MASS COMMUNICATION & SOCIETY, 2004.

7(4), 491-515

Spreading Global Consumerism: Effects of Mass Media and Advertising on Consumerist Values in China
Hye-Jin Paek
School of Journalism and Mass Communkalion University of Wisconsin-Madison

Zhongdang Pan
Department of Coninmnicaiion Arts University of Wisconsin-Madison

This study aims to denionstraU- that advertisements and the types of media content related to eonsiimptiim and/or originated from ihe West piay a si^nifieant role in shapinii consumerist orientations among China s urban residents. Mare speeifieaily. it e.xamines how the aaeptanee of 2 newly emergedconsiimeri.st valuesqualitw consumption and innovative eonsumptionis related to e.xposure to advertisements and media,flvanalyzing data from large-scale c(msumer surveys conducted in the 3 most economically advanced cities in China, this .study finds that exposure to consumption-related and West-originated media contents and advertisements contributes to a more ready (uceptance of the 2 etmsiinierisr values. Such e.xposure id.so amtrihuies lo the development of more positive attitudes toward advertising thai are found to potentially mediate and moderate the effects of exposure to consumption- and market-related media eontent on consumerisl values. Implications of dw findings and directions for future studies are discussed.

In the age of globalizulion. many have argued thai transnational sharing of media representations constitute shared eultural experiences (e.g.. Featherstone, Lash, & Robertson. 1995; Robertson, l992;T()mlinson. 1999). This argument suggests that the global reach of consumer products and the various forms of media content pronu)ting them are responsible for the emergence of a global consumer culture that
Requests for reprints should be senl to Hye-Jin Paek at 5167 Vilas Hall. 821 University Avenue, Madisiin. WI 5MQft. E-mail; hjpaokCa'wisc.edii

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envisions "quality of life" and cultural identity in materialistic terms (Beabout, 2(X)0; Tomlinson, 1999). Though there is no shortage of far reaching theories on the relationships between media and cultural experiences, demonstrating such relationships in terms of exposure to consumption messages and values as well as behavior at the individual level remains empirically challenging. This article takes up this challenge in a small way. It examines the rise of consumerist values in the People's Republic of China (China, hereafter) as the country develops rapidly into one of the largest consumer markets in the world (Cui & Liu, 2000). More specifically, the article reports results from large-scale consumer behavior surveys in the three largest Chinese cities to demonstrate how the increasing prominence of consumption-related media messages plays a role in shaping the consumer orientations among China's urban residents. China represents a theoretically significant case for investigating the relationship between media and consumerist culture. First, as global marketers salivate over the enormous China market, the emergence of a consumerist culture in China no doubt represents one of the most significant changes in globalization. China, therefore, is an important case for understanding how a consumer society may develop under a communist regime and how globalization takes on multiple paths and meanings (Berger & Huntington, 2002). Second, while developing a market-based consumer economy. China has maintained her communist political system (Fan, 2000). The tensions between the two are reflected in the media (Y. Zhao, 1998), making media effects on consumerist values difficult to pin down. What we have learned from the previous research is that, as the market economy develops, Chinese consumers are acquiring a more positive attitude toward the quintessential capitalist message formadvertisements (Pollay, Tse, & Wang, 1990: Wei & Stephens. 2002; X. Zhao & Shen. I99.'i: Zhou. Zhang. & Vertinsky, 2002). Evidence on how this attitude mediates or moderates media effects on consumerist values will help us understand how advertisements, as a form of media messages promoting consumer products, function as a cultural force. Third, as we will argue more fully in later sections, there has been a trajectory of expansion in the kinds of consumption-related values adopted by Chinese consumers during the reforms. Because most of these values were not crystallized in or even indigenous to the Confucius or communist value systems (Pan, Chaffee. Chu. & Ju. 1994), evidence from China provides a more solid basis for us to draw causal inferences on media impact on consumerist values.

CHINA: AN EMERGING CONSUMER SOCIETY Because the Chinese Communist Party adopted the economic reform policies in 1978, China has been liberalizing its economy by allowing private businesses to develop, attracting foreign investment, and, in recent years, privatizing state-owned

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enterprises. By 1997, the Gross Domestic Product per capita (GDP) tripled that of 1978 (Fan, 2000). With this rapid economic growth came the development of a consumer market and changes in people's 1 i festylcs. The Chinese, who were once indoctrinated with the idea that "consumption" is a manifestation of decadent bourgeois influences, now find themselves not only in ihe midst of an increasing abundance of consumer goods and services, but also in a sea of promotional messages and activities (Li, 1998). Advertising has functioned as a vanguard tif the emerging consumer society in China. The timid initial step toward resurrecling advertisements as a form of media messages in 1979 was soon followed by a rapid growth of the advertising industry, as the economic reforms were bringing tangible results to stores across the country and media began tt> look for advertising support in order to survive (Pan, 2()()0a; Y. Zhao, 1998). After the former paramount leader, Deng Xiaoping, called for "bolder and faster" strides toward developing a market economy in 1992, consumerism swept the country like a tidal wave. Industry statistics show that, between 1992 and 1994, the advertising industry soared with a 93% 97% annual growth rate, in 1990. the advertising industry was worth 25 billion yuan (roughly $2.9 billion). By 2(K)1, it had undergone a threefold increase, reaching 79.4 billion yuan (nearly SIO billion) and involving 78.000 organizational entities that employed more than 709,000 people. During this period, practically all of the world's top ad agencies set up shop in China. Today, among the top 10 ad agencies (in terms of annual revenues) in China, seven are global agencies. Topping the list are Saatchi & Saatchi, McCann Erick.son. J. Walter Thompson. Ogiivy & Mather, and Leo Burnett.' The coupling of the rise of the consumer market with Western influences is not just a theoretical conjecture; rather, it is reality in China's economic reforms. Industry statistics only capture a small part of the significant social changes. Field studies (e.g., Davis, 2000; Wu, 1999) and surveys (e.g., Wei & Pan, 1999) have shown that consumption is becoming an increasingly significant part of people's everyday lives, awakening consumerist orientations and causing a widespread craze for foreign and name brands (Chen & Huang. 2002). These dramatic changes in the cultural fabric of urban ChiEia, characterized by many as a "consumer revolution" (Davis, 2000; Li. 1998; Wu, 1999), contrast sharply with the traditional characterization of China as having a rigid political system, a backward economy, and a cultural tradition of frugality. In this tidal wave of consumerism, empirical researchers show that China's consumers are developing not only consumerist values and attitudes (e.g., Wei & Pan. 1999). but also increasing sophistication in consumption. Such consumerisl orientation is evident in people's

