Fundamental principle of dynamics applied to rail

(Assuming a rigid convoy reduced to its center of gravity)

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The fundamental principle of dynamics applied to the center of gravity of a rigid convoy
Take a convoy of a motor vehicle called "locomotive" and a series of towed vehicle. To simplify the situation, we consider that the entire convoy is rigid and can be likened to a point in the center of gravity of the same mass. The latter is obliged to follow the trajectory imposed by the sloping tread and change of direction.

Each vehicle has its own masses. The convoy is largely made up of rotating masses such as axles, and a lesser portion of engines and transmissions, the total mass of the train is not the same as the convoy is stopped, moving or halted. The resulting forces applied in sets in the center of gravity are two in number (Figure 1): - The tensile strength Ft, developed by the "engine" of the convoy. It is directed in the direction of travel of the train and also required to the development of the tread. - The restraining force Fr, developed by the "towed" the convoy. It restricted by the tread, and directed in the opposite direction to the convoy.

We can apply the center of gravity of the convoy global mass m, the fundamental principle of dynamics as an "axis trajectory"

is the acceleration of the train, speed derivative, itself derived from the position of the train on a given route. (This is why we talk about the behavior of second order) There are two ways the convoy: Accelerate and Decelerate To accelerate the convoy must <0, ie Ft - Fr> 0 is Ft> Fr. The motor has to work at least greater than the resistance force to the advancement of the trailer. To decelerate the train must > 0, let Ft - Fr <0 or Ft <Fr.'s Motor has to work at least less than the force of resistance to the advancement of the trailer. To maintain balance in the convoy, ie constant speed must
Reasoning on energy: Set in motion a train is filling a tank kinetic energy supplied by the locomotive. (Fig. 2) When we cease to apply Ft effort, the tank retains its contents or slightly empty if you want account losses due to the resistance to progress. In some cases, it may naturally gain energy by the action of gravity. To slow the convoy, we must empty the tank by the brakes and cancel effort Ft.

= 0, ie Ft = Fr.

The previous equation, we deduce:

This view epitomizes the role of "locomotive": Establishing, at all times a balance between traction force Ft and the resultant force Fr, Fr sum and quantity acceleration induces resistance to the advancement of the convoy. Finally, the dynamic railway is divided into two main entities: - The forces generated by the progress of the convoy and opposing it in most situations, - The force generated by the driving section of the convoy. . The

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This information should in no way be used as a teaching and / or industrial, in this case please consult the relevant literature on the topic. THANKS please ask my permission if you want to use the sketch of this page for your website. Copyright belph80001 / 2005 / All Rights Reserved / Reproduction and duplication of prohibited commercial support.

Running resistance of the train

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We can divide by 4, the forces due to towing: - The effort acceleration or inertial - The force gradient, - Efforts to takeoff (when the convoy leaves immobility) - Efforts during walking. Inertial force The amount represents the largest share in the effort generated by the convoy. Plus a driving force is provided, plus the train accelerates, but this increase in speed is directly influenced by .

The effort inertial precludes the cause that creates: It is opposed to the tensile force Ft, when the latter is able to increase the speed. On the contrary, if Ft is allowed to be less than Fr, or a braking force is applied Ft = 0, oppose and tend to keep the convoy at its own speed: We have indeed <0! The reasoning energy flows directly: The reservoir that we mentioned above can not increase or empty its contents instantly.
Note that a correction factor must be applied to different situations m: convoy stopped moving convoy, convoy braked. Strength gradient Force gradient is the projection of gravity on the profile of the tread. (Fig. 3)

Fd = Mg sin In level Ramp, Sloping

with

track gradient and g = 9.8 m.s -

= 0 it has no action. > 0 it opposes the tensile strength Ft. <0 it is in the same direction as the tensile force Ft.

