Vladimir Balan Ileana-Rodica Nicola

APPLICATIONS of LINEAR ALGEBRA,

ANALYTIC & DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY,
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Solved problems and software programs
= Bucharest 2012 =
Scientic referees:
Prof.univ.dr. Andrei Halanay
Prof.univ.dr. Vasile Iftode
Preface
This book contains more than 160 solved exercises and problems in Linear Algebra,
Analytic and Dierential Geometry, Dierential Equations which are studied in the rst year
of the FILS faculty (Faculty of Engineering in Foreign Languages) at University Politehnica
of Bucharest. The Linear Algebra and Analytic Geometry problems correspond to the
Linear Algebra course, while the problems of Dierential Geometry and Dierential
Equations complement the Calculus lectures.
Besides applications in the four domains stated in the title, the book also contains a set
of Maple 11 software programs - which make use of the computing and plotting specialized
libraries of this software package, and which implement the computations performed while
solving the exercises.
The book is mainly addressed to students, but it can also be used as a guideline for
teachers and instructors that co-ordinate the seminaries or laboratories. We believe that the
exercises within this book will help the students to improve their seminar projects.
In the extensive references of the book, a signicant number of titles are accompanied by
the standard unique library reference numbers, which identify the referred items in the records
of the main Academic libraries from Bucharest, namely, BCU - The Central University
Library, which has a branch in the Faculty of Mathematics of University of Bucharest, and
BUPB - The Library of University Politehnica of Bucharest.
Last but not least, in the index the user will nd notions that optimize the access of the
reader to the basic concepts which are used throughout this book.
22 February 2012 The authors.
C O N T E N T S
1
S A
Cap. I. Review (Linear Algebra and Analytic Geometry)
1. Matrices, determinants and linear systems 5 26
2. The straight line in plane. Conics 5 29
Cap. II. Linear Algebra
1. Vector spaces. Vector subspaces. Linear dependence 6 32
2. Inner product spaces 8 43
3. Orthogonality. The Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process 8 49
4. Linear mappings 9 54
5. Particular linear mappings 10 61
6. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Diagonal form 11 63
7. Jordan canonical form 11 66
8. Diagonalization of symmetric endomorphisms 12 73
9. The Cayley-Hamilton theorem. Functions of matrices 12 75
10. Bilinear forms. Quadratic forms 13 79
11. The canonic expression of a quadratic form 14 84
Cap. III. Analytic Geometry
1. Free vectors 15 94
2. The straight line and the plane in space 15 96
3. Problems related straight line and plane 16 98
4. Curvilinear coordinates 17 103
5. Conics 17 104
6. Quadrics 18 114
7. Generated surfaces 18 120
Cap. IV. Dierential Geometry
1. Dierentiable mappings 19 122
2. Curves in R
n
19 123
3. Planar curves 20 125
4. Space curves 21 134
5. Surfaces 21 136
Cap. V. Dierential Equations
1. Ordinary dierential equations 22 150
2. Higher order dierential equations 23 161
3. Systems of dierential equations 24 167
4. Stability 24 170
5. Field lines (symmetric systems, prime integrals) 25 170
Addenda - Maple

Programs 174
Bibliography 181
Index of notions 183
1
S=Statements, A=Answers.
I. Review
(Linear Algebra and Analytic Geometry)
1. Matrices, determinants and linear systems
1. Let A =
_
1 0
1 2
_
, B =
_
0 1
1 0
_
M
2
(R).
a) Show that AB ,= BA.
b) Show that (AB)
t
= B
t
A
t
.
c) Does A
1
exist ? If so, nd this matrix directly and by the system method.
d) Verify that det AB = det BA = det A det B.
2. For A =
_
_
1 0 2
0 1 1
1 1 0
_
_
, nd det A:
a) with the Sarrus rule and with the triangle rule;
b) developing after a line;
c) developing after a column;
d) by using determinant operations.
3. For the matrix A from the precedent exercise, nd A
1
:
a) by using the rule A
1
=
1
det A
A

;
b) by using system method;
c) by using the Gauss-Jordan (pivot) method.
4. Given the extended matrix

A = (A[b), solve the system AX = b:
a) by using the well known methods from linear algebra;
b) by using the Gauss-Jordan method.
1)

A =
_
_
_
_
1 2 3
3 0 2
2 1 1
2 2 3

1
0
1/2
1
_
_
_
_
; 2)

A =
_
_
_
_
1 1 1
2 1 1
2 1 1
5 1 1

3
5
3
11
_
_
_
_
; 3)

A =
_
_
1 8
2 1
4 7

3
1
4
_
_
.
5. By using the Rouche theorem, nd out if the following system is compatible or incom-
patible. In case of compatibility, solve:
a)
_
_
_
x +z = 1
2x + 2z = 2
x +y +z = 3
, b)
_

_
x +y = 2
x y = 0
2x + 2y = 4
x + 2y = 2.
2. The straight line in plane. Conics
6. Find the straight line which passes through the point A(2, 1) and which makes
with the axis Ox an oriented angle of measure /3.
7. Find the straight line which contains the points A(1, 2) and B(3, 1).
8. Find out if the points A(0, 1), B(1, 1) and C(1, 0) are collinear or not. Find the surface
of the triangle ABC and if A, B, C are traversed in trigonometric order, or not.
9. Find out the distance from the point A(1, 2) to the straight line y = 2x 1.
6 LAAG-DGDE
10. a) Let
1
be the circle with the center C
1
(1, 2) and the radius r
1
= 2. Find the
Cartesian equation, the normal and the parametric equations of the circle.
b) Find the equation of the circle
2
which passes through the points A(0, 3), B(1, 2), C(2, 0),
the reduced equation, the center and the radius.
c) Which is the relative position of the circles
1
and
2
?
11. Given the circle : (x 6)
2
+ (y 3)
2
= 4, nd:
a) the tangent to at its point A(6, 1) ;
b) the tangents to through the point B(1, 2).
12. Given the ellipse E : x
2
+ 4y
2
4 = 0, nd:
a) the semi-axes, the foci, the vertices and the canonical equation of the ellipse;
b) the tangent to E at its point A(1,

