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1-1 Introductions
Spread-spectrum communications techniques are an extension of basic coherent and noncoherent digital modulation concepts. The techniques and concepts reviewed in this chapter
Matched-filter signal detection in additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). Maximum-likelihood signal detection. Signal space concepts. Coherent and non coherent modulation and demodulation/detection techniques. Bandwidth and power efficiency of various digital signaling techniques. The effects of flat fading channels on various digital signaling methods.
CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
The simplest possible digital communications system is one that transmits a sequence of binary symbols represented for convenience by {0,1} from a transmitter to a receiver over a channel that degrades the transmitted signal with AWGN of two sided spectral density N 0 / 2 . One of these signals is transmitted each T seconds so that the information transmission rate is Rb = 1 / T (bits) .
T : time interval s 1 ( t ) , s 2 ( t ) : transmitted binary symbols with two signaling waveforms
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
It can be shown [1-4] that the minimum probability of error is achieved when the receiver guesses the transmitted signal to be that signal which, given the received signal plus noise waveform, was most likely to have been transmitted. Such a receiver is called a maximum-likelihood receiver.
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
With above assumptions it can be shown [1] that the minimum probability of error is
PE = Q [ z (1 R12 ) ]
(1-1)
where
Q( x) =
z =
eu / 2 du 2
2
(1-2)
E ( E1 + E 2 ) / 2 = b No No
E1 E 2 12 E
(1-3)
R12 =
(1-4)
Ei
T 0
si (t )
dt
(1-5)
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1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
The parameter 12 is the normalized correlation coefficient between signals, which is given by
12 =
1 E1 E2
s1 (t ) s2 (t )dt
(1-6)
If R12 = 0 , the signaling scheme is said to be orthogonal, while if R12 = 1 , the signaling scheme is said to be antipodal. The probability of error is shown in Figure 1-1 as a function of z = Eb / No in decibels for these two cases.
CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
The receiver for these binary signaling schemes can have one of two equivalently performing structures:
Matched-filter implementation Correlator implementation.
The blocking diagrams for the match-filter receiver and correlator receiver are shown in Figure 1-2a and Figure 1-2b, respectively.
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
Several special cases are of interest in the binary signaling hierarchy. These are listed in Table 1-1 together with the thresholds and correlation coefficients in each case.
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
If the carrier phase estimate at the receiver is in error by an amount , the probability of error for BPSK signaling is given by
PE ( ) = Q( 2 z cos 2 )
(1-9)
If the phase error is a random variable with probability density function p ( ) , the average probability of error is
PE ( ) =
P ( ) P ( ) d
E
(1-10)
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
For typical pdf for the phase error, it is usually necessary to integrated (1-10). For example, results are given in Table 1-2 for a Gaussian phase error probability density function of the form.
p( ) = e
2 / 2 2
(1-11)
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
The important thing is bandwidth efficiency, defined to be the ratio of the bandwidth required to accept a given data rate divided by the data rate. For example, it is well known from Fourier theory that the spectrum of a rectangular pulse of duration T is
S ( f ) = ATsincfT
(1-12)
where
sinc = sin x x
(1-13)
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
When used to modulate a cosinusoid of frequency f 0 , the spectrum of the rectangular pulse is centered around the carrier frequency, f 0 .
Sm ( f ) = AT {sinc[( f f 0 )T + sinc[( f + f 0 )T ]} 2
(1-14)
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
For FSK, note that the minimum frequency spacing between cosinusoidal bursts at frequencies f 0 and f 0 + f is 1 / 2T hertz to maintain orthogonality of the two signals. Each carrier must also have 1 / T hertz on either side of it, giving a total bandwidth for FSK of
BFSK = 2.5 Hz T
(1-16)
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseCoherent Modulation Schemes
Since 1 / T is the data rate, Rb , the bandwidth efficiencies of the various modulation schemes just considered are as given in Table 1-3.
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseNoncoherent Modulation Schemes
ASK and FSK are two modulation schemes that lend themselves well to noncoherent detection. Receivers for noncoherent detection of ASK and FSK are shown in Figure 1-3.
