. 30.
Fidler. a8 This author performed a finite element creep analysis to determine the rate and manner in which three-dimensional residual stresses in a C r M o V - 2 C r M o main steam pipe butt weld decayed during PWHT. The starting point for the analysis was based on details of the complete residual stress distribution for a main steam pipe weld of 2 2 9 m m bore and 8 4 m m thickness in the as-welded condition. 39 Although this latter reference indicated the absence of an equi-triaxial stress system in the weld, it was nevertheless considered pertinent to examine the influence of a triaxial stress state on relaxation during P W H T in order to assess whether the British Standard 2633 requirement
247
of 1 h at 700 C per 25 m m of thickness was sufficient, or whether CEGB Standard 23584 (2 h at 700 C per 25 m m of thickness) was necessary, in order to provide adequate stress relief. The study showed that during stress relaxation there is a marked tendency for a residual stress system to relax towards an equi-triaxial state of stress, rather than for the individual components of stress to relax directly to zero. In all instances, the behaviourof the equivalent stress agreed well with the uniaxial relaxation curves. Figures 31 and 32 show the distribution of hoop and axial stress, respectively, across the centre line of the weld after various times of PWHT; Fig. 33 shows the corresponding distributions of equivalent stress. (For the geometry under discussion: hoop stress=trz; axial stress = trx; radial stress = try.) It will be noted that relaxation of the high, outer surface stresses occurs rapidly at first, with a drop to about half their initial values in 1 min. This was said to be consistent with a drop in yield stress to 170 M Pa on heating the weldment to 700 C. It will also be noted that within the body of the weld, approximately 25 mm below the outer surface, both the axial and hoop stresses exhibit maxima for t > 1 min, and a slower rate of relaxation than the surface stresses. This latter feature was attributed to the inhibiting effect of stress triaxiality on the relaxation process. Additionally, Fig. 32 shows that during the early stages of relaxation the absolute magnitude of the axial compressive stress at the bore increases in order to maintain equilibrium of the axial forces over the cross-section of the weld as the neutral axis moves towards the bore. The apparently complex redistribution of stress occurring with relaxation is rationalised in Ref. 38 in terms of the behaviour of the equivalent stress which, in Fig. 33, will be seen as rapidly assuming a relatively uniform value over the cross-section of the weld, and thereafter decaying slowly whilst maintaining this profile. An important conclusion of practical significance emerging from Ref. 38 concerns the time of P W H T to achieve residual stress levels everywhere < 60 MPa (the assumed level used by the CEGB for defect assessments of this type of weldment). Based on values of surface residual stress alone, 200min of P W H T in accordance with British Standard 2633 appeared to be adequate. However, with this P W H T time, residual stress levels in excess of 60 M Pa were shown to still exist internally, due to the inhibiting effect of a triaxial state of stress on relaxation. With 400 min of P W H T (i.e. equivalent to 2 h per 25 mm of thickness) the maximum value of(hoop) stress was reduced to 55 M P a - see Fig. 34. Since this latter value was still close to the defect assessment
248
D. P. G. Lidbury
300
@
200 t=1 rain
/X~
,/<
tY
E_ 100
~J
t=60 rain
t/3 O
//,
0
/ /,
r
. O----"O"---.CL...
t : 180
rain J _ t ~ . . . . t ~
[]
f :/*00 min I
t.O
60
80
DISTANCE ACROSS WELD,mm
loo
Fig. 31.
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f h o o p stress a c r o s s centre line o f weld metal after v a r i o u s times o f stress relief. 38

100 t=O
249
X/I'
rain
5
~5o
f : 180
!
min
t :
400
rain
oc
1
20
60
80
bq
5
50
U
100
DISTANCE
AEROSS WELD,ram
Fig. 32.
Distribution of axial stress across centre line of weld metal after various periods of stress relief. 38
level o f 60 M Pa, it was emphasised that CEGB Standard 23584 had to be followed in order to ensure adequate stress relief of CrMoV-2CrMo main steam pipe welds. Finally, it is interesting to note that 'biaxiar relaxation data may be generated from uniaxial data to a reasonable degree of accuracy by using the well-known rule o f plotting at each time, t, the stress from the uniaxial curve at time 0.5t.This has been done for the purposes o f the present
e :le luauodtuo3 ssoals lsaSae I oql ql!A~ ',~laSOl3 al!nb aAana uo!lexepa Ie!Xe.mn oql A~OllOJ 'lul.ealsuoz) le!Xe.Ul ol laa.fqns lou aae qo!qa~ 'sassaals ienp.[soa aaejans aql leql SA~oqs 8 "Ja'tI 'lm.od lse I s.lql 8u!puelsql[.A~lON 'lsoaolu! le3]laead jo satu!l 1HA~d le ssaals d o o q oql jo uo!l~XelOa oql 13!paad KIOA.tleA.I;)SUO0 O1 Olqe S~ SOA.Xn3 pOUO.IlU;)tU-OAOq~ ~)ql JO ouou leql polou aCl plnoqs l! ',~l!Ie!Xe!al jo l::)aJjo oql ol onp 'aZAO~OH ~ n ~ im.xe!un oql soop ueql KpsoI3 oaotu ssoals lUOleA.lnbo oql sA~olIOJ ~Aan~ ,le.[xel.q, ~U!llnsoJ oql leql u~os ~q ll!~ l! ~a0qA~ '17 "8.1a U.I UO.IlZOS
s~'jo!IOa ssoals j o sotu!l s n o u e A aolje lelOtu plato j o OU!l oaluov ssoa3e ssoals lUOleA!nb0 JO u o ! l n q ! a l s ! o
LULU'C]]3/~ SSO~IDV 33N~t.LSIO
" "~!~1
09
V
u~uJ
O'7
,
UtLIJ
OZ r 1 I - O
og I
00'7 = ~
08L = ; /
l
I
001.
c
I i
?.
rZ ,-4
.x__x__x__^
. . . .
I~
I
;o m t~ t~ --
~00~
f
I
--t
wtu
OOE
J
'('mqPt. 7 "9 "(1 "(1 0~
120
/ Mn z AT t = 0 N , 9 / T
100
o o,o;L"
80
HDD
ASSUMED ,,m--- DEFECT ASSESSMENT LEVEL

o~
~
I I UNIAXIAL "~ EOUIVALEN T
~0
2O
-------~,=
L
I i i l i I i i I
700*C
i i i I
t",
-2) M m AT t = 0 N ~
I ~'RADIAL
10 TIME , min
100
200
~,00
1000
Fig. 34.
Stress relaxation of highest retained triaxial stresses compared with uniaxial data. as
t~ J
252
D. P. G. Lidbury
particular time being slightly in excess of the uniaxial value. Under these circumstances, it would appear that there may be some merit in utilising the 'biaxial' construction in order to provide conservative predictions. 4.2. Additional factors capable of affecting the final distribution of residual stresses in a weldment
4.2.1. Increased high temperature strength o f weld metal relative to base metal It will be clear from the foregoing discussion that, during PWHT, stress relief initially occurs very rapidly as a result of the drop in yield stress with temperature; this is followed by a more gradual relaxation, the rate of which diminishes with time, due to creep processes. These are features which are clearly shown in the uniaxial stress relaxation curve for A533 Grade B Class 1 steel, which appears in Fig. 6. Uniaxial stress relaxation data relating to the parent metal will therefore only be of relevance to the prediction of residual stress levels in a weldment following PWHT, provided there is a close matching of tensile and creep properties with those of the weld metal. For the case ofweldments involving A533 Grade B Class 1 steel or equivalent materials, a close matching between parent metal and weld metal would be expected. This supports the conclusion reached by Grotke et al. ~3 that following PWHT, maximum residual stress levels in a weldment of A533 Grade B Class 1 steel were in accordance with uniaxial stress relaxation measurements made on parent material. However, it is doubtful whether a similar conclusion could be reached in respect of a weldment where there was an overmatching (in terms of yield and creep strength) of the weld metal relative to the parent metal. Indeed, the high values of residual stress measured after PWHT by Ueda et al., and noted in Table 3, may be attributed to the yield strength of the weld metal having been approximately twice that of the parent metal at room temperature, a trend which was presumably followed at higher temperatures. 29 4.2.2. Effect o f differential contraction between weld metal and base metal Anson 4 has shown that on cooling a weldment from its operating temperature, a residual stress system is developed as a result of the differential contraction arising from the mismatch between the coefficients of thermal expansion of weld metal and parent metal. Fidler 38 has drawn attention to this occurrence in connection with a comparison of
253
residual stresses computed at a temperature corresponding to 700 C with those obtained by measurements made at room temperature. The size of the effect in respect of a CrMoV-2CrMo main steam pipe weld was reported to be such that at the weld metal centre an increase in axial stress from 20 to 70 MPa occurred on cooling from 700 to 20C; in the parent metal 25 mm from the HAZ, a corresponding decrease in axial stress from 5 9 to 30 M Pa took place. The behaviour of the hoop stress was the reverse of the above trend: a decrease from 41 to 2 MPa occurred at the weld metal centre on cooling from 700 to 20C, whilst the corresponding change in the parent metal 25 mm from the HAZ was an increase from 37 to 42 MPa. It will be noted that on cooling from 700 to 20C, the peak value of residual stress increased from 59 to 70 M Pa. The effect would not be significant in cases where the physical properties of the weld metal were chosen to be closely similar to those of the parent metal.
4.2.3. Effect of increase in elastic modulus with cooling from temperature of P W H T It will be noted from Table 3 that Ferrill et al. 21 measured a peak residual stress of 55 MPa in a weldment of A302 Grade B steel, a value which is approximately twice the corresponding value of stress interpolated from uniaxial relaxation data relating to the parent metal (30 MPa). These authors have suggested that, for comparison purposes, the stress obtained from the uniaxial curve should be corrected to room temperature by scaling up in the ratio of Young's modulus at room temperature, Ezo, to that at the test temperature, E v. Hence, by noting that E20:E v ~ 30:13. Ferrill et al. estimated a 'theoretical' value of peak stress of 68 M Pa, which compared favourably with the measured value of 55 MPa. It is of interest to apply the above correction to the uniaxial relaxation data for A533 Grade B Class 1 steel obtained by Grotke et al. 13 These data show that the relaxed stress corresponding to 6.5 h at 620C is 60MPa, whilst that corresponding to 20h at 620C is 4 0 M P a - - s e e Fig. 6. These values become 115 M Pa and 92 M Pa, respectively, after correction, assuming E20:ET= 30: 13. It will be noted that the former of the corrected values is well in excess of the peak stress obtained by measurement (see Table 3), even allowing for an experimental error of + 2 0 M P a . However, an interpolation of recently published stress relaxation data for A533 Grade B Class 1 steel 41 suggests that the relaxed stress after 6.5 h at 620C is 37.9 MPa (5.5 ksi), whilst that after 20h at
254
lt,
D. P. G. Lidbury
12
~ INITIAL STRESS ~ ~ ( k s i ) 20
(.)
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16 12 8
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8
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Stress relaxation curves for A533B-I material at 1150F (620C). 4~
620C is 27"6 MPa (4.0 ksi)--see Fig. 35(a) and (b). Figure 36, also taken from Ref. 41, indicates E20:E T = 31: 16. The corresponding values of corrected stress therefore become 73.5 MPa and 53.5 MPa, respectively. The former of these two values is now in reasonable agreement with the measured value quoted in Table 3, allowing for the limits of experimental error. Whether or not this agreement is fortuitous is a point which would appear to warrant further consideration. Within this context, it would seem relevant to make a critical evaluation of the relevance of the different experimental methods which may be used for obtaining stress relaxation data--e.g, fixed cross-head displacement tests, constant strain tests, etc.

32
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Young's modulus and proportional limit stresses for A533B-I material in the temperature range of 0-1200F. 4z
4.3. Summary The relaxation of residual stresses during PWHT may be significantly retarded if regions exist in a weld where the initial hydrostatic stress and triaxial constraint are both high; however, it seems unlikely that such extreme conditions would in practice be met in the structural welds of an LWR primary pressure vessel (see Section 2). Nevertheless, at present, it appears possible that residual stresses in excess of the appropriate uniaxial relaxation value may be present in a PWR nozzle weld following PWHT.* The need for a programme to provide information capable of confirming or denying this tentative conclusion with a high degree of confidence is therefore evident; current efforts in this direction will be reviewed in the following section. Factors other than triaxial constraint are also capable of influencing the final distribution of residual stresses in a stress relieved weldment. The increases in elastic modulus with cooling from the temperature of PWHT is a potentially significant factor, although its relevance remains to be fully assessed. The mismatch in high
* Since completion of the present review, it has been learned that surface measurements made on 150-250mm thick weldments of 22NiMoCr37 steel (appropriate to the construction of LWR vessels) have shown residual stresses following 6 h of PWHT at 610C to be between 50 and 100 MPa, with actual values depending on the severity of the restraint configuration. Uniaxial relaxation data corresponding to these heat treatment conditions indicated stresses in the range 50-70 MPa. The author is grateful to Dr D. Sturm and Dr H. Kockelmann of MPA Stuttgart for communicating this information.
256
D. P. G. Lidbury
temperature strength and coefficient of thermal expansion occurring between the weld metal and parent metal is unlikely to be of major concern in the case of the materials involved in the main fabrication welds of PWR primary vessels.
5. THE MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN HEAVY SECTION W E L D M E N T S
There are numerous reviews to be found in the literature dealing with the measurement of residual stresses. It is not intended to list all of these: suffice it to say that recent surveys have been carried out by Parlane, 42 Masubuchi 3 and Ruud. 43'44 Some idea of the diversity of measurement techniques currently available may be gained from Table 6, which is derived from Ref. 3. It should be noted, however, that the listing in Table 6 is by no means exhaustive, e.g. neutron diffraction, magneto-elastic and Moirb techniques, etc., are not included. Moreover, the recent trend in residual stress determinations of using an appropriate experimental method in conjunction with finite element analysis is not emphasised. Notwithstanding the number of options which do exist, relatively few techniques are sufficiently well developed to be of practical significance in measuring residual stresses in heavy section weldments. It is the object of the present section to briefly survey those methods which have been, or may be, used for this latter purpose. Discussion is therefore concerned primarily with stress relaxation techniques, in which residual stresses are determined by recording the elastic strain which is released when a weldment is sectioned, or has a piece removed. Because, as has been seen in previous sections, the internal distribution of residual stresses in a welded joint is in general non-linear and therefore unobtainable solely from surface measurements, emphasis will be placed on measurement of the internal distribution of residual stresses. In particular, general details will be given of a recently started programme which is aimed at measuring the internal distribution of residual stresses in a PWR nozzle weld.
5.1. Surface measurements 5.1.1. The centre hole technique This technique, which has been described in detail by Procter, 45 has been used by Beaney 22 to measure surface residual stresses in LWR butt welds.
TABLE 6
Classification of Techniques for Measuring Residual Stresses 3 Techniques applicable primarily to plates
(A-l)
Stress relaxation using electrical and mechanical strain gauges
Techniques applicable primarily to solid cylinders and tubes
(A-2)
Techniques applicable primarily to three-dimensional solids Stress relaxation techniques using apparatus other than electrical and mechanical strain gauges
(B)
Ultrasonic techniques Hardness techniques
X-ray diffraction techniques
(c)
Techniques based on stress-sensitive properties
(D)
Cracking techniques
1. Sectioning technique using electrical resistance strain gauges 2. Gunnert technique 3. Mathar-Soete drilling technique 4. Stablein successive milling technique 5. Heyn-Bauer successive machining technique 6. Mesanger-Sachs boring out technique 7. Gunnert drilling technique 8. Rosenthal-Norton sectioning technique 9. Grid system-dividing technique 10. Brittle coating-drilling technique 11. Photo-electric coating-drilling technique 12. X-ray film technique 13. X-ray diffractometer technique 14. Polarised ultrasonic wave technique 15. Ultrasonic attenuation technique 16. Hardness technique 17. Hydrogen-induced cracking technique 18. Stress-corrosion cracking technique
258
D. P. G. Lidbury
The principle of the m e t h o d is illustrated in Fig. 37(a). When the hole is drilled, the residual stress, aR, must reduce to zero at the edge of the hole, modifying the original stress field in the m a n n e r indicated. The strain gauge monitors the change of strain, which is related to the corresponding stress change shown by the shaded area. In practice, strains are measured using a centre-hole rosette containing three strain gauge elements in a standard 45 o f o r m a t - - s e e Fig. 37(b). The principal stresses, ama~and am, ., are related to the 0 , 45 and 90 relaxed strains (e l, e.2 and e 3, respectively) by an expression due to Beaney and Procter: 46 O'rnax'O'min-1 E~ el+e 3 1 K 1 2 [.1 - v K z / K 1 1 + v K 2 / K x x x~, - %)z + [2% - (e,, + e3)] 2}
)
(5)
where the direction of m a x i m u m principal stress measured (positive clockwise) from gauge element 1 is: q5 = t a n - ' { 2c2 } (~--+ c3) - - -e ~ ' 3 l (6)
and E = Young's modulus, and v = Poisson's ratio. The values of the functions 1/K 1 and K z / K ~ are determined by calibration in known stress fields. The centre hole is made by air-abrasive drilling (Fig. 37(c)). Strain measurements are made before and after the hole is drilled, and relaxed strains are based on the final reading minus the original reading for each of the three strain gauge elements: full relaxation is achieved for a hole depth equal to the hole diameter. With a nominal hole diameter of 2 m m , errors are claimed to be + 8 Yo in the case of an equi-biaxial stress field, and _+4 Yo for a uniaxial stress field.
5.1.2. X-ray diffraction
X-ray diffraction is the only truly non-destructive m e t h o d generally available for the measurement of residual stresses; however, stresses can only be measured within about 0-025 m m of the surface due to the low energy radiation which is used ( < 10 keV). R u d d 43 has pointed out that the m e t h o d is open to mis-application due to inexperience on the part of the operator, unsuitable specimens and/or poor experimental procedure. X-ray diffraction techniques utilise the fact that when a metal is under stress, the resulting elastic strains cause a measurable change in lattice
259
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ARISING FROM HOLE