3/2) E;
c) the tangents to E through the point B(3, 1).
13. Given the hyperbola H : x
2
2y
2
2 = 0, nd:
a) the semi-axes, the foci, the vertices, the asymptotes and the canonical equation;
b) the tangent to H at its point A(2, 1) H;
c) the tangents to H through the point B(0, 1).
14. Given the parabola P : y
2
= 4x, nd:
a) the focal distance of the parabola;
b) the tangent to P at its point A(9, 6) P;
c) the tangents to P through the point B(2, 3).
II. Linear Algebra
1. Vector spaces. Vector subspaces. Linear dependence
15. Find out if the following operations dene vector spaces structures on the sets below.
If they are not, name the properties which are not satised.
a) V = R
2
, x +y = (x
1
+y
1
, x
2
+[y
2
[), x = (x
1
, 0), x, y R
2
, R.
b) (R
2
, + ,
R
);
c) (R
2
[X] = p R[X] [ deg p 2, + ,
R
);
d) (p C[X] [ deg p = 3, + ,
C
);
e) (C
1
(1, 1), + ,
R
), where C
1
(1, 1) = f : (1, 1) R [ f
t
exists and is continuous;
f ) (M
23
(R), + ,
R
);
g) (f[f : M R, + ,
R
), where M is an arbitrary nonempty set.
16. Find out if the following subsets are vector subspaces in the indicated vector spaces:
a) W = (x
1
, x
2
) R
2
[ x
1
+x
2
+a = 0 R
2
, where a R;
b) W = x[x = v, R R
n
, where v R
n
0;
c) W = R
1
[X] R
3
[X];
d) W = C
1
(1, 1) C
0
(1, 1), where C
0
(1, 1) = f : (1, 1) R [ f is continuous;
e) W = p R
2
[X] [ p(1) +p(1) = 0 R[X];
f ) W =
__
a 0
1 b
_

a, b R
_
M
22
(R);
g) W = x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) R
4
[ x
1
+x
2
= a, x
1
x
3
= b 1 R
4
, where a, b R.
17. Let be given V = f [ f : (1, 1) R and subsets
W
1
= f V [f even V, W
2
= f V [f odd V .
Statements 7
a) Find out if W
1,2
V are vector subspaces in V .
b) Show that W
1
W
2
= 0, W
1
+W
2
= V , i.e. W
1,2
are supplementary subspaces in V .
c) Decompose the exponential function after W
1
and W
2
.
18. Prove the following equalities of sets:
a) L(1 +t, t, 1 t
2
) = L(1, t, t
2
) = P
2
;
b) L(1, x,
x
2
2!
, . . . ,
x
n
n!
) = L(1 a, x a, x
2
a, . . . , x
n
a) = P
n
, where a R1.
19. Find out if the following vectors are linearly independent. If they are not, point out
a relation of linear dependence.
a) e
1
= (1, 0), e
2
= (0, 1) R
2
;
b) v
1
= (1, 2, 0), v
2
= (1, 1, 1), v
3
= (1, 0, 2) R
3
;
c) f
1
= cosh, f
2
= sinh, f
3
=exp C

(R);
d) m
1
=
_
1 0
1 2
_
; m
2
=
_
1 1
0 0
_
; m
3
=
_
0 0
0 0
_
M
2
(R);
e) p
1
= 1 +X, p
2
= 1 X +X
2
, p
3
= 3 +X +X
2
R
2
[X];
f ) cos
k
(t)[k N C

(R).
20. Find out if the following subsets are bases in the vector spaces indicated below:
a) e
1
= (1, 0), e
2
= (0, 1) R
2
;
b) m
11
, m
12
, m
21
, m
22
M
22
(R), where
(m
ij
)
kl
=
_
1, (i, j) = (k, l)
0, (i, j) ,= (k, l)
, (i, j), (k, l) 1, 2 1, 2;
c) 1, X, X
2
, X
3
R
3
[X].
21. Let B
0
= e
1
= (1, 0, 0), e
2
= (0, 1, 0), e
3
= (0, 0, 1) be the natural basis of the space
R
3
and the families of vectors:
B
t
= f
1
= (1, 1, 1), f
2
= (0, 1, 1), f
3
= (1, 1, 0);
B
tt
= g
1
= (0, 0, 1), g
2
= (0, 1, 1), g
3
= (1, 2, 3) R
3
.
a) Show that B
t
and B
tt
are bases in R
3
;
b) Find the change of basis matrices C
B
0
B
, C
B

B
0
, C
B

B
;
c) Find the components [v]
B
of the vector v R
3
relative to the basis B
tt
R
3
, knowing
that [v]
B
= (1, 1, 5).
22. a) Show that the family of Bernstein polynomials T = p
0
, p
1
, . . . , p
n
forms a basis
in R
n
[x], where p
k
= C
k
n
x
k
(1 x)
nk
, k = 0, n.
b) Find the components of the polynomial q = 1 relative to this basis.
23. a) Verify that the family of vectors
B = f
1
= (1, 1, 1), f
2
= (1, 1, 1), f
3
= (1, 1, 1) R
3
determines a basis of the vector space R
3
.
b) Compute the dual basis B
t
= g
1
, g
2
, g
3
L(R
3
, R) = (R
3
)

R
3
of the basis B of R
3
.
Verify the relations g
i
, f
j
) =
ij
=
_
1, i = j 1, 3
0, i ,= j 1, 3.
8 LAAG-DGDE
24. Let be given the subspaces
U = L(u
1
= (1, 1, 1), u
2
= (0, 0, 0), u
3
= (0, 1, 1), u
4
= (1, 2, 2)),
V = (x, y, z)[x +y 2z = 0 R
3
.
a) Find a basis in the subspaces U, V, U V, U +V .
b) Do U and V form a direct sum ? Are U and V supplementary subspaces ?
c) Verify the Grassmann theorem: dimU + dimV = dim(U +V ) + dim(U V ).
25. a) Show that F = p
1
= 1 +X, p
2
= X +X
2
, p
3
= 1 is a basis in P
2
.
b) Find the coordinates of the vector p = 1 +2X +3X
2
P
2
relative to the basis F of P
2
.
2. Inner product spaces
26. Are the following operations inner products ?
a) x, y) = x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
, x = (x
1
, x
2
), y = (y
1
, y
2
) R
2
.
b) A, B) = Tr(A

B
t
), A, B /
22
(C).
c) x, y) = x
1
y
2
, x = (x
1
, x
2
), y = (y
1
, y
2
) C
2
.
27. Show that the following operations dene inner products (also called canonic inner
products) on the mentioned vector spaces:
a) V = R
n
, x, y) = x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
+ +x
n
y
n
,
x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
), y = (y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
) R
n
, for n = 3.
b) V = P
n
= p R[X][ deg p n, n 1, p, q) = p
0
q
0
+p
1
q
1
+ +p
n
q
n
,
p = p
0
+p
1
X + +p
n
X
n
, q = q
0
+q
1
X + +q
n
X
n
P
n
, for n = 2.
c) V = P
n
, p, q) =
_
1
1
p(x)q(x)dx, p, q P
n
.
d) V = (
0
[a, b], f, g) =
_
b
a
f(x)g(x)dx, f, g (
0
[a, b].
e) V = /
nn
(R), A, B) = Tr(A
t
B), A, B /
nn
(R),
where Tr((c
ij
)
i,j=1,n
) = c
11
+c
22
+ +c
nn
, for n = 2.
f ) V = C
n
, x, y) = x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
+ +x
n
y
n
,
x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
n
), y = (y
1
, y
2
, . . . y
n
) C
n
, for n = 2.
28. Using the related canonic inner products of the exercise from above, compute u, v),
[[u[[, [[v[[, d(u, v), pr
v
u, pr
u
v and excepting case f), compute the angle of the two vectors
indicated below; determine if the vectors are orthogonal.
a) u = (1, 2), v = (2, 1) R
2
;
b) u = (1, 1, 1), v = (1, 2, 0) R
3
;
c) u = 1 +X, v = X
2
P
2
, with the inner products
from items b) and c) from the above problem;
d) u = exp, v = cosh (
0
[0, 1];
e) u =
_
1 0
2 1
_
, v =
_
0 1
1 0
_
/
22
(R);
f ) u = (i, i), v = (1 i, 1 +i) C
2
.
3. Orthogonality. The Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process
29. Let be given the family of vectors S = v
1
= (1, 0, 2), v
2
= (2, 1, 1) R
3
.
a) Find out if the family S is orthogonal;
b) Complete S up to an orthogonal basis of the space R
3
.
Statements 9
30. Let be given the subspace W = L(v
1
= (1, 0, 1, 1), v
2
= (1, 1, 1, 0)) R
4
.
a) Determine W