This force is "free", with it we can gain or regain the kinetic energy, however it can be a very serious effort restraint. The gradient can be very large. Note that currently the highest values on the French rail network is of the order of 35 to 40 mm / m. The apprehension of the line profile is fundamental to the operation of a railway vehicle. Tank kinetic energy can be maintained with a minimum possible intervention of the locomotive. This flexibility is a trick of art, it is legal: It is the energy consumption. More velocity, the greater the potential energy is important. Thus the high-

speed lines can afford profile by mountain and valleys with slopes of about 30 mm / m.
Efforts takeoff (when the convoy leaves immobility) The rail is made of a spring steel. Wheels mounted on the axles have a more rigid steel. Setting wheel - rail contact involves a deformation of the rail. The wheel 's crashes in rail steel resulting in a contact surface of the elliptical type, said surface HERTZ. (Fig. 4). The dimensions of the ellipse are much larger than the diameter employee and axle load are important. In some cases, it is possible shear rail.

The wheels face off all dents to be set in motion. It is therefore an effort to overcome off the convoy. The vehicle's parking rail leads to increase the surface area over time HERTZ. More parking time is longer, the resistive effort will be important:

The critical parameters of effort off are those couplings and slope. This brings us to momentarily forget the hypothesis convoy "rigid" for one (fig. 5), realistic, a set of each vehicle with their freedom of movement offered by the team and tamponade.

In the ideal situation, the locomotive is brought off the train in a progressive manner, trailer after trailer. The effort off contact wheel / rail remains constant over the life of this one. It is not the same if the convoy starts in the presence of a gradient. When the convoy starts sloping couplers are more tense. The locomotive must fly a larger number of trailers at the same time.

Efforts during walking

Efforts during operation can be divided into three distinct groups: - Efforts "static" zero degree, expressed as F = X, - Efforts "sticky" first degree, expressed as F = XV - Efforts "aerodynamic" the second level, expressed as F = X.V . Static forces Static forces are of various kinds: Force due to the wheel / rail contact and friction in the bearings HERTZ surface is always present and creates a resistant force on the wheel in motion. (Fig. 6) For the trailing, this movement results locally around the contact by deformation in compression and in tension on the rail and the wheel located upstream thereof.

Let us add to this effort, the friction in the bearings and bearings in the axle boxes. An empirical approximation was made by Davis, it is for two parameters x and y and a load axle to consider the holding force as:

Fp =

with axle load and m (x, y) constant

Note that as the axle load increases, this force is less important.
Moreover, the application of shoe on wheels during braking is likely to increase friction in the bearings.

Effort cornering A convoy enters a curve sees its resistance to increase promotion. This will be particularly important that the curve will be a small radius. This is a direct consequence of lateral friction of the flanges on the rail heads and even sliding bogies, axles consisting of two parallel compelled to stay. This force is applied to the entire convoy, and is expressed as:

Fc =

with

mean radius of curvature and K factor

The coefficient K is a function of the geometrical factors of the track, in particular spacing and its coefficient of friction.

Stress due to easements

The calculation of the static force can be refined in the presence of passenger cars. Some of them take advantage of the progress to power easements such as lighting through a dynamo.Systems of forced ventilation can be used also the movement of an axle.
Efforts viscous The viscous efforts are of three types: - Efforts friction of the side faces of the flanges of the rail, - Efforts resulting oscillatory movements of each of the bogies on the running surface, - Braking effort due to the use of shoe or brake disc. Its magnitude is likely to be dominant over other efforts. The role of these parameters in the dynamics is that of the first order, they are expressed in the form F = XV. V is the speed of the convoy. On the energy front, there is no question here but continuous leakage dissipation in the form of Joule loss. Note that the viscous stress has no effect at zero speed and whatever happens it opposes the direction of movement.

Aerodynamic forces
It is the resistance of the air which is expressed F = Cx.V . Cd is the drag coefficient. The first vehicle of the convoy movement sees subjected to air flows which oppose the direction of motion, rub against the side surfaces and generate turbulence in areas such as spaces between hyphens trailers and space lower between the track and the chassis boxes.

A large number of parameters come into play in determining the Cx (Fig. 7): - Areas and perimeters of air penetration - Length of vehicles, - Hyphens between boxes, - Surface roughness, - Presence of elements such as pantographs.

Configuration and the nature of the convoy importance in this type of effort acting on second degree. As speed increases, the aerodynamic resistance increases significantly. The presence of the wind tunnel or strongly influences these parameters.

The standard equation of the running resistance In conclusion, resistance to progress is an equation of the form:

X0, X1, X2 and M, the characteristic parameters towed convoy (Fig. 8).