STRAIN GAUGE
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Fig. 37. Details of the centre-hole rosette residual stress measurement technique. (a) Principle of centre-hole technique; (b) centre-hole rosette (dimensions in mm); (c) airabrasive drilling. 45
spacing which may be directly related to the stress. There are three basic techniques for measuring residual stresses by X-ray diffraction: (i) the double exposure or two-angle technique; (ii) the single exposure or one-angle technique; and (iii) the multi-angle (sin z ~,) technique. The first of these is the most commonly used, and indeed has been employed by Gott 23 for measuring residual stresses in heavy section weldments 0fA533 Grade B Class 1 pressure vessel steel. The commonest sources of error in X-ray stress measurements have been reviewed by Ruud and Farmer. 47 Finally, an interesting point to be noted
260
D. P. G. Lidbury
in connection with X-ray diffraction techniques is their ability to detect effects due to microstresses, residual stresses of the second kind, as distinct from macrostresses (residual stresses of the first kind) which are the 'engineering' stresses that are normally measured over gauge lengths which encompass several grains); these result in strain variations across a single grain, or a particular set of grains of the same preferred orientation, and produce a broadening of the X-ray peak.
5.2. Internal measurements
5.2.1. The Rosenthal-Norton sectioning technique The best known relaxation method for determining the distribution of residual stresses in heavy section weldments is due to the work of Rosenthal and Norton. 48 The sectioning procedure is shown in Fig. 38. Two thin blocks whose widths are equal to the full thickness of the weldment are cut with their long axes respectively parallel and transverse to the axis of the weld. The validity of the method is based on the assertion that in the central region of a block the stress, which is parallel to the direction of the long axis and which has been partially relieved by sectioning, varies linearly across the width, provided that the length of the block is at least twice its width. Thus, the distribution of relieved stress may be calculated from a knowledge of the stress present at the top and bottom faces of the weldment. The residual stresses remaining in the blocks are next determined by mounting strain gauges, followed by further sectioning. The original stress distribution is finally obtained from
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Rosenthal-Norton sectionin method. (a) Sectioningthe weldmentto prepare longitudinal and transverse blocks. (b) Further sectioning of block)
261
the sum of the relieved stresses and the stresses remaining in the blocks. Finite element studies by a number of workers have since shown that significant errors can arise from the assumption of linear relaxation during sectioning. 49'5
5.2.2. Embedded strain gauge technique of Ferill et al. Difficulties associated with the Rosenthal-Norton sectioning technique are avoided in the embedded strain gauge technique of Ferrill et al.Zl The technique has also been utilised by Grotke et al.13 for measuring the internal distribution of residual stresses in a 279 m m thick A533 Grade B Class 1 steel weldment, and the principle of the method has already been described in this connection (see Section 2.4.1). Figure 39, which is taken from Ref. 21, shows the drilling and gauge location pattern used by Ferrill et al. to obtain the internal distribution of residual stresses in an aswelded test block. There is general agreement that consistent data may be obtained by this residual stress measurement technique; however, Parlane 41 has questioned the absolute magnitude of stresses so obtained on the grounds that a large amount of damage is caused by the hole drilling, and that the final section size is large (relaxation is achieved by removing long, 25 mm square parallelepipeds containing strain gauges mounted in 6-4 mm diameter tubes). 5.2.3. Alternative sectioning techniques A number of workers have removed layers parallel to the specimen surface by successive milling, and measured the remaining stresses on the newly exposed faces at each stage of the operation. With this method, it is important that the measured stresses are corrected for the relaxation which occurs as a result of the removal of previous layers. The surface stresses are usually measured by hole drilling, trepanning or X-ray diffraction. This latter option was used by Gott, 23 as described in Section 2.4.1, to measure the distribution of residual stresses in submerged-arc weldments of A533 Grade B Class 1 steel. 5.2.4. Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) deep hole drilling technique In principle, this method may be used for measuring the internal residual stresses in any structure, 51 although at present it has only been used for the measurement of stresses in a low alloy cast steel block under laboratory conditions. The technique is semi-destructive in the sense that
262
D. P. G. Lidbury
~ II
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263
it leaves holes of about 25 mm diameter in the structure. The sequence of measuring operations is shown in Fig. 40. A 3.2mm diameter hole is drilled through the specimen (or structure) along the anticipated direction of a principal stress; a gun drill is used to ensure a straight hole with a smooth surface finish. Accurate profiles of the hole diameter are then measured in three planes at 45 o to each other, and axial strain gauges attached to the wall of the hole along part of its length. This strain-gauged region is then removed by trepanning, and the resultant axial strain relaxation measured. The diametral strains along the trepanned segment are obtained by remeasuring the bore profile, with reference to the length of hole remaining untrepanned. This process is repeated with axial gauges placed in the other half of the hole, and with the first section acting as a reference for the diametral strain measurements. From the measured distribution of strains, the residual stresses relaxed on the outside surface of the trapanned cylinders are calculated using influence coefficients previously established by means of a finite element analysis. Whilst the general viability of this novel technique is not in doubt, some further development and experience in usage would appear to be necessary.
Gun
drilled
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2.
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and measure axial
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Remove g a u g e s &
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B. R e m o v e g o u g e s & r e m e o s u r e dig me'rer.
Fig. 40. Sequence of events for measuringsub-surfaceresidual stresses by CEGB deep hole drilling technique.51
264
D. P. G, Lidbury
5.3. C E G B - U K A E A experimental stresses in a P W R nozzle weld
programme to measure residual
The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) has recently acquired a partially fabricated nozzle belt as a result of a cancelled order for a four-loop PWR system. Advantage has been taken of this by a Specialist Group comprised of representatives from the CEGB, UKAEA and The Welding Institute, who have drawn up an experimental programme aimed at establishing the detailed surface and throughthickness residual stress distributions in one of the nozzle attachment welds for both the as-welded and stress-relieved conditions. Figure 41 shows part of the nozzle belt, which comprises a cylindrical shell course joined at its top end by a circumferential butt weld to the vessel top closure flange. Only two out of eight nozzles were fitted to the shell course, both of these being outlet nozzles. Both the shell course and the nozzles were fabricated from A508 Class 3 steel forgings. The experimental programme, which is being carried out by the CEGB and which addresses recommendations made by the Marshall Study Group in their Second Report, 12 has the following specific objectives: to determine the levels and distribution of residual stresses in an as-fabricated PWR nozzle weld; (ii) to determine the levels and distribution of residual stresses in a stress relieved PWR nozzle weld; and (iii) to predict how a variation in the conditions of P W H T would affect the level of residual stresses, and evaluate the extent to which stress relief is inhibited by restraint.
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Fig. 41.
General view of nozzle belt and nozzle to be removed. (CEGB U K A E A
experimental programme to measure residual stresses in a PWR nozzle weld.)
265
It is intended that the programme will be executed in five phases. In Phase 1, the changes in restraint, caused by releasing the quadrant of shell course containing the nozzle and then trepanning the nozzle and a surrounding annulus from the quadrant, will be determined. This will allow appropriate corrections to be made to the residual stresses subsequently measured. In Phase 2, the as-welded levels and distribution of residual stresses will be measured; in Phase 3, further measurements will be made following stress relief. In Phase 4, destructive sectioning of the nozzle is planned to confirm the surface and 'deep hole' measurements made in Phase 3. Finally, in Phase 5, a finite element creep analysis will be carried out to validate the results obtained in Phases 3 and 4; this analysis will use data obtained in Phases 1 and 2, as well as data on material properties. Measurements of surface residual stresses will be made using the centre hole technique. 46 The CEGB deep hole drilling technique 12 will be used for sub-surface measurements. There is a provision in the programme for validating the latter method by making comparative measurements on a simple butt weld.
5.4. Summary
Established methods for measuring surface residual stresses, i.e. centre hole rosette, trepanning strain gauge or X-ray diffraction, are capable of yielding consistent data, if properly applied. However, surface measurements are of limited value since the internal distribution of residual stresses in a welded joint is in general non-linear. Sub-surface measurements may be made by deep hole drilling and/or sectioning. These methods are, to a greater or lesser extent, destructive, timeconsuming and costly. Many of the'older sectioning methods have only a limited application; in particular, some are inappropriate with regard to the determination of through-thickness biaxial or triaxial residual stresses in heavy section weldments. More recent methods used in conjunction with finite element analyses to correct for the mechanical relaxation occurring during sectioning/drilling should be capable of yielding more detailed and reliable data. Finite element creep analyses capable of predicting the levels of stress remaining after PWHT represent an important adjunct to contemporary methods of residual stress determination in heavy section weldments subject to complex geometrical restraints. Finally, it should be noted that there is no datum against which the measured levels and distribution of residual stress in a complex weldment may be judged in absolute terms: the ability to make
266
D. P. G. Lidbury
measurements which are substantiated by numerical analysis is the best that can be achieved in this regard. Clearly, therefore, the levels of residual stress assigned to a weldment in service for the purposes of fracture assessment will always be subject to some uncertainty.
6.
RESIDUAL STRESSES DUE TO C L A D D I N G AND ASSOCIATED TOPICS
The inner surfaces of LWR primary vessels are lined with weld-deposited stainless steel cladding, primarily to form a corrosion resistant layer and thereby prevent the primary coolant from becoming contaminated with active corrosion products from the underlying ferritic base metal. It is common practice in Europe to clad the nozzles, main shell and closure and bottom heads by automatic submerged-arc strip welding. Two-layer strip cladding is generally used to control underclad cracking, and to reduce the susceptibility of the clad surface to intergranular stress corrosion cracking. Wire cladding is also used, notably in the USA. Two(or more)-layer cladding is needed for single-wire processes to satisfy thickness requirements. Cladding for LWR vessels is rarely less than 3mm, and generally at least 5mm, thick. Fuller details of cladding procedures may be found elsewhere. ~'~2'52 The main purpose of the present section is to: (i) consider the magnitude and distribution of residual stresses induced as a result of cladding operations both before, and most particularly after, a vessel has received its final PWHT; (ii) describe the effects of the cold hydrotest and in-service temperature changes on these stresses: and (iii) briefly discuss the role of residual stresses in connection with the problem of underclad cracking.
6.1. Residual stresses resulting from cladding operations

Residual stress measurements made at ambient temperature on clad reactor pressure vessel steel specimens have been reported by a number of workers, e.g. Refs. 22, 53 and 54. Typical results are presented in Fig. 42, which shows the distribution of stresses due to two layers of cladding on 86 mm thick 22NiMoCr37 steel specimens. 54 Each layer was deposited to a depth of 4.5 mm using austenitic strip electrodes (first layer 24/13Cr Ni steel; second layer 21/10Cr-Ni steel). It will be seen that in the as-welded state, biaxial tensile stresses occur in the surface of the cladding which are
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268
D. P. G. Lidbury
Sp ti r
electrode
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~
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Fig. 43. Schematic representation of submerged-arc cladding using strip electrode, showing special geometry of molten bead and also showing the stress axes referred to in Fig. 42.54
about 200 M P a and 3 5 0 M P a in magnitude in directions parallel and normal to the welding direction, respectively (see Fig. 43). Moreover, maximum tensile stresses occur about 8 mm below the fusion zone in the parent metal. However, the effect of 12 h of P W H T at 600 C will be seen as effectively relieving the residual stresses in the parent metal, whilst tensile biaxial stresses of yield magnitude are left at the outer surface of the cladding. Measurements of residual stresses resulting from single-layer strip cladding deposited onto LWR pressure vessel steel sections have also been cited in a review by Dhooge e t a/.1--see Fig. 44. These revealed a pronounced peak in the overlap region (Fig. 44(b)). The measurements were quoted as showing that the coarse-grained HAZ in the overlap region after welding was under a tensile stress parallel to the welding direction in excess of 350 MPa, with peak stresses approaching 450 M P a about 10 m m from the fusion boundary. Following 20-45 h of P W H T at 600-615C, maximum stress levels were reported to have fallen to