;
b) Show that W W

= R
4
;
c) For v = (1, 1, 1, 1), nd v
0
= pr
W
v W and v

= v v
0
W

; check the Pythagorean

theorem [[v[[
2
= [[v
0
[[
2
+[[v

[[
2
;
d) Find an orthogonal basis B
0
of the subspace W;
e) Norm the basis B
0
, obtaining thus an orthonormal basis B = f
1
, f
2
of the subspace W;
f ) Find the Fourier coecients
i
= v, f
i
), i = 1, 2 of v relative to B and check the Bessel
inequality [[v[[
2

2
i=1

2
i
;
g) For v
0
verify the Parseval equality [[v
0
[[
2
=

2
i=1

2
i
;
h) Show that the function g(w) = d(v, w), w W has its minimum in v
0
, and that the
minimal value is d(v, W) min
wW
d(v, w) = [[v

[[.
31. Orthonorm the families of vectors:
a) F = v
1
= (1, 1, 1), v
2
= (1, 1, 0), v
3
= (1, 0, 0) R
3
;
b) F = cosh, id C
0
[0, 1];
c) F = p
1
= 1 +X, p
2
= X +X
2
, p
3
= X C
0
[1, 1].
d) w
1
= (i, 0, 1), w
2
= (1, i, 0), w
3
= (0, i, 0) C
3
.
32. Find the orthogonal projection pr
W
v of the vector v on the subspace W, and also its
orthogonal component v

relative to this subspace:

a) v = 1 +x R
2
[x], W = L(p
1
= 1 +x
2
, p
2
= 1); p, q) =
_
1
1
p(t)q(t)dt
b) v = (1, 2, 1); W = L(v
1
= (2, 1, 0), v
2
= (1, 4, 1)) R
3
;
c) v =
_
1 2
4 1
_
, W = L
_
C =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, D =
_
0 1
2 0
__
/
22
(R);
d) v = (2, 1, 1), W = (x, y, z) [ x +y 2z = 0 R
3
.
4. Linear mappings
33. For the applications indicated below, check that T is a linear transformation. Find
its kernel and image, rank and nullity. Find the matrix of T relative to the canonic bases of
the domain and range, respectively. Determine if T is injective/surjective /bijective.
a) T(x) = (x
1
x
3
, x
2
, 2x
1
2x
3
), x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) R
3
, T : R
3
R
3
;
b) (T(p))(x) = x
_
1
0
p(t)dt +p(1) p
t
(0), p P
2
, T : P
2
P
2
;
c) T(A) = A
t
2Tr(A)I
2
, A /
22
(R), T : /
22
(R) /
22
(R).
34. Let be given the application T : R
1
[X] R
1
[X],
(T(p))(x) = x
_
1
0
p(t)dt +p(1/2), p R
1
[X].
a) Show that T is a linear mapping.
b) Find the kernel and the image of the transformation T.
c) Is this transformation injective/surjective ?
d) Check the dimension theorem for T.
e) Using the rank of T, determine if T is injective/surjective.
10 LAAG-DGDE
f ) Find the matrix of the transformation relative to the basis q
1
= 1 2X, q
2
= 1 +X.
g) Are Ker T and Im T supplementary subspaces in R
1
[X] ?
35. Let be given the linear mapping T L(R
3
, R
2
), which satises the conditions
T(v
1
v
3
) = w
1
, T(v
2
+ 2v
3
) = w
2
, T(v
1
) = w
1
w
2
,
where v
1
= (1, 1, 1), v
2
= (0, 1, 1), v
3
= (0, 1, 0) = B and w
1
= (0, 1), w
2
= (1, 1).
a) Verify that B is a basis in R
3
.
b) Find the matrix of the transformation T.
c) Find the analytic expression of the transformation T.
d) Is this transformation injective/surjective ?
36. Let be given the application T : C
1
(0, 1) C
0
(0, 1),
(T(f))(x) = f
t
(x), x (0, 1), f C
1
(0, 1).
a) Show that T is a linear mapping.
b) Find the kernel and the image of the transformation T.
c) Solve the equation (T(f))(x) = 1 x
2
.
d) Is the dimension theorem applicable ?
37. Let be given the linear mapping (morphism of vector spaces) T L(R
1
[X], R
2
[X]),
(T(p))(x) = xp(x) p(0), p R
1
[X].
a) Find out an orthonormal basis in Im T, by using the inner product of C
0
[1, 1].
b) Compute T(1 2X).
5. Particular linear mappings
38. Let be given the transformation T End(R
3
),
T(x) = (x
1
+x
2
+x
3
, x
2
+x
3
, x
3
), x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) R
3
.
a) Show that T is bijective and compute its inverse T
1
;
b) Compute T(v), T
1
(v) and (T
3
2T +Id)(v), where v = (1, 1, 1).
39. If A is the matrix attached to a linear mapping T relative to an orthonormal basis,
show that T has the indicated feature.
a) A =
_
1 i
i 0
_
, T End(C
2
) - Hermitian;
b) A =
_
a z
z b
_
, a, b R, z C, T End(C
2
) - Hermitian;
c) A =
_
ia z
z ib
_
, a, b R, z C, T End(C
2
) - skew-Hermitian;
d) A =
_
u v
v u
_
, u, v C, [u[
2
+[v[
2
= 1, T End(C
2
) - unitary;
e) A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, T End(R
2
) (the symmetry toward the bisector I) - symmetric;
f ) A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, T End(R
2
) (rotation of right angle in counterclockwise direction)
- skew-symmetric, complex and orthogonal structure;
Statements 11
g) A =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, T End(R
2
) (plane rotation around the origin in counterclock-
wise sense of angle ) - orthogonal;
h) A =
_
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
_
, T End(R
2
) - projection on the subspace L(v = (1, 1));
i) A =
_
_
0 1 1
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
, T End(R
3
) - nilpotent operator of order three.
40. Show that the linear mapping
a) T(A) = A
t
, A M
22
(R), T End(M
22
(R)) is symmetric;
b) T End(V ), T(f) = f
t
, f V = f C

