'.

I.i'

"

-,

('

.-

.';"'~'

' ....... _ J.

t :. v-

-<:>

.
gIV~S "" .

dl@s~dat i-g, KVJ.,

A_ cj,Jte~t::. with !1lc..~ou.r.Cg.. diQd~ and RC 19a'd is :sho.w.nin Fig .. 3.2: (a). Wb-el} -~w!i,t<;hS is

tu ;
Itl;l, Laplace tr~sfarm

f uu-., -,

.
...(3.1) .

is R I(s) + ~ [liS) + = Vs '. ; C S S S As the initi~ volt~ge ac~oss C js- zero, q(o) = O. With this, Eq. (3.1) becomes

w]

I(S)[R
or
1(8)=:

+..!_J= CS

VS
S

CVa "R~S+

R~) R ..

= Vs.

~+~~

"

_i
RC

",

(0)

(b) (a)

,Fig. 3.2. Diode circuit with RC load

circuit diagram and (b) waveforms ..

Its Laplace inverse is

i(t)

= _! . e-tiRC
R'

The voltage across capacitor is

'. t

(t) Vc
,',' I'

=.! Jo idt =" RC Jo e -tIRC r r C

_8

= V8 (1

i t;/w)

".

!\

'..

.'.(3:&,1) , (3.3b):

= Vo (1- ((~) ~l:)" "

....

where ~ = RC is the time constant far RC circuit. "Fro~ Eq. (3~3a), initial rate of c'ba.ng~ ef 'capacit~J."valtage is given by 'fd
i "

lcl:t.
,

~.'[v.
s,

e~tlRC.
"

_,"1 'RC

J
t='o

V'
s

" .:,

/=0'
,c

RC.,

.,:,

...(3.4.)

Titme constant, , In: ;Fig.

.: source voltage, VB p,C = Cd v ; at) _ "

t-O

3~.2(~), cUrtent a~ui'voltage variations

are as shown ..

3.1.3. ar, Load , L di V

S

".

, . When,siWltea'S,:jsclosed at,t = () in. the RL .and 'di0~e ciscudt of Fig, 3,3 (~), KVL ~yes _,

01'

tu

'dt=

Let (

(0)

Fig. 3.3. Diode circuit ~th

RL.load (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms.

With initial current in the inducto~ as zero, the solution of Eq. (3.5) gives
.

:W = VJ!

_!it (1- e L )

, (3.6) ..

Initial rate

of rise of current

is '

=y
The voltage across L is

VB

... (3.7)

Its
... (3.8)

, , For RL circuit, ~ = 't is the time constant. The waveforms of current and voltage aCl10SS inductance are sketched in Fig. 3.3 3.1.4. JLCLoad
(b).

A diode circuit with de source voltage Vs' switch S and LC load is shown in Fig. 3.4:'(a), Whel'l switch S is closed at t = 0, the voltage equation governing its performance is given by
'~'\ ,I ;.','
I

v.
-m

I,

t,.

~.t\

.;/

"

'"

1 L di +, C J'd t = VS ~, tv,t
'," -3,

, Its Laplace transform is

,
,I

L [s l(s) ~ i(O)]

+1. +~] C

"

vc(tO)

[I(S)
s

= VB

'

E F

As, the circuit is initially relaxed, i(O) = 0 and Vc (0),=0 or q(O) = C . vc(O) = 0

I(S)[SL';
,

l]
,'

..

sO . s

= Vs

, [Art. 3.1] '"

0r

l(s)

V
=o~.

1
'2

I,
.;

S'+-"-

LC
'(I)"

. Let
,,'

(1)0=0 "

I' , ' 1LC ' This gives l(s)

, ' ,

=0

V -L S

. (1)0

0 -2S +(1)0

'

= Vs . '\I'[ . -2--2
S

Jc

COo +(1)0

+---+
t

, Ili:)

t
(0)
, ,I)L

~I
(b)

I-vs
and (b) waveforms.

3.7)

Fig. 3.4: Diode circuit with LC load (a) circUit diagram

Its Laplace inverse is

i(t) = Vs .

\[f sin uJot

C
1

,..(3.9)

8)
Here
S8 000 =

:..jIe is calledzesoncnz

frequency 1

of the circuit. Capacitor voltage is given by

vc(t) = C 0 i(t) . dt =

ft

J'
0

Vs'

/c '\II sin 000 t

(3,IOa)

l.
y,

= Vs (1- cos OOot) Voltage across inductance is given by

vL(t) = L

...

diet) dt

=, Vcos

000

t
.

... (3.10b)

vc(tO) = 2 Vs

WHen OOoto=n or when to='nlooo, and uL(tO) = - Va

000 ~

from Eq. (3.9), i(to) = 0 and from Eq. (3.le,a),

Here to = nl

conduction time of diode = n ...JLC . or dioel:e current

'.

From Eq. (3~!!}),circuit

,

at to/2 = ~

attains
2000

a peak value of
,

I;.; Vs . Y'CIL as shown in Fig. at ~ois given by

3.4 (b). V01tage across

diode, soon 'a'fte~diode stops conduction ' ,

ill) == _

UL _ Vc

+- Vs = (;)"_ Vs 1- V ~ _ VS' 2

Wa:v:efOJ.ims M i:~t~"IJ.,vr, and

are sk.~t4i!h~d iiJ;l Fig. _3.4 (b). it

c , " , _, , ~ _'. '

is, seen

tliit

.. ,

'at

:-;tb.f2==--..1L dio,de cureent reaches p~ak value,' vc=Vs and vL,=;,(i). Also ,~ . ,2 Wo' ':_ i,. " , ',.- ' :', , , ~d'= ~/.o)Q = 1t C'-lILC), ,mode"cUl'tent decays ta zero and capacitor-is charged to voltage 2V~. SlOon after to, voltage aCFQSS is zero and diode voltage ,vD = ~ Vs. L

.~t

>EXl

ehal'ge( fop cun

:Fin
voltage the uol;
~o:

JBl~mJ!llte 3.Jl.. For the circuit shown in F~g. 3.a (a), the capacitor is initially charged, to a ,.l)_Ql,t:ag~ with upper plate pa'sitiue. Switch S is closed at t = O. Derive expressions for the :Vo ,e/Jirrent in the, circuit and voltage across capacitor. C. What is the pea,k value of diode currenn Find aliso the energy dissipated in the circuit: lI}n1\ll~ioRll.

When switch S is closed, KVL gives

,
Its Laplace transform,

,I s i;1C idt=O

Its

including the

R l(s)+- , _-, C s s or Its solution, as per Art. 3.~1.2,is

1'[~' CV
l(s) [R + ~s]
i(t)

iriitlal voltage across capacitor, is

o=0 ] ,

:0
e-tiRC

=v ;.

ik
o
(a)

{~-"':
, (b)

~~

Fig. 3.5. Pertaining to Example 3.1 (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms.

:. ,Peak. diode current

uC(i)

= ~o =~
-, .

f:
Jt

idt - Va
_Q

1 -CoR"

e- tlRC o1t

'

''i'T

'

"a-va

.,

=.-Voe;-tIRC,

; :p1:1fpen:~ and voltage ~,~)

vc(t)

ar~ sketched in Fig, 3.5

, -.. l' . ',',
=

(b).

.'E:aeFgy dlssipated in the circuit,

i CV~ Jo~les

Of,

....

[Art. 3.1].

37

'Il a/I; a..t '

30

'" a,t

s SOOl).