'Unless noted otherwise, all industry data (in both Chinese and Kngiish) are aimpiled hy Mediachina. This data was retrieved on November 10. 3002, IVom hltp://markctintbr.nK'diiichina.net. The conversion between Chinese and D.S. ctirrencie.'s was made based mi the exchange rates in each spec-itic year under consideration.

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purchase behavior, product preferences, and consumption practices in areas of child rearing, domestic space configuration, fashion choices, food selection, and leisure time activities {Davis, 2000; Pan, 2000b; B. Zhao & Murdock, 1996). By the end of the 20th century, consumers in urban China had been found to display well-developed individualistic tastes and a willingness to embrace Western lifestyles (Cui & Liu. 2000; Wei, 1997; Wei & Pan, 1999; Wei & Stephens, 2002; X. Zhao & Shen, 1995). There was little doubt that a consumer society had arrived in China. Media changes are an integral part of the insurgence of a consumer .society. The initial changes in the early 1980s were incremental and tentative, consisting of mostly the introduction of advertising as a source of supplementary revenue for media organizations and the import of a limited amount of entertainment products from the West. However, even with the relatively limited liberalization of media operations and content, by the latter half of the 1980s, frequent exposure to Western media content was found to be related to increased hedonistic pursuits and individualistic values among urban Chinese, especially among the young (Chaffee, Pan. & Chu. 1997). Since 1992. the speed of establishing a media market has accelerated. First, commercial interests began to play an increasingly crucial role in the operation of media organizations (J. M. Chan. 1993; Y. Zhao, 1998). Second, foreign media began to penetrate further into the Chinese market, and Chinese media were moving into the global market (J. M. Chan. 1996). Today, practically all media outlets, although nominally state owned, are de facto commercial entities. They rely primarilyand, for many, exclusivelyon their advertising earnings and fmancia! interests in the market (Sun & Liu. 2002). For media outlets across the country, commercials and product information are welcome. So are imported cultural products such as TV shows, blockbuster movies, magazines, and pop music from the West. Japan, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. Rupert Murdock is leading the pack of the global media tycoons making aggressive advances toward the Chinese market. His joint venture with China-backed investors. Phoenix TV in Hong Kong, now boasts access to 41 million households and more than 100 million viewers in China.^ Almost all of these changes occurred over the past decade and were concentrated in urban areas. Given this relatively quick and uneven change, consumerist culture in China is still in the process of being built, providing a suitable context tor causal inferences on media effects. In this article, we set out to show that media, in addition to contributing to individualistic and hedonistic consumption values (Wei & Pan, 1999), facilitate both the development of consumerist values that emphasize symbolic and status distinctions and an increasingly coherent consumerist ideology.
-Phoenix TV company statistic reported shoushigk.hlml (retrieved on September 4. 2003). at www.phoenixtv.com.cn/home/phoenixtv/

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MASS MEDIA AND CONSUMPTION VALUES How mass media representations influence people's values is an important area of media effects research (e.g., Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976; Ball-Rokeach, Rokeach. & Grube, 1984). Values refer to shared standards of judgments or beliefs about desired goals and how to reach these goals, Values are slow to change and are constantly reinforced by society, institutions, groups, and individuals (Ball-Rokeach. 1985; Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976; Ball-Rokeach et al.. 1984; Inglehart, 1990, 1997). They iu^e more general and abstract than attitudes, which refer to individuals' evaluations of specific objects or of some of their aspects in a positive or negative manner (Kat/, 1960). Thus, attitudes are evaluations derived from general values and both are constituents of a hierarchical belief system (Ball-Rokeach et al., 1984; Katz, 1960). Mass media play a significant role in shaping people's values and value orientation in contemporary society. Media content may articulate a value, demonstrate its applications, and foster a cultural environment for its adoption as a preferred standard for social comparison (Ball Rokeach et al.. 1984; Inglehart. 1990; Pan et al., 1994; Wei & Pan, 1999). Further, following the logic of the media dependency theory (Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 1976). the broad availability of consumerist values in the media may induce acceptance of such values among individuals who rely on the media to detect societal shifts in value configurations and to adjust their own choices accordingly. To date, empirical studies on media impact on values have been limited. In their field experiment, Ball-Rokeach etal. (1984} demonstrated that television can bean effective instrument with which to induce a wider acceptance ofdesired values. In their study on the changing cultural values in China, Chaffee and his colleagues (1997) detected evidence of ready acceptance of individualistic values in association with exposure to imported Western films and TV programs. In a different study analyzing survey data from China, Wei and Pan (1999) found that exposure to advertisements and consumer magazines was related to acceptance of the values of conspicuous consumption, self-fulfillment, individual indulgence, and worshipping of Western lifestyles. In a longitudinal study of television advertising effects in the United States, Moschis and Moore (19S2) found that exposure to advertising encouraged the development of materialistic values. These studies are based on the assumption that advertisements, in addition to conveying information about products and services, articulate and promote consumerist values. A number of content analytic studies of Chinese advertising confirm that advertisements in China indeed endorse materialistic values (K. Chan & Cheng, 2002; Cheng & Schweitzer. 1996; Lin, 2(K) 1; Tse, Belk. & Zhou. 1989) that are generally considered foreign to the Confucius tradition. For example, comparing print ads from Hong Kong, China, and Taiwan, Tse et al. (1989) found that the Chinese ads, in terms of a consumption theme, focused more on the promise of