(R) [ f
(k)
(a) = f
(k)
(b), k 0 is
skew-symmetric relative to the inner product of C
0
([a, b]), where a, b R, a < b.
41. Let V be an Euclidian space. Consider the translation T
v
associated to a vector
v V , T
v
: V V, T
v
(x) = x +v, x V .
a) Show that T
v
is linear mapping only in the case v = 0; in this case, check that T
v
= Id.
b) For v ,= 0 show that T
v
does not preserve either the inner product or the norm.
c) Check that T
v
is surjective and preserves the distance (hence it is an isometry).
6. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Diagonal form
42. Let a linear mapping T End(R
3
) have its matrix relative to the canonic basis given
by
A =
_
_
2 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
.
a) Compute the characteristic polynomial P of the endomorphism T.
b) Solve the characteristic equation P() = 0 and nd the spectrum (T). Denoting (T
C
)
the set of the (complex) roots of the characteristic polynomial, check if (T
C
) K = R.
c) For each distinct eigenvalue of T, nd the eigenspace S

, the algebraic (
a
()) and
geometric (
g
()) multiplicities and check if
a
() =
g
().
d) If the endomorphism T is diagonalizable, then:
nd a diagonalizing basis B
t
R
3
consisting of eigenvectors of T;
nd the matrix C = [B
t
]
B
0
of passing from the canonic basis to the diagonalizing
basis;
nd the diagonal matrix D = A
t
= C
1
AC = [T]
B
associated to the endomorphism
T relative to the basis B
t
;
check the relation CD = AC.
43. The same problem for the matrices
a) A =
_
_
3 0 0
0 2 1
0 0 2
_
_
; b) A =
_
_
7 4 1
4 7 1
4 4 4
_
_
.
7. Jordan canonical form
44. Let be given the transformation T End(R
3
) whose matrix relative to the canonic
basis is A =
_
_
3 3 3
1 11 6
2 14 7
_
_
.
12 LAAG-DGDE
a) Compute the characteristic polynomial P of the endomorphism T, solve the character-
istic equation P() = 0 and nd the spectrum (T). Denoting with (T
C
) the set
of the complex roots of the characteristic polynomial, check if (T
C
) K = R. As
consequence, deduce that T is Jordanizable.
b) For each distinct eigenvalue of T, accomplish the following:
nd the algebraic multiplicity
a
();
nd the eigenspace S

and the geometric multiplicity

g
();
if
a
() =
g
() nd a basis in S

;
if
a
() >
g
() nd m =
a
()
g
() principal vectors associated to the eigen-
vectors and the invariant subspaces of the eigenvalue.
c) Taking the union of the families of vectors nd above, nd a Jordan basis B
t
R
3
formed
by eigenvectors and principal vectors of T;
d) nd the passing matrix C = [B
t
]
B
0
from the canonic basis to the Jordan basis;
e) nd the Jordan matrix J = A
t
= C
1
AC = [T]
B
associated to the endomorphism T
relative to the basis B
t
;
f) check the relation CJ = AC.
45. The same problem for the matrices:
a) A =
_
_
2 1 2
5 3 3
1 0 2
_
_
, b) A =
_
_
4 7 5
2 3 3
1 2 1
_
_
, c) A =
_
_
0 1 0
4 4 0
0 0 2
_
_
d) A =
_
_
_
_
2 1 0 0
4 2 0 0
7 1 1 1
17 6 1 1
_
_
_
_
, e) A =
_
_
1 0 0
3 1 1
3 1 3
_
_
.
46. Jordanize the endomorphism T whose matrix is A, by using the sequence of kernels
method, for the matrices from the above problem.
8. Diagonalization of symmetric endomorphisms
47. Find a diagonalizing orthonormal basis for the symmetric transformation, whose
matrix is:
a) A =
_
_
3 2 0
2 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
, b) A =
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
_
_
.
9. The Cayley-Hamilton theorem. Functions of matrices
48. Let be given the matrices
1) A =
_
_
1 2 0
0 2 0
2 2 1
_
_
; 2) A =
_
_
1 2 0
0 2 0
2 2 1
_
_
.
In each of these cases, nd:
a) the inverse A
1
, by using the Cayley-Hamilton theorem;
b) the polynomial Q(A), by using the Cayley-Hamilton theorem, where Q(t) = t
5
+2t
4
t
2
+5.
c) the matrix e
A
.
49. Find the function of matrix cotan(A) for the matrices from the previous problem.
Statements 13
50. Apply the Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix A =
_
1 2
2 1
_
, in order to:
a) nd A
1
;
b) compute Q(A), where Q(t) = t
4
2t
3
+ 3t 4.
51. Compute e
A
and sinA, for A =
_
0 2
2 0
_
.
10. Bilinear forms. Quadratic forms
52. Let be given the application / : V V R, V = (
0
[0, 1],
/(f, g) =
_
1
0
f(t)dt
_
1
0
g(s)ds, f, g V.
a) Show that / is a bilinear form.
b) Show that / is a symmetric bilinear form.
c) Find out the quadratic form Q associated to /.
d) Does Q admit isotropic vectors ? If so, nd an example.
53. Consider the mapping
/ : R
2
R
2
R, /(x, y) = x
1
y
1
2x
1
y
2
2x
2
y
1
+ 3x
2
y
2
, x = (x
1
, x
2
), y = (y
1
, y
2
) R
2
.
a) Show that / is a symmetric bilinear form.
b) Find out the quadratic form Q associated to /.
c) Find the matrix A associated to / and to its quadratic form Q, relative to the natural
basis B = e
1
= (1, 0), e
2
= (0, 1) R
2
.
d) Find the matrix A associated to / and to Q relative to the basis B
t
= e
1
t
= (1, 1), e
2
t
=
(1, 1) R
2
.
54. Let be given the quadratic form Q : R
2
R, Q(x) = x
2
1
4x
1
x
2
+3x
2
2
, x = (x
1
, x
2
)
R
2
. Find the symmetric bilinear form (the polar form) / associated to Q.
55. Verify if the following applications / : R
2
R
2
R are bilinear forms:
a) /(x, y) = x
1
y
2
x
2
2
, x = (x
1
, x
2
), y = (y
1
, y
2
) R
2
;
b) /(x, y) = x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
, x = (x
1
, x
2
), y = (y
1
, y
2
) R
2
.
56. Let be given the bilinear form / : R
2
R
2
R,
/(x, y) = x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
, x = (x
1
, x
2
), y = (y
1
, y
2
) R
2
.
a) Is / a symmetric bilinear form ?
b) Is / a skew-symmetric bilinear form ?
c) Find the matrix A of / relative to the canonic basis. Using the this matrix determine if
/ is a symmetric bilinear form or a skew-symmetric bilinear form.
d) Find the matrix A of / relative to the basis B
t
= u
1
= (1, 2), u
2
= (3, 1).
57. Let be given the bilinear form / : R
3
R
3
R,
/(x, y) = 2x
1
y
1
3x
1
y
3
3x
3
y
1
+ 4x
2
y
2
, x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), y = (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
) R
3
.
14 LAAG-DGDE
a) Show that / is a symmetric bilinear form.
b) Find the matrix of / relative to the canonic basis; check the result by using the relation
/(x, y) = X
t
AY , where X and Y are the column vectors associated to x and y, respectively.
c) Find Ker /, rank / and check the dimension theorem: dim Ker /+ rank / = dimR
3
.
d) Find the quadratic form Q associated to /.
e) Is Q (and hence, the bilinear symmetric form /) degenerate or non-degenerate ? Does Q
admit non-zero isotropic vectors ?
58. Let be given the application / : V V R, /(p, q) =
_
1
0
p(t)dt
_
1
0
q(s)ds, p, q
V = R
2
[X] and B
t
= q
1
= 1 + X, q
2
= X
2
, q
3
= 1 V a basis of V . Answer to the
questions a)-e) of the preceding problem.
59. Let be given the quadratic form Q : R
3
R,
Q(x) = x
2
1
x
1
x
2
+ 2x
2
x
3
, x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) R
3
.
a) Find the symmetric bilinear form / associated to Q (the polar form).
b) Find the matrix of Q (of /) relative to the canonic basis.
60. Let be given the symmetric bilinear form / : R
3
R
3
R,
/(x, y) = 2x
1
y
1
3x
1
y
3
3x
3
y
1
+ 4x
2
y
2
, x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), y = (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
) R
3
.
a) Find U