~d tau for the :""ent?

Emmpne 3.2. In the diode and LC network shown in Fig. 3.6 (a), the capacitor is, initially charged to voltage Vo with upper plate positiue. Switch S is closed at t = O. Derive' expressions for current through and uoltage across C, Find the conduction time of diode, peak current through the diode and final steady-state uoltage across C in case V. = 400 V; Vo = 100 V; L = 100 IJH and C = 30).IF. Determine also the uoltage across diode after it stops conduction: ou~Jion : When switch S is closed, KVL for Fig. 3.6 (a) gives
T 'b'-+- If'd t=

di dt

V . 's

Its Laplace transform

gives

. ! 1 C Vo] =V. S L [I (s)-(O)]+- ~+-C S S, I S As initially i(O) = 0, the above equation becomes
/(s) sL+- 1 =-- Vo [ s

[IrS)

se

J v, -

!..o-Tl/2wo~

I :

to

Vc
Vs ---------

!
'IVS

'.~ .
J
:

:.

(2Vs-Vo)

t
(a)

t - (V - Va )--.6.=== s (b)

Fig. 3.6. Pertaining to Example 3.2

(a)

circuit diagram and

(b)

waveforms.

This equation in s-domain can be solved as in Art 3.1.4. Its solution is

i(t)

'

= '(VB - Va) . '\[f sin

= (V.
- Va)

(1)0

t
t.+ Va

vc(t)

'\[f J; sin
(1)0

(1)0

At
At ~~~~~~~~~~

(1)0 (1)0

t = 0,
t = 1t!2,

= (V. - Va) (1-: cos (l)ot)-{- a V vc(t) = Vo"

vc(t)

'

='Vs and at

t =n, vc(t)

=2

(Vs - Vo) + Vo

= 2V

- V o

J8

[Aiwt. 3.t]

Di~de conduction time,

. to

= ..2"_ = 7i; -.fLC = w/30

mo
Ip

x 100 x 10-

'

== 54.77 us

Peak current through diode,

= (VS - Vo)

-{f ,
= 1t, = 700 V

-Diode C

VoH

= 300 -'J1oQ = 164.32 A - f30

Steady state voltage across C occurs when moto .. V C = 2 (VS - Vo) + Vo = 2Vs - Vo = 2 x 400 - 100 Voltage across diode, after it stops conducting, is given by
VD

Dio! Stel Vol1 Wa,

= - "i:=- 300

Vc

+ Vs = 0 - (2Vs - Vo) + Vs =

Vs + V1j

= - 400

+ 100

V.

Example 3.S. In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.7 (aJ, the capacitor has initial uoltage of Vo with upper plate positive. The circuit is switched at t = O. Derive expressions for current and voltage across capacitor. Find the conduction time for diode and steady-state capacitor voltage.
t

3.1. Ad switch;

= 0,

Sohrtion. The voltage equation for the circuit of Fig. 3.7 is di L dt+C 1 Its Laplace transform,

(a),

after switch S is closed at

"

'

f z'd
s

t=

including initial voltage across capacitor, is

")'" ,

l(s) , sL

+1. [!.J)_ _ CVo]

C s

=0

""
I ,

,
"I

I(S)[SL+ s~]=

:0
Wit

If

Here minus sign is put before Vo, because for the direction of positive current flow, polarity of Vo is opposite. Solution of above s-domain equation, from Art. 3.1.4, is

, or

t" equatio

-~

I I

DOh

!
_

or where

OF
- OJ __

I
to =!.. -'Wo .. -:>It -V]b
o (b)' (b)

is caller is calle!

(a)

Fig. 3.7. Pertaining

" .. G",_,_

to Example 3.3 (a) circuit diagram and

...i..1~ :

wavp.fnl'n1"

.;;>",;';',

J.:J.~.~. 't:lh:~f.~l~'~:A' ~.!"':o~ ~.Jt ...... '~a:jv.,_ :t.__:_,~ '._\ _"", .......

.l.''''

if ........ .L.r."

'Dip-de'il'uits, and Rectifiers

[Art. 3.1] ._ 39

Voltage across C is Diode conduction time, ;

vc(t)

= v, '\[[
Wo

S; sin. wot 1t

Vo =

- Vo cos wot

to '" .2. = 1t .,fLC

Steady-state capacitor voltage = - Vo cos Voltage across diode; " vD == - Vo. Waveforms for i, Vc and
\",

= + Vo

. vD are sketched in Fig. 3.1 (b) .

(a). KVL

Vo nd
at

3.1.5. RLC Load A diode in series with RLC circuit is shown in Fig. 3.8 switch S is closed at t = 0, is given by 'R' V ~z+ L di t+C 1 Zidt ='s

for this circuit, when :. ,

r
1-..:...',

R +---VR

Underdamped _ Cdtically damped

. L

~._.

<overdamped

"
i.,,_, '

~__.J'T

J",
.

"

'

" ......

"<,

...... _-'-'~t

ty

Fig. 3.8: Diode Circuit with RLC load Cci) circuit diagram and tbywaveforms.

With zero initial conditions, the Laplace transform

l(s) R+sL+.. or

sC

1]

of above equation is

"

:'

v, =-

l(s) = L

s V S
'

1,

R 1 s +Ls+LC'
2

Here equation
.'

S2

+ R s + _!_ = 0 is the characteristic L LC

equation
W'l

in s-domain.

The roots of this

are
,

or where is caned the damping-factor.

...~3.11) .~.(3.12)

.
-is called resonant frequency in rad/sec .
,
\

...(3.13)
{

'

\,

.fiiod~ eiFel!

and

"',"

~id:ij
1 2 -2

(b) Diol

~.vO)~ - ~2

= ringing frequency

in rad /sec .

., Gen.1

Alaa 0)0 = '1O)r + ~ Depending upon the values of~ and 0)0' the solution fl!>l' the current can have three saJu.tians. CBlSe1. In case;~ < 0)0, it is seen from Eq. (3.11) that theroots are complex and the is saidto be underdamped. The two roots are
S1 ;" - ~

(c)

Fr~

+j to,
....

and'

82

= - ~- j

O)r

3.2.

and' the current is given by

,

FJRJE:
II.l Fil

'.'

,
(.0

i(t) = _8_.

c.o,.L

e-E,t sin

rt

S is now

C!Iie 2.

In; > (.00' the two roots are real an~'the'circ~it is said to be ouerdamped, The

roots are

of arc at called fre

understa

two mod!
let)

=.

L '11;- -

_IY'F.

VB

2 . Sw..u (.00

'_l...

Mod
'1<;~ _~-::-:2:"' (.00

Vo,S,D,

Csse 3. In case = (.00' the roots. are equal and the circuit is said to be critically damped. The roots are S1 ,,; 82 = - and the solution for the cu~ent is .

's

i(t) =.2.

V L

t 'e-E,I

Waveforms of current for the three different Ievels of damping are sketched in Fig.
(b) .

JE~mll!llljp)Ke 3.41. For trWcircuit of Fig. 3.8 (a), th~'data is as under ;' . R=10n, L:;;J mH, C=5 ~ Vs=230V
i(t) ~)

The circuit is initially relaxed. With switch closed at t = 0, determine (a) current conduction time of diode (c) rate of change of current at t = O. ~olrutq;noJlll: (a) From Eq. (3.12), ~ ;:: From Eq. (3.13), lOx 1000 2 x 1 = 5000 rad / sec 1

Fr

1 roo= ~LC ~ [1 x 1?- 3 x 5 x 10-

6t2 = To =
105

'.:~.