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a better life and on more "pleasant" state.s of being. Lin (2001) found that Chinese commercials prominently display the youth modernity and the status appeals, which somewhat contradict indigenous Confucian and Communist values emphasizing the veneration of elders and social equality. The commercials for imported products (often adapted for the Chinese market by global ad agencies as part of their clients" global marketing strategy) are singled out as "the pacesetter for western cultural values" (Cheng & Schweitzer. 1996, p. 27). Building on this literature, this study focuses on the values for innovative and quality consumption. These values are different from the ones examined in an earlier analysis of the data gathered in the mid 1990s (Wei & Pan, 1999). Though those values examined in Wei and Pan's study (1999) represent more rudimentary ideas of consumerism that refiect the awakening of individuality and the legitimation of individual choice in consumption, the values examined in this study represent deeper psychological underpinnings of the consumerist culture: namely, product preferences and purcha.ses in accordance with and based on individual identity and di.stinction. The acceptance of the rudimentary ideas of consumerism have indicated Chinese society breaking away from the monolithic orientation of Maoist communism (Pan. 200()b). Then innovativeness in consumption and in quality of life may reflect an individual's increased confidence as a consumer and a further congealment of the consumerist ideology in China's "consumer revolution" (Chen & Huang. 2002; Davis, 2000). In ihe Chinese context, the key concern in the development of a consumer society at the lurn of the century is no longer whether consumers recognize their sovereignty hul how they seek for distiticfion in the consumerist culture. Though these arguments lead to a general expectation of positive associations between media exposure and the eonsumerist values, in light of the coexistence of Party propaganda and representations of consumption values on media, we must formulate hypotheses related to specific media contents. Based on research evidence about Chinese media {Chaffee et al.. 1997; Wei & Pan, 1999; X. Zhao & Shen, 1995; Y. Zhao. 1998), we expect endorsing consumerist values to be related more directly to exposure to media content regarding consumer markets and products and to foreign content in media rather than to sheer quantity of media exposure. This argument leads to the following set of hypotheses on the effects of content-specific media exposure on consumerist values: HI a: Exposure to market-related content in media is positively related to acceptance of quality and innovative eonsumption values. Hlb: Exposure to foreign content in media is positively related to acceptance of quality and innovative consumption values. HIc: Exposure to advertisements is positively related to acceptance of quality and innovative consumption values.

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In a transitional society such as China, advertisements are a newly distinguished form of media messages to most people. In the early 198()s. Chinese media practitioners had to learn how to produce and place ads. For a long time, Chinese consumers went through a learning process to recognize the features and functions of advertisements and to differentialc them from other types of media messages (Huang, 1997). Consequently, both frequent exposure to advertisements and the resulting positive attitudes toward ads indicate significant social changes, and developing a positive attitude toward advertising should be a more immediate outcome of exposure to the aforementioned three types of media content (X. Zhao & Shen. 1995). Based on this argument, we set up the following set of hypotheses on the effects of content-specific media exposure on attitudes toward advertisements: H2a: More frequent exposure to market-related content in media is related to more positive attitudes toward advertisements. H2b: More frequent exposure to foreign content in media is related to more positive attitudes toward advertisements. H2c: More frequent exposure to advertisements is related to more positive attitudes toward advertisements. Attitudes toward advertising may affect the relationships between media exposure and the consumerist values in various ways. One is to have a direct impact on the consumerist values, and such an effect occurs above and beyond the media exposure predictors. This argument leads to the following hypothesis: H3: A positive attitude toward advertising is positively related to acceptance of quality and innovative consumption values. Together, these hypotheses imply a causal system with attitudes toward advertising (AAD, hereafter) as a mediator of media effects on consumerist values. However, given the exploratory nature of this analysis, we do not have a strong enough theoretical ground to test such a mediating role formally through structural equation mt)deling. What we can do in this study is to go as far as we can in obtaining empirical indications of plausibility of the mediating thesis. In addition. AAD may contribule to the adt)ption of consumerist values in other ways. In this study, we also explore some other conceptually plausible roles of AAD. One possibility is that AAD may function as a moderator of media effects. In particular. AAD may moderate the effects of exposure to media advertisements. First, following the logic of the classic input-tiutput model of persuasion (McGuire. 1985). those who are more receptive to the rhetorical disposition of advertisements as a message form are more likely to accept the substantive content articulated in such messages. Second, exposure to commercials on TV and print media is usually a more conscious activity than exposure to outdoor ads. There-

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fore, AAD may strengthen the force of media advertisements to which audiences are exposed. There is still another way to conceptualize the role of AAD. That is, both positive attitudes toward advertising and consumerist values are components of the consumerist ideology (Chen & Huang, 2002). Though exposure to media advertisements may affect the levels of acceptance of each and interact with AAD in inducing consumerist values, it may also function to strengthen mental associations between AAD and consumerist values. In other words, in addition to effects on levels of positive AAD and levels of acceptance of each consumerist value, exposure to media advertisements may also affect the internal cohesiveness of the overall consumerist orientation. These arguments lead to the following research question to be explored with our data: RQI: What are the roles of attitudes toward advertising in the relationship between exposure to advertisements via media and the acceptance of the consumerist values?

