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Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) is a data encryption and decryption computer program that provides cryptographic privacy and authentication for data communication. PGP is often used for signing, encrypting and decrypting texts, e-mails, files, directories and whole disk partitions to increase the security of e-mail communications.

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Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) provides confidentiality, in addition to authentication, integrity, and anti-replay. ESP can be used alone, or in combination with AH. ESP does not normally sign the entire packet unless it is being tunneled ordinarily, just the IP data payload is protected, not the IP header. For example, Alice on Computer A sends data to Bob on Computer B. The data payload is encrypted and signed for integrity. Upon receipt, after the integrity verification process is complete, the data payload in the packet is decrypted. Bob can be certain it was really Alice who sent the data, that the data is unmodified, and that no one else was able to read it. Provides source authentication data integrity privacy

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The ESP procedure the below steps: An ESP trailer is added to the payload The payload and the trailer are encrypted. The ESP header is added. The ESP header, payload, and ESP trailer are used to create the authentication data.

5. The authentication data are added at the end of the ESP trailer. 6. The IP header is added after changing the protocol value to 50.

Transmission media (guided and unguided) GUIDED MEDIA Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Twisted-Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber-Optic Cable Twisted-Pair The wires in Twisted Pair cabling are twisted together in pairs. Each pair would consist of a wire used for the +ve data signal and a wire used for the ve data signal. Any noise that appears on 1 wire of the pair would occur on the other wire. Twisted Pair cables are most effectively used in systems that use a balanced line method of transmission. Coaxial cable - Coaxial Cable consists of 2 conductors. The inner conductor is held inside an insulator with the other conductor woven around it providing a shield. An insulating protective coating called a jacket covers the outer conductor. The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside electrical signals. The distance between the outer conductor (shield) and inner conductor plus the type of material used for insulating the inner conductor determine the cable properties or impedance. Typical impedances for coaxial cables are 75 ohms for Cable TV, 50 ohms for Ethernet Thinnet and Thicknet. The excellent control of the impedance characteristics of the cable allow higher data rates to be transferred than Twisted Pair cable.

Optical Fibre - Optical Fibre consists of thin glass fibres that can carry information at frequencies in the visible light spectrum and beyond. The typical optical fibre consists of a very narrow strand of glass called the Core. Around the Core is a concentric layer of glass called the Cladding

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared Radio Waves - Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and paging systems. They can penetrate through walls. Highly regulated. Use omni directional antennas. Microwaves - Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs. Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls. Use directional antennas - point to point line of sight communications. Infrared - Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area sing line-of-sight propagation. Coaxial Cable - is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also have an insulating outer sheath or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing a geometric axis.

Physical layer corresponds to the basic network hardware Network interface, or link, layer specifies how data is divided into packets

 Internet layer specifies how packets are forwarded to particular machines over the Internet, using the Internet Protocol (IP) transport layer specifies how to communicate with particular processes on machines, using the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram Protocol (UDP) application layer specifies how applications use the Internet, and includes protocols such as the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and the Domain Name System (DNS)

Point-of-presence (POP) On the Internet, a point-of-presence (POP) is an access point from one place to the rest of the Internet. (POP also stands for the e-mail Post Office Protocol; see POP3.) A POP necessarily has a unique Internet Protocol (IP) address. Your Internet service provider (ISP) or online service provider (such as AOL) has a point-of-presence on the Internet and probably more than one. The number of POPs that an ISP or OSP has is sometimes used as a measure of its size or growth rate. Star Topology - A star network features a central connection point called a "hub node" that may be a network hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.)

Tcp/Ip 5 layer model

http://public.csusm.edu/fangfang/Teaching/HTMmaterial/Fall07/Course%20Readi ngs/5layer%20summary.pdf

DOCSIS (Data over Cable Service Interface Specifications)

Now known as CableLabs Certified Cable Modems, DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service Interface Specifications) is a standard interface for cable modems, the devices that handle incoming and outgoing data signals between a cable TV operator and a personal or business computer or television set.

TCP/IP Protocol
Application - To allow access to network resources Transport - To provide end-to-end message delivery and error recovery Network Layer - To move packets from source to destination (to provide internetworking) Data - To organise bits into frames; to provide node-to-node delivery Physical - To transmit bits; to provide mechanical and electrical specifications