.JVJI
a'vo]

14142.136

ra4! s

fOl'wB curre From Eq. (3.14),

Ol, = [

!~~ (5000)' J1I2 ..-

~ 13228.76 rad I s

ch.1~ui

in

Fi

H~te as ~ < roo,the circuit is underdamped.

The current is, therefore, given. by Eq. (3:16)

g;i"Vel1

230 x 1000 - - 5000t i(t) = 13228:76xl' e ., sin 0.3228,7S)t

_ 1 Ii'

~M4",e -

5000! .

sin (132:28_.7_6

t)

; I
II'

- IIWiode iwcui~ mod Redifiel'S C . fb) Diode stops 'conducting when (Ort1 = 1t
r. :.

[Art. 3.2]

.4Jl

.'

Conduction time of diode, .

t1

= (.()r =

1t

1t

13228.76
~t

= 237.48211s

(c) From Eq. (3.15),

di Vs e ""- = -_ [dt (.()rL

- . (0 cos (O~- sm.(O~ (I') '0 er

lit]

~il

di = Vs = 230 x 1000 = 230000 Als. dt t=o L 1 "' 3.2. 1FRlEE'WJB[ElElLThTG DIODES In Fig. 3.3 (a), steady state current, after switch S is closed, is equal to V/R. If switch S ,is now opened, the energy stored [

t5)
'NO

= ~ L <VsIR)2]

in inductance L will appear in the form

of arc at the opening contacts of switch S. In order to avoid such an occurrence, a diode FD, called freewheeling, or flywheel, diode, is connected across RL as shown in Fig. 3.9. (a), For understanding how FD comes into play, the working of circuit of Fig. 3.9 (a) is divided into two modes. iWoiLlle I : When switch S is closed in Fig. 3.9 (a) at t = 0, current flows through Vs' S, D, R and L as shown in Fig. 3.9 (b). In this circuit, current i is given by
D +
R if

6)

7) 8

:Rt
Vs
VL

VS

FP

,~,

+t

FD
L
if

tl<1! dl +.

(0)

(b)

(c)

'

Fig. 3.9. Circuit of Fig. 3.3 with freewheeling diode.

i=
Final value of current,

R (l-e

-~t

L)

...(3.18)

1= Vs

R L IC h hi W
CUrrent

a veIt' - : age

.,M~lleJill: L dt' I'S In, d , di : . uce d'" . In

':Yh

en switch S is opened at t.= 0, current in the circuit ~ends to decay and so

forward biases freewheeling diode. The current is, therefore, transferred to the
circuit consisting R and L as shown .)~ Fig. 3',9 (c). In this' circuit; current is gwen. by . . ...(3.1~)

r.

time

Fi~.3.9 Cd). Current variation in

tho ";_..,,,,;+-

n~

1:': _

"n

42

[Alit. 3.4]

Consider the circuit of Fig. 3.10 (a) where de source feeds L through diode D. ~ freewheeling diode FD is connected across L. When switch S is closed at t = 0, KVL gives

or

Vs =L dt . Vs

di

=t:

... (3.20)

'kd
I

:
'"

ld

'1~'
i

tl---~'
I

'I
f

'~ftl

Whenf \orward bis oositivetet Energy The en her.eit is

\

l
0

',.5. SiNG:

Rectifi It age, A wave orms. utput vol This shows that current i rises linearly with time t. In case switch S is opened at tv load In thi:
(b) . . b Fig, 3.10. Diodecircuit with FD amd L load (c) circuit diiagram an d (l (c)

V current ~

tl

. t . . it . begins to flow through F.'D As t here IS no.reSIS ance m th e circur f orme d by deal as ere i
t1.

bl

3.5.1.

Land FD, current continues to flow at its constant value of inductance is - 2L

1 (Vs)2
tl .

Energy stored ~ the

..

~his .. apphcatio

;.'

I,

Joules. Current waveforms are shown m Fig. 3.10 (b). \ I nas: of output, 3.4. RECOVERY OF TRAPPED ENERGY '.' . The I. In the ideal circuit of Fig. 3.10 (a), the energy stored in the inductor is trapped. This are now ( tra?ped energy is not dissipa~c~de~en whe~ FD conducts be~ause circui~ does not contain (a)- ]a resistance, The 'best way of utilization of this trapped energy IS to return It to the source. In 3.12 (a). this manner, not energy taken from the source is reduced and the system efficiency improves.rot= bO tc
L
tl

= - .-L 2

1 '~

the princi

One way of return:ing this trapped energy back to the source is to add a second winding closely coupled with the inductor winding as shown in Fig. 3.11. A diode Dis also placed in series with the second winding: The inductor now behaves like a transformer. 'I'he twO windings are so arranged that their polarity markings are opposite to each other.

current i negative state. 0 cot = 2n:,

Whe:n switch S is closed, current i begins to flow and energy is stored in the inductance of primary winding with N} turns. The polarity of the secondary winding voltage V2 is as shown. The diode D is reverse biased by voltage (V2 + Vs).

IArt. 3,$j

43

.20)

(a)

'.

.'. "

(b)

Fig. 3.11. Energy-recovery circuit (a) switch S closed and (b) switch S opened.

. When switch S is opened, polarities of voltages VI and V2 get reversed" the diode is now forward biased by voltage (\12 - Vs), As a result, diode begins to conduct a current il into the positive terminal of source voltage Vs and so the trapped energy is fed back to the source. Energy fedback to de source
= Vs

x current

il

dependent upon

(V2 - Vs)'

The energy stored in t. of NI turns is transferred to secondary winding of N2 turns from where it is fed'back into the de source, " . i" 3.S. lINGlJE-PHAE DJIODE RlEICTWIER Rectification is the process of conversion of alternating input voltage to direct output voltage. As stated before, a rectifier converts ac power to de. In diode-based rectifiers, the output voltage cannot be controlled, ' d In this section, uncontrolled single-phase rectifiers are studied, The diode is assumed ideal as before. , .
.3.5.1. Smgle-Phase Half-wave Rectifier

This is the simplest type of uncontrolled rectifier. It is never used in industrial applications because of its' poor performance, Its study is, however, useful in understanding the principle of rectifier operation. In a single-phase half-wave rectifier, for one cycle of supply voltage, there is one half-cycle of output, or load, voltage, As such, it is also called single-phase one-pulse rectifier. The load on thy output side of rectifier may be R, RL or RL with a flywheel diode. These are now q~~S'E!O briefly. . .. '(a))

~d

: The circuit diagram of a single-phase' half-wave rectifier is shown in Fig.

3.12 (a). During the positive half cycle, diode is forward biased, it therefore conducts from = 09 to rot = n. During the positive half cycle, output voltage Vo = source voltage v~ and load current io = VoiR. At rot = n, Vo = 0 and for R load, io is.also zero. A.f, soon as Vs tends t~!be~(i)me

wt

negative after rot:: n, dioUeD is reverse biased, it is therefore turned .off and goes into blocking state ', OU~'p'J;lt voltage, as weI~ as output current; are zero 'Hom (I) t:: 'It to '(I) t = 2n. After (j) t =;=.2n, dlC!l.cle again forward biased and conduction begins. ,IS .
L10

,F~r a'l'esi~tiille~0a~,.0u.tJ>lit urrent io has the same,waveflDFmas that oitke~ output voltage c thode voltage v IS zero. when diode conducts .. Diode is reverse biased. from (J) t = 1t to

------'----'--=-.<:. . -,.._:'~~,

....:~::..~i-~j.___:Z~~--"-'~---: __

J1X\
r""Dlo e

'+;'!r
I.