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between 200 and 250 M Pa. It should be noted that these latter levels are considerably in excess of what would normally be anticipated for underclad regions in an LWR primary vessel entering service.12 The general trends described above have been predicted qualitatively by Buchalet and RiccardellaJ 5 who used an elastic-plastic finite element analysis to model the behaviour of residual stresses due to clad welding in reactor pressure vessels. Temperature profiles were calculated in the cladding and base metal at several discrete time intervals, and were used
270
D. P. G. Lidbury
to obtain the corresponding stress distributions. Although material properties were not quoted, residual tensile stress of about (172 M Pa (25 ksi) were predicted to occur in the cladding. Peak tensile stresses of 4 1 3 M P a (60ksi) were predicted to occur in the coarse-grained HAZ below the cladding. The tensile stresses induced below the cladding were attributed to the inside layer of base metal yielding in compression during welding, and subsequently contracting during cooling; these stresses were found to become insignificant at about 50 m m below the vessel inside surface. The analysis further suggested that P W H T at 593C (1100F) for a time corresponding to 1 h per 25 mm of wall thickness would reduce the peak stresses in the base metal from 413 to 220 M P a (60 to 32 ksi), but would leave the stresses in the cladding effectively unchanged. These latter predictions were acknowledged as being conservative with respect to the base metal, due to a neglect of the effects of creep relaxation in the analysis. It is interesting to note that Buchalet and Riccardella suggest in Ref. 55 that in the overlap region between two weld beads, a triaxial state of stress will build up which will restrict yielding in compression and therefore lead to lower tensile residual stresses compared with a position below the centre of a bead. This last point does not appear to have been substantiated by the experimental results discussed above. Overall conclusions drawn from the references cited above may be summarised as follows. The large heat inputs associated with strip cladding processes induce biaxial stresses in both the austenitic and underlying ferritic parent material. Peak tensile stresses are of yield magnitude, and may occur at the free surface of the cladding 54 and up to 2 5 m m below the cladding/base metal interface. 53 Even after PWHT, yield magnitude tensile residual stresses remain in the cladding due to the difference in the thermal expansion coefficients between the cladding and base metal. As a corollary, it will be evident that if repairs are made to cladding without P W H T (e.g. as allowed by ASME Section III, Article NB-4642), then tensile stresses of yield magnitude will be present in the base metal immediately below the repair.
6.2. Effect of cold hydrotest and in-service temperature changes As discussed above, tensile residual stresses of yield magnitude remain in the cladding after PWHT. However, it may be argued that the cold hydrotest which an LWR vessel undergoes prior to entering service will induce some relief of these stresses. Simple considerations suggest that after application of this test, the maximum possible stress in the cladding at the hydrotest temperature will be t~o(clad)-tr H, where a H is the stress
271
level in the ferritic material, at the interface with the cladding, induced during the hydrotest. A review of overstressing techniques by Nichols s6 cites a number of references in support of this. A recent generic study of the integrity of PWR pressure vessels 12 assumed that go(clad) -- 350 MPa, and recommended that (350-aij)MPa be adopted as the uniform level of tensile residual stress in the austenitic cladding at the temperature of the hydrotest.* Any evaluation of residual stress in the cladding of a pressure vessel needs to take into account both the effect of the hydrotest and the stresses induced by the in-service temperature changes relative to the hydrotest temperature. The residual stress measurements described in Section 6.1 were all made at ambient temperature (,-~20 C); however, because the coefficient of thermal expansion of austenitic clad material is greater than that of the underlying ferritic material, the stresses in the cladding will decrease with increasing temperature and eventually become compressive if the temperature change is sufficiently large. A very crude estimate of the temperature change, A T, necessary to reduce the stresses in the cladding to zero may be made by equating ( E l 1 - v)(~c - ~p)AT with go(clad), the yield stress of the cladding measured at ambient temperature. The quantities :tc and ~p are the coefficients of thermal expansion for cladding and parent material, respectively. For E -- 2 x l0 s MPa, v -- 0-3, ctc= 18.9 10 - 6 C - l , 0tp-- 14-6 x l 0 - 6 C - 1 and a0(clad)= 350 MPa, T = 2 8 5 C ; thus, for an assumed ambient temperature of 20C, the equilibrium temperature should be of the order of 305C. More sophisticated analyses, based on the balance of forces and moments between the cladding and underlying parent material, have been made by a number of authors. In particular, Beaney 22 showed that for the case of 5 mm thick stainless steel, weld deposited onto 150 mm thick A533 Grade B Class 1 steel plate, cladding stresses were tensile and of yield magnitude at 20C, but decreased to 78MPa in compression at the assumed operating temperature (300 C). Balancing stresses in the plate material were shown to be low, being 30 MPa in compression directly under the cladding at 20 C and rising to l0 M Pa in tension at 300 C. These latter figures suggest that residual stresses in the cladding of a vessel whose thickness is less than 5 % of the wall thickness will have a negligible effect on the general stress levels in the underlying ferritic material--a point which is confirmed independently in Ref. 12.
* R. H. Leggatt (private communication) has recently suggested that ao-0'7aH (a o >350MPa), should be used for assessing the level of cladding stresses at the temperature of the hydrotest.
272
D. P. G. Lidbury
6.3. Residual stresses in relation to underclad cracking
Underclad cracking is a potential problem associated with the fabrication of reactor pressure vessels; its incidence was first reported in Europe towards the end of 1970. A comprehensive survey of the phenomenon was undertaken for the Welding Research Council, the work being reported in 1974; 57 the subject has been under more or less continual review since that time, e.g. Refs 1 and 12. In view of this, only a brief discussion of underclad cracking is considered necessary--the main emphasis being placed on the role of residual stresses. Dhooge e t al., 1 in a review of work related to reheat cracking in nuclear reactor pressure vessel steels, report that underclad cracking occurs exclusively along prior austenite boundaries with sizes ranging from a minimum of 0.2 mm in depth and length to a maximum of 4 mm in depth and 10 mm in length. Metallographic examinations show the cracks to be situated in the coarse-grained regions of HAZs which have been fully austenitised by the initial cladding deposit and then heated to just below the austenitisation temperature (600-700C) by the adjacent deposit subsequently laid. Susceptible regions have been shown to be those experiencing the highest values of tensile residual stress immediately after welding, i.e. the overlap regions occurring between adjacent clad deposits--see Figs 44 and 45. The direction of cracking is usually observed to be within 45-90 of the welding direction--see Fig. 45. In their survey for the Welding Research Council, Vinckier and Pense 5v noted that out of 96 responses to a questionnaire, there were 26 cases of underclad cracking. Of these, 25 involved A508 Class 2 steel and only one involved A508 Class 3 material. No cases were reported for A533 Grade B Class 1 plate steel. Cracking in the A508 Class 2 forging steels was attributed to the high heat inputs used during cladding operations. Significantly, 22NiMoCr37 steel has also been shown to have a welldocumented history of underclad cracking, consistent with its close similarity in chemical composition with A508 Class 2 steel. The pattern of behaviour revealed by Vinckier and Pense was subsequently confirmed by surveys carried out by other investigators in the period 1974-78. In all cases underclad cracking was attributed to reheat cracking, sometimes augmented by liquation cracking. 1.58 - 60 Although the major factors responsible for reheat cracking appear to have been established, a detailed understanding of the mechanisms involved is still considered to be lacking. 1,6o Essentially, cracking occurs
273
Crocking .~ z ~Location of
I I
I I
Coarse
Groined HAZAc
I'-&
I.=..
k~
ItI:? IJ~
_a:
t~
cl ..a
b) Fig. 45.
"~' I .;"
--'--- WELO BEAD SEQUENCE Location and orientation of underclad cracks. (a) Transverse section; (b) plan view of cracks [51]. 1 ([51] refers to work quoted in Ref. 1.)
when the creep ductility of the HAZ (or weld metal) is insuti~cient to accommodate the plastic strains which accumulate during PWHT as a result of the relaxation of tensile residual stresses induced by welding. Vinckier and Dhooge 6 have pointed out that there are two aspects to this: the first metallurgical; the second mechanical. With regard to the first, currently held theories attribute the decrease in creep ductility to: (i) an increase in creep strength within grains caused by precipitation hardening during PWHT which intensifies grain boundary strains; (ii) a reduction in grain boundary ductility during PWHT induced by the presence of certain impurity and residual elements--notably P, S, Cu, As and Sn; (iii) a combination of (i) and (ii). With regard to the second, it appears that the deformations resulting from the relaxation of residual stresses during PWHT are largely accommodated by sliding along weakened grain boundaries. It is thought that this enables high levels of shear and tensile strain to be developed locally at the grain boundaries, even though overall strains remain low. 6 This being the case, it may be expected that the intense deformation so produced will lead to the formation of voids at discontinuities along the grain boundaries, and ultimately to the formation of grain boundary cracks. Finally, for completeness, it should be noted that since 1978, underclad defects have been reported in pressure vessel nozzles and steam generator
274
D. P. G. Lidbury
tube sheets fabricated from A508 Class 3 steel. 12 The incidence of these defects has been attributed to 'cold' hydrogen cracking. Although, in some cases, the position and appearance of the cracks observed were similar to those associated with reheat cracking, a significant difference was the occurrence of cracking before PWHT. An account of past French experience of this problem may be found in Ref. 12.
6.4. Summary
During fabrication, tensile residual stresses are produced in the clad regions of LWR primary vessels. Whilst PWHT is able to provide relief of these stresses in the underlying ferritic materials, yield magnitude tensile stresses remain in the austenitic strip cladding; however, the latter will be reduced prior to service by the cold hydrotest, and in service by raising the vessel wall to its operating temperature. Residual stresses in the cladding of a vessel have a negligible effect upon the general stress levels in the underlying ferritic material. Residual stresses, however, clearly play a significant role in determining the reheat cracking behaviour of low alloy pressure vessel steels, both with regard to the cracking of structural welds in general and underclad cracking in particular. Although measurements of residual stresses in single-layer strip clad material have revealed why underclad cracks are found predominantly in the weld overlap regions, an improved understanding of the mechanical aspects of cracking would appear to be contingent upon information becoming available concerning the detailed behaviour of microstresses, i.e. residual stresses of the second kind (see Section 5). Opportunities for further work exist in this area. It is noted that the mechanics and mechanisms of intergranular fracture have recently been reviewed by McMahon et al. 61 The prevention of underclad cracking evidently depends on the avoidance of reheat and hydrogen cracking and, to a lesser extent, liquation cracking. Methods for the prevention of reheat and liquation cracking in structural welds appear to be well understood,12 and are also appropriate to the case of underclad cracking. Cladding procedures may also be designed to minimise cracking susceptibility; in particular, the use of multi-layer cladding techniques is capable of producing a fine-grained microstructure in the weld overlap region, although careful control of heat input during deposition is essential if this is to be successfully achieved.
275
7.
EFFECTS OF R E S I D U A L STRESSES ON THE D E T E C T I O N A N D SIZING OF DEFECTS
An important factor in the assessment of the integrity of LWR primary vessels is that of establishing the significance of those flaws which may be found in a vessel following fabrication. It is the role of non-destructive examination (NDE) to detect these flaws, and to determine their location and size. Methods currently used to do this include visual examination, radiography, dye-penetrant testing, eddy current testing and ultrasonic testing. The most important of these, from the point of view of characterising planar defects, is ultrasonic testing. The development of fracture mechanics has changed the role of N D E from one that was initially aimed at helping to maintain quality control and provide quality assurance, to that of detecting any significant flaws long before they can lead to failure in service. With regard to the latter, the techniques of NDE are applied at every stage of vessel fabrication (see Fig. 8), before commissioning, and for the purposes of in-service inspection, e.g. in accordance with the detailed procedures laid down in ASME Section XI. Currently accepted procedures for the ultrasonic in-service inspection of nuclear reactor pressure vessels contained within Section XI of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code are based upon measurement of the amplitudes of reflected signals. The principal consideration is that of monitoring the possible growth of a known flaw from one in-service inspection to the next. In connection with this, concern has recently been expressed with regard to the local stress conditions at a crack in relation to possible effects on ultrasonic characterisation. 62 Evidence in support of this concern has been documented by Lautzenheiser 6a and, more recently, by Lautzenheiser et al. 64 These authors described the indications found in the nozzle-to-shell welds of the Pilgrim Unit 1 BWR primary vessel during its pre-service inspection. One of the indications was in the N2 nozzle, and was considered to be marginally acceptable, based on signal amplitude; it was 'finger-printed' for reference during future inspections. In-service inspections subsequently revealed that the reflected ultrasonic amplitude from this defect had essentially doubled, compared with that recorded during the pre-service inspection. However, the estimated size of the defect was considered not to have changed within a + 3-4 mm tolerance. It was concluded that the change in amplitude, without change in size, was attributable to the relaxation of compressive residual stresses acting across the faces of the crack due to thermal cycling and shakedown of the vessel occurring in service.
276
D. P. G. Lidbury
It is the purpose of the present section to briefly survey what other information is available concerning the effects of compressive residual stresses on the ultrasonic detection and sizing of planar defects. This information may be broadly categorised as relating to: (i) measurements made on fatigue cracks; (ii) analytical studies.
7.1. Measurements on fatigue cracks
It has been suspected for some time that the ultrasonic response from planar defects may be modified by the application of an external load. Early evidence in support of this contention has been listed by Wooldridge; 65 more recently, the subject has been reviewed in some detail by Slesenger. 66 As pointed out in this latter reference, most of the work reported in the literature has involved measurements made on fatigue cracks; experiments involving other types of 'real' defect do not appear to have been carried out. A significant conclusion in Ref. 66 is that in the case of fatigue cracks, the ultrasonic response may be unduly influenced by the compressive residual stresses associated with crack closure. For the purposes of the present discussion, only one example need be cited--others may be found in Ref. 66. Wooldridge and Steel 67 have carried out a detailed experimental investigation into the influence of crack growth conditions and compressive stress on the ultrasonic detection and sizing of fatigue cracks in both the base metal and weld metal of an EN 3B mild steel weldment. The cyclic growth conditions of the fatigue cracks were found to have a significant effect on their subsequent ultrasonic response, both at zero load and when under compressive stresses (up to 150MPa). The roughness of the fatigue crack surfaces, which was found to correlate with the stress intensity factor range, AK, during growth, was believed to have been the primary factor responsible for the changes in response. However, it was observed that both increasing crack roughness and increasing compressive stress reduced the specular reflection of ultrasonic waves from the cracks, although the roughest cracks showed the least variation with stress. Crack tip echoes were found to be small, typically being 50 dB down on back wall echoes measured at the same range using a compression wave probe at grazing incidence; most significantly, they were found impossible to identify reliably if the cracks (up to 15 mm in depth) were loaded in compression, or were situated in regions of high
277
inclusion density. However, although errors in sizing cracks grown in 'clear' material were found to be up to several millimetres in respect of individual readings of tip echoes, errors were reduced to typically + 1 mm if averaged over several probes.
7.2. Analytical studies