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseNoncoherent Modulation Schemes
For noncoherent detection of binary FSK, the probability of error is given exactly by
(noncoherent ASK)
PE 1 e z / 2 2
z >> 1
(1-17)
For noncoherent detection of binary FSK, the probability of error is given exactly by
(noncoherent FSK)
PE =
1 2
ez/2
(1-18)
To compare this with coherent detection of FSK, the asymptotic approximation for the Q-function given by
e x / 2 Q( x) = 2 x
2
x >> 1
(1-19)
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1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseNoncoherent Modulation Schemes
Application of this to (1-1) with R12 = 0 gives
(coherent FSK)
e z / 2 PE = 2 z
z >> 1
(1-20)
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseNoncoherent Modulation Schemes
There is one other binary modulation scheme which is, in a sense, noncoherent. It is differentially coherent PSK (DPSK), in which the phase of the preceding bit interval is used as a reference for the current bit interval. This technique depends on the channel being stable enough so that phase changes due to channel perturbations from a given bit interval to the succeeding one are inconsequential. It also depends on there being a known phase relationship from one bit interval to the next.
CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseNoncoherent Modulation Schemes
Differential encoding is illustrated in Table 1-4. An arbitrary reference bit is chosen to start off the process.
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseNoncoherent Modulation Schemes
Block diagrams of two possible receiver structures for DPSK are shown in Figure 1-4.
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseNoncoherent Modulation Schemes
Its probability of error performance can be shown to be
(DPSK)
PE = 1 e z 2
(1-21)
This can be compared with BPSK by again making use of the asymptotic approximation for the Q-function given by (1-19) in (1-1) with R12 = 1 to give the following approximate result for BPSK for large signal to noise ratios:
(BPSK)
PE =
e z 2 z
z >> 1
(1-22)
1-2 Detection of Binary Signals in Additive White Gaussian NoiseNoncoherent Modulation Schemes
Error probabilities for BPSK, DPSK, coherent FSK, and noncoherent FSK are compared in Figure 1-5.
(1-23)
Set v3(t)=s3(t)-(s3, 2 )2 (t ) -(s3, 1 )1 (t ) and let the next orthonormal basis function be
3 (t ) =
v3 (t ) v3
(1-25c)
4.
Continue until all signal have been used. If one or more of the steps above yield vj(t)s for which v j ( t ) = 0 , omit these form consideration so that a set of K M orthonormal functions is obtained. This is called a basis set.
j = 1, 2,..., M
(1-26)
where
Sij = ( s j , i ) = s ji* (t ) dt
0 Ts
(1-27)
With this procedure, any signal of the set can be represented as a point in a signal space. [the coordinates of sj(t) are S1j,S2j,,SKj]
i = 1, 2,..., K
(1-28)
where
N i = (n, i ) = n(t )i* (t ) dt
0
(1-29)
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1 exp N0
( zi Sij ) i =1
K 2
j = 1, 2,...M
(1-31)
Schematic diagrams of two receiver front ends that can be used to compute the coordinates of the data vector are shown in Figure 1-6.
CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
FIGURE 1.6 Receiver configuration for computing data vector components: (a) correlator realization
FIGURE 1.6 Receiver configuration for computing data vector components: (b) matched-filter realization
CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
where Es is the symbol energy, Ts signal duration, and 0 the radian carrier frequency.
(1-33) (1-34)
which is obtained by considering two half-planes above and below the wedge corresponding to ith signal, as shown in Figure 1-7b and 1-7c.
where
Ai , Bi = a, 3a,..., ( M 1)a
(1-40)
(1-42a)
(1-42c)
M 2 P ( C | + 4 )
2
M 2 P(C |) + 4 P ( C | ) (1-43)
Thus a correct decision will be made at the receiver when n n-1 + (1-46)
M M
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(1-48a)
Es Es sin Q 2 sin 1 2Q N N0 M 2M 0
(1-48b)
where Es is the symbol energy, Ts the symbol duration and unknown phase, which is modeled as uniformly distributed random variable in [0,2). The signal space is 2M-dimentional and can be defined by basis function
xi (t ) =
2 cos i t Ts 2 yi (t ) = sin i t Ts 0 t Ts i = 1, 2,..., M
(1-50)
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(1-51)
(1-54a)
(1-58)
where d1(t) and d2(t) are viewed as being derived from bit stream, d(t), just as m1(t) and m2(t) were for balanced QPSK, and t -1 d 2 ( t ) tan ( t ) = tan (1-59) d1 ( t ) 2T
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(t ) =
(1-60a)
where Ik-1 and Qk-1 are the quadrature-channel symbols in time slot k-1.