.O'il __
.
((){ t::

[_A_~_a_. _3_.5...:J

~~. f~)'l~~e~.r:_E!11I:tl C:: "~~d""

Pow<

2n: ae ~ -..::\_ . ~ SllOW n Th e wavefof . voltuge'" lIDS 0 V., Vo, ~o and un are sketched in Fig. :1.12 (1;). Retr. p ~. IS sUlusoidal i e V - V KVL .c .... . . - .Q'J" " s m sin rot. lor the circuit of FJg. 3.12 (a.) glV(;H U "" r) " I
fj

rj rli,

Inpt

+
R

(b)

1
B

en
tll
I '

0_

b;SinwtJ
io

ruo

IL\l
I ,

Vo

o~--~;-~~~-~3~n
. (a) (b)

wi

At or Su
Fig. 3.12. Single-phase half-wave diode rectifier with R load (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveform,
(OT

A~e:rage value of output

load) voltage,

vo=ffr
Vm
J~m.s value of output voltage,

~~Lo

VmSinrotd(rot)]
I~=n
2

::: 211: I-cosrot

v;
S(
(ro.)

t'7

__

07' -

[l t
'(T

2n Jo v~"sm em

-r ,Q

s .d

,)1/2
}1/2
,.

(b) ..

r ..ro:

0::

;i2;'c V~
2

lJo :~s
1-

2ro~ . d(rot)

;c:--

... (3,2

Here the subscript 'r' is used to denote rms value. Average value of load current,

-,/ .
Rms value of 1 d current, oa

-_Q-~

0-

V. V R - Kit.

... (3,i ... (3J

I or

__ Vor __ l!- 2R

v,

r.{e81~rvalue

of load, or diode, current

Vm '=71

... (3,1

Peak inverse voltage, PIV, is an important parameter in the design of rectifier CirC~:'1 PlV is the maximum voltage thai appears across the device (here diode) during its blockt state. In F'ig. 3.12, l~IV= Vm =..,f2 . VB = V2 (rms value of transformer secondary voliag:Y;:.:-,

ki~t. ,:~.\.,~~~/~.,:<:.\o,:,{)\~.~~: ...,;;;:::,,\. .'

.>.:~\~\l< .! ~ '....

I" !~~~~

?~o~eCi~cuUs and Rectifiers

[Art. 3.5]

~t" 10'1-

Power delivered to resistive load = (rms load voltage) (rms load current) . V .I
or

~~
Input power factor

= Vm . =Vm = 4R or 2 2R
__E!.

~ = ~ =]2 R 2R or

...(3.26)

Power delivered to load Input VA Vor . lor v; 'l[2V. 0.707 lag. = -= - = -= Vs ' lor V. 2Vs
~ '.f ".,/-,

(b) lL Ioad : Single-phase half-wave diode rectifier with L load is shown in Fig. 3.13 (a). When switch S is closed at rot = 0, diode starts conducting. KVL for this circuit gives

vs =v 0 =L-=V dt or ~)

dio
m

sinrot

. VmJ to = sin ro t . dt

=At rot DrIllS. or Substitution

roL cos ro t + A
Vm

Vm

...(3.27 a)

= 0,

io

= 0,

:.

O=-roL+A A=VrnlroL

of the value of A in Eq. (3.27 rei) gives

. Vm to = roL (1- cos (ot)

...(3.27 b)
(0=

Output voltage, Source voltage

(b).
Vs

di; v'n vo:;:L dt =L roL [sin rot]

Vm sin rot =

Vs

and botn output voltage v(j 9,Udoutput current io are plotted in Fig. 3.13

Average value of output voltage, Vo= 0

3.22)

.28)

wt

~I
I I

".

(a)

'.

....

(b).

FIg. 3.13. Single-phase one-pulse rectdier With ~ load (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms:

, :~"0I.iW;):I.wil (J), l.!(;ll,lli; <{11.},'W tt}'

{lfj1,',lliJ)),I;

l~I(I~nf;(}I?,T!i3 at
"', (}.)'-'

(J)t

;=

11:

V:
l,~",,;=
"

WLJ

r;: (1 + 1) =
0 O.Jl.J

' 2V'.: 'I'm

Go
" ,

.AYf.)J:t~tj(j

v!ilw) OJ' c!)o'un;f;,

,1'f27tVm To;: -2'

11:

-:r(1-'~0S rot) d(rot)

CODsta

Vm 1 ::: 0) :=:2'1=
Rtl'W

shoWl]
T1

'V'f).1.rw ftmd;xmcn1;al of

CT~r.r.en.t, 111' i~ given by'

1,,=

[i.(~ir.
Vm : Vs

voltag
(00' 10

rot)'d(rot)j'"
.. ,(3.3(

:=:~12OJL Rms value (if ;r:cr;'MfJed current :=:[fa + Iq1l2

= fa + ; Voltage aC1:(!HH diode,

OJL:=: T2

F(
N .k

&]112

= 1.22510

... (3.3i

Un:=:O.
R

(c) 0 Load : In. J!'jU. :~.14 (a), when switch S is closed at OJt = 0, the equation governin the behaviour of the circuit is , do; d . ~o= edt = c at (Vs,sm
(1)

t)

E wt

50H;
the p,

I I

I
I

vml
I

S
t.rr wt

rr
t

2n
I I

3rr

wCvm:
I.

3n/2
IT

.I I

! 2n

, wt
I

3n 7n/2 , wt
]

'I

a , F'1,;;," 3 14. SIng e r

1 _nhM!.: half-wave diode rectifier

(rt)

.'
"

......qth C load
. _ .

(b)
. .
"

,I

(a): ,.,,:.',..

circuit diagram and (b) wavefl)1ili'

~:::,J:;t~:::'!..~i.b.,tt

= ,roC V m . <}0S ro~ ..~. ..

t:'\

...(.32) rot = v

.:.

vl!l>~.p1!I! -

m t

v.0. 1+ 'Gage,

Vo = 1 f'd t = ~.t ,C'

V sm
m

= ._. vc

'Cap~~it0r'is charged to vbltage-'V m at rot=:i constant at

Vm

and 'subseque~tiy this voltage remains

(b)

~hi~ is showri is Vo:;: Vc in FIg. 3.14

er-lead

'Capacit0F eurrent shswn.

current is maximum at rot = O. Its value at rot = 0 is ro CV 17' as

The diede conducts f0~ 27t seconds onlyfrom rot = 0 to rot = ~ .During this interval, diode ,co 2 voltage is, therefore, zero. After rot = 7t/2 , diode voltage is given by

vn

v1)= -'uo+ v,.:;_ Vm'+ Vm sin rot = V (sin rot - 1) For Eq. (3.33), the time originis redefined at rot = 7t/2. After rot = 7t/2, diod~ voltage is plotted as shown in Fig. 3.14 (l. At rot = 327t, o v Average value of voltage across diode,
VD = -2 ' . 7t

...(3.33)

= - 2 Vm

"1f27t

.i

.
...(3.34 a)

V m (sin, rot - 1) d(rot)

0

= 11m = '-I2vs
Rms value of fundamental component of voltage across diode,
, V lr == 27t 0 V;" sin rot d(rot)

. [127t f

2 :.