The only relevant study revealed by the present review was one carried out under an EPRI funded project, aimed at providing a quantitative assessment of the effect of compressive stresses on the detectability of shallow surface flaws in BWR feedwater nozzzles by ultrasonic inspection. 62 The feedwater geometry used in the analysis was based on the Nine Mile Point Unit 1 design. Cracking was assumed to occur under the action of the largest principal stress resulting from the combined pressure and thermal loading, i.e. the hoop stress in the blend radius and lower bore region. Crack surfaces, therefore, corresponded to radial planes oriented non-axisymmetrically. For the purposes of analysis, the cracked feedwater nozzle was described in terms of a two-dimensional elastic-plastic finite element model. For the postulated conditions of loading, significant plastic deformations were found to occur, and on shutdown high levels of compressive residual stress developed in material at, and close to, the nozzle bore. Figure 46 shows the profiles of crack opening of surface breaking defects at: (a) the time of maximum load; and (b) shutdown. Figure 47 shows the corresponding plot of 'load severity' as a function of crack depth. The load severity, which was defined as the crack closure force divided by the crack surface displacement at maximum load integrated over the crack depth, was considered to be a measure of crack tightness and therefore directly related to ultrasonic detectability. The analysis concluded that residual stresses play a significant role in the ultrasonic detectability of surface cracks, although the extent to which this occurred depended on such variables as crack depth, service history and unloading sequence. In particular, for the pressure and thermal loading conditions assumed (pressure induced nozzle hoop stress ---360MPa; AT=250C) it was concluded that: (i) flaws less than 8 mm deep would be essentially transparent to acoustic energy, and therefore undetectable; (ii) flaws between 8 and 15 mm deep would be marginally detectable by methods focussing on crack tip conditions; (iii)flaws greater than 15mm deep should be readily
I"
I_"
3" /,
- - - - - - . - - o
I~
c;
11__ ~
~ 0
(a)
~ .5 1 .0 1.5
1~-
_5
1.0
I. 5
0 (b)
Fig. 46.
Calculated crack profiles: (a) at lOOs (time of maximum load); (b)at shutdown. 62
Very Low D etectabilif y Morginal I nefectobility I-J Defectable --I
o
x
2.5
2.0
o
ua
ua 1.5
o u_ 1.0 c~ ~a
--
o
I
.25 ERACK
.5 OEPTH { i n )
.75
Fig. 47.
Load severity and crack closure force as a function of crack depth. 62
279
detectable. The above conclusions were considered to be valid for somewhat smaller amplitude variations in temperature, i.e. A T = 170-200C, provided the conditions of thermal shock were such that the cold water flow was maintained at about 38 C for at least 100 s.
7.3. Summary
Recent experimental studies have provided clear confirmation that compressive stresses are capable of producing a reduction in the amplitude of ultrasonic signals reflected from fatigue cracks grown under laboratory test conditions. There is a limited amount of evidence to suggest that the effect may also be of significance in connection with the in-service monitoring of underclad/nozzle regions in LWR primary vessels where, under conditions of plant shutdown, compressive residual stresses tend to cause closure of any planar defects which may be present. Under such circumstances, high sensitivity techniques would be required to improve the probability of defect detection; such techniques would have to be capable of discriminating between the defect signals and spurious signals from the cladding or minor inclusions in the underlying base metal or weld metal. 8. A L L O W A N C E FOR R E S I D U A L STRESSES IN FRACTURE MECHANICS ASSESSMENTS
In making fracture mechanics assessments, it is always necessary to bear in mind the distinction between primary and secondary stresses. When a crack is introduced into a structure, the former are redistributed but not relaxed, whilst the latter are partially relieved. Primary stresses arise from direct mechanical loads; secondary stresses arise from displacements imposed along an external boundary, or a non-uniform distribution of inelastic strains imposed internally. For a given crack size and geometry, the stress intensity factor due to secondary loading will be less than that due to primary loading, all other things being equal in the loaded, but uncracked, structure. With regard to the design and operation of LWR pressure vessels, primary stresses are due almost entirely to pressure loading, whilst secondary stresses are either associated with welding or with the thermal
280
D. P. G. Lidbury
transients arising from plant operating or postulated accident conditions. Any fracture mechanics methodology intended for use in the assessment of LWR pressure vessel integrity must therefore be able to take account of both primary and secondary stresses. As was indicated in Section 1, there are a number of well-established methodologies with this capability. It is the purpose of the present section to describe these methods in detail, and to identify their respective limitations. First, however, it is appropriate to distinguish between the stresses arising from the two main categories of secondary loading.
8.1. Classification of secondary stresses
Stresses arising from secondary loading may be classified according to whether the loading is displacement or strain controlled. 68 In the case of displacement controlled secondary stresses, it may be shown that the stress intensity factor, K, for extended defects depends upon the gauge length over which the displacements are imposed and is generally nonzero as the ratio of crack length to structural length, a/t, tends to unity. With strain controlled secondary stresses, however, K, tends to zero as a/t tends to unity because the initial strain results in no net force or moment on the structure. It will be clear, therefore, that these two types of stresses relate, respectively, to restrained and unrestrained geometries. Within the context of the discussion in Section 1, 'long range' residual stresses are displacement controlled, whilst 'short range' residual stresses are strain controlled.
8.2. Methods based on LEFM
Linear-elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) is based on elasticity theory describing the stress, strain and strain energy fields immediately ahead of the tip of a loaded crack. These fields may be characterised in terms of a scaling parameter, K, known as the crack tip stress intensity factor. (In the discussion, K is assumed to be the stress intensity factor for mode I opening (K0.) Stress intensity factors may generally be expressed in the form: K
=
YO'app(rCa)1/2
(7)
where Yis a factor dependent only on geometry and loading conditions, a
281
is a crack dimension and gapp is the applied tensile stress remote from the crack tip. Under plane strain conditions, crack initiation occurs when K/K~c~ 1 where K~c is a measurable material property, the plane strain fracture toughness. There are numerous methods available for calculating stress intensity factors; recent surveys may be found in the papers by Anderson et al., 69 and Hellen and Cesari. 7 Analytical solutions appropriate to simple geometries and loading may be found in standard texts, e.g. Refs 71 and 72. Details of numerical methods, capable of handling more complex problems, are given by Owen and Luxmoore. 73'74 Semi-analytical techniques for dealing with problems involving residual stresses have recently been surveyed by Quinones and Reaugh. 75 A commonly used analytical/semi-analytical technique for calculating stress intensity factors with loading due to residual stresses is based on the use of weight/influence functions, e.g. Refs 3, 68, 76 and 77. This approach depends on a superposition theorem due to Bueckner, 7s which shows that for a line crack subjected to an arbitrarily applied loading, the stress intensity factor may be written in the form: K .tla G(a, x)cr(x) dx (8)
where a(x) is the stress distribution in the uncracked structure due to the tractions acting normal to the plane in which the crack is subsequently situated, and G(a, x) is the weight function which is dependent only upon the crack length, geometry and the imposed boundary conditions. The significance of eqn (8) is that, provided the correct boundary conditions are imposed, residual (and thermal) stresses can be formally treated in the same way as mechanical stresses. That is to say, once G(a, x) has been determined, the calculation of Kdepends only on the form of a(x) and not on whether it is due to mechanical and/or residual and thermal stresses; this is because the method formally allows for the relaxation of secondary stresses which occurs when the crack is introduced into the structure, and which may also occur as a result of subsequent crack extension, e.g. by fatigue. Superposition methods may be extended to deal with threedimensional problems involving semi-elliptical defects, etc.; however, in such cases solutions must be obtained numerically. 8.2.1. Treatment of residual stresses in A S M E X1 Appendix A The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section XI,15 requires the
282
D. P. G. Lidbury
periodic inspection of LWR primary vessels by ultrasonic methods. All indications exceeding the standards of ASME XI IWB-3500 are considered as planar defects and Appendix A gives recommended methods for the analysis of such indications. The assessment route involves the following steps: (i) resolution of the defect into a shape amenable to analysis; (ii)the determination of relevant stresses for all conditions in the life of the reactor; (iii) the calculation of stress intensity factors appropriate to these conditions; (iv) the derivation of material fracture toughness values; (v) the use of LEFM to calculate crack growth and critical sizes of defects; and (vi) the application of Section XI IWB3600 criteria to determine the acceptability of the defect. Although more sophisticated methods of calculation are permitted (and indeed acknowledged to be necessary for complex geometries and stress distributions) the recommended equation for calculating stress intensity factors is:
K=amM,. ~
+ O'bMb~
(9)
where o-mand ab are membrane and bending stresses, respectively: a is the relevant flaw size; Q is a graphically determined flaw shape parameter, incorporating a correction for crack tip plasticity; and M m and M b a r e graphically determined correction factors for membrane and bending stresses, respectively. The stresses at the flaw location are resolved into membrane (am) and bending (ab) components across the wall thickness. Stresses arising from all forms of loading are considered; namely, pressure stresses, thermal stresses, discontinuity stresses and residual stresses. These stresses are considered to be additive. The way in which the resultant, non-linear stress distribution is represented linearly over the depth of the defect is shown in Fig. 48. It will be noted from Fig. 48 that a degree of conservatism is inherent in the method of defining the linearised stressvariation, i.e. the assumed stresses exceed the actual stresses within the cracked region.
8.2.2. Treatment of residual stresses in BS PD 6493 (LEFM regime) Published Document PD 6493 of the British Standards Institution 16 is intended primarily to provide detailed guidance on methods for determining acceptance levels for defects in fusion welded joints. The notation and definition of stresses adopted in BS PD 6493 is that used in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III. These stressses
283
are defined as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) average primary stress, Pro; primary bending stress, Pb; secondary stress, Q (including thermal and residual stress); peak stress, F.
The stresses considered are those in the region of the defect, but do not take into account the stress concentration effect at the tip of the defect caused by the defect itself, as this is covered in the assessment. For planar defects, the defect is resolved onto a plane normal to the most significant principal stress. Whilst the assessment of planar defects is based on fracture mechanics, a distinction is made between assessing known defects and estimating 'tolerable' flaw sizes. With regard to the former, and in cases where Pm -I- Pb + Q + F is less than the yield stress (measured in the region of the defect), assessment is by LEFM and follows closely the methods of ASME XI, Appendix A described above.
AET UAL NONLINEAR STRESS DISTRIBU TION
O"b
-]
q
O'm
I I
ACTUAL NONLINEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION
O'm
I'
FLAW_
I I I I I i f/2 I .
\x /. . . .
f/2
EQUIVALENT LINEAR RE PRESENTATION OF STRESS DISTRIBUTION
l
L
t/2 J
:
I
t/2 __
-ECIUIVALEN T LINEAR REPRESENTATION OF STRESS DISTRIBUTION
I
I I I t I I I f
F
I
2o
FLAW
I
I
(a) Fig. 48.
(b)
Linearised representation of stresses in ASME XI Appendix A. (a) Surface flaws; (b)sub-surface flaws.'5 (Note t is the wall thickness.)
284
D. P. G. Lidbury
In particular, secondary stresses (including thermal and residual stresses) are treated as being additive to primary stresses. The combined stresses are represented by a linearised distribution of stresses over the cracked surface as shown in Fig. 49. An LEFM acceptance criterion of K~ ( - K ) < 0.7K~c is arbitrarily specified, and generally gives a safety factor of 2 on defect size and 1.4 on stress and stress intensity factor for defects lying in a uniform stress field.
8.2.3. Treatment of residual stresses in other national codes French practice dictates that residual stresses are considered alongside stresses due to other loadings in the fracture mechanics analysis of LWR primary vessels. 79 For analyses based on LEFM, residual stressess are regarded as additive with respect to primary stresses for the purpose of computing stress intensity factors; these computations would appear to
<74
\\\
~ FOR
EXAMPLES OF LINEARIZATION SURFACE DEFECTS
OF STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS
a4 0
EXAMPLES OF LINEARIZATION OF STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS EMBEDDED DEFECTS
FOR
am o r , , ?
cr~
~7b : c~ - a ~ 1 2
Fig. 49. Linearised representation of stress in PD6493.16 (Note: Any linearised distribution of stress is acceptable provided that it is greater than or equal to the magnitude of the real distribution over the crack surface.)
Residual stresses in relation to the integrity of L W R pressure vessels
285
include a first order correction for crack tip plasticity. Crack stability is ascertained by comparing K with K~c (or Kjc); an unspecified safety factor is applied appropriate to the category of loading. To this extent, the assessment procedure is very similar to that of ASME XI Appendix A. With regard to fatigue crack growth analyses, the influence of residual stresses is acknowledged through the effect of the stress ratio, R =-Kmin/Kmax, on the crack growth relationship da/dN=f(AK, R). Significantly, guidelines appear to have been established concerning the levels and distribution of residual stresses. In the case of butt welds involving similar materials, residual stresses are assessed partly from a survey of published data, and partly from unpublished measurements made on heavy section weldments of pressure vessel steels; the assessment is designed to account for the likely effectiveness of the PWHT employed by the fabricator. With bi-metallic welds and cladding, residual stresses are assessed by numerical elasto-plastic analysis of the cooling phase of the final PWHT; due allowance is made for the effect of the hydrotest. These latter stress levels are confirmed by measurement. German Codes and Guidelines do not explicitly require the evaluation of residual stresses or their consideration in stress report calculations. 80 This is because levels of residual stresses and their influence are considered to be minimised by: (i) the specification of high quality, high toughness materials; (ii) optimised design; and (iii) optimised fabrication techniques. These essential quality requirements are embodied in the socalled 'Basis Safety Concept', 8 ~which is aimed at excluding the possibility of catastrophic failure of LWR pressure boundary components. In connection with the HAZs of main fabrication welds, the above requirements are intended to prevent: (i) cracking, particularly stress relief cracking, occurring during fabrication; and (ii) in-service degradation producing unacceptable end-of-life properties. The requirements of the Basis Safety Concept were incorporated into the RSK (West German Reactor Safety Commission) Guidelines for pressurised light water reactors in January, 1979. Within these Guidelines, LEFM is used in calculations concerned with the avoidance of brittle fracture; in particular, the vessel belt-line region is assessed according to the Regulations contained in KTA 3201.2 (Layout, Construction and Analysis). Primary and secondary stresses are considered in the calculation of Level A, B, C and D Service Limits by methods which closely parallel those recommended in ASME III, Appendix G (Levels A and B) and ASME XI, Appendix A (Levels C and D). Exceptionally, in
286
D. P. G. Lidbury
cases where neutron irradiation embrittlement and thermal ageing are predicted to lead to marginal end-of-life toughness properties, residual stresses have to be included in the calculation of stress intensity factors, as required by the Licensing Authorities.
8.3. Methods based on E P F M
The validity of LEFM in fracture mechanics assessments is restricted to situations where crack tip plasticity is of a limited extent compared with crack length and remaining ligament size. For conditions of more extensive yielding, defect assessments must rely on the techniques of elasto-plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM). However, the occurrence of more widespread plasticity below conditions of plastic collapse does not necessarily prevent residual and other secondary stresses from influencing the load-bearing capacity of a cracked structure, as shown clearly by Chell 68 and Chell and Ewing. 82 In general, therefore, it is important that secondary stresses are taken into account when using E P F M methods. Although numerous methods exist with this capability, e.g. Refs 14, 16, 68, 75 and 83-85, many of these are based on numerical analysis. However, the methods which are contained in Appendix 4 of the CEGB's R6 Document, 14 and in Published Document PD 6493 of the British Standards Institution, 16 reduce the complexities of elastic-plastic analysis of combined loading situations to graphical procedures which are: (i) relatively easy to understand; and (ii) illustrate clearly the general principles involved. For the purposes of the present section, therefore, these two methods will be considered in detail. It is noted that the Marshall Study Group in its Second Report 12 on the integrity of PWR pressure vessels made a positive recommendation in favour of the R6 procedure being used for the assessment of defects discovered in service (Recommendation 10).
8.3.1. Treatment o f residua! stresses in the CEGB R6 Document
As discussed briefly in Section 1, the R6 two-criterion approach is based on the notion that failure is bounded by the regime of linear elastic fracture at one extreme and that of plastic collapse at the other. The Dugdale-Bilby, Cottrell, Swinden strip yield model of crack tip plasticity is used to interpolate between these extremes, giving an expression for the failure assessment line of the form: Kr - S ~_~ In see ( 2 S r ) l -L'2 8~1_7 t(10)
287
where K, is the ratio of the elastic stress intensity factor to the initiation fracture toughness, and S, is the ratio of the applied load to the collapse load. Plasticity effects due to primary stresses are incorporated through the term S r. The R6 failure assessment diagram defined by eqn (10) is shown in Fig. 50. The approach adopted in Appendix 4 of the R6 Document for dealing with thermal and residual stresses is based upon a proposal made by Milne, 86 following ideas developed by Chell. 87 Essentially, it is recognised that primary (a p) and secondary (a s) stresses behave such that: (i) within the LEFM regime, o"p and # are additive and contribute fully to failure; (ii) within the EPFM regime, trp and a s are not linearly additive; and (iii) within the fully plastic regime, the plastic collapse load of a structure depends only on a p.
It is further recognised that although secondary stresses are, in general,