METHOD

Data
This study is a secondary analysis of the data collected in 2000 as part of annual consumer behavior and lifestyle surveys. A marketing research agency in Beijing named the Institute for Marketing Information (IMI) designed and administered the surveys. The second author served as a long-time consultant for the IMI annual surveys. We chose to analyze the data from three citiesBeijing. Shanghai, and Guangzhoubecause of their econt)mic and political significance in the country and each city's unique cultural and geographic characteristics (Cui & Liu, 2000). By examining these diverse cities together, we hope to achieve a greater degree of generalizability. In each city, approximately 1,000 urban residents aged between 16 and 60 were randomly selected through multistage stratified probability sampling. Questionnaires were administered in face-to-face interviews by trained interviewers. Because each questionnaire would take more than 2 hours to complete, each interview was completed in multiple installments in order to minimize the impact of respondent and interviewer fatigue. From the three cities, a total of 3,092 questionnaires were completed, with 1,068 from Beijing. 995 from Shanghai, and 1,029 from Guangzhou. The pooled sample had a roughly even distribution of females (51.6%) and males (48.4%) with a mean age of 35.3. Nearly 63^^ of the respondents were married. The median annual household income was 23,787 yuan (approximately $2,973) and the average level of education was slightly above senior

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high school graduation. The three cities vary slightly on these demographic variables (see Appendix A). Measures Dependent Variables In all three cities, the same questionnaire was used, although some modifications {e.g., TV programs, newspaper names) were made to reflect the specific situation of a city. The questionnaire contains a long list of value and attitudinal statements using the 5-point Likert scale. The dependent variables Investigated in this study are based on selected items from this battery. Two consumerist values {quality consumption and innovative consumption) are identified from these measures. They are considered values because they represent distinct orientations in selecting consumer goods and ways of engaging in the consumption activities. At the core of each is a distinguishable genera! criterion or standard. Quality consumption refers to both consumers* preference for high quality and an orientation toward brand names. Innovative consumption indicates consumers' orientation toward risk-taking and trend-setting purchase behavior. Another subset of the items selected from this large battery was recognized as being measures of attitudes toward advertisements because, in each item, advertising is mentioned explicitly as an object of evaluation. Exploratory factor analysis showed a very distinct and clear-cut structure of the three factors. It forms an empirical basis for us to create the three separate indexes. The quality consumption and innovative consumption value scales were constructed by taking a mean score across the four items for each and the attitude toward the advertising scale was created averaging across five items. The exact wording of the items is shown in Appendix B. Cronbach's a ranges from .61 in innovative con.sumption value to .65 in both quality consumption values and attitudes toward advertising, showing acceptable internal consistency for each index. independent Variables The most important independent variables are overall media exposure, content-specific media exposure, and exposure to advertising. Overall media exposure. Based on the responses to a series of time-scheduling questions on TV viewing, the average hours of TV viewing were computed. Newspaper exposure was developed based on a question asking the respondents the time interval in days between two newspaper reading acts. The answers to the question were first subtracted from 30 and then recoded into an ordinal scale ranging fromO (never read) to 5 (read a new.spaper 6 days a week or more). For magazine reading, the question was asked in a similar way and an ordinal scale ranging

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from 0 (never read) to ?> (readal least once a wee/;) was created by taking a similar approach. Based on the answers to the question of "How often do you go to a movie each year?" movie exposure was scaled as 0 (never go to movies) to 7 (more than once a week). Content-Specific media exposure. These variables were created as binary scales on whether respondents were exposed to some specific contents. The market-content TV exposure variable was created based on whether people watched the five most-favored TV programs out of a list of 22 choices. Those vv-ho cht)se economic and financial information. TV sales, consumption guide, or commercials were given 1 and the rest were given 0. In a similar fashion, market-content newspaper reading was a binary scale of 1 (yes) and 0 (no) to represent those who reported having paid attention to economie and financial information, reports on stock market, fashion and cosmetic information, leisure and travel information, consumption guide, and advertisements (out of a list of 21 categories). The same logic was used to construct the variable of "foreign-content TV viewing" (TV dramas and movies from Hong Kong. Taiwan, or Western countries, and MTV). For foreign movie exposure, respondents were asked to choose their two favorite types of movies out of five choices (domestic, American, other Western. Hong Kong movies, or other). Those who chose the American, other Western, or Hong Kong movies would receive 1 for the variable of foreign movie watching and the others would receive 0 on this variable. Exposure to advertising. Respondents were asked to evaluate the frequency of contact with different types oi" advertisements using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from I (least frequently) to 5 (most frequently). Exploratory factor analysis reveals two distinct dimensions t)f advertising exposure, which are named (a) exposure to media ads and (b) exposure to outdoor ads. Media ads refer to the ads shown on TV and radio, in newspapers and magazines, as well as direct-mail commercials; outdoor ads are those shown on public transportation vehicles, billboards at bus or train stations, and neon lights on streets. Cronbach's a reliability coefficients for the two ineasures are at the acceptable level, which are .77 and .85, respectively. Demographic variables. Demographic variables are included in all the regression analyses. They include gender, age, levels of education (I = primary .school or below and 6 = graduale studies or above), average annual household income, marital status, and area ol residence. Of those, gender (I =maie.()= female), marital status (I = married, 0 = other), and area of residence (Shanghai = I, others = 0; Guangzhou = I, others = 0) are dichotomons variables.