And Knowledge of the Y = X0 + + X1.V X2.V is obtained by measuring and calculating aerodynamic. Administration has thus a "catalog" of all rail vehicles circulated on the network. Each vehicle by its configuration, its type, its equation will load that characterizes it. Note that the locomotive is a full vehicle is no exception to this rule: it also provides a resistive effort!

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THANKS please ask my permission if you want to use the sketch of this page for your website. Copyright belph80001 / 2005 / All Rights Reserved / Reproduction and duplication of prohibited commercial support.

Behavior and performance of the traction motor

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We remain in the event of a convoy reduced to its center of gravity G. The locomotive of G generates a tensile force determined by the traction of the drive part of the convoy. The latter two functions: - Converting potential energy (either thermal shape, or electrical form) into mechanical energy useful for the rim. - Adjust to demand, the importance of useful mechanical energy to the rim. Like any system transforming potential energy into mechanical energy, the traction generates losses as heat and friction. Also often asked to support the locomotive auxiliary purposes to ensure its own operation and that of the convoy (ventilation, heating line), which is also a loss of useful energy. The driving ideal "to balance power" The ideal drive train has a power adjustable hope that remains invariant under speed and time. This has three advantages:

- The power setting is easy and action rustic perspective equipment, - The link between the traction force and speed of the convoy by Pu = FV allows for low speeds, a very important starting effort. This is a crucial requirement for driving rail - This link makes the same force inversely proportional to the speed: This' s well suited to the conditions of adhesion railway (which will be discussed later). Establish the energy balance of the drivetrain ideal (fig. 9):

with Pu: mechanical power output, speaking: Pu = Ft.V, Ft is the tensile force. V the speed of the train. Pa: auxiliary power, Pt: power loss transformations (mainly losses joules) Pe is the potential energy available, it is modulated by a coefficient k which is available at the one that controls the locomotive. All at time t.

We Pu = Ft. V

Where

The tensile force Ft is inversely proportional to the speed of the train. At startup, it is theoretically infinite. It strongly decreases according to the increase of speed in the form of a hyperbola. (Fig. 10)

Note that the transformations and losses due to food easements have all their importance in the generation of this force. In general, a locomotive must withstand whatever happens losses which it is subjected. Chart speed efforts To understand the behavior of a locomotive, we face each of these hyperbolas operating in the plan FV associated with a value of k. This graph is called a diagram effort - speed. We noted a towed vehicle is characterized by its equation and therefore its operating curve, it is the same for each series of engine equipment which we can associate a force-velocity diagram. In the ideal case, the diagram effort - speed corresponds to the intensity contours powers.
The real driving

Unfortunately, a real motor can not simplify our model driving perfect. Here are the reasons: Dissociation diagram effort - speed and intensity contours - powers The curves of engine speeds efforts can be hyperbolas "equilateral" having the law Pu = FV. The engine used has its own way to change depending on the speed: An electric motor torque DC sees drop dramatically when a f orce against electromotive appears at its terminals. By heating, the internal resistance drift and alters the current flow itself limited by the effect of magnetic saturation of the windings. An internal combustion engine connected to a gearbox heats and alters the thermodynamic cycle as the speed increases. Engine performance is found not in uniform. In both cases the characteristics FV overlap hyperbole balance power, ie the power output obtained by the traction is not constant. (Fig. 11)

Fragility of the traction The drivetrain is fragile: Any solicitation led to alter its operation and

irreversibly if it is too excessive. More power is required, the greater the heat will be great. If it becomes too large, the system is damaged. For electrical machinery, measuring the current flowing in the windings is paramount. Assuming a traction motor current exceeds a limit of 1500 A, he finds himself in a critical situation where ventilation (natural or forced) no longer provides cooling parts. Result, the engine has a limited lifespan to several minutes or even seconds. The setting of the first values of k where the power developed may become important should be limited in time. For thermal machines, the transmission includes a hydraulic part often providing a speed reduction between inlet and outlet box. If the shift between input and output is excessive warming worse parts. The same excessive speed driving parts leads to their deterioration. Therefore the actual drive usage limits both speed that provides stress. Design quality and robustness of the powertrain largely determines these limits. In terms of tensile strength: - The effectiveness of the ventilation organs traction and conversion - The resistance of materials to the heating due to current flow, fluid, or electromagnetic radiation, - Reactivity steering the pulling force on the wheel / rail contact. (For adhesion problems that we will discuss later). In terms of speed: - The ability of the traction to operate at a high speed without deteriorating mechanical or electromechanical - The stability of the suspension of the body, - The holding of bogies on the track. Inertia of the establishment of the useful mechanical power Between the moment when we increase the parameter step (k) and when it gets the mechanical power output desired is a delay is not negligible.