1.2 'FAILURE'
Assessment fine
1.0
SAFE 0.8 Kr
0.6
0.~
LOAD FACTOR : 0A' 0A.
0.2
0.2
0.
0.6
0.8
t
1.0
Sr Kr = Sr ~-2 [n ~ec T s
1.2
Fig. 50.
The R6 failure assessment diagram, z*
288
D. P. G. Lidbury
composed of a mixture of strain and displacement controlled stresses, they are for the most part self-equilibrating, and may therefore be treated accordingly. Thus, because by definition stress regarded as secondary stresses cannot cause plastic collapse, it is assumed that their contribution to crack tip plasticity may be satisfactorily dealt with in terms of a first order (Irwin) correction. In terms of the R6 failure assessment diagram, therefore, plasticity effects arising from secondary stresses are only incorporated via the ordinate, Kr, through a correction term, p, such that: K r = K~ + Krp, where K p = KP/KIc and (11)
Kg --
K,c + p
Here KJ'(---- K p) is the mode I elastic stress intensity factor due to primary stresses, K~ (----Ks) is the mode I elastic stress intensity factor due to secondary stresses and K~c is the initiation fracture toughness. The quantity Sr is evaluated solely in terms of primary stresses, such that:
Sr = ~7p/~yl(a/t)
(12)
where al(a/t) is the plastic collapse stress of the cracked structure. It will be noted with reference to Fig. 50 that in the absence of primary stresses, the assessment point lies on the ordinate, K r, and failure is predicted when K r > 1. This is equivalent to failure occurring when K~a + rt) >_ Kin, where ~/is the first order plastic zone size correction. In the presence of primary (and secondary) stresses, the assessment point is defined by the co-ordinates (S r, Kr) and failure is predicted to occur if this point lies outside the area marked 'Safe'. In this more general case, plasticity effects due to secondary stresses are incorporated as before through Kr~; however, plasticity effects due to primary stresses are incorporated through Sr(=SP). It will further be noted that at the plastic limit load where Sr = Srp = 1, secondary stresses do not affect the failure stress, as expected. As discussed by Chell, 6s the plasticity correction, p, in the expression for K,~ in e q n ( l l ) depends on a p as well as o-s. In particular, p may be expressed as a function of Sr for different ratios of K~(al)/lq(a2), where p for a crack of size a l:
a 2 =a I +r/ (13)
289
with q being a first order plastic zone size correction given by:
14,
~o _] In practice, for a given ratio of I~(al)/N~(a2), the maximum value of p(Sg) is used for assessment purposes. These maximum values are tabulated in Appendix 4 of the R6 Document. An example of the application of the above procedure has been given by Chell, 68 who considered the case of a 'through-thickness' crack situated within the fusion zone of a non-stress-relieved pressure vessel. For assessment purposes, the vessel geometry was simulated by that of a centre-cracked panel (Fig. 51). The membrane stress (0"p) to cause failure was calculated as a function of defect size via solutions for S~a), K]'(a), K~l(a) and /~(a + q) using the computer program FRACPAC. 88 The following assumptions were made in this calculation: a o = 350 M P a yield stress a u = 450 MPa ultimate stress, = ~(Oo + au) = 400 M P a flow stress, plastic collapse stress, a 1 =if(1 - a / t ) K~c = 100 M P a x / ~ fracture toughness, t = 126.5 m m wall thickness, Using the above information, failure assessment points (Sr, Kr) for a number of defect sizes were established. Some of these are shown plotted in Fig. 52(a), labelled A, B, C , . . . , etc.; the respective safety factors are F=(AAX/AA), (BB~/BB),...,etc. These results are plotted in Fig. 52(b), which shows the membrane stress at failure as a function of defect size. Figure 52(b) shows clearly that the presence of residual stresses greatly reduces the load-bearing capacity of the pressure vessel. For example, the maximum tolerable membrane stress for a half defect size of 12mm is only about 100 M P a in the non-stress-relieved vessel, whereas with P W H T it increases to about 320 MPa. (For the purposes of this example, P W H T is assumed to confer a 100~ relief of residual srresses.) Similarly, for an assumed operating membrane stress of 200 MPa, P W H T is predicted to increase the critical defect size, a, from 6.5 mm to almost 27 mm. It is important to note, however, that in cases where weld metal toughnesses are significantly higher than the level assumed above, the assessment calculations would become insensitive to the presence of residual stresses, and failure would be predicted to occur by a plastic collapse mode.
290
D. P. G. Lidbury
t~
u.I
t~
w
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._0.=
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,...,
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350
~
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1. 0 ~ - " ~ ' - - ~
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8 12 16 20 2~ HALF DEFECT SIZE. mm (b} Fig. 52. (a) A defective weld in a pressure vessel (letters signify assessment points and their origins (superscript o). (b) Predicted failure stresses.6S
to)
292
D. P. G. Lidbury
As a further point, it should also be noted that if the residual stress profile is unknown, and is consequently taken as a uniform stress across the section, the above procedure will generally yield pessimistic results, sometimes unacceptably so. In fairness, this pessimism is due to the unrealistic representation of the residual stress field, and is not a fault of the procedure. Further examples of the use of the R6 method in assessments involving residual stresses have been given by Darlaston. s9 Additionally, a supplement to the R6 Document is due to be issued shortly containing sample calculations, some of which will deal with the effects of welding-induced residual stresses. 12 The behaviour of structures subject to combined primary and secondary loading is well illustrated and confirmed by the experimental results of Formby and Griffiths, 9 who investigated the effects of residual stresses (induced by the application of heating pads) on the fracture load of centre-cracked panels of BS 1501-224 steel. Their results are illustrated in Fig. 53, which shows the temperature dependence of the applied mechanical load needed to cause failure. For temperatures below 180 C fracture occurred by a brittle mechanism, with residual stresses having a marked influence on the failure load. Above this temperature, ductile mechanisms became increasingly important, with specimens failing by plastic collapse above 0 C. Within the ductile range, the failure load was essentially independent of whether residual stresses were present or not. This behaviour was later successfully analysed by Formby, 91 who used the procedure in Appendix 4 of the R6 Document. Notwithstanding the results of Formby and Griffiths described above, there is currently a dearth of experimental data relating to the fracture behaviour of structures under combined primary and secondary loading in the E P F M regime. There are, of course, good reasons for this. Significant thermal stresses cannot be achieved experimentally unless temperature gradients are severe; with ferritic materials, this implies a concomitant toughness gradient. The highest tensile stresses generated by thermal shock loading occur in regions experiencing the lowest temperatures; thermal stresses will, therefore, have their greatest influence on fracture in low toughness regions of a rest specimen, i.e. under conditions which are closer to the regime of LEFM than that of EPFM. The situation is equally difficult with regard to residual stresses: first, because of uncertainties concerning the actual levels and distribution of the residual stresses involved; secondly, because metallurgical effects due to material variability, strain ageing, etc., may
-
293
250
LATEO COLLAPSE LOAD
200
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150
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0 -200 I -150 I -100 I - 50 I 0 I 25
TEHPERATURE, E Fig. 53. F r a c t u r e l o a d s as a f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e f o r specimens w i t h ( + ) a n d w i t h o u t
( 0 ) residual stress. F represents fatigue precracked specimens w i t h o u t residual stress. Collapse load = ligament area x (a o + o'u)/2, 9
294
D. P. G. Lidbury
mask effects due to the presence of residual stresses--this being a particular problem in connection with tests performed on weldments at temperatures within the transition range. As described in Section 9, a programme of vessel tests has recently been initiated in the United Kingdom with the objective of further validating the anlytical techniques in Appendix 4 of the CEGB's R6 Document. The programme has been designed with the above shortcomings and difficulties clearly in mind.
8.3.2. Treatment of residual stresses in BS PD 6493 (EPFM regime) The empirical crack opening displacement (COD) design curve of Burdekin and Dawes 92 (see Fig.54) is used to estimate 'tolerable' flaw sizes, Cim,in cases where:
(Pm q'- Pb q'- Q + F) < ao, but a valid K~c cannot be obtained for the section thickness of interest; (ii) (Pro + Pb + Q + F) > ao; or (iii) assessment is in terms of postulated, rather than known, defects.
In cases (i) and (ii) above, the tolerable flaw parameter, d m, is determined from the fracture toughness and applied stress conditions by using the relationship: dm= C 6~ ~o (15)
(i)
where 6c is the critical value of the COD, eo is the yield strain ( = tro/E ) and C is determined from the applied stresses using Fig. 54. Assessment is based upon the tolerable flaw parameter, am, being greater than the 'effective' defect size, d, where the latter is determined from a knowledge of the actual defect size and the applied stresses. In case (iii) above, the tolerable flaw parameter may be defined in terms of eqn (15), or in terms of the following equation:
dm = C[ K1c] 2 L~-o j
(16)
It should be noted that the treatment of stresses above yield in BS PD 6493 is essentially based upon an applied strain/yield strain (e/eo) criterion. When the sum of the primary and secondary stresses (including residual stresses) is less than or equal to twice the yield stress, direct conversion of elastic or pseudo-elastic stresses to strains is considered acceptable. Hence, the abscissa in Fig. 54 is given as the ratio of applied
295
ALLOWABLE
DESIG N
DEFECT
PARAM ETE R
CURW
~m = C ( K~C/ 2 Oro/
5m = C
1.0 --
z o (,, 0,1
I
0.1 RATIO OF PRINCIPAL APPLIED 1.0 STRESS TO YIELD
I
10 STRESS ( P m ' P b ' ' Q ' F ) O" o
Fig. 54.
The COD design curve in BS PD 6493. t6
296
D. P. G. Lidbury
stress (including residual stress) to yield stress. In as-welded structures, the level of tensile residual stress is taken as the yield stress appropriate to the defect location in the calculation of (Pm + P b + Q + F); in stress relieved structures, it is recognised that the residual stress may not be zero and it is recommended that an estimate of the actual value is made and recorded. If the primary and secondary stresses (excluding residual stresses) result in ~/eo > 2, then a more accurate determination of the strain ratio is recommended using computational methods or experimental data. Further discussion concerning the use of the COD design curve in problems involving residual stresses and, in particular, The Welding Institute's approach to the assessment of aswelded structures, may be found in Ref. 4.
8.3.3. Comparison o[ the CEGB R6 and BS PD 6493 approaches to the treatment of residual stresses It is appropriate to compare the way in which the above two methodologies deal with residual stresses in fracture mechanics assessments. Both methods regard residual stresses as being additive with respect to stresses from other loadings within the LEFM regime. Moreover, each method acknowledges that within the fully plastic regime, plastic collapse depends only on primary loading. However, whereas in the R6 method consideration of the possibility of plastic collapse is an integral part of the fracture assessment procedure, in BS PD 6493 it is treated separately. Both methods contain provisions for dealing with residual stresses within the E PF M regime. In Appendix 4 of the R6 Document: (i) primary and secondary stresses are treated as being non-linearly additive; (ii) first order plasticity effects only are attributable to residual (and thermal) stresses. In BS PD 6493: (i)primary and secondary stresses are considered as being linearly additive; (ii)plasticity effects due to both types of loading are incorporated on the same basis via the COD design curve. Lastly, the CEGB method is capable of accommodating the nonlinearity generally associated with residual stress profiles, although no guidance is given as to the distribution itself. With BS PD 6493, however, a single level of stress appropriate to the defect location must be specified. 8.3.4. Alternative methods As previously noted, other methods have been developed with the
297
capacity for evaluating defect significance in the presence of thermal and residual stresses. Of particular importance are numerical methods based on the finite element technique--a recent survey being given by Latzko. 93 The value of the finite element technique as a means of substantiating residual stress measurements made on a complex component was emphasised in a previous section: clearly, the next step to take in the overall assessment procedure is further application of the technique to perform the fracture analysis in the presence of these stresses. However, aside from their inherent usefulness in providing a powerful method of solution to a particular problem, such analyses are of far wider significance since, together with appropriate experimental investigations of fracture behaviour in the presence of residual stresses, they provide the best means currently available for validating the simpler analytical techniques which have been developed for more general and routine use.
8.4. Summary
Numerous techniques have been developed with the capability of evaluating defect significance in the presence of residual (and thermal) stresses. However, the validity of a particular method in a given situation is not easy to assess at present, due to a general lack of experimental data which unambiguously relates the effects of residual stresses to the fracture behaviour of large test structures. It is generally acknowledged, however, that within the LEFM regime, residual stresses contribute fully to cleavage failure and should, therefore, be considered as being linearly additive to stresses arising from other loadings. Within the E P F M regime, there is a limited amount of evidence which shows that residual stresses may significantly affect the load-bearing capacity of a cracked structure. However, provided cleavage failure does not intervene as the plastic collapse load is approached, the failure of the structure will become dominated by mechanical loading. The analytical techniques of Appendix 4 of the CEGB's R6 Document are able to account for this behaviour, and arguably constitute the most versatile methodology currently available for assessing the integrity of cracked structures in the presence of residual (and thermal) stresses. More sophisticated techniques, based on the finite element method, provide a particularly powerful way of addressing individual problems involving residual stresses; potentially, they also have an important role to play in validating the simpler analytical techniques which have been developed for more routine and general use.
298
D. P. G. Lidbury
9.
E X P E R I M E N T A L I N V E S T I G A T I O N S OF T H E EFFECTS OF R E S I D U A L STRESSES ON S T R U C T U R A L I N T E G R I T Y
There are a number of well-established fracture mechanics methodologies available with provisions for analysing the significance of flaws in the presence of residual stresses. However, as was emphasised in Section 8, the appropriateness of a particular method in a given situation is hard to assess at present, due to a general lack of experimental data concerning the fracture behaviour of large test structures subjected to varying amounts of secondary loading. The object of the present section is to identify, and briefly describe, those large scale vessel tests which have provided, or will provide, information concerning the effects of weldinduced and other secondary stresses on the fracture behaviour of LWR primary vessels. (There is a large body of data relating to tests on defected wide plates which has not been considered in this section; much of this data relates to tests carried out at temperatures in the transition range and, in several instances, there is difficulty in separating metallurgical effects from those due to residual stresses.)
9.1. H S S T programme tests
The stated primary objective of the HSST Programme is to 'evaluate the effects of flaws, variations in material properties, stress raisers and residual stresses on the integrity of RPVs under combined thermal and mechanical loadings'. The Programme results are utilised to improve ASME Codes, ASTM Standards, Regulatory Guides, computational methods, etc., and also to validate analytical methods and criteria. Two of the tests carried out to date under the HSST Programme at Oak Ridge National Laboratory are relevant to the present discussion: (i) Intermediate Vessel Test V-8; (ii)Thermal Shock Experiment TSE-5.
9.1.1. Intermediate Vessel Test 1/-8 Intermediate Vessel Test V-8 was specifically designed to investigate the effect on fracture behaviour of residual stresses associated with a nonstress-relieved half-bead weld repair, and involved pressurising a cylindrical vessel (Fig. 22) containing an axial flaw. The externally located flaw, which was 206 mm long and initially 62.5 m m deep, was located within the fusion zone of a fabrication weld and adjacent to the repair
299
weld (see Fig. 24). The flawed region was of comparatively low fracture toughness, and contained relatively high levels of tensile residual stress. The levels and distribution of the circumferential residual stresses assumed to be acting on the flaw were based on measurements made on the corresponding qualification repair weld (see Fig. 26). The test was performed at a temperature of - 23 C, which corresponded to the lower transition region of the estimated toughness versus temperature relationship (Klc ~ 100 M P a x / ~ ). Two cleavage initiation-arrest events were observed, the first at a pressure of 26.3MPa, the second at 65-3 MPa. The vessel leaked, but did not fail structurally. An LEFM analysis of Intermediate Vessel Test V-8 has been reported by Rybicki et al. 94 Stress intensity factors were calculated via potential energy release rates using a finite element m o d e l . 95"96 Separate calculations were carried out for: (i) a given level of pressurisation; (ii) the assumed distribution of residual stresses. Corresponding results obtained from these calculations were then added to obtain the total stress intensity factor due to primary and secondary loading. This procedure showed that, for a given level of pressurisation, the total stress intensity factor at first increased, but eventually decreased, with increases in crack depth, e.g. for p = 69 MPa this occurred for a > 63.5 mm. The predicted pressure corresponding to the second run-arrest event was reported to be in the range 55-2-71.7 M Pa. More refined calculations performed at a later date predicted pressures corresponding to the two run-arrest events of 30-6 MPa and 62.8 MPa, respectively.