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RESULTS Sources of the Consumerist Values A series of hierarchical multiple regression models were estimated to examine the impact of both media use and advertising exposure on both the consumerist values and attitudes toward advertising. Three variables serve as dependent variables in these regression equations: attitudes toward advertising and the two consumerist values. In each equation, effects of general media exposure, content-specific media exposure, and exposure to advertising were estimated after controlling for the demographic variables. In the consumerist value equations. AAD was entered in the fmal bloc. Given the large sample size {n = 3,092), we adopt the more stringent significance criterion of/J value at .01. The results are shown in Table I. Before discussing the results pertinent to our hypotheses, we start with the effects of the demographic variables on the two consumerist values to depict the societal patterns of adopting these values and to assess further the construct validity of the value measures. The table shows that both education and income have positive effects on endorsing the "quality consumption" value (QC, hereafter) and their effects remain highly significant even with successive additions of media variables. Such results indicate that media could only be one of many sources from which this consumerist value develops. There is also a persistent between-city difference in that Beijing respondents revealed a significantly higher level of acceptance of QC. This effect cannot be accounted for by other individual-level differences in demographic attributes and media tisc behavior. The picture is somewhat different for the innovative consumption value (IC, hereafter). First, there is no difference in levels of acceptance of this value across the three cities. Second, age is the most significant demographic predictor of individuals' acceptance of this value. Younger respondents show higher acceptance of this value. Income is also a significant and positive predictor ofone's acceptance of this value. These results strengthen our confidence in the construct validity of the two consumerist value indexes. They confirm otir common sense that lo consume either quality-brand name (QC) or trendiness (IC) requires fmancial resources. Endorsing such values tKcurs in tandem with possession of fmancial resources. The results are also consistent with our observations that, in China, an emphasis on "classiness" or "brand names" is more prevalent among the educated segment of urban residents whereas an emphasis on "trendiness," as is the case in other consumer societies, is more visible among the young. The evidence for the first set of hypotheses on the direct effect of content-specific media exposure and the two consumerist values is mixed. Hypothesis la, which predicts Ihat exposure to market-related content in media is related to a more ready acceptance of consumerist values, is not supported. Although, at the

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TABLE 1 Predicting Consumerist Values and Attitudes toward Advertising^ (Hierarchical Regression Analysis) Quality Consumption Innmtilive Consumption Attitudes Toward Advertising

Predictors Demographics Sex (male) Age Education Income Marital sliitus (married) Shanghai'' Guangzhou'' Incremental R~ General media use TV viewing time Newspaper reading frequencies Magazine reading frequencies Movie going frequencies Incremental RConlenl-specific media use Newspaper info on market TV programs on market Foreign movies Foreign shows on TV Incremental RAdvenising exposure Meiiia advertisemenis Outdoor advertisements Incremental R~ Attitudes Positive attitudes toward ads Incremental R' Total R-

.0.14 .001 .087** .090** .002 -.103** -.143** .074"* .024 .067** .092** .040 .024** .021 .042 .03.1 .004 .005* -,0.10 -.029 .(HX) .276** .070** .174**

.014 -.152** .046 .07.1** .036 -,010 -.020 .076** -.004 -.005 Oil .(M3 .008** .009 .029 .004 .005 .005* .125** .005 .032** .346** .110** .232**

-.023 -.073* .013 .036

-.on
.053* .016 .030** .027 -.028 .006 .044 .006 .086** -.003 -.019 .042 .Oil** .154** .051 .031**

.078**

Note. ^Numbers in the cells are standardized belas from ihe final equation. Incremental R~ for each bloc of predictors is taken at the stage of thai bloc's entry, n = 3,092. ^Beijing serves as the reference city.

bivariate level, reading market-related newspaper articles and watching market-related TV shows correlate with QC and IC significantly (see correlation coefficients shovt-n in Appendix C), after control! ing the general media use variables, exposure to market-related content in newspapers or on TV no longer predicts QC or IC. Hypothesis Ib, which predicts a positive relationship between exposure to foreign content in media and the two consumerist values, is not supported either. At the bivariate level (see Appendix C), watching foreign movies is positively corre-

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lated with QC (r = . 148, /J < .001) and IC (/-=.! 58, p < .001). Watching imported foreign shows on TV is also positively correlated with IC(r= .057./x .001). However, none of these coefficients remain significant after controlling for demographics and general media uses. Hypothesis Ic predicts a positive relationship between exposure to advertising and the two consumerist values. This hypothesis is partially supported. Exposure to media advertising remains a significant predictor of IC(P = . 125, p<.001) after the stringent controls. However, the evidence of insignificant beta weight for exposure to outdoor ads in the final model may not be sufficient for us to accept the null hypothesis. The reason is that the two ad exposure variables are correlated significantly (r = .52, p < .001) and each of them has a significant bivariate correlation with IC. Together, the two variables account for 3.2% of the variance in IC. The results also show that overall frequencies of reading newspaper and magazine remain strong predictors of QC (p = .067 and .092, respectively, both at/? < .001) after controlling for all the content-specific exposure variables. It is possible that exposure to print media contributes to a greater emphasis on consuming quality and brand-name products not through the narrowly defined market and product content, but through the sheer act of reading them regularly as part of a more stable and literary-oriented lifestyle. Effects of Media on Attitudes Toward Advertising We adopted the same analytical strategy to examine media effects on AAD. As Table I shows, there are significant differences across the three cities in people's AAD. Shanghai respondents display more positive AAD than those from the other two cities. Younger respondents have more positive AAD than their older compatriots. Such evidence, coupled with the assumption that residents in the economically more developed areas and younger people were more likely to appreciate the practicesincluding advertisements as a type of informationof a consumer economy, helps to strengthen our confidence in interpreting the correlational data in causal terms. The results also show quite clearly that frequencies and amounts of media uses have no significant contribution to fostering positive AAD. After the demographics, the four general media use variables together account for no additional variance. Content-specific media exposure, however, plays an important role in fostering positive AAD. Hypothesis 2a predicts that exposure to market-content media is related to more positive AAD. The evidence lends a partial support for this hypothesis. Exposure to market-content in newspapers shows a significant positive relationship with AAD after the controls (|3 = .102, p < .001). This relationship remains significant even after the additional control of the two advertising exposure variables (P = .086, /; < .001). However, exposure to market-related content on TV shows no relationship with AAD.