2'

,=,~

v,

]112

...(3~34b)

Rms value of voltage across diode

, = -vr-V'71'b-+-V-'t1:225 V m r-=

...(3;35)

.' Example 3.5 .A single-phase.230 V, 1 kW heater is connected across single-phase 230 V, 50 Hz supply through a diode. Calculate the power delivered to the heater element. Find also the peak diode current and input power factor. Solution. Heater resistance,
( ,.

1000 Q
230 2,

2302

Rms value of output voltage, from Eq. (3.22), is

.'
I

,.

v;
_ ~r

V2 X
'I

Power absorbed by heater element

2 X 2302
4

-R
Peak value

. i000 _, '. x--' 2 = 50'0W

230

~t~ioclecwrent,
.

frem ~q. (3.25), isgtven by . x 230 V2 _', . '2302 X 1000 = 6.1478 A

!'ll1ilutPlwe~facter = ~r
Vs

= J2 x230 x _1_ _
2

.'. 230 - 0.707fag.

(d) RlE Load Sin 1 h emf E is shown . F' g e-p ase half-wave rectifier with load resistanceR and load cOUnte :'. m Ig. ~.15 (c), If the switch S is closed at rot = 0 or when Vs = 0, then died!
,poV

wI

It
wi

period diode i

wI

Ex
Fig.3 ..
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

(a) (b) Fig. 3.15. Single-phase half-wave diode rectifier with RE load.

would not conduct at rot = 0 because diode is reverse biased until source voltage v s equals E. When Vm sin 9 1 = E, diode D starts conducting and the turn-on angle 91 is given by

So

\ .\

91 = sin-

(:m) ,

(3.36)

The diode now conducts from rot = 91 to rot = (n - (1)' i.e. conduction angle for diode is (n - 2(1) as shown in Fig. 3.15 (b). During the conduction period of diode, the voltage equation foil' the circuit is
Vm sin rot =E +ioR Vm sin rot -E io R AV9r:age value of this current is given by

Av

Oil'

... (3.37

(b

10 = ~

[f.:-"

rv, sin rot -

E)

d(rot)]
.. (3.381 '
PI

1 = 21tR [2 Vm cos 91 -E Rms value of the load current of Eq. (3.37) is

(n - 281)]

t;",[~
= [ 2~2

(,-e, (Vm

Sin rot

E}

d(rot)r
rot)

(c

J:,-" tV! sin' q,t+ E' - 2 V~ E sin

d(OOt)r

(c

[Art. 3.5]

49

=. 2~2,

{(V; + E2) (1t- 291)+ v; sin~'91 - 4 Vm E cos e1}

]1/2 ..,(3.39)
...(3.40)

. Power delivered to load, P=EIO+I!rR Supply pf watts Power delivered to load (Source voltage) (rms value of source current) E 10 +l!rR Vs' lor

...(3.41)

It is seen from Fig. 3.15 (a) that at (JJf; = 0, vo = ., E and at wt = 91, vo = O. During the period diode conducts, vo = O. When wt = 31t/2, Vs = - 'IIm and VD = - (V m + E). Thus PIV for diode is (V m + E).

_Example 3.6. A de battery of constant emf E is charged through a resistor as shown in Fig, 3.15 (a). For source uoltage of 235 V, 50 Hz and for R = 80., E = 150 V, (a) find the value of average charging current,
(b) find the power supplied to battery and that dissipated in the resistor,

(c) calculate the supp'ly pf, , (d) find: the charging time in case battery capacity' is 1000 Wh and (e) find rectifier efficiency and PIV of the diode. Solution:
(a)

The diode will start conducting at an angle 91> where . 9,1 = SID -1 T2150 X 230

= 274660 .
0

Average value of charging current, from Eq. (3.38), is 10 = 21t~ 8 [2 . .,f2 x 230 cos 27.466 -150 (1t_ 2 x 2~.:~6 x 1t)}

= 4.9676
(q)

Power delivered to battery = E 10 = 150 x x 4.9676

= 745.14
2 )

Rms value of charging current, from Eq. (3:39),'is lor = [21t ~ 64 {(230 + 150
2

(1t - 2 x 27.466 x' 1~0) +' 230 sin 27.466 - 4 -{2 X 230 150 cos 27.4660}] = 9.2955 A .

Power dissipated in resistor = Z;r R = (9.2955)2

(c) From
X

8 = 691.25 W

Eq. (3.41), the supply

pf = 745.14 + 691.25 = 0 6721 230 x 9.2955" ag
,

(d) (Power delivered to battery) (charging time

in hours)

= Battery'

capacity'in Wh.

50

[A<r-t. 3.5J

.', Charging time

(e)

:=:

74m:::::

1000

1.34:2 h.

Rectifier efficiency

::: ~w()):

deli~:ed to battery 'f()tal inpllt power

745.14 ::: 745. i4 -I- 691..25 x 100::: fiil.876%

"\\Vh:e

::: V;n +1:::{2

. (e)

x 230 + 15@:::475.22V.

RL Load : A single-phase one-pulse diode rectifier feeding RL load is shown:in

The
is and tb

3.16 (a). Current io ccmtinues to flow-even after Source voltage Vs has become negative; is because of the presence of inductance L in the load circuit. Voltage V R ::: io R has the waveshape as that of io Inductor voltage VL::: VB _ vn is also shown. The current io :Rows the two areas A and B are equal. Area A represents the energy stored by L an~ area B where cp energy released by L. It must be noted that average value of voltage lJL across inductor L zero. The

Its
wt

S!

Tot a:

~,
wt

where
-Cons

~:
1

At
(a)
'wt

(1]

wt

"

(b) "

S'ubs

When io = at rot = P; "t. = 0, vR = and voltage Us appears as re~erse bias across D as shown. At p, voltage uD across diode jumps from zero to Vm sin p where p > n.
~'= y is also the conduction angle of the diode.

Fig. 3.16. Single-phase half-wave diode rectifier with RL load ' (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms.

"''''II~O:r.lCU1tl.el

Average value of output voltage,

v:o :::_!_ 21t

i~V
0

sin rot d(rot)

A

,~ 21t (1- c~s 1-')

Vm

, Average val u e of load or-output current , , Vo', Vm - A 10 = II::: 21tR .(1,:- C0S 1-')

Diode Circuits and Rectifiers

[Art. 3.5]

A general expression for output current io for 0, < rot < ~ can be obtained as under :

When diode is conducting, KVL for the circuit of Fig. 3.16

RLo + L

(a)

gives

dio at = V

ni

sin rot

The load, or output, current io consists of two components, one steady state component is and the other transient component it. Here is is given by . is where r L h
<I>

= . r:;:;<Tm 2

.v

= tan-1

i and

'1Ri'fX

sin
<I>

(rot -

<1

X = oiL. Here

is the angle by which rms current Is lags Vs'

The transient component it can be obtained from force-free equation

Rit+L di, dt
It

=0
=A e
_Iit
L

Its solution gives

Total solution for current io is, therefore, given by io where

= is + it =

V -i sin (rot -

4 +A

e-r;t

...(3.44)

Z=...JR~+X2

Constant A can be obtained from the boundary condition at rot = O. At rot = 0, or at t = 0, io = 0. Thus, from Eq. (3.44)
O=-Zsin<l>+A A=Zsin<P

Vm

Vm

Substitution of A in Eq. (3.44) gives

. Vm sin ( to = Z [. rot for 0

diadl

't'

th)

+ sin.