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If k represents the absolute phase angle for the kth symbols, trigonometric identities can be used to express (1-62) as
I k = cos k = cos (k 1 + k ) Qk = sin k = sin (k 1 + k )
(1-63)
(1-64)
One possible receiver structure for this type of modulation is shown in Figure 1-14.The symbol error probability is given by where
p ( i | i ) =
Ps =
- 2 + + / 4
2 + + 7 / 4
p ( 1 | 1 ) p ( 2 | 2 ) d 1d2
(1-65)
where in which
(i , i ) = tan 1
(1-67b)
a (i , i ) = 4sin 2 (i - i ) +
(1-67c)
2 + + 5 / 4
2 + +
/4
p ( 1 | 1 ) p ( 2 | 2 )d 1d 2
(1-68)
However, for M-ary modulation scheme, the symbol duration is related to bit duration by
log 2 M Ts = Tb log 2 M = Rb
(1-70)
BRF =
2 Rb log 2 M
(1-71)
Now the ratio of bit rate to required bandwidth is called the bandwidth efficiency of a modulation scheme. In this case at hand, the bandwidth efficiency is
Rb bandwidth efficiency = = 0.5log 2 M BRF
(MPSK, MDPSK, MQASK)
(1-72)
BRF =
1 M 1 1 M + 3 + + = Ts 2Ts Ts 2Ts
(1-73)
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Rb 2 log 2 M = BRF M +3
(1-74)
For noncoherent MFSK, the minimum separation of the frequencies used to represent the symbol is taken as 2/Ts hertz for a total RF bandwidth of
(noncoherent MFSK)
BRF =
1 2( M 1) 1 2 M + + = Ts Ts Ts Ts
(1-75)
Rb log 2 M = BRF 2M
(1-76)
A comparison of bandwidth of bandwidth efficiency for the various modulation schemes considered is given in Table 1-6.
giving
Eb Es 1 = N 0 log 2 M N 0
(1-78)
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Finally, consider MFSK for which each symbol occupies a separated dimension in the signal space. Thus all symbol errors are equally probable, which means that each symbol error occurs with probability Ps/(M-1).
ways that this can happen, since each symbol represents log2M bits. This gives the average number of bit errors per symbol error probability is
average number of bit errors per symbol error probability
log 2 M
k =1
log 2 M k k
Ps M log 2 M Ps = M 1 2( M 1)
(1-80)
The various modulation schemes considered are compared on the basis of bit error probability versus Eb/N0 in Figure 1-16 through 1-20.
where R and are random variables representing the effects of the fading. The modulation is represented by m (t ) .
CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
The sum totals of the in-phase and quadrature signal components at the receiver are then approximately Gaussian by the central limit theorem, which that the envelop, R, is rayleigh and the phase, , is uniformly distributed in (0, 2).
Since R is assumed to be Rayleigh, it follows that z, being proportional to the square of R, is exponential with probability density function
1 z z f z ( z) = e z
z is average signal-to-noise ratio
z0
(1-84)
1 z z Q ( 2 z ) e dz z
(1-85)
1 z PE = (1 ) 2 1+ z
(1-86)
1 z PE = (1 ) 2 2+ z
(1-87)
1 PE = 2(1 + z )
(1-88)
and
(noncoherent FSK)
1 PE = 2+ z
(1-89)
This probability of error expressions are plotted in Figure 1-21 and compared with the corresponding nonfading results.
exp(
r 2 + a2
)I0 (
ar
r0
(1-90)
where is the ratio of powers in the diffuse to that in the specular received signal components.The error probability is plotted in Figure 1-22.
where is the second moment of the random amplitude, R, (m) the gamma function, and m a parameter given by
2 1 m= var( R 2 ) 2
(1-93)
CCU Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
References
References
References
References