In the case of electrical machines, this period is relatively short. But for heat engines, this delay can reach half a minute or more depending on the capacity of the engine. This requires driving with anticipation for the desired power at the right time. Some vehicle diesel engine does not have enough power at the moment of departure of the convoy to provide both heating and vehicle travelers to set speed. Therefore, momentarily, the heating line is cut. The traction rid of Pa, has a better performance in traction. And a traction unit shall be sized in relation to the efforts and speed that is required to develop. The performance of the motor Quantifying the performance of the engine is essential to establish a service with a given type of train. (Fig. 12) Systems operations and powers associated Position at time t: The situation of the motor at time t is defined by the tensile force Ft (t) and the speed V (t). Point [Ft (t), V (t)] being, close to the inertia, located on one of the curves associated with the notch gears efforts k. We define the instantaneous power as the useful power to the rim at the instant t: Pu (t) = Ft (t). V (t)
Under overload or uni schedule The motor is said to be overloaded when it reaches a temperature rise could lead to the end of a specified period the deterioration of tensile members. The driver can keep this diet but it should not exceed the time of use to which it corresponds. We define as overload power value Pu (t) attained when an overload. The higher the value, the greater the implementation period is short. The term united schedule is traditionally used to describe a system where the maximum operating temperature of the motor is reached after an hour of use. Steady

Below the overload, the motor can run indefinitely. The heating temperature is

stable and not likely to cause bored. This operation corresponds to the steady state. We define power as the steadymaximum power output developable in an infinite time. This power is measured at a particular point called "the steady state" which presents most often as the intersection of the power curve at steady state and that of the operating curve the last stop. Power at steady state is the one that is read in the technical gear motors. It is also called nominal UIC. It is sometimes accompanied Fc and Vc values corresponding to its definition. Some electric locomotives due to the settings of the traction system, are caused to have two continuous points regimes. Areas of continuous systems on the chart speed efforts are made to change as appropriate. (Steady Steady open fields and fields reduced).

Stress level diagram speed The stress diagram speed characterizes the locomotive itself (fig. 13). Each of

the curves for each operating notches steering available to the driver is plotted. Otherwise, only the envelope limits is shown. The speed limit is valid regardless of the pulling force, it cuts the vertical network. Limitation of Ft is often represented by a straight line delimiting the area of use "steady." Beyond this line, the engine is considered overloaded.

Certain electrical machines, due to the deformation of the zone of adjustable steady (open fields reduces fields) are characterized by a core extension of the diagram by an additional contour points between different definitions. This aspect will be discussed later in the pages dealing specifically with electric traction.

Adhesion of the wheel / rail contact

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Principle of adhesion Adhesion is the ability of two solids in contact to provide a mechanical connection without slipping franc, ie without disconnecting total movements. If rail, a wheel loaded on a rail and is biased by traction or braking, creates a wheel / rail contact whose existence limit is fixed by adhesion. Physical origins This is subject to two assumptions empirical - The area between two solids is not perfectly flat on a microscopic scale, it has geometric deviations in the form of ripples, grooves and cracks. - The two solids, the nature of the materials of inter atomic operate them whose strength is limited. Mechanical stress, deformation of these parts at the contact and the intervention of a foreign body is producing two kinds of situations distinct (Fig. 14): - Location adhesion wherein the surfaces are bonded ways macroscopic and rub them for transmitting a mechanical action. - Situation in which the sliding surfaces are not related and are not able to transmit mechanical action.