, where U = L(v
1
= (1, 1, 0), v
2
= (0, 1, 1)).
b) Does the equality U U

= R
3
hold true?
c) Is / (and hence Q) non-degenerate?
11. The canonical expression of a quadratic form
61. Let be given the quadratic form Q of matrix A =
_
_
0 1 2
1 0 3
2 3 0
_
_
. Using the Gauss
method, nd the canonical expression of Q and the corresponding basis B
t
.
62. Let be given the quadratic form Q : R
2
R, Q(x) = x
2
1
4x
1
x
2
+x
2
2
, x = (x
1
, x
2
)
R
2
. Using the Jacobi method nd the canonical expression of Q and the corresponding basis
B
t
.
63. For the quadratic form the problem above, by using the method of eigenvalues, nd
the canonical expression of Q and the corresponding basis B
t
. Show that the signature of
the quadratic form Q is conserved.
64. Apply three methods (Gauss, eigenvalues and Jacobi) where is possible, in order to
get the canonical expression and the signature for the following quadratic form Q given by
its matrix A = [Q] (relative to the canonical basis) or through its analytical expression:
a) Q(v) = x
2
8xy 16xz + 7y
2
8yz +z
2
, v = (x, y, z) R
3
;
b) Q(x) = 4x
1
x
2
5x
2
2
, x = (x
1
, x
2
) R
2
;
c) A =
_
_
3 2 4
2 6 2
4 2 3
_
_
; d) A =
_
_
1 1 1
1 2 0
1 0 3
_
_
;
e) Q(x) = x
2
1
+ 6x
1
x
3
+x
2
2
+ 4x
2
x
3
5x
2
3
, x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) R
3
;
Statements 15
f ) A =
_
_
_
_
0 1 3 0
1 0 0 3
3 0 0 1
0 3 1 0
_
_
_
_
; g) A =
_
_
5 2 2
2 6 0
2 0 4
_
_
.
Are these quadratic forms positive/negative denite/semidenite ? Are they degenerate/non-
degenerate ?
III. Analytic Geometry
1. Free vectors
65. Let be given the free vectors a =

i + 2

j +

k,

b =

i +

j + 2

k V
3
, where R.
a) Find the cross product a

b.
b) Is S = a,

b a linearly independent family of vectors ? Are the two vectors non-collinear

? If they are, complete S up to a basis of the space V
3
.
c) For = 2 nd the areas of the triangle and of the parallelogram, which are determined by
a and

b as adjacent edges.
66. Let be given the vectors a =

i +

j +

k,

b =

k +

j, c =

k +

j V
3
, where R.
a) Compute the joint (mixed) product a,

b c).
b) Are the three vectors linearly independent ? Are they non-coplanar ? If they are linearly
independent, do they determine a positive oriented basis in V
3
?
c) For = 0 nd the volumes of the tetrahedron, of the triangular prism and of the paral-
lelepiped which are determined by a,

b and c as adjacent edges.

67. Compute the volume of the tetrahedron determined by the points A(0, 0, 0), B(1, 0, 0),
C(0, 1, 0), D(0, 0, 1).
68. Let be given the vectors a =

j +

k,

b =

i + 2

j + 3

k, c =

k +

j.
a) Find double cross product w = a (

b c).
b) Recalculate w by using the abbreviated formula w = a, c)

b a,

b) c =

b c
a,

b) a, c)

.
c) Show that w is perpendicular on a and coplanar with

b and c.
2. The straight line and the plane in space
69. Find the straight line in each of the following cases:
a) A(1, 2, 3), B(4, 2, 1);
b) C(2, 6, 1) and admits the director vector v = 2

i.
70. Find the parametric equations, two distinct points and a direction vector of the
straight line :
_
2x +y 5z = 12
4x + 7y 33z = 1.
71. Find the plane in each of these cases:
a) {A(1, 2, 1), B(2, 5, 1), C(3, 3, 1)}. Previously verify that A, B, C are not collinear.
b) D(1, 5, 0) and has the normal direction given by n = 3

j + 2

k;
c) E(2, 1, 2) and is parallel with the directions u = 2

i, v = 3

i;
d) Determine the equation of the plane , which is located at the distance d = 2 from the
origin - measured along the direction and sense of the normal vector n
0
=

i + 2

j 2

k.
16 LAAG-DGDE
72. Find the parametric equations, three non-collinear points and a normal vector of the
plane x + 2y 3z = 4.
73. Find the plane in each of the following cases:
a) It determines on the three axes Ox, Oy, Oz segments measuring 1, 3, 2;
b) : x = 1 y =
z1
0
, F(1, 2, 3);
c) [[

: x 3z + 1 = 0, G(2, 0, 1).
3. Problems related to straight line and plane
74. Let be given the planes
1
: x 3y = 1,
2
: 2y +z = 2 and the straight lines