9.1.2. Thermal shock experiment TSE-5
TSE-5 was one in a series of tests conducted as part of an on-going programme at O R N L to investigate the behaviour of inner-surface flaws in cylindrical vessels subjected to severe thermal shock loading. The hollow, open-ended A508 Class 2 chemistry test cylinder used for TSE-5 was 1.22m long, with an outside diameter of 991 m m and an inside diameter of 686 mm. A full length axial flaw was introduced into the cylinder by hydrogen charging an electron beam (EB) weld. 97 Visual examination prior to the test confirmed that cracking of the embrittled region had been induced by the high levels of residual stress present and had successfully produced the defect to the desired depth of 16mm; however, it also revealed the presence of numerous short cross cracks, whose lengths were confined to the fusion zone of the EB weld.
300
D. P. G. Lidbury
Full details of TSE-5 may be found in Ref. 12. However, relevant points in connection with the present section are as follows. The test was conducted by heating the cylinder to a temperature of 96 C, and then quenching it in liquid nitrogen. The thermal shock was more severe than planned, and the toughness of the vessel was less than expected. Three initiation-arrest events took place, and the final arrested crack had a depth of 80 ~o of the wall thickness over the central region of the test cylinder, with this depth decreasing to 40 ~o of the wall thickness at the ends. Secondary cracking occurred as shown schematically in Fig. 55.
240
300
0o
60
120
180
II
II
17
I iI
/ "
i
"
- - ~ , - - ""'-"
\
~
~]
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EXTENSIVE
IXTE'
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./,/ "
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~, x-, ~" \ x
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Fig. 55. Secondarycracking pattern on inner surface of TSC-1 followingTSE-5fl7
These latter cracks apparently initiated at one of the cross cracks in the EB weld; some were subsequently found to have penetrated as much as 35-40 ~ of the way through the cylinder wall. Following the test, the cylinder was cut into two, and residual stress measurements were made on one of the halves. The results indicated residual compressive stress levels of - 120 MPa on both the inner and outer surfaces of the cylinder; since the gradient in these stresses was found to be steep, it was concluded that comparatively low levels of tensile residual stress occurred throughout the major portion of the vessel wall. These tensile residual stresses were therefore considered not to have had a significant effect on the stress intensity factor of those flaws with depths greater than that of the initial (axial) flaw.
301
9.2. Tests planned which support recommendations made in the Second Marshall Report
As noted previously, the Marshall Study Group, in its Second Report on the integrity of PWR pressure vessels,1 z made a positive recommendation in favour of the CEGB's R6 procedure being used as an analytical route for the assessment of defects discovered in service. However, the Study Group noted that the procedure had mainly been substantiated by smallscale specimen tests; it consequently felt that further experimental validation would be desirable, with particular emphasis to be placed on loadings from residual and other self-limiting stresses (Recommendation 71). Recently, two major programmes involving large scale tests have been planned in the United Kingdom to provide further experimental validation of the R6 procedure. In addition to this, there are a number of on-going programmes involving smaller scale tests which are also capable of providing relevant information.
9.2.1. C E G B vessel tests
These tests have been designed with the objective of validating the analytical techniques for incorporating secondary stresses and ductile crack growth into the R6 failure assessment route. Five tests are planned, and testing will be carried out in three stages as follows. Stage I (1 test) will investigate crack propagation behaviour in fnlly stress relieved plate material. Stage II (2 tests) will investigate crack propagation in as-welded longitudinal seam welds. Stage III (2 tests) will investigate crack propagation in the presence of residual stress profiles established by differential heating of the vessel wall. A full test programme is also planned to: (i) evaluate material properties: (ii) measure residual stress profiles. The test vessels will each consists of a cylindrical section (length = 1600 ram), inside diameter = 1015 mm and wall thickness = 77ram) capped by hemispherical end pieces. The material of construction will be A533 Grade B Class 1 steel plate. Each vessel will have filling and draining nozzles, instrumentation nozzles and a plain cylindrical test section which may be refurbished by plugging or by removing and replacing with another test section. Test sections will each contain an axial flaw, grown from a notch machined into the outside surface. All tests will involve hydrostatically pressurising a cylinder to failure (defined as that point at which its ability to contain pressure ceases); during a test, pressure, displacement, strain and crack size will all
302
D. P. G. Lidbury
be monitored. It is intended that pressure will be increased monotonically during tests, although occasional reduction in pressure may be made to mark crack tip positions. In all cases, test temperatures will be chosen so as to correspond to fully ductile conditions. In addition to the above tests, there are also plans to test a precracked panel containing a known distribution of residual stresses induced by the application of heating pads. Primary stresses will be induced in the test panel by machine loading.
9.2.2. UKAEA spinning cylinder tests The UKAEA is currently developing a spinning cylinder rig capable of testing sections of pressure vessel steel up to 200 mm thick under the combined primary and secondary loadings representative of PWR design-basis accidents. The rig is being developed in support of an experimental programme which will comprise three phases. Phase I is intended to confirm predictions of ductile crack extension in thick sections of pressure vessel steel under primary loading and conditions of contained yield. Phase II is intended to confirm the predicted fracture response of thick sections of pressure vessel steel for a number of simulated PWR accident conditions. Phase III has yet to be fully defined, but will investigate both the effects of cladding and residual stresses on crack growth. Essentially, primary stresses will be induced in a test cylinder by centrifugal loading, whilst secondary stresses will be generated by spray quenching its precracked inner surface with water. Calculations have shown that this test method is capable of providing an accurate representation of the primary stresses in a PWR vessel and, moreover, that the ratio of primary to secondary loading can be varied in a controlled manner. Experimental work carried out to date has made use of a small model cylinder of 500 mm diameter and 50 mm wall thickness to check details of mechanical stability, heat transfer and instrumentation. Full size test cylinders will be 1.4 m long, with an outside diameter of 1.4m and a wall thickness of 100 or 200mm. Controlled rotation at speeds of up to 3500 rpm is planned. Provisions will be made for radiantly heating cylinders up to temperatures of 300-350 C prior to spray quenching. 9.2.3. Subsidiary tests Wide plate tests are currently being conducted at The Welding Institute to
303
investigate the effect of displacement controlled loads on the propagation of semi-elliptic defects in quenched and tempered specimens ofA533 Grade B steel. The test plates (1 m x 1 m x 80mm thick) may be loaded in either uniaxial or biaxial tension, whilst jacks are used to impose localised displacements across cracked regions. This will allow the spectrum of behaviour between the extremes of rigid and compliant loading to be investigated. Six tests have been planned, and each will be carried out at a temperature of 70 C to ensure fully ductile conditions. Tests are currently being conducted by the CEGB to measure depressurisation rates in mild steel pipework (outside diameter = 150 mm, wall thickness = 12-25 mm) following fast ductile fracture from axial precracks. As an extension to this programme, future tests are being planned to: (i) measure tearing prior to instability; and (ii) study tearing in the presence of secondary loads.
9.3. Summary
There is a general lack of published information concerning the fracture behaviour of large test structures subjected to varying degrees of secondary loading. Those experimental results which are presently available for review relate to two tests carried out as part of the US NRC's HSST Programme. Intermediate Vessel Test V-8, has provided some evidence that, in the linear-elastic regime, residual stresses may be regarded as additive with respect to stresses arising from primary (pressure) loading. Thermal Shock Experiment TSE-5, inadvertently demonstrated the propensity short surface defects (resulting from the relaxation of weld-induced residual stresses in regions of low fracture toughness) have for both sideways and depth-wise extension under conditions of severe thermal shock loading. However, since TSE-5 involved an unclad test cylinder, it is difficult to draw any firm conclusions from this test concerning the possible behaviour of, say, underclad defects in an LWR primary vessel subject to a large loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA) or similar fault condition. A number of large scale tests have been planned in the United Kingdom to investigate the effect of residual and other self-limiting stresses on ductile crack extension. These tests are intended to provide further experimental validation of analytical procedures for incorporating secondary stresses into the CEGB's R6 assessment route. In line with recommendations made by the Marshall Study Group in its Second
304
D. P. G. Lidbury
Report (for a PWR primary vessel to be designed to remain on the upper shelf throughout all highly stressed operating and fault conditions) these tests will be carried out in the ductile loading regime.
10.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this section is to present an overall summary of the foregoing sections, and to provide, as necessary, further discussion and comment on specific aspects of the review.
10.1. Measurement of residual stresses in heavy section weldments
There are a number of well-established methods for measuring surface residual stresses. In particular, the centre hole rosette, trepanning strain gauge and X-ray diffraction methods are capable of yielding reliable and consistent data if properly applied. However, these methods are of limited value, owing to the internal distribution of residual stresses in heavy section weldments being generally non-linear. Nevertheless, since the Xray technique is completely non-destructive, it may prove to be a useful method for making in-situ measurements of surface residual stresses in a PWR primary vessel, e.g. to compare stress levels before and after the hydrotest, assess the effects of a localised PWHT, etc. Application of such a technique, however, would require validation with respect to the parent metal (e.g., A533 Grade B Class 1 plate steel, A508 Class 3 forging steel), weld metal and associated HAZs. A calibration to determine Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio appropriate to lattice strains in these materials would also be required. Relatively few determinations of the levels and distribution of residual stresses in heavy section weldments (corresponding to the structural welds in LWR primary vessels) have been made. The reason for this is that subsurface measurements must be made by methods involving sectioning and/or deep hole drilling--methods which are, to a greater or lesser extent, destructive, time-consuming and costly. Many of the older sectioning methods (e.g., the Rosenthal-Norton method) are not suitable for determining the through-thickness biaxial or triaxial residual stresses which are present in heavy section LWR welds. However, more recent methods used in conjunction with numerical analysis to correct for the mechanical relaxation occurring during sectioning/drilling should be
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capable of yielding more detailed and reliable data. It is particularly important to appreciate that there is no datum against which the measured levels and distribution of residual stresses in a complex weldment (e.g., a PWR inlet/outlet nozzle weld) may be assessed in absolute terms. The ability to corroborate measurements by numerical analysis is currently the best way of minimising the uncertainty in the values of residual stress which are assigned to a weldment in service for the purposes of fracture assessment. Numerical analyses based on the finite element method are proving to be increasingly valuable in this respect. Three types of analysis are commonly performed as follows: a thermal analysis is combined with a finite element stress analysis to compute the levels and distribution of residual stresses in the aswelded structure; 3'98 - 100 (ii) a finite element analysis is used to correct for the mechanical relaxation occurring during destructive/semi-destructive methods of residual stress measurement; 51 (iii) a finite element creep analysis is used to predict the effect of a specified PWHT, given the measured (or computed) levels and distribution of residual stresses in the as-welded structure, as To date, only relatively simple welds (e.g., multi-pass girth-butt welds in piping systems) have been analysed. However, future developments are likely to provide the means for analysing more complex joints, with the fracture assessment of these components being included as an integral part of the analysis. 10.2. Magnitude and distribution of residual stresses in PWR primary pressure vessels The conclusions reached by the Marshall Study Group 12 concerning the levels and distribution of residual stresses associated with the fabrication of PWR primary pressure vessels may be summarised as follows: 1. After tempering, but prior to welding, surface stresses in plates and forgings are compressive; these are balanced by insignificant tensile stresses throughout the remaining section. After welding, but prior to PWHT, stresses parallel to fabrication welds are tensile in a region spanning up to 25 mm either side of the fusion zone, with peak values up to yield magnitude; the throughthickness distribution of transverse stresses is dependent on the (i)
2.
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3.
4.
restraint applied during welding, and may be tensile throughout the thickness of a heavily restrained weld such as a nozzle attachment weld. After PWHT, stresses (in butt welds, including girth welds; longitudinal seams; and nozzle attachment welds)* parallel and transverse to the welding direction may be represented by a distribution which is uniform throughout the weld thickness, and of magnitude 50 MPa tensile. After PWHT, yield magnitude tensile stresses remain in the austenitic strip cladding; however, these are reduced prior to service by the pre-service hydrotest, and in service by raising the vessel wall to its operating temperature.
Overall, the present review has confirmed the above conclusions. However, some further discussion is in order concerning Conclusion 3, since the recommended levels of residual stress following PWHT are based on measurements relating to a low restraint butt weld in 279 mm thick A533 Grade B Class i steel plate and the corresponding uniaxial stress relaxation data. 13 AS described in Section 4, the relaxation of residual stresses during PWHT depends on elastic strains associated with the stress field being converted into inleastic strains; this depends upon plasticity and, in particular, long term relaxation depends upon time-dependent plasticity, i.e. creep. Whilst it is common practice to estimate the amount of stress relaxation occurring during PWHT by reference to uniaxial data, Fidler and Hepworth ~o ~ have pointed out that the test conditions used to obtain this information differ from those in simple welds, to the extent that: (i) surface stresses in a weld tend towards equi-biaxiality as PWHT proceeds; and (ii) stress relaxation in a weld does not generally occur under conditions of constant total strain. With regard to the first of these points, it may be formally shown that the uniaxial stress relaxation rate due to creep is twice the biaxial rate. With regard to the second, these latter authors point out that the elastic follow-up, which occurs in a welded structure during PWHT, tends to increase the rate of relaxation compared with that occurring in a uniaxial specimen under the rigid strain conditions imposed by some testing machines. By noting that these two effects act in opposition, Fidler and Hepworth argue that uniaxial test
* In the nozzle corner, a uniform distribution of stresses in the radial and hoop directions (relative to the nozzle) of 50 M P a tensile was assumed; elsewhere, in plates and forgings, etc., remote from welded joints, stresses were assumed to be zero.