Laws COULOMB assuming a point contact Consider two solid S1 and S2 contacted at a single point. Vg is, the sliding speed between the two solids. This one, if it is zero, this implies that S1 and S2 are still them. The mechanical action of the R point contact between the two solid having the following properties (Fig. 15): - Its direction is inclined at an angle relative to the axis common to both normal solid - The normal component N is oriented towards the inside of solid S 1, - The tangential component T is located in the tangent plane coinciding with the contact surfaces and in the same direction as the velocity vector Vg slip, - The angle between the direction of the mechanical action of the normal N depends on the nature of the contact. N is likely to S1 and S2 crush against each other. T has the effect of preventing S1 to slide relative to S2.

2 Coulomb friction laws tell us when: - If S1 and S2 are adhered (Vg = 0) then the direction of the force of contact forms an angle than N with its normal at an angle less

Said friction which depends on the nature of the contact, is equal to the angle of friction .

- If S1 and S2 are then sliding angle Conversely, if If = provided: <

S1 and S2 are then grip.

then one of these two effects apply, but we do not know which

- S1 and S2 are stationary while being limited to slide, - S1 and S2 slide. The friction angle defines a locus said friction cone. (Fig. 16)

Mechanical consequences of these laws Adhesion is a steady state depending on the characteristics of the contact, but also mechanical vector, resulting brought other mechanical forces to be modified. If we increase the tangential force T, the resulting progressively deviate from its normal, but as long as it remains in the cone of friction, contact maintains a stable equilibrium. When the result is found on the surface of the friction cone ( is equal to

the angle of friction ) There bond failure. The balance has shifted in an unstable state that generates the sliding of the two solids. The slip speed has become non-zero, there is movement between the two solids. If the tangential force T is oriented in the direction of the sliding velocity Vg, this tends to increase in modulus due to inertia. If the tangential force T is oriented in the opposite direction to the sliding velocity Vg, the latter tend to decrease in modulus due to inertia. Simple consequence of these laws on the wheel / rail contact

Consider that the wheel / rail contact point is. The laws of Coulomb as we have outlined allows us to establish the following theorem which can be determined experimentally (Fig. 17): P is the load applied to the wheel / rail contact according to its normal. (Axle load) F is the tangential force applied to the contact in the plane and oriented according to the use (in traction or braking) Wheel rail contact is a member if: With , Coefficient of adhesion such that, apex angle of the cone friction. and half

Whenever there is bond failure: If we pull the vector F is found to be the same direction as the velocity

slip. The wheel is independent of the rail in the direction tangential accelerates its rotation on the rail, there is skating. If we are braking, the vector F is found to be opposite to the velocity slip. The wheel is independent of the rail in the tangential direction, decreases its sliding on the rail to be blocked, there isskidding. Case of rail adhesion Extension of the laws of Coulomb surface contact HERTZ The wheel / rail contact is not limited to a point but a surface area whose shape and dimensions are known as approaching ellipse HERTZ (fig. 18). Coulomb laws can be extended to the ellipse by considering the latter as a sum of continuous basic point contacts whose mechanical action is an elemental force dR. The angle of friction is considered elementary dphi the same at all points of the contact area.

If the solid adheres to solid S1 S2 (Vg = 0), we have no information on the basic directions of each of the resulting dR i. Some of them may be included within the friction cone, others are on the surface. That being said, there will always be at least one inside the cone to justify adherence. For the solid S1 switch can slip on the solid S2, all the elemental forces dRi must be understood on their friction cones. Mechanical action can not be limited to a single force vector (Fig. 19). The wheel into surface contact on the rail, has degrees of freedom: Swivelling and crushing along the normal to the plane of contact, rub opportunities laterally and transversely in the plane of contact. The notion of vector must be extended to that of the torque, which gathers together a resultant force F and a moment M resulting mechanical. Fully describes the torsor total mechanical action exerted on the surface (S) of the wheel / rail contact according to three spatial axes. (Pivot, rubbing and

crushing)

In conclusion, the equilibrium stable or unstable adhesion sliding is entirely dictated by: - The evolution of the torque applied to the mechanical wheel / rail contact, modeled as a sum of a set of point contacts infinitesimal - The behavior of adhesion contacts at the microscopic level that decides to slip or grip.