't' .

'" e_Iit] L

...(3.45)

s rot s ~

It is also seen from the waveform of io in Fig. 3.16 (b) that when rot =~, io = O. With this Ber' .condition, Eq. (3.45) gives sin The solution of this transcendental
(j) RL load with

(P - $) + sin $ . exp [ -

!~] =
0

equation can give the val~e of extinction angle ~.

freewheeling diode : Performance of single-phase one-pulse diode rectifier with RL load can be improved by connecting a freewheelmg diode across the load as shown in Fig. 3,.17 (a). Output voltage is Vo = Vs for 0 $; rot $1t. At rot = n, source voltage Vs is zero, but output 'current io is not zero because of L in the load circuit. Just after rot = 11:, as Us tends te reverse, 'negative polarity of Vs reaches cathode of FD through conducting diollle D, whereas positive polarity of', reaches anode 0fFD direct. Freewheeling (or flywheel) >diocie'
I ..

therefore . " , .; gets f0rward-hias . ' Power Electrolli .' to FD as v tena ed. As a result, loacl C " . reverse VQltao:e . s s to reverse. After (J)t _ .urrent ~oIS Immediately transfetr .0 WIth PIV equal to V . - n, dIOdecurrent ill = 0 and it is sUbject~d~,

from. D

F'b> ,

01
singh to prj condt

is

Lo

Uo

+
27f
I I I
I

m +
ild lJL

UR1

311
I

I
I

wI

:~:

IT

2rr
I I I

371'

wI

wI

(0)

iS~
I I
I I

o----l FO :I

rI I

l~

wI
FD :-

_,,_J
I

271

3'71

wI

Fig. 3.17. Single-phase

(b)
one-pulse diode rectifier with RL load and freewheeling diode (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms. . diode D

After rot = n, current freewheels through circuit RL and FD. The energy stored in L current now dissipated in R. When energy stored in L = energy dissipated in R, current falls to Z! to 'b'; c at rot = f3 < 2n. Depending upon the valu~ of Rand L, the current may not fall to zere el experie when rot = 2n, this is called continuous conduction. But in Fig. 3.17 (b), load current dee Dl and to zero before rot = 2n; load current is therefore discontinuous. of sourc rectifiier The effects of using freewheeling diode are as under : (i) It prevents the output (or load) voltage from becoming negative. Ave] (ii) As the energy stored in L is transferred to load R through FD, the system ef,ficier is improved. AveJ (iii) The load current waveform is more smooth, the load performance is therei improved. Rms The waveforms for VS' vo' io, VD' is'and ifd are drawnin Fig. 3.17 {b). The expression for the load current io can be obtained from Art. 6.1.2 if.reqwre,d.!

seen frQIll Fig. 3.~7 {b) that

average ~utput voltage,
Vo

= 21

1t

Io

V m sin rot d( rot) = .2!:.

1t

. (3,

Rms PewE
In.pu'

[Art. 3.S~

53

.' (i) Single-phase full-wave mid-point diode r~ctifi~r : Fig. 3.113 (a) illustrates a :lp.~l~~fl:nas~ fun-wave mi~-peint ~ecti~~r using diodes. The turns ratio from each secondary o prunary IS take~ as unity for simplicity, When 'a' is positive with respect to 'b' ; diode D1 conducts for TC radians. In the next half cycle, 'b' is positive with respect to 'a' and therefore

w~

i
I
;

4rr

wi

wt

diode

Fig. 3.18.Single-phase full-wave mid-point diode rectifier (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms. .

diode D2 conducts. The output voltage is shown as Vo in Fig. 3.18 (b). The waveform for output current io (not shown in the figure) is.similar to Vo waveform. When la' is positive with respect to 'b', diode 02 is subjected to a reverse voltage of 2vs' In the next" half cycle, diode D1 experiences a reverse voltage of 2us' This is shown in Fig. 3.18 (b). Thus, for diodes Dl andD2, peak inverse voltage is 2Vm Waveforms of Fig. 3.18 (b) show that for one cycle of source voltage, there are two pulses of output voltage. So single-phase full-wave diode rectifier can also be called single-phase two-p~.JliQ_clcueclliier. Average output voltage; Average output current, Rms value of output voltage, . 1 Vo = 1t

f" V
0

sin

(I)

t d( (I) t) =

2V
1tm

...(3.48)

Vo 10=-

Vor =[~

f: ~

1/2

sin (J) t d(I)t)] ...(3.49)

Vm =12=Vs
Rms value of load current, Pewer delivered to lead Input voltamperes .

:. Input

54)

[Art. 3.5]

(ii) mgle-ph ful Power Electroni rectifier emplo . as~ I-wave diode 10rid e .. I:! Diode ei diodes D1 D'2 Ylllg diodes is shown in Fig 3 gI9 e)ctWhlfler : A single-phase full-wave brido , can d to geth er so that 0 t'. uct a ' en 'a' is POSlitirve W1 respect to.~ ith is bi 'b' su ~ected to a reverse volta f u put voltagn is uub' Each of the diodes D3 and n' respect to 'a',diodes D3 D4 gde0 Us as shown in Fig. 3.19 (b), When 'b'is positive "'"t~ D1 ' con uct togeth d .., 'I Wit! and D2 experience are er an output voltage is ubu' Each of the two diode . verse voltage of Us as shown. 1
TC"(

(a) f
(3.50),

is

Perce

Vs

Vo

~~w \7
21(

wI

3rr

41T
wI

-Vm

(b) F(

(a)

(b)

Perce

, It is A comparison of Figs. 3.18 (b) and 3.19 (b) reveals that a diode in mid-point full-wa operation rectifier is subjected to PIV of 2Vm whereas a diode in full-wave bridge rectifier has PIV JEX8!ll! V m only. source. Ti

Fig. 3.19. Single-phase

full-wave diode brdidge rectifier

(a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms.

)
b'

Three-phase bridge rectifiers using diodes are discussed in Chapter 5. Example 3.7 i constant. formulated to illustrate the effect of reverse recovery time on the average output voltage. (a) av
(b) au (c) rm oli1lll.1 (a) A\

lExaIDplie 3.1. In a single-phase full-wave diode bridge rectifier, the diodes have a rever; recovery time of 40 us, For an ac input voltage of 230 V, determine the effect of reverse recave/. time on the average output voltage for a supply frequency of (a) 50 Hz and (b) 2.5 kHz.
u A o

oltntion. Single-phase full-wave diode bridge rectifier is shown in Fig. 3.19 (a) and output voltage Vo is shown in Fig. 3.19 (b). If reverse recovery time is taken into consideration, the diodes D1 and D2 will not be off at rot == 11: in Fig. 3.19 (b), but will continue to conduct until t ==

shown in

Avera

:'+

t.; as depicted in Fig. Fig. 3.20. Effect of reverse recovery time on output voltage.

(b)

Av

this re ucno

3 20 The reduction in output voltage is given cross-hatched area. Average value of Y. d ti n in oumut voltage IS grven by

the

=r

Itrr Vr = 11: 0
1

Rms\

Vm sin rot d (rot)

[Art. 3.5}

55

= -.-

Vm

1t (1 - cos rotrr )

...(3.50)

With zen') reverse .. (a) For (3.50), is

recovery

time, average output voltage, from Eq. (3.48), is

f= 50 Hz and t.; =
.

Vo = 2 -.[2 x 230 ~ 207.04 V 1t 40 JlS, the reduction in the average output 'voltage, from Eq.