1
:
_
x y = 2
x +z = 3
,
2
:
2x1
3
=
y+1
0
= 1 z.
a) Are the straight lines
1
and
2
parallel ? Are they intersecting ? But perpendicular ?
b) Are the planes
1
and
2
parallel ? Are they intersecting ? But perpendicular ?
75. Let be given the planes
1
: x3y = 1,
2
: 2y +z = 2, : y z = 1 and the straight
lines

1
:
_
x y = 2
x +z = 3
,
2
:
2x1
3
=
y+1
0
= 1 z, :
x1
1
=
y
2
=
z+1
5
.
Find the angles:
a) of the straight lines
1
and
2
;
b) of the straight line and the plane ;
c) of the planes
1
and
2
.
76. Let be given the points A(1, 2, 3), B(1, 0, 1), the plane : y z = 1 and the straight
line :
x1
1
=
y
2
=
z+1
5
. Find the distances:
a) between the points A and B;
b) between the point A and the straight line ;
c) between the point A and the plane .
77. Let be given: the point A(1, 2, 3), the plane : y z = 1 and the straight line
:
x1
1
=
y
2
=
z+1
5
. Find the projections:
a) the projection of the point A onto the plane ;
b) the projection of the point A onto the straight line ;
c) the projection of the straight line onto the plane (homework).
78. Let be given the points A(1, 2, 3), B(1, 0, 1), the plane : yz = 1, and the straight
line :
x1
1
=
y
2
=
z+1
5
. Find the following:
a) the symmetric of the point A with respect to the point B;
b) the symmetric of the point A with respect to the straight line ;
c) the symmetric of the point A with respect to the plane ;
d) the symmetric of the straight line with respect to the plane .
79. Find the common perpendicular of the straight lines

1
:
_
x y = 2
x +z = 3
and
2
:
2x 1
3
=
y + 1
0
= 1 z.
Statements 17
80. Show that the straight lines
1
:
_
x y = 2
x +z = 3
and
2
:
2x1
3
=
y+1
0
= 1 z have
dierent directions, and nd the distance between them.
81. Show that the straight lines
1
:
_
x y = 2
x +z = 3
and
2
:
2x1
2
= 1 y = z 1 have
the same direction, and nd the distance between them.
4. Curvilinear coordinates
82. a) Find the polar coordinates (, ) for the point A whose Cartesian coordinates are
(x, y) = (1, 2);
b) Find the Cartesian coordinates (x, y) for the point B whose polar coordinates are (, ) =
(2,
3
4
).
83. a) Find the cylindrical coordinates (, , z) for the point C whose Cartesian coordi-
nates are (x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3);
b) Find the Cartesian coordinates for the point D whose cylindrical coordinates are (, , z) =
(1,
4
3
, 2).
84. a) Find the spherical coordinates for the point E whose Cartesian coordinates are
(x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3);
b) Find the Cartesian coordinates for the point F whose spherical coordinates are (r, , ) =
(1,
2
3
,
5
3
).
5. Conics
85. Find the conic whose graph passes through the points A(1, 1), B(1, 1), C(1, 1), D(1, 1),
E(
1
2
, 0), its type and nature.
86. Find the conics whose graph passes through the points A(0, 1), B(1, 0), C(0, 1), D(1, 0).
87. Find the conics whose graph passes through the points A(1, 0), B(0, 0), C(0, 1).
88. Let be given the conic : 4xy 3y
2
+ 4x 14y 7 = 0.
a) Show that is a hyperbola.
b) Find the center of the hyperbola .
c) Find its axes, the asymptotes and its vertices.
d) Plot the hyperbola.
89. Let be given the conic : 9x
2
+ 6xy +y
2
4x 8y 4 = 0.
a) Show that is a parabola.
b) Find the symmetry axis and the vertex of the conic.
c) Using the intersections with axes Ox and Oy, plot the conic.
90. Let be given the conic : 16x
2
+ 4xy + 19y
2
+ 80x + 10y + 40 = 0.
a) Show that is an ellipse.
b) Find the center of the ellipse .
18 LAAG-DGDE
c) Find the axes and the vertices of the ellipse.
d) Plot the conic.
91. Let be given the conic : x
2
2xy + 3y
2
4x + 6y 4 = 0. Find:
a) the polar relative to A(1, 2) and the tangents from A to the conic.
b) the conjugate diameter with v =

i 2

j and the tangents of direction v to the conic.

c) the tangent taken from the point B(1, 1) to the conic.
92. Let be given the conic : 4xy 3y
2
+ 4x 14y 7 = 0. Using the roto-translation
method and the method of eigenvalues, nd the canonic equation and plot.
93. Let be given the parabola : 9x
2
+ 6xy + y
2
4x 8y 4 = 0. Using the roto-
translation method and the method of eigenvalues, nd the canonical equation and plot.
94. Using the roto-translation method and the method of eigenvalues, nd the canonical
equation and plot the conic 16x
2
+ 4xy + 19y
2
+ 80x + 10y + 40 = 0.
6. Quadrics
95. Consider the sphere : x
2
+y
2
+z
2
+ 2x 6y + 4z + 10 = 0.
a) Find the center C and the radius r of the sphere.
b) Show that intersects the plane : 4x +y + 3z + 13 = 0 after a circle.
c) Find the center C and the radius r of the intersection circle of the sphere with plane .
96. Let be given the quadrics:

1
: x
2
y
2
+z
2
2xy 2yz 2zx 5x 1 = 0;

2
: 2

3xy + 2y
2
7z
2
+ 112x 16y 14z 87 = 0;

3
: x
2
+y
2
+ 5z
2
6xy + 2xz 2yz 4x + 8y 12z + 14 = 0.
For each of the three quadrics:
a) compute the invariants , , J, I;
b) nd the symmetry center C
s
of the quadric;
c) nd the canonical equation of the quadric by using roto-translation method: get the
rotation matrix by using the method of eigenvalues;
d) plot the quadric.
97. Find the tangent plane to the quadric
x
2
9
+ y
2
= 2z, which passes through the its
point A(3, 1, 1).
98. Find the angle formed by the rulers contained in the quadric
x
2
9

z
2
4
= y, which pass
through its point M(3, 1, 0); determine the tangent plane to the quadric and the normal line
to the quadric at its point M.
7. Generated surfaces
99. Find the cylindrical surface which has the director curve :
_
x = y
2
z = 0
and whose
generators are parallel with the straight line
t
:
x1
1
= y =
1z
1
.
Statements 19
100. Find the conical surface with the vertex V (1, 0, 0) and the director curve :
_
x
2
+y
2
= 1
x z = 0.
101. Find the rotation surface generated through the rotation of the straight line

around the axis Oy:

a)

:
x1
0
=
y+2
2
=
z3
0
;
b)

:
x
3
=
y+2
1
=
z
1
;
c)