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Hypothesis 2b. which predicts a positive relationship between exposure to foreign content in media and AAD. is not supported. Although, at the bivariate level, both exposure to tbreign movies and exposure to imported TV programs are positively related to AAD (r = .096 and .090. respectively, p < .001). they do not remain significant in the multiple regression models. The evidence supports Hypothesis 2c, which predicts positive associations between exposure to advertising and AAD. At the bivariate level, more frequent exposure to media advertisements and outdoor adverti.sements both correlate significantly with more positive AAD. Exposure to media ads remains a significant predictor of AAD in the fmal equation (P = . 154, /? < .001), whereas the relationship between exposure to outdoor ads and AAD is reduced to an insignificant level. Due to the correlation between the two ad exposure variables, the latter piece of evidence cannot be the basis on which to conclude that exposure to outdoor ads is unrelated to AAD. When these two variables are assessed individually, exposure to outdoor ads is a significant predictor of AAD l^ = .121, p< .001). In addition, the two advertising exposure variables, together, accounted for 3.1% of variance in AAD. or nearly 40'7r of the variance accounted for by the complete model.

Exploring the Rotes of Attitudes Toward Advertising To explore the roles of AAD in the rise of consumerisi orientations, we conducted four types of analyses to examine the interrelationships among three sets of variables: AAD, content-specific media exposure, and the two consumerist values. The first two types of analyses are related and. therefore, are discussed together. The first analysis involved obtaining evidence for testing Hypothesis 3. which posits a direct positive effect of AAD on each of the consumerist values. This process involved entering AAD as an additional predictor to the final regression mctdels shown in Table I. The second analysis involved extracting the beta weights obtained from the regression models and plugging them into a highly simplified three-variable model as depicted in Figure I.' Following the procedure outlined in Duncan (1975) and others (Allison. 1995; Baron & Kenny. 1986; Sobel. 1987). for each content-specific media exposure variable we computed the product of Pi and P: as an estimate of its effect mediated by AAD. The results from these analyses are shown in Table 2. The results lend strong support for Hypothesis 3. AAD is found to have significant positive effects on QC (P = .276, p < .001) and IC (p = .346, p < .001).
-'The procedure falls far short nf a formal path analysis via structural equation modeling (SEM), which wotild provide a formal test of the fitness of the overall model. What we have done here is to examine how the three sets of variables might be inlerrelated in the statistically controlled condition specified by the regression models predicting QC. IQ. and AAD. Tlie numbers should no( be taken as parameter eslimates of a formal causal model via SEM.

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Attitudes toward Advertising

Content-specific Media exposure

FIGURE 1

Consumerist c Values

A funcepluiil illuMration of the mediating role of attitude

Compared with the other predictors of the two consumerist values shown in Table 1, AAD is clearly the strongest predictt)r. accounting for an additit)nal 79f of variance in QC and 11% of variance in IC. The results in Table 2 indicate ihat AAD could have mediated effects of exposure to market content on newspaper and exposure to media advertising on each
TABLE 2 Indirect Effects of Content-Specific Media and Advertising Exposure Variables Mediated by Attitudes Toward Advertising Quality Consumption Predictors Newspaper infii on market TV programs on market Foreign movies Foreign shows oti TV Media advertisements Outdmir advertisements Beta" .024** -.001 -.005 .012 .043** 1)14 T Value^ 4,27 -.14 -.65 2.18 6.53 2.43 Innovative Consumption Beta" .030** -.001 -.(X)7 .015 .053** .OIS T Value'" 4.34 -.14 -.65 2.19 6.77 2.44

Note. "The bela coefficients (standardized regression coefficienls) show indirect effects, calculated by multiplying a and h in Figure I. ^Thc signitlcance lest lor each indirect elCei-t was pcrfurnicd with Sohel's method (Allison. 1995; Baron & Kenny. 1986; Sobel, 1987), That is. each indirect effeci coefficient is diviJed by Its standard error, which is calculated ihrough the following equation (notations are those used in Figure I): Fur instance, for the significance tesi of the indirect effecl oF exposure lo newspaper information un market an the quality consutnption valtie. the computations are as follows; Standard error: J{(..l()2)"'x(.025)'-H (.111)' x(.O19)' + (.025)' x(.()l9)''} - tlOX Significance tesi: ,()34/.0()8=4.27 (following / dislribiition. /> < .01)