Vr = ~

Vm

(1 - cos 21tf trr) cos 21tx'50 x 40 x 10- 6 x-- 1t

I

= -.[2 x 230 (I11t

180)

=8.174mV Percentage reduction in average output voltage 8.174x 10- 3 '-3 207.04 x 100 = 3.948 x 10 %
(b) For

I= 2500Hz, the reduction in the average output voltage, from Eq. (3.50), is
-.[2 180) Vr = --- x 230 (1 - cos 21tx 2500 x 40 x 10- 6 X -1t . 1t
= 19.77V

Percentage reduction in average output voltage

= 21~7 ;4 x 100 = 9.594%. ~

. It is seen from above that the effect of reverse recovery time is negligible for diode operation at 50 Hz, but for high-frequency operation of diodes, the effect is noticeable.

Example 3.8. A single-phase full bridge diode rectifier is supplied from 230 V, 50 Hz source. The load consists of R = 10 .Q and a large inductance so as to render the load current constant. Determine (a) average values of output voltage and output current,
(b) average

and rms values of diode currents,

(c) rms values of output' and input currents, and supply pf.
GHutJion. The circuit diagram and relevant waveforms for this uncontrolled rectifier are shown in Fig. 3.21. (a) Average value of output voltage,

Vo = 2Vm
1t

= 2 -Y2 x 230 = 207.04 V

1t,

Average value of output current,

1~

Vo = 207.04 = 20 704A R 10 .
.

(b) Average value of diode current,

1
[DAV= ~~1t.=;

I'

= 20.~04 = 10.352 A
[0

Rms value of di0de current, [Dr = -"

21t =:::r2 =

...rr;n

20 704
~

= 14.642 A

piode Cir~

j
\..r

7!

2rr

wI

ioll---_:_! _---.-~I__ -+__ -

flo

.j
R
Jr' I ,

wI

[
is 21r
I
t.rr

wI

...
(b)

ilo
(a)

-fro l-lo

i I

DC

1 wI
(b) (b) waveforms. (c)

DC

Fig. 3.21. Pertaining to Example 3.8

(a)

circuit diagram and

As load, or output, current is ripple free" rms value of output current

= average value of output current = 10 = 20.704 A

(d)

At

Rms value of source current, Is = ~

=10 = 20.704 A

Load power = Volo = 207.04 x 20.704 W Input power = Vsls cos <I> .. 230 x 20.704 x cos <I> = 207.04 x 20.704 .: S upp Iy p f 207.04 v, . = cos '"= 230 = 0 90 Iaggmg. 'I'

At givi :. Volt
3.6. ZlEN]B

Zener to supply pouier to a 10~ voltage. load from a 230 V (rms) source of supply. Calculate (a) the peak load current (b) the de 10 Circuit current (c) the de diode voltage (d) the percentage regulation from no load to given load. behaves as (lAS., 1-~. voltage ac breakdoWli ,el"uJJ.11;iollll. A voltage of 230 V supplying power to 1000 n, through a single diode, is sbo voltage ~af1 iN 'Fig. 3.22 (a). Waveforms for the source voltage, load current io and diode voltage VDI current. Tl a Source w shown in Fi~. 3.22 (b).
EX81mplle 3.~o A diode whose internal resistance is 20

n is

(a)

It is seen from the waveform of io that peak load current lorn is given by
Vm ..[2 x'230 lorn == R + Rf) = i020 == O,318~ A

,For th. a voltage E (c) is nece~

wt

11/2 +

IT

27f

. 3rr

wt

R=1000n

VD~'OX~D
-

......
t (a)

-rrw21[
-'

~
wt

37f

Fig. 3.22. Pertaining to Example 3.9

(b) DC

(a)

circuit diagram and

(b) (b) waveforms.

load current,

1 10 = 27t

f"

0 lom

sin rot d(Olt)

=-=0.10151A
7t

10m

(c)

DC diode voltage,

VD

= 10 RD

- -1
27t

f" 230-{2sin rot

0

d(rot)

=loRD--=O.10151x
7t

v,
7t

230-{2 20 ---=-101.5
7t,

(d)'

At no load, load voltage,

v: ;,Vm = ..[2 x 2aO= 103.521V

on
7t

At given load, load voltage, :. Voltage regulation 3.6. ZENER DIODES

, v:01'= 230,[2 X 1000 = 101.491 V '7t 1020

Von - VOl Von X

100 = 103.521- 101.491 = 1 96101 _ " 103.52.1 . -10.

Zener diodes are specially constructed voltage.

to have accurate and stable reverse breakdown

',if

Circuit symbol for Zener diode is shown in Fig. 3.23 (a). When it is forward biased, it IDeh~ves as a normal diode, When reverse biased, a small leakage current flows. If the reverse voltage across' Zener diode is increased, a value of voltage is reached at which reverse 'oreakdeW1l occurs. 'Fhls is indicated by a sudden increase of Zener current, Fig. 3.23 (b). The voltage _aOOter reverse breakdown remains practically constant over a wide range of Zener 0mTent. 'Fflis'm-iikes it s:uitaIDlefar use as a voltage regulator to furnish constant ,,{!01ta!ge from a source whose voltage 'may vary noticeably. ' . Far the operation 0fZener diode asa voltage regulator, (i) it must be reverse biased with a Vi(i)ltage' greater than its breakdown, er Zener" voltage and (ii) a series resistor B.s' Fig. 3.23 (c) is necessary to 1imi,t the reverse current through the diode below its rated value.

+1 Breakdown volta~e

, 'fl;l.e

Rs
+

-v

I
+v

vz
Anode

v.

Vz

-:
(c)

1,5

l,,'
1z Load

-.-,~'

_. 'E;g;aJ where G resista;m of the d,;"

@ll.l

-,
(c)

~~.v,

-I
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.23. Zener diode (a) circuit symbol (b) V-I characteristics (c) use as a voltage regulator.

or or

If Vz Is is

::: voltage

across Zener diode, then it is seen from Fig. 3.23

that source

Load, or output, current, 10:::

where R::: load resistance. Current through Zener

lz =ls -10

Power rating of a Zener diode is Vz' lz. These are available in a voltage range f!om volts to about 280 V. . Example 3.10. Design a Zener voltage regulator, shown in fig. 3.24, to me~t the specifications : . ) . Load ~oltage
= 6.8

As

:t

V; Source voltage Vs is 20 V 20% and load current is 30 mA

AlS(

The Zener requires a minimum current of 1mA to breakdown. The diode D has a voltage drop of 0.6 V. Solution. When source voltage is maximum and load current is minimum, then resistance should be maximum.
".~.

..

Vs. max

min.:::

.'

R:.

==

VL

+ (IL.

miT).+ Iz) Rs. max

(20 X 0.8) -: 6.8

[30X 0.5 + 1]
X

:::1075

1O-::!

,Similarly,
,

"

..

Vs. min.::: VL + (lL"max +j~) n, 'm&n . ~ ,:'. R '.::: (~Q ,X 0.8) - 6.S . , s mm [30 X 1.5 + ll~X 10- 3 ::: 200 Mruximum, load resistance , . .~
v

3.1.
I:or both
Q

Sketch t Fig. 3.24. Pertaining to E*am,~le3.10'. .Wh~

"

Ri.,. max:::: _,._VL~ ~

~.

6.8

.
::: 41ii3.3 Q .

. min. . 3.6 X 0:5 X 1:0-3 1'L.