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data provide a reasonable estimate of stress relaxation behaviour in welds where biaxiality is small, e.g. the outer and inner surfaces of pipe butt welds. 3s.lol Well below the surface of a weld, however, rates of stress relaxation may be affected by the constraints acting on material in the through-thickness direction. As discussed in Section 4, in the extreme case of an element being constrained such that no change in strain occurs in any direction, stresses cannot relax below a level corresponding to the initial hydrostatic stress (see Fig. 29). However, this picture is unduly pessimistic since it is based on the assumption of stress relaxation occurring under conditions of constant total strain, with elastic strains associated with the residual stress field being converted directly into plastic (creep) strains. In practice this does not occur in three dimensions, since the elastic and plastic processes of relaxation are governed by different values of Poisson's ratio. 11 The point is illustrated in Fig. 34, which shows the relaxation behaviour of the highest levels of triaxial stress retained in the interior of an 84 mm thick pipe weld during PWHT simulated by finite element modelling. 38 Here, the maximum component of stress is the hoop stress, and although relaxing more slowly than the uniaxial (and biaxial) rate, it has fallen to a level below that of the initial hydrostatic stress after about 20 min of PWHT. Moreover, as noted in Section 4, the uniaxial, and more particularly the biaxial, relaxation curves predict the behaviour of the equivalent stress quite well; unfortunately, since there is no way of obtaining any particular stress component from the latter, the usefulness of this last observation is limited in practical terms. Based on the finite element stress, relaxation study reported in Ref. 38, Fidler and Hepworth 11 concluded that for CrMoV-2CrMo pipe butt welds with section thicknesses up to 85 mm, a conservative estimate of the residual stresses remaining after PWHT could be obtained by adding 20 MPa to the appropriate value indicated by equi-biaxial relaxation data. (In practice this would be obtained by replotting uniaxial stress relaxation data as described in Section 4.) It was emphasised by these authors, however, that this conclusion was not generally applicable to other weld geometries, since conditions of higher restraint could reduce the stress relaxation rate to levels below that implied by the above procedure. With regard to the thicker, more highly restrained nozzle welds in a PWR vessel, radial components of residual stress will be induced by the
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attempted shrinkage of weld metal in the hoop and radial directions: the latter will tend to produce the greatest effect, and the nozzle inside corner region will experience a net tensile force in the radial direction; in turn, a tensile hoop stress will be induced around the base of the nozzle. However, as discussed in Section 2, analysis indicates that the mean radial stress across the attachment weld of a set-in nozzle will be limited by equilbrium conditions to about half the value of the mean hoop stress in the !nside corner region; 12 moreover, the stress component parallel to the nozzle axis is likely to be small, since during fabrication weld bead layers should experience only minimal restraint against contraction in this direction. Thus, whilst it is clear that the relaxation of residual stresses during PWHT may be significantly retarded if regions exist in a weld where the initial hydrostatic stress and triaxial constraint are both high, it is unlikely that such extreme conditions could in practice occur in an LWR primary pressure vessel. Nevertheless, the possibility still exists that the uniaxial relaxation curve may underestimate the levels of residual stress remaining in a PWR nozzle weld following PWHT, since it is more representative of the relaxation of the equivalent stress than of individual components of stress. This is a point which is implicitly acknowledged in Recommendation 71 in the Second Report of the Marshall Study Group, 12 and which is currently being addressed by a joint CEGB UKAEA experimental programme (see Section 5.3).
10.3. Comments concerning fabrication and heat treatment practices 10.3.1. Codes ojPractice relating to P W H T There are a number of Codes and Standards relating to the heat treatment of low alloy steels, and the extent to which they are able to address the often conflicting requirements of tempering and stress relief has been discussed in a number of reviews, e.g. Refs 101-104. With regard to the relief of residual stresses in LWR primary pressure vessels, it is appropriate to discuss the recommendations for P W H T contained in Section III of the A S M E Code, since these provide the basis for practices adopted in many countries. Within this context, there are a number of points which deserve mention. The first is that the purpose of the recommended PWHTs is not explicitly stated, although the tempering aspect is implied by reference to improvements required in fracture toughness. Consequently, no guidance is given as to the levels of residual stress that may be expected after a particular P W H T cycle. Nevertheless,
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the July 1980 Edition of ASME Section III, Division I specifies PWHT with: (i) a holding temperature in the range 595-675 C; (ii) a minimum holding time at temperature of 2 h plus 15 min per inch of thickness over 2 in; and (iii) a maximum heating/cooling rate of 55 C/h. All of these provisions have implications with respect to controlling levels of residual stress. As noted in Section 2, the main advantage of a PWHT time which increases with section thickness is that it compensates to some extent for a possible retardation of stress relaxation occurring due to the biaxial/triaxial constraints present in the heavy section, narrow gap welds used in the fabrication of LWR vessels. A further benefit stems from a consideration of heat transfer, since as section thickness increases, so does the time lag between the surface reaching the specified temperature of PWHT and the same temperature being reached throughout the section. Calculations reported by Fidler and Hepworth ~1 suggest that below 100 mm in thickness this delay is negligible, but for thicknesses of 300 mm and above it can represent a significant fraction of the recommended PWHT time. The effect of temperature-time combinations on the creep relaxation of residual stresses during PWHT may be quantified by means of the Larson-Miller parameter: T [C + log ~0 (t/1 "0)] = constant (17)
Here, T is the temperature of PWHT in K, t is the time of PWHT in hours, whilst for low alloy steels C = 20.1 o I Use of the above relationship shows that 1 h of PWHT at 675 C is equivalent to 69.7 h of PWHT at 595 C. This demonstrates clearly that, from the point of view of ensuring adequate stress relief, holding temperature rather than holding time is the dominant variable. It also demonstrates the importance of determining accurately the temperature at which PWHT is carried out--a point which is stressed in Refs 101 and 102. Lastly, the maximum specified heating/cooling rates affect the level of any residual stresses induced during PWHT by differential expansion/contraction. Stresses resulting from differential expansion should be relaxed during the time spent at the soaking temperature. Stresses resulting from differential contraction are unlikely to be large since: (i)steels have relatively high thermal conductivities; and (ii)the mismatch in thermal expansion occurring between the weld metal and parent metal in the main fabrication welds of LWR primary vessels
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should be small. Nevertheless, it is clearly important that cooling rates following PWHT are carefully controlled in order to avoid the introduction of extraneous residual stresses, and to minimise possible distortions. An important consideration in connection with specifying localised heat treatments is to ensure that the temperature distribution during the heat treatment does not induce thermal stresses exceeding the material yield stress, thereby leading to the development of new residual stresses upon cooling. Burdekin 13 has reviewed theoretical solutions for the thermal stresses arising in three symmetrical situations: (i)a butt weld joining flat plates; (ii)a circumferential butt weld joining cylindrical sections; (iii)a circumferential butt weld joining hemispheres. With respect to (ii), it was reported that a satisfactory heat treatment could be achieved with a uniform heat input applied over a circumferential band width of 5x//~ - (R = radius, t -- thickness), provided the temperature at the edge of the heated band was maintained at a minimum of half the peak temperature. It will be clear, therefore, that in order to control the introduction of new residual stresses during localised heat treatments, it is more relevant to establish guidelines for the heated band width in terms of x / / ~ - than in terms of t--a point made by Egan a3 in a review of the ASME XI half-bead weld repair procedure. This is also a point which is acknowledged in British Standard BS 5500, where a heated band width of 5v/~- is specified, and an insulated band width of 10x/R~t is recommended, for localised heat treatment of cylindrical sections. Although beneficial effects are normally attributed to PWHT, detrimental effects are also possible. In particular, stress relief (reheat) cracking may occur. As pointed out in Section 6 of this review, there are two distinct aspects to the problem: (i) cracking associated with the HAZs of structural welds; 15 (ii) cracking associated with cladding. In the latter case, the possibility of cracking may be eliminated by the use of two-layer cladding techniques and/or the selection of low susceptibility steel grades, i.e. A533 Grade B Class 1, A508 Class 3 or 20MnMoNi55. Cracking of structural welds during PWHT occurs typically within the temperature range 550-650 C (cracking during heat-up may also occur), and depends upon the instantaneous conditions of residual stress, hardness, accumulated strain, microstructure and grain boundary segregation of certain impurity elements. For the most part, the avoidance of reheat cracking in structural welds depends upon the selection of low susceptibility steel grades, and the control of segregation in the heavy
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section plates and forgings used in PWR vessel fabrication. However, some control over the occurrence of cracking also appears to be possible by minimising heat input during welding, and paying due regard to the selection of PWHT temperature. For example, in Europe, intermediate heat treatments are often carried out in the temperature range 500-550 C, with the final heat treatment in the range 605-620 C. As pointed out by Dhooge et al., 1 within the range 500-550 C there is the possibility of enhanced tramp element segregation to grain boundaries, which is likely to reduce toughness and increase susceptibility to reheat cracking. Clearly, therefore, in common with North American practice, there may be some benefit to be gained from carrying out all heat treatments at the same temperature, i.e. 610+ 15C, other factors of course permitting. However, within this context, the assessment of HAZs in A508 Class 3 steel forgings recently reported by Threadgill and Garwood should be noted. 106 In this work, sections of A508 Class 3 steel, 95 mm thick, were welded under conditions of high restraint and high heat input (5 kJ/mm) in an attempt to generate lower bound toughness data appropriate to the main structural welds of a PWR vessel. The effects of PWHT and forging orientation on toughness were investigated using three-point-bend fracture toughness specimens up to 90mm thick. Charpy V-notch tests were also conducted, and detailed metallurgical investigations were carried out. PWHT schedules were chosen to simulate current North American and typical European practices (see Section 2 of this review). The fracture toughness tests, which were carried out at 280 C and 70C, indicated a 'high' resistance to fracture initiation and propagation in all cases; in particular, no effect of orientation or PWHT schedule was found. Despite the severe welding conditions used (in terms of restraint and heat input), no evidence of reheat cracking was detected in any of the weld HAZs. Overall, this study confirms the assertion that the avoidance of reheat cracking depends largely on materials specification and selection.
10.3.2. Effect of the hydrotest The hydrotest received by an LWR primary pressure vessel after the final PWHT, but prior to entering service, is generally acknowledged as being beneficial in reducing remanent residual stresses, checking for leakage and facilitating subsequent volumetric inspection. 56 It may also be of value in: 'checking stress analyses, and providing an assurance in detecting by leakage or failure instances where material properties,
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P W H T and volumetric inspection were of less than the specified standard'. 1: The reduction of cladding residual stresses attributed to the hydrotest has already been discussed in Section 6.2. In general, it may be expected that any high levels of stress remaining in localised regions of a vessel after P W H T would (assuming adequate levels of toughness are achieved) be decreased by plastic relaxation during the hydrotest, or during the first few cycles of heat-up and cool-down during plant operation. It should be noted, however, that this argument is to some extent qualitative, since the benefits accruing in a geometrically complex area, such as an inlet/outlet nozzle, are difficult to quantify. Aside from considerations of relaxation, remanent residual stresses also need to be considered in fracture mechanics calculations relating to the pre-service hydrotest. A recent study in this connection has been performed by Cowan and Picker.i7 These authors used the CEGB's R6 procedure 14 to calculate the defect sizes to cause failure in a PWR vessel overpressurised to 125~ of its normal operating pressure at a temperature of RTNDT + 33C (=50C). The defect geometries and locations considered were as follows: (i)an axially oriented 6:1 semielliptical surface flaw in the belt-line; (ii) a semi-circular flaw in a nozzle corner. Upper and lower bound initiation toughnesses, K~c, corresponding to the test temperature were assumed to be 290MPax//-m and 1 0 0 M P a x / m , respectively; a tensile residual stress of 5 0 M P a was assumed to be distributed uniformly across the vessel section. Compared with the assumption of zero residual stress, it was shown that 'critical' defect depths in upper bound toughness material were marginally reduced; however, in lower bound toughness material there was a significant reduction in defect depth from 63 m m and 48 m m to 45 mm and 32 mm, respectively, for the belt-line and nozzle corner locations. These calculations show that since the reduction in 'critical' defect sizes due to residual stress is most marked in cases of low fracture toughness, the hydrotest is likely to be most discriminating in instances where inadequate stress relief had occurred. However, although more discriminating, a test performed under such circumstances could prove to be unnecessarily severe (as in the case of a test at T = RTNDT, say) where normal operation was under upper shelf conditions. Lastly, it should be noted that if a pressure test were carried out in service at the original pressure test temperature, particularly following any in-service repairs, then the possible benefits could be far outweighed by the risk of
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unnecessary failure unless materials properties (allowing for degradation) and residual stress levels (introduced by the repair) were known precisely.
10.4. Allowance for residual stresses in fracture assessments
Section 8 of this review has emphasised the variety of fracture mechanics techniques available for evaluating defect significance for combined primary and secondary loading. In spite of this, however, there is at present no internationally agreed procedure for assessing the significance of flaws in LWR primary pressure vessels in the presence of residual stresses. In cases where national Codes exist with provisions for incorporating residual stresses, assessment is generally based on LEFM principles (i.e., they are treated as being linearly additive to stresses arising from other loadings), but guidance as to the level and distribution to be used in calculations appears to be generally lacking. Methods used in practice, particularly beyond the regime of LEFM, may differ markedly from Code provisions. In Section 1, the fracture assessment of a PWR vessel for various assumed levels of residual stress was described. The assessment, which was carried out using the CEGB's R6 procedure, showed that initiation defect sizes are significantly reduced if high levels of residual stress are assumed (see Table 2). However, it was emphasised that if plant operation is such that upper shelf conditions are maintained (particularly with respect to the highly stressed periods during postulated accident transients), then the flaw sizes that can be safely tolerated will be significantly larger than the corresponding initiation sizes, by virtue of the effective increase in toughness occurring with small amounts of stable, ductile crack extension. Indeed, as emphasised in Section 8, provided cleavage fracture does not intervene as the plastic collapse load is approached, failure will ultimately be dominated by mechanical loading, i.e. residual stress levels will only have been of significance in defining crack initiation. Clearly, if a cleavage intervention is a possibility, then assessment in terms of an initiation condition calculated using lower bound (rather than nominal) toughness properties is in order. A particular point arising in connection with considerations of cleavage failure in ferritic weldments concerns the possibility of residual (and other secondary) stresses combining with primary stresses to promote conditions of biaxiality/triaxiality, and thereby adversely affecting the
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ductile-brittle transition temperature. However, such an effect should be accommodated in fracture assessments made with respect to a lower bound toughness (Kzc) vs temperature relationship derived from 'valid' data, i.e. satisfying LEFM plane strain conditions. Moreover, within the upper transition region, if KIj is the fracture toughness corresponding to the onset of ductile crack extension, it follows that K~c > KIj cannot be reached without a certain amount of ductile crack growth first taking place. It therefore also follows that a conservative fracture assessment appropriate to conditions of high triaxiality could be based on Kip ~ K~c or K1j (whichever is the less), where K~p is the applied stress intensity factor for combined primary and secondary loading suitably corrected for plasticity. It will be noted that failure avoidance in the transition region based on the above assessment procedures depends on exercising a careful control over the temperature of vessel operation, and paying due regard to 'critical' defect sizes calculated from a knowledge of the applied primary and secondary loading and using lower bound fracture toughness properties. Not surprisingly, this is the same philosophy as that described in connection with the pre-service hydrotest. It should be further noted, of course, that, with the exception of cladding stresses and stresses possibly associated with the cladding-base metal interface, high levels of secondary loading due to the presence of residual stresses are only possible in the as-welded condition; and even then, as discussed previously, the residual stress field in a highly restrained vessel weld is only likely to contain significant biaxial components. Lastly, it is noted that the assessment of defects in situations where a significant interaction with the cladding may occur is an area which is acknowledged as requiring clearer understanding. Here, cladding stresses potentially have to be considered in combination with weld-induced stresses and thermal stresses. In particular, further work is considered necessary in order to better understand the behaviour of shallow underclad defects, and those segments of deeper defects intersecting the ferritic-austenitic interface, in a PWR primary vessel undergoing a large LOCA. 12 Within this last context, there is some uncertainty in predicting the sideways extension of semi-elliptical defects: since yielding will be experienced at, and close to, the inside surface of the vessel, the ability to make accurate predictions in this regard evidently involves the development of a full elasto-plastic analysis which is capable of allowing for the redistribution of stresses which occurs with crack formation/extension.