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consumerist value. Both exposure to market content in newspapers and to media ads have significant indirect effects on QC (p = .024, t = 4.n.p < .001; p = .043, / = 6.53. p < .001, re.spectively) and on IC (p = .030, / = 4.34 p < .001; p = .053, t = 6,11. p< .(K)l, respectively). AAD mediates more than 53% of total effects of exposure to newspaper market content on QC and more than 76% on IC. AAD mediates more than 5^% of that on QCand more than 29% of that on IC. The mediating function of AAD, however, is limited because of two factors. First, most of the content-specific media exposure variables have insignificant relationships with QC or IC after controlling for the demographic and general media use variables. Second, none of the general media use variables predicted AAD (as shown in Table I). The third analysis was carried out to explore the moderating role of AAD in the effect of each content-specific media exposure variable on the two consumerist values. For this purpose, a series of multiplicative regression models were examined. The results show no evidence of linear moderating effect of AAD on media-value relationships.* Finally, we consider AAD to be a constituting element of the consumerist ideology. The idea is that even though AAD is an evaluative disposition toward advertisements, it resides together with consumerist values in individuals' cognitive domain. The magnitude and nature of the interrelationships between AAD and the two consumerist values may be affected by exposure to certain media contents. To simplify the exploratory task, we focused on exposure to media advertising. We divided the sample into three groups based on the levels of exposure to media advertising: high, medium, and low. with each approximately one third of the total sample. We then estimated the multiple regression models predicting QC and IC (in Table I) to the high and low groups, respectively. The incremental R- contributed by AAD from the high and low groups can be compared to see how strongly AAD and each of the two values are related in the two groups. The results are shown in Table 3. The results show that, though AAD adds 11.8% of variance accounted for in the model predicting QC for the high media ad exposure group, it adds only 3.8% in the model for the low media ad exposure group. The same pattern is found for the IC models. AAD adds more than 15% of variance in the model for the high media ad exposure group, but less than 10% for the low media ad expo-

Because we know very little of the empirical propertie.s ol' AAD in the study population, tio statistical pattern of such a moderating effect can be specified a priori (see BaRin& Kenny. mS6). For simplicity, we explored the possible effect of each content-specific exposure variable as a linear function of AAD(Aiken& West. 1991). A series of interaction terms was created by multiplying AAD and each of the content-specific exposure variables. Each multiplicative term was assessed individually as an additional predictor of QC atid IC. respectively. Incretnetital R- associated with each term was assessed for statistical significance.

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TABLE 3 Incremental fF- From Hierarchical Regression Models^ (Lowest One-Third and the Highest One-Third in Media Advertising Exposure) Quuiity Consumption Blocs of Predictors Bloc 1: Demographics Bloc 2: General media exposure Bloc .1: Contenl-specific exposure Bloc 4: Advertising exposure Bloc 5: Attitudes loward ads Total Low .094** .033** ,(H)6 .(K)3 ,038** ,171** High .064** .030** ,008 ,007 ,118** 227** Innovative Consumption Law .098** .003 .003 .001 .099** .204** High .067** .(H)9 .007 .019** .152** .254**

"The same hierarchical regression models were fitted separately tu the two subsamples iJetmed by frequeticies of exposure to media advertisetnents. The sample of the lowest one third has a size of 1,017 and the sample of the highest one ihird has a si/e of 1.056.

sure group. These results thus provide preliminary evidence that frequent exposure to media ads could strengthen the mental coherence ot the consumerist orientation hy making AAD and consumerist values more closely associated with each other.-''

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION This study explores the relationships between consumerist values and media and advertising exposure in China, These results are consistent with the previous findings from China (Wei & Pan. 1999) in iwo ways. The first is that, among the general media use variables, exposure to consumer magazines is a more robust predictor of accepting consumerist values. The other is that exposure to advertising is related to accepting consumerist values, even though, in this study, ihe evidence is limited to the effect of exposure to media advertising on accepting the innovative consumption value. This study also adds new evidence to the literature. Whereas the previous studies showed evidence of media bolstering the values based on individualism and he-''One potential alternative explanation for the results is that those with higher levels of exposure lo media advertising were able lo provide more reliable dala. The increinenlal R' from each of the blocs enlered before AAD in the models predicting QC and IC, respectively, provides some indication of ihis lendency. If the predictors in blocs one through four consistently yielded a higher/?-for the high media ad exposure group, there would be an indication of Ihis possibility. As the results show, there is no consistent pattern of a higher R- for each hloi- of predictors among the high media ad exposure group. Therefore, the alternative explanation is judged implausible.

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donism (Chaffee etal., 1997; Wei & Pan. 1999), this study shows that media could do the same to the consumption values that are based on cultural distinction and social status. The cumulative evidence thus depicts a broad impact of the increasingly commercialized and globally oriented media on the emergence of a consumer culture in China. Going beyond the previous studies, this study shows significant linkages between positive attitudes toward advertising and the acceptance of consumerist values. It also shows that positive attitudes toward advertising seem to arise more from exposure to market information in newspapers and exposure to media advertising. Such evidence calls for a more careful conceptualization of the role that attitudes toward advertising play in the emergence of a consumerist culture in China (Chen & Huang, 2002). The preliminary evidence presented in this study offers some suggestions. First, it is plausible that positive attitudes toward advertising mediate the relationship between media and consumerist values. Second, Ihe relationships between positive attitudes lowuid advertising and consumerist values may get strengthened by higher levels of exposure to media advertising. Overall, the evidence suggests that a receptive disposition toward advertisements not only is fostered by market-oriented mcdiacontent but also makes it more likely for such media content to cultivate consumerist values. These results lend empirical credence to the thesis that mass media, along with advertising as their "intimate partners," act as a conduit for the global consumer culture. These findings were obtained with rigorous controls in our analyses to isolate each theoretically meaningful effect. We also explored the causa! direction between attitudes toward advertising and consumerist values on the one hand, and exposure to media and attitudes toward advertising on the other. However, recognizing the limitations of the data and the lack of theoretical precision in this area, we resist the temptation of formal causal modeling.'' We pushed as far as we could with the data to explore the roles of attitudes toward advertising.