4\../f' 1 :l.V.l'nn!ll'l'l!lm ea

d reSIS t anee, R'[.;. min. ::::yV L . . -=--::::

L'm~'

_ _ 6..S.

_.

3I!>XUixl(')-3-11ii1.U

.' .

[Art. 3..6] The voltage rating

OF

59

the Zener diode is

6.8 - 0.6 = 6.2 V. ~Example ~.n. The complete circuit shown in. Fig. :J.25 (a) represents a 25 Vdc uoltmeter - where G is a PMMP galvanometer having full-scale deflection current Ifsd = 200 micro-A GJ,!-d resistance RG == 500 ohms, and D is a 20- V Zener diode. Find Rl and R2 What is the function of the diode D in this circuit? (GATE, 1990)
"c

Solution. Current

through

galvanometer, I -I _ Zener voltage fsd 2 R2 + Ra

or or CUl'1

20 -6 R2 + 500 = 200 x 10

= ,20 20010 X

6 _

500

= 99 .5 k Q

r dio

:tJG
(a) Fig. 3.25. Pertaining to Example 3.11. As Zener diode current (b)

is not specified, let it be assumed zero. II -= Iz 12

=0

..
Also

or II = 12 = 200 J,1A
X

11= 25 - 20 = 200

10-6

Rl

wa
or
lUI

R
1

= 5 X 10 = 25 k.Q
200

Function of Zener diode is to provide a constant voltage to the galvanometer circuit, Whenever voltage across-this diode exceeds 20 V, it conducts and the excess current is shunted away from galvanometer G. So here diode D prevents overloading of the PMMC galvanometer,

3.1. Capacitor in the circuit of Fig. 3.2 (a) is initially charged with (a) Vo volts and (b) - Vo volts. For both these parts, determine the expressions for current -in the circuit and voltage across capacitor. Sketch the waveforms for current as well as capacitor voltage. What is the final value of voltage across capacitor in each case?

[An.

Vo, 44.72 - JlS, 62.61 A 510 V, - 28(J1 . t == 0, sketch the '. s m FIg. 3.4 (a), the circuit is initially relaxed. If switch S is closed these fu ti vanatlOns of z, vL, "c and v as a function of time. Derive the expressions describi nc Ions. '

33

(a) For the circuit

0:vn

(b) For part (a), Vs == 220 V, L = 4 mH, C = 51J.F.Find the diode conduction time and peak elil current. Determine' also vc. vi: and VD after diode stops conducting.
[Ans. (b) 0.444ms,

7.778A, 440V, 0, -220

3 sion f

(i 3.4. For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.5 (a) ; Vo = 230 V, R = 25 Q and C = 10 IlF. If switch S is clo' value .at t = 0, determine expressions for the current in the circuit and voltage across capacitor C. Findt 3 peak value of diode current and energy lost in the circuit. 400Ot, _230e-4oOOt, 9.2A, Q.2645watt-t freew Derive the expressions used. [Ans. 9.2e-

wave:

3.5. In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.26, switch S is open and a current of 20 A is flowing through! (i freewheeling diode, R and L. If switch S is closed at t = 0, determine the expression for the cum volta! through the switch.
5

. [Ans ~(t) = 22- 2 e-10(:)

V 3

10n.

oflar
(i

10mH

Fig. 3.26. Pertaining 3.S.

(a.)

to Prob. 3.5.
SoUlI

Describe how the energy trapped in an inductor can be recovered and returned to the

(b) A' 23'0 V, L kW heater, 'fed through 'single-phase

its terminals.

half-wave diode rectifier, has rated voltage Find the ac input voltage, Find also PIV of diode and peak-diode current, ', [.Ans. (b) 325.32 V, 460 V, 8.690
f'lMMC

3.7.

(a) In the 'circuit shown in Fig. 3.27, a PMMC

ammeter is placed i~ series with dio~e and a P~MC ltro,eter across the diode. Take PMMC mstruments Ideal. ;~ d the readings on these instruments. Derive the e~res~ .m ed for obtaining these readings. ' S1011S us " (b) If PMMG aIDllleter is replacedby MI ammeter, find its ,reading. [Ans. ~0.352 A, '0 V, 12.6812 A]

--0c
n

4to~

currs

f'lMMC

Fig. 3.27. Pertaining- to Pmb, 3,1,

~::~~:::~~~~:W~~"J1!Jf
t-

~~;;1;;~~';~~jf~Y,;.: .:'Ct'< ?;>:7;

...~

[PNb.31

61

3.8. (a) In the circuit of Fig. 3.28, ideal PMMC ,----{V2 }-----, vol>tmeters are placed, one across capacitor and another IQ.' across diode as shown ..Find the voltmeter readings. Obtain e Co the expressions used for determining these readings. D (b) In case PMMC voltmeter 2 is replaced by MI 230V, voltmeter, find its reading. lpP 50 Hz Os CiJ 3.9. A battery is charged by a single-phase half-wave o diode rectifier. The supply is 30 V, 50 Hz and the battery 2 80 emf is constant at 6 V Find the resistance to be inserted in Fig. 3.28. Pertaining to Prob. 3.8. series with the battery to limit the charging current to 4 A. lSeq Take a voltage drop of 1 V across diode. Derive the expression used. ~libi Draw waveform of voltage across diode and find its PIV.
.@a.Ci~

~1

/.
I.

I.

[AnS 2~

[2V m .cos

61 - (E + 1) (n - 2 61)], 2.5458 n, 48.42 V]

3.10. (a) A single-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier is connected to RL load. Derive an expression for the load current in terms of Vm' Z, (J) etc.

(b) For part (a), Vs = 230 Vat 50 Hz, R = 10 n, L = 5 mH, extinction angle"; 210. Find average values of output voltage and output current. . [Ans. (b)193.172 V, 19.3172 AJ 3.11. (aY A single-phase half-wave diode rectifier feeds power to (i) RL load and (ii) RL load with freewheeling diode across it. Describe the working of this rectifier for both these parts with relevant waveforms. and bring out the differences if any. Hence point out the effect of using a freewheeling diode': (b) For part (a), Vs = 230 V at 50 Hz, R = 20 n, L = 1 H. Find the average values of the output voltage and output current with and without the use of a flywheeling diode.. [Ans. (b) With freewheeling diode: Vo = 103.52 V and Io = 5.176 A Without freewheeling diode: Extinction angle ~ not known, so Yo, Io cannot be calculated J
3.12 . (a) For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.29, the output current _iois considered constant at Io because oflarge L. Sketch the waveforms of vs, io, vo, in, ifd, and is
(b)

;hti
1m:

For the above circuit, find

(i) average values of output voltage and output current, (ii) average and rms values of freewheeling diode current, (iii) supply pf. is t./[Ans. (b) (i) 103.52 V, 26.76 A (ii) 13.38 A, 18.925 A (iii)

0.63641agJ

iD

to
+

D
us
ru 23QV.
50 Hz

2.0.

'.

FD
ltd

VO

L '50V

Fig. 3.29. Pertaining to PrOD.3.12.

Fig. 3.30. Pertaining to Prob. 3.13.

3.13. F0r the circuit shown in Fig. 3.30, Vs = 160 V, Vz = 40 V and zener diode current varies from ~. tlll 4@rnA. Fiind the minimum and maximum values of Rl so as to allow voltage regulation for output current 10 = zero to its maximum value 10m. Also calculate 10m. [Ans. 3k 0., 30k 0., 36 rnA)