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10.5. Experimental investigations of the effects of residual stresses on structural integrity
As emphasised in Section 9, there is a general lack of published information concerning the fracture behaviour of large test structures subjected to varying amounts of secondary loading. A general discussion concerning the difficulties involved in designing tests to obtain experimental data relating to the fracture behaviour of structures under combined primary and secondary loading in the EPFM regime was presented in Section 8.3.1, and need not be repeated here. It was also noted that a number of large scale tests have been planned in the United Kingdom to investigate the effect of residual and other self-limiting stresses on ductile crack extension. These tests address areas covered in recommendations made by the Marshall Study Group in its Second Report,12 and will provide further experimental validation of analytical procedures for incorporating residual stresses into the CEGB's R6 assessment route. 11. CONCLUSIONS
11.1. Measurement of residual stresses in heavy section weldments
1. Established methods for measuring surface residual stresses are capable of yielding consistent data, if properly applied; however, such measurements are of limited value only, since the internal distribution of stresses in a heavy section weldment is in general non-linear. 2. Sub-surface measurements may be made by deep hole drilling and/or sectioning: these methods are, to a greater or lesser extent, destructive, time-consuming and costly. Many of the older sectioning techniques have only a limited application, most especially with regard to the determination of through-thickness biaxial or triaxial residual stresses in heavy section weldments. More recent methods, used in conjunction with finite element analyses to correct for the mechanical relaxation occurring during drilling/sectioning, should be capable of yielding more detailed and reliable data. 3. There have been relatively few determinations of the levels and distribution of residual stresses, especially sub-surface stresses, in heavy section weldments; in particular, of the published work available for
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review, only one reference may be regarded as constituting a welldocumented source of data directly relevant to the fabrication of LWR primary pressure vessels using low alloy steels of current specifications. 4. There is no datum against which the measured levels and distribution of residual stresses in a complex weldment may be judged in absolute terms: the ability to make measurements which are substantiated by numerical analysis is the best that can be achieved in this regard. The levels of residual stress assigned to a weldment in service for the purposes of fracture assessment will therefore always be subject to some uncertainty.
11.2. Relaxation of residual stresses with PWHT
5. During PWHT, holding temperature, rather than holding time, is the dominant variable from the point of view of ensuring adequate stress relief. 6. The relaxation of residual stresses during P W H T may be significantly retarded if regions exist in a weld where the initial hydrostatic stress and triaxial constraint are both high; however, it is unlikely that in practice such extreme conditions would occur in the structural welds of an LWR primary pressure vessel. 7. Notwithstanding point 6 above, and in the absence of reliable experimental evidence to the contrary, the possibility exists that the uniaxial relaxation curve may underestimate the levels of residual stress remaining in a weld following PWHT, since such data is more representative of the relaxation of the equivalent stress than of individual components of stress. This is of particular concern in the case of a PWR nozzle weld. 8. Factors other than constraint are also capable of influencing the final distribution of residual stresses in a stress relieved weldment: whilst the increase in elastic modulus with cooling from the temperature of P W H T is a potentially significant factor, the mismatch in high temperature strength and coefficient of thermal expansion is unlikely to be of major concern in the case of the materials involved in the main fabrication welds of PWR primary pressure vessels.
11.3. Residual stresses due to repair welding
9. Repair welds made without P W H T may, in general, be expected to
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contain longitudinal residual stresses which are large and tensile throughout the thickness. Associated values of transverse stress could also be large and tensile at the surface of the repair, but may decrease with distance below the surface, depending on the restraint configuration. 10. Residual stress levels for the purposes of fracture analysis may be assessed on the basis of relevant tensile properties, bearing in mind defect location and orientation. In some cases it might be possible to argue in favour of a decline in transverse stresses with distance below the surface of a repair weld, but only if this were subject to appropriate validation. 11. Validation of a weld repair procedure must depend in part upon a detailed assessment of the magnitude and distribution of the residual stresses arising from the repair, as well as demonstrating that adequate levels of fracture toughness can be achieved in the weld metal of the repair and associated HAZs.
11.4. Residual stresses due to cladding
12. During fabrication, tensile residual stresses are produced in the clad regions of LWR primary vessels. Whilst heat treatment is able to provide relief of these stresses in the underlying ferritic material, yield magnitude tensile stresses remain in the austenitic strip cladding; however, the latter will be reduced prior to service by the pre-service hydrotest, and in service by raising the vessel wall to its operating temperature. Residual stresses in the cladding have a negligible effect upon the general stress levels in the underlying ferritic material of the vessel wall.
11.5. Effect of residual stresses on the detection and sizing of defects
13. Experimental studies suggest that compressive residual stresses, by causing the closure of crack faces, may make defects growing by fatigue less amenable to detection, location and subsequent sizing by ultrasonic methods. Although the general relevance of this to other types of planar defect remains at present an open question, there is, nevertheless, a limited amount of evidence to suggest that the effect may be of significance in connection with the in-service monitoring of underclad/ nozzle regions in LWR primary vessels.
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11.6. Allowance for residual stresses in fracture mechanics assessments
14. At present, there is no internationally agreed procedure for assessing the significance of flaws in LWR primary pressure vessels in the presence of residual stresses. In cases where national Codes exist with provisions for including residual stresses, assessment is usually based on LEFM principles, but guidance as to the level and distribution of residual stresses to be used in calculations appears to be generally lacking. Methods used in practice, particularly beyond the regime of LEFM, may differ markedly from Code provisions. 15. Nothwithstanding the remarks made in point 14 above, a number of well-established fracture mechanics methodologies exist with the capability of assessing defect significance in the presence of thermal and residual stresses; however, the appropriateness of a particular method in a given situation is hard to assess at present due to a general lack of supporting evidence concerning the fracture behaviour of large test structures subjected to varying degrees of secondary loading. 16. If it is assumed in the fracture assessment of an LWR vessel that high levels of residual stress remain following PWHT, then initiation flaw sizes are significantly reduced; this only becomes a major concern in cases where brittle fracture is a possibility--e.g, following a small amount of ductile crack extension in the case of upper transition region behaviour. If cleavage does not intervene, then, as the plastic collapse load is approached, failure will become dominated by mechanical loading. 17. The analytical techniques of Appendix 4 of the CEGB's R6 Document are able to account for the above behaviour, and arguably constitute the most versatile methodology currently available for assessing the integrity of cracked structures in the presence of residual and other secondary stresses. 18. Notwithstanding the remarks made in points 16 and 17 above, currently available analytical techniques are not able to accurately predict the behaviour of shallow underclad defects (or those segments of deeper defects intersecting the ferritic-austenitic interface) in cases where significant elasto-plastic effects occur, e.g. the large LOCA. 19. High levels of tensile residual stress are always of concern in connection with the processes of sub-critical crack growth which are potentially possible during LWR plant operation, e.g. corrosion fatigue, stress corrosion cracking, etc. 20. With regard to LWR pipe cracking problems in particular, there is
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evidence to suggest that neglect of welding-inducedplastic deformation in crack growth analyses will lead to anti-conservative predictions.
11.7. Overall conclusion
20. Further work is necessary: (i) to establish the level and distribution of surface and sub-surface residual stresses in' weldments having both simple and complex (restrained) geometries; (ii)to relate properties, especially those influencing relaxation behaviour, to the level and distribution of residual stresses following PWHT; (iii) to review and develop numerical methods; and (iv) to quantify the effects of residual stresses upon fracture behaviour. Current test programmes will, to a limited extent, provide additional information in some of these areas, e.g. relating to residual stresses in PWR primary vessel weldments and the allowances that must be made for them with regard to failure modes under upper shelf conditions. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This review was originally prepared for the Principal Working Group on Primary Circuit Integrity of the Committee on the Safety of Nuclear Installations (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Nuclear Energy Agency) under a Study Contract from the Directorate-General for Science, Research and Development of the Commission of the European Communities. The author is grateful to this latter organisation in particular for permission to publish the results of the study. In addition, the provision of information, in support of the study by the following persons is gratefully acknowledged: Dr A. Cowan Dr Dr Dr Dr S. L. Creswell J. Darbyshire L. Dahlberg A. Hofler Risley Nuclear Power Development Laboratories HM Nuclear Installations Inspectorate Central Electricity Research Laboratories Swedish Plant Inspectorate Sachsverst/indiger Strukturmechanik Analytik, GRS Battelle Columbus Laboratories MPA, Stuttgart
Dr M. F. Kanninen Dr H. Kockelmann
320 Dr R. H. Leggatt Mr H. A. Maurer Dr I. L. Mogford D r R. W. Nichols Mr P. Oliver Mr A. Pellissier-Tanon Professor V. Regis Mr C. Z. Serpan Dr D. Sturm Professor C. E .Turner
D. P. G. Lidbury
The Welding Institute Department of Safety of Nuclear Installations, Commission of European Communities Central Electricity Research Laboratories Risley Nuclear Power Development Laboratories O E C D N E A Secretariat Framatome Centro Ricerca Termica e Nucleare, E N E L US Nuclear Regulatory Commission M P A , Stuttgart Imperial College of Science and Technology
Finally, a special vote of thanks is due to Mr N. Hawkins of Risley Nuclear Power Development Laboratories for editorial assistance, and to Miss C. M o t t r a m and Mrs S. S. Dean, also of R N P D L , for secretarial assistance.
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72. Rooke, D. P. and Cartright, D. J., Compendium of Stress Intensity Factors, HMSO, London, 1976. 73. Owen, D. R. J. and Luxmoore, A. R. (Eds), 'Numerical methods in fracture mechanics, Proceedings of First International Conference, Swansea, 1978. 74. Owen, D. R. J. and Luxmoore, A. R. (Eds), 'Numerical methods in fracture mechanics', Proceedings of Second International Conference, Swansea, 1980. 75. Quinones, D. F. and Reaugh, J. E., Well residualstress redistribution near growing cracks, EPRI NP-2964, Project 603-3, Final Report, March 1983. 76. Bloom, J. M., Analytical assessment of the effects of residual stresses and fracture properties on service performance of various well repair processes, ASME, 80-C2/PVP-140, 1980. 77. Tada, H. and Paris, P. C., The stress intensity factor for a crack perpendicular to a welding bead, Int. Jnl Fracture, 21 (1983), pp. 279-84. 78. Bueckner, H. F., Field singularities and related integral representations, in Methods of Analysis and Solutions of Crack Problems (G. C. Sih (Ed.)), Noordhoff, Leyden, The Netherlands, 1973. 79. Pellissier-Tanon, A., Private communication to Dr A. Cowan, May 1983. 80. Hofler, A., Private communication to Dr A. Cowan, June 1983. 81. Kussmaul, K. and Blind, D., Basis safety--A challenge to nuclear technology, in Trends in Reactor Pressure Vessel and Circuit Development (R. W. Nichols (Ed.)), Applied Science Publishers, London, 1980, pp. 1-13. 82. Chell, G. G. and Ewing, D. J. F., The role of thermal and residual stresses in linear elastic and post yield fracture mechanics, Int. J. Fract., 13 (1977), pp. 467-79. 83. Turner, C. E., 'A J-based engineering procedure (En J) for fracture safety assessment', paper presented at a Seminar held at the University of Stuttgart, 18 October, 1982. 84. Kanninen, M. F., Brust, F. W., Ahmad, J. and Abou-Sayed, I. S., The numerical simulation of crack growth in weld-induced residual stress fields, in Residual Stress and Stress Relaxation (I. Kula and V. Weiss (Eds)), Plenum, New York, 1982, pp. 227-47. 85. Kanninen, M. F., Popelar, C. H. and Broek, D., A critical survey on the application of plastic fracture mechanics to nuclear pressure vessels and piping, Nuclear Engineering and Design, 67 (1981), pp. 27-55. 86. Milne, I., 'Evaluation of the defect tolerance of pressure vessels and combined thermal and pressure loads', Paper G1/3, SMIRT 5 Conference, Berlin, August 1979. 87. Chell, G. G., A procedure Jbr incorporating thermal and residual stresses into the concept of a failure assessment diagram, ASTM STP 668, 1979, p. 581. 88. Chell, G. G., FRACPAC: A computer program for calculating elastic and post yield fracture mechanics solutions, CERL Note No. RD/L/N 170/77. 89. Darlaston, B. J. L., The development and application of the CEGB two
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A P P E N D I X 1: R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S C O N C E R N I N G AREAS R E Q U I R I N G F U R T H E R RESEARCH OR E N G I N E E R I N G INVESTIGATION It is desirable that there should be internationally agreed Codes and Methods for assessing the significance of flaws in LWR primary pressure vessels in the presence of residual stresses. However, before significant progress can be made in this direction further work is necessary to: establish the level and distribution of surface and sub-surface residual stresses due to fabrication and repair welding in LWR pressure vessels, with due regard being paid to both experimental and numerical methods; (ii) relate material properties, especially those influencing relaxation behaviour, to the level and distribution of residual stresses following PWHT; (iii) review and develop/refine numerical and analytical techniques for handling residual and other self-limiting stresses in fracture mechanics methodologies, and to provide validation (or additional validation) of these methods by means of large scale tests with particular emphasis on the regime of EPFM; (iv) investigate sub-critical crack growth in the presence of residual stresses, with particular attention being paid to elastic-plastic effects in LWR pipe cracking problems. (i)
328 APPENDIX
D. P. G. Lidbury
2: C O N V E R S I O N
FACTORS
S I unit
Imperial unit
Factor
mm m kN M Pa MPax/m T(F)
in ft lbf ksi ksix/~n 1.8T(C) + 32
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Multiply SI quantity by given factor to obtain value in Imperial units.

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Int. J. Pres. lies.

& Piping 17 (1984) 197-328

Residual stresses in relation to the integrity of L WR pressure vessels

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Effect of thermal cycle on uniaxially restrained element.

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Residual stresses in relation to the integrity o f L WR pressure vessels

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1.3. Objectives and scope of the review

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POSITION ~3"0 N"

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DISTANCE FROM CENTRELINE OF WELD,in

Residual stresses in relation to the integrity o f L WR pressure vessels

200 100 0 -100 -200 -300

CENTRE OF JOINT x=Omm

100 0 -100 -200

THE TRUE LONGITUDINAL STRESS IN THE WELDED JOINT /

Residual stresses in relation to the integrity of L WR pressure vessels

-20 DISTANCE FROM -30 -40 CENTRE POINT, m m

Surface residual stresses in A543 pressure vessel steel. 28

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150 Y {mm) 100

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O S R A E"-1300 N UFC -~200