:
x
3
=
y+2
1
=
z3
1
.
IV. Dierential Geometry
1. Dierentiable mappings
102. Let be given the function f : R R
2
, f(s) = (s
2
, s
3
). Study if f is:
a) injective/surjective/bijective; in the last case, determine its inverse;
b) immersion/submersion/dieomorphism; compute rst the Jacobian matrix of the func-
tion.
103. The same assertion for f : R R
3
, f(t) = (2 cos
2
t, sin2t, 2 sint), t (0,

2
).
104. The same assertion for f : R
2
R
2
, f(u, v) = (u + v, uv), (u, v) R
2
. Compute
f
1
((0, 1)) and Im (f).
105. Show that the following application is a dieomorphism and compute its inverse:
f : (0, ) [0, 2) R
2
(0, 0), f(, ) = ( cos , sin).
2. Curves in R
n
106. Find the normal hyperplane and the tangent straight line to the curve
: R R
4
, (t) = (t
4
, 1, t
5
, t
6
+ 2) at the point A(1, 1, 1, 3).
107. The same problem for the curve in problem 1 and at the point B(0, 1, 0, 2). Is
a regular curve ? Find the singularities of the curve, and the order of singularity.
108. Find the angle formed between the curves
(t) = (t
2
+ 1, lnt, t), t > 0, (s) = (2 +s, s, s + 1), s R
at their common point.
109. Study the asymptotic behavior of the curve (t) =
_
t 1,
t
2
t1
_
, : R1 R
2
.
110. Let be given the cycloid (t) = (a(t sint), a(1 cos t)), t R, (a > 0).
a) Find the arc-length of the curve = ([0, 2]).
b) Find the normal parameter of the curve and its normal parametrization for t (0, 2).
20 LAAG-DGDE
3. Planar curves
111. Let be given the curve (t) = (t
2
, 3t), t R. Find the tangent, the normal, the
subtangent and the subnormal of the curve at its point A(1, 3).
112. Let be given the curve : x
2
y
3
3 = 0.
a) Find the tangent and the normal to the curve at its the point A(2, 1).
b) Parameterize the curve .
113. Let be given the parabola (t) = (t, t
2
), t R. Find:
a) the Frenet elements of the curve (the Frenet unit vectors and the curvature of the curve)
and check the Frenet equation;
b) the Frenet elements of the curve at the point A(2, 4);
c) the equation of the osculating circle at the point A of the curve;
d) the evolute of the curve;
e) the Cartesian equation of the curve.
114. Compute the curvature of the parabola : y = x
2
at the point A(2, 4), using the
curvature formulas for:
a) parametric equations;
b) explicit cartesian equations;
c) implicit cartesian equations.
115. Find the envelope of the family of curves, in each of the following cases:
a)
a
: (x a)
2
+y
2

a
2
2
= 0, a R;
b)

: x cos +y sin = 2, [0, 2];

c)

: x
2
+y
2
2x +
2
4 = 0, R.
116. Let be given the curve : x
3
2y
2
= 0.
a) nd the tangent and the normal to the curve at the point A(2, 1) ;
b) nd the singular points, their type and the tangent and the normal at these points. Is
a regular curve ?
117. Plot the graph of the curve (t) = (2 t +
1
t
, 2 +t +
1
t
), t R

.
118. Let be given the following curves:
a)
1
: y
2
(a x) x
3
= 0 (cissoid of Diocles);
b)
2
: x
3
+y
3
3axy = 0 (folium of Descartes);
c)
3
: x(x
2
+y
2
) +a(y
2
x
2
) = 0 (strophoide).
In each of the three cases, determine a parametrization of the curve by using the substitution
y = tx (where t is the parameter); nd the polar equation; by using this equation, nd the
asymptotic direction and the asymptotic lines of the curve.
119. Let be given the curves:
a) Archimedes spiral
1
: = a (a > 0);
b) the exponential spiral
2
: = e

, R.
In each of the two cases determine the tangent and the normal equations relative to the polar
moving frame and compute the curvature.
Statements 21
4. Space curves
120. Let be given the curve (t) = (2 cos t, 2 sin t, t), t R.
a) nd the Frenet elements at an arbitrary point of the curve and check that the Frenet
equations hold true;
b) nd the Frenet elements at the point A(2, 0, );
c) show that is a helix;
d) nd the Cartesian equations of the curve;
e) nd the edges and the faces of the Frenet frame.
121. Let be given the curve (t) = (t +t
2
, t
2
t, t
2
t), t R. Show that :
a) the osculating plane is independent of t (as a consequence, it contains the image of the
curve);
b) has the torsion identically equal to zero;
c) has the binormal vector eld independent of t.
122. Let be given the curve :
_
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= 2
z = 1.
a) nd the tangent line and the normal plane to the curve at A(1, 0, 1);
b) determine a parametrization of the curve.
5. Surfaces
123. Let be given the application r(u, v) = (ucos v, usinv, u
2
), where (u, v) D =
(0, ) [0, 2).
a) Compute the partial velocities of the surface. Is r a map ?
b) Find the normal line and the tangent plane to = r(D) R
3
at its point A(2, 0, 4);
c) nd the eld n of unit vectors normal to the surface ? Find the Gauss frame of the
surface ?
d) Find the Cartesian equation of the surface . What does it represent ?
e) Characterize the coordinate curves of the surface ? Find their Cartesian equations;
f ) nd the angle formed by the coordinate curves at the point A.
124. Let be given the set of points described by the equation x
3
z + 1 = 0
a) Is a surface ?
b) Find the eld n of unit vectors normal to the surface .
c) Find the normal line and the tangent plane to at A(1, 0, 2).
125. Find the envelope of the family of planes
ax +by +
_
1 a
2
b
2
z p = 0,
where p > 0 is xed and a, b are real parameters which satisfy the condition a
2
+b
2
0.
126. Using the parametric equations and the Cartesian equations of the following simple
surface, show that:
a) r(u, v) = (ucos v, usinv, v), (u, v) R
2
is a helicoid with director plane;
b) r(u, v) = (cos u, sinu, v), (u, v) (0, 2) R is a cylindrical surface;
22 LAAG-DGDE
c) r(u, v) = (v cos u, v sinu, v), (u, v) (0, 2) R is a conical surface.
127. Let be given the parametrized surface r(u, v) = (ucos v, usinv, v), (u, v) R
2
.
a) Find the matrices of the three fundamental forms [I], [II], [III] of the surface.
b) Find the angle formed by the coordinate curves; is the Gauss frame orthonormal ?
c) Find the total curvature (the Gauss curvature) K and the mean curvature H of the surface.
d) Is the given surface unfolding ? But minimal ? What kind of points has the given surface
(elliptic/parabolic/hyperbolic) ?
e) Test the Beltrami-Enneper formula [III] 2H[II] +K[I] = [0].
128. For the parametrized surface r(u, v) = (ucos v, usinv, v), (u, v) R
2
:
a) determine the matrix of the Weingarten operator;
b) nd the principal curvatures k
1
and k
2
and the principal directions of the surface at an
arbitrary point of this, by using the Weingarten operator matrix. Find the same curvatures
by using K and H;
c) determine the normal curvature of the surface in the tangent direction given by the vector
w = 2r
u
r
v
in the point A(1, 0, ) of the surface;
d) nd the quadratic approximation of the surface in the point A.
129. a) Check the Meusnier formula for the helix = r (u, v) on the cylinder = Imr,
where r(u, v) = (cos u, sinu, v), u(t) = v(t) = t, t R.
b) Let be the curve obtained through sectioning the circular cylinder = Imr,
r(u, v) = (cos u, sinu, v), (u, v) D = [0, 2) R R
2
,
with the plane z = x. Determine a parametrization of the curve and verify the Meusnier
formula.
130. Apply the Euler Theorem for the velocity vectors of the curves from the previous
problem.
131. For the parametrized surface r(u, v) = (ucos v, usinv, v), (u, v) R
2
:
a) determine the length of the curve
v=2u
, u [1, 2].
b) nd the area of the zone which corresponds to the domain (u, v) [0, 1] [0, ].
132. For the cylinder r(u, v) = (cos u, sinu, v), (u, v) [0, 2) R, determine:
a) the curvature lines (the principal curves);
b) the asymptotic curves;
c) the geodesics.
V. Dierential Equations
1. Ordinary dierential equations
133. Show that the function y(x) given by the implicit relation sin y cx = 0, (c R)
satises the dierential equation xy
t
cos y siny = 0.
Statements 23
134. Find the general solution of the dierential equation with separable variables xy
t
cos y
siny = 0.
135. Integrate the following homogeneous dierential equations, showing that they are
reducible to equations with separable variables:
a) x
2
y
t
y
2
= 0;
b) y
t
cos
y
x
= sin
y
x
.
136. Integrate the following dierential equations, showing that they are reducible to
equations with separable variables.
a) (x +y 1)dx + (x y 1)dy = 0;
b) (x +y 1)dx + (x +y)dy = 0.
137. Integrate the following linear dierential equations:
a) xy
t
+ 2y = 3x, y(1) = 1
b) xy
t
+ 3y = x
2
.
138. Show that the following equations are Bernoulli equations and integrate
a) y
t
= y x