Nickname sliding wheel / rail contact If stopped the convoy, HERTZ surface can be considered complete intersection of the contact surfaces, it is not the same movement as it occurs locally on the wheel and the rail movements of traction and compression of the material. The wheel / rail contact is no longer homogenous and it is two distinct areas of equilibrium in terms of Coulomb law on the intersection of the contact surfaces: - A portion where the wheel / rail contact can still be considered adherent - A portion where the wheel / rail contact is slippery.

As the intensity of the force of traction or braking increases, the adherent portion decreases and is replaced by the sliding portion. Within the slipping zone, the circumferential speed of the wheel tend to be higher or lower with respect to the translational speed of the hub: - If we are in tension. The tangential part of the mechanical action is in the direction of velocity slip, so it is engine: zone patina matter accelerates locally in the area. - If we are braking. The tangential part of the mechanical action is in the opposite direction to the velocity vector of sliding, and is therefore resistant: The area jams, material tend to lock in the local area. Once the adhesive surface has completely left up slip rupture is adhesive. The separation of the contact causes slippage or complete stoppage of the wheel as appropriate. This intermediate state between grip and slip the wheel on the rail is called the pseudo slip. Characteristic of the force transmitted on the basis of the slip speed The force which can be provided on the contact rail wheel is measured as a function of the slip speed, which is created locally. (Fig. 21)

As the adherent surface is present, the wheel is in a position of sliding nickname. It can transmit the force to the rail via the contact. The mechanical equilibrium stabilizes around a sliding velocity proportional to the effort (which may be cut friction losses, tension and compression of the material). From a threshold, associable coarsely than the coefficient of adhesion, there is switching of the steady unstable. The force exerted on the contact is sharply increasing sliding speed. Contact surfaces dissociated considerably reduced the force transmitted, and the wheel is found independently of the rail. Under the action of the force exerted on the wheel, the latter slips (in the case of tensile strength) or tend to block (in the case of braking). Characteristic of the adhesion as a function of the speed of the train As the train speed increases, it is verified experimentally that the friction coefficient decreases. An empirical law has been established:

With V in km / h to V = 0 km / h

parameter approximating the coefficient of adhesion

The maximum value of the traction force or braking transmitted via a contact rail wheel is Newton. P is the load applied to the wheel / rail contact in

Characteristics Effort - speed gear motor must register within the area, and therefore necessarily decreasing and hyperbolic. (Fig.22) a traction ideal "power balance" solves part of the problem, but features even more pronounced strain rate can be obtained with suitable tensile members: - DC motor with series excitation, - Coupler type hydraulic torque converter.

Factors influencing the friction coefficient

Environmental factors

On the ground, the adhesion is subject to various factors such as: - Quality of surface adherent - Climatic conditions, - Presence of organic matter. Realize this particularly complex apprehension of a phenomenon nevertheless essential operating railway. Technological factors Many criteria influence the mechanical adhesion, and are at the origin of the various technological configurations encountered in railway vehicles (we have an opportunity to discuss later): - Keeping the suspension, - Disposition of the traction on the bogies, - Distribution of axle load, - E mpattement (spacing) between axles - Transmission of tractive effort between bogie and body. - Phenomena of rotation or grazing (inequalities between heights of contact points of one wheel to the other, from one bogie to another) The traction motor is a device by its conduct, to some extent mitigate the risk of tipping over-candid-wheel drive - A single-phase high voltage equipment, due to its inductive nature and low ohmic resistance is opposed to the instability of the electro-dynamic behavior of the DC motors. - A diesel-electric adjusting its hyper adhesion, namely the change of voltagecurrent characteristics of the alternator, stabilizes the operating point of the dc motors - A traction active semiconductor is reactive able to maintain stable equilibrium point. Control devices embedded adhesion (anti-slip and anti-skid) in railway vehicles tend to improve adhesion convincingly. The latest technological developments can hold the wheel on a normally unstable equilibrium point in order to ensure the cleaning of rolling contact surfaces. However, the

understanding of the balance point of the wheel / rail contact is estimated indirectly on the measurement of acceleration factor and derivative of the acceleration (jerk). Also when the wheel / rail contact is slippery, it is no longer possible to carry out direct reading of the speed of the wheel. It is still hardly possible so far to concretely measure the localized slip of a wheel, much less implement a model of the wheel / rail contact, which would however direct control. Sanding, and has always been since the beginning of the railway, the last resort to maintain a grip on the wheel rail.