^'Structural equation modeling should t>e used with care. In imr study, we recognize that, with cross-sectional data, eMablishinji causality empirically requires iheoretical faundalions with high degrees of precision and specificity. This is what we do not have. With a less than suftkietit theoretical fotindatioii. eslimating a catisal iiimlel is likelv an exercise iif self-fulfilling prophecy. In addition, ihe data analyzed are loss than desirahlo tor giving a iheoretically meaningful causal model a lair test. First, each content-specific exposuri' variable is a ilichoiomous measure based on inuitiple responses lo content selection questions regarding each niediutti. Such a measure does not capture sufficient variance in the umoimt or frequency of exposure to a specified category of content. This measuremenl deficiency, in our judgment, is largely responsible for the lack of support for Hypothesis la through Hypothesis Ic. Second, with such weak measures and insufficient theoretical and empirical knowledge of their properties, we do not have a solid basis to determine whelher our dala violate the niultivariaie noniiality assumption. The lack of such knowledge would have made it difficult to interpret the model fitness statistics.

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Understanding such roles has both theoretical and practical significance. It could contribute to developing a more refined theory of media changes and the rise of a consumerist culture. It could also contribute to the knowledge base for those who use advertisements as a form of persuasive communication in business practices. Future research needs to investigate these roles systematically with more carefully explicated and measured attitudinal variables. This study also fmds that the rise of consumerist values and the development of a positive attitude toward advertising are more apparent among the young, the well educated, and those who possess necessary financial means. These findings are consistent with the observation that holding the values for quality and innovative consumption and having a more positive attitude toward advertisements tend to be attributes of the "modern" "generation Xers" {Wei, 1997). More importantly, these fmdings are consistent with two broad theses in the globalization literature. First, the spread of global consumerism follows a general pattern of diffusion (Rogers, 1995). The most receptive segment of the population in a transitional society consists of those who possess a cultural disposition that has been broadly labeled "cosmopolitanism" (Tomiinson, 1999). Second, adopting consumerist values is integrated into one's life world. It is rooted in the realistic conditions of each person at a specific stage of his or her life cycle and is consistent with one's life goals at that particular stage. The effects of media and advertising, though significant, do not lift individuals out of their life world. Rather, media are immersed in people's everyday lives. More broadly, this reading of the fmdings is consistent with the thesis that the spread of global consumerism, in particular, and global culture, in general, is not simply a process of cultural transplantation by external forces, which is commonly depicted as what is being done by global media conglomerates and their allies in globahzationglobal advertisers and advertising agencies. Rather, the rise of consumer culture in a transitional society inevitably involves interactive forces from within and without (Braman, 1996; Pieterse, 1995), This study leaves open several research questions for future research. First, it will be useful to see how consumerist values espoused in media content and in adverti.sements interact with individual characteristics. In particular, four such characteristics need to be examined to understand the sociological process of the spread of consumer culture in a transitional society: age, education, gender, and income. The findings from this article support those in the literature showing that these are the most active predictors of value and attitude changes related to major social and cultural shifts (Chaffee et al., 1997: Pan et al.. 1994). Second, given that consumerist values are just emerging in China, it will be particularly worthwhile to investigate how the emerging consumerist values interact with the traditional Confucian values, as well as with the Communist values. There are two intertwined issues, as China is striving toward a unique cohabitation of capitalist economic practices and a Communist political system. One is whether and how the socialist values of "egalitarianism, collectivism, self-sacrifice and sol-

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idarity" (Meisner, 1996, p. 495) are being replaced by or incorporated into material-oriented consumerisl values. The other is whether and how Confucian values of frugality, moderation, filial pity, and harmony are being revived, adapted, and/or changed. Understanding these issues will help not only social scientists to develop a better theoretical grasp of social changes, but also global advertisers to act more effectively in such a unique transitional s(x;iety.

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APPENDIX B Mean Scores of Consumerist Values and Attitude Toward Ad [n ^ 3,092) Variables Quality consumption (.65)*' I ihink brand-named prixJucts have belter qualities. I'd rather spend a lillle more in order to get a good quality product. I prefer buying brand-named products even if they arc more expensive. If I want something. I'd buy it even if it were a bit expensive. Innovative consumption 1,61)^ I like 10 Iry new brands and new products. I often purchase thitigs that have a unique style. 1 normally purchase a new product or get a new service earlier than others. When a product or a service becomes widely talked about, I'll give it a try. Attitude toward advertising (.65)'' I feei close to the products thai have been advertised on TV, I pay alleniion lo ads in order to keep up with the fashion and trend. Information in ad.s plays a very big role in my purchasing decisions. A product of an advertised brand is more dependable. Advertisennents can be trusted. M 3.62 3.71 3.94 3.28 3.56 3,21 3.30 3.15 3.02 3.37 3.13 3.20 3.13 .1.19 3.32 2.80 HD ,67 .96 .88 1.02 .98 .62 .93 .98 .88 .86 .61 .97 1.04 .94 .89 .91

Note. "All items are measured on a 5-point Liken scale ranging from 1 (slnmgly disagree) and 5 {strongly agree). ''Numbers in parentheses are Cronbach's a reliability coefficients.

514

APPENDIX C Correlation Between the Independent Variables and the Three Dependent Variables (n = 3,092) Quality Consumption Innovative Consumption Attitude Toward Advertising

Predictors Demographics Sex (male) Age Education Income Marital statu:^ (married) Shanghai Guangzhou General media use TV viewing time Newspaper reading frequencies Magazine-reading frequencies Movie-going frequencies Content-specific media use Newspaper information on market TV programs on market Foreign movies Foreign shows on TV Advertising exposure Media advertisements Outdoor advertisements <.01, **/><.001.

.029 -.084** .205** .183** -.052* -.045 -.112** .025 .115** .166** .156** .121** .091** .148** -.001 .061** .024

.001 -.232** .164** .149** -.137** .016 -.016 .005 .040 .101** .168** .106** .049* .158** .057* .241** .164**

-.041 -.141** .069** .065** -.100**

.053* .003 ,036 .017

.069** .106** .121** .023 .096** .090** .217** .160**

515