y;
b) dy = (xy xy
3
)dx.
139. Integrate the following Riccati equations, knowing that they admit the particular
solution shown below
a) y
t
= x y
2
y, y
1
=
1
x+a
, (a R);
b) y
t
+y
2
=
2
x
2
, y
1
=
a
x
, (a R).
140. Integrate the following dierential exact equations, previously checking that the
equations are of such type:
a) (x +y) + (x + 2y) y
t
= 0;
b) (x
2
+y
2
+ 2x)dx + 2xydy = 0.
141. Show that the following equations admit integrating factor and then integrate:
a) (xy x
2
)dy y
2
dx = 0;
b) (5x
2
+ 12xy 3y
2
)dx + (3x
2
2xy)dy = 0;
c) y
t

x
y
+ 1 = 0.
142. Show that the following equation is of Clairaut type and then nd its solution:
y = xy
t
lny
t
.
143. Show that the following equations are of Lagrange type and then integrate:
a) y = 2xy
t
y
t2
;
b) y (y
t
)
2
2(y
t
)
3
= 0.
2. Higher order dierential equations
144. Integrate the linear homogeneous dierential equations of order 2 with constant
coecients:
a) y
tt
+ 2y
t
3y = 0;
24 LAAG-DGDE
b) y
tt
+ 4y = 0.
145. Solve the boundary problem (with constraints)
_
y
tt
+ 2y
t
3y = 0
y(0) = 1, y(1) = 0.
146. The same problem for x
2
y
tt
3xy
tt
+ 4y = 0, y(e) = e
2
, y(1) = 0.
147. Integrate the following linear non-homogenous dierential equations:
a) y
tt
+ 2y
t
3y = e
3x
;
b) y
ttt
y
tt
y
t
+y = x cos x;
c) y
tt
y = x e
x
;
d) the Cauchy problem:
_
y
IV
y = 8e
x
y(0) = 0, y
ttt
(0) = 6, y
tt
(0) = 2, y
IV
(0) = 4.
148. (Isogonal trajectories). Let be given the family of lines
m
: y = mx, m R.
a) Find the dierential equation of the family of these curves.
b) Find the orthogonal trajectories to the given family.
c) Find the curves (isogonal trajectories) which form with the given family an angle of 45
o
.
149. Show that the following equations admit a reduction of their order.
a) xy
ttt
y
tt
= 0;
b) 2yy
t
= y
t2
+ 1;
c) xy
t
+y
tt
= 0.
3. Systems of dierential equations
150. Solve the system of homogeneous linear dierential equations
_
x
t
= y
y
t
= x.
151. Use the result obtained at problem 1) in order to nd the general solution of the
non-homogenous dierential system
_
x
t
= y
y
t
= x + 2.
152. Solve the Cauchy problem
_
x
t
= y
y
t
= x + 2
,
_
x(0) = 0
y(0) = 2.
153. Solve the dierential system
_
x
t
= y
y
t
= x + 2
by using the elimination method.
154. Solve the higher-order linear dierential equation with constant coecients
y
tt
y = 2, where the unknown function is y = y(x).
155. Solve the Cauchy problem
_
y
tt
y = 2
y(0) = 1, y
t
(0) = 2.
4. Stability
156. Find if the solution X(t) = (x(t), y(t))
t
of the dierential system X
t
= AX is stable
or asymptotically stable, knowing that (A) = 1, 2.
157. The same problem, in the following cases:
a) (A) = 2, i; b) (A) = 2i; c) (A) = 2, i.
Statements 25
5. Field lines (symmetric systems, prime integrals)
158. Find the eld lines of the following vector elds by using the method of integrable
combinations:
a) X
(x,y,z)
= (x, y, x +y);
b) X
(x,y,z)
= (x
2
, xy, y
2
).
159. Find the general solution for the following linear homogeneous dierential equations
with partial derivatives:
a) x
u
x
+y
u
y
+ (x +y)
u
z
= 0;
b) x
2
u
x
+xy
u
y
+y
2
u
z
= 0.
160. Find that eld surface : u(x, y, z) = 0 of the eld X, which contains the curve .
Consider the following cases:
a) X = (x, y, x +y), :
_
y = 1
z = x
2
(a parabola).
b) X = (x
2
, xy, y
2
), :
_
y = 1
z = x
3
(a cubic curve).
Solutions
I.1. Matrices, determinants and linear systems
1. a) By direct calculation, we get
AB =
_
1 0
1 2
__
0 1
1 0
_
=
_
0 1
2 1
_
, BA =
_
0 1
1 0
__
1 0
1 2
_
=
_
1 2
1 0
_
,
so AB ,= BA. b) Straightforward computation leads to
B
t
A
t
=
_
0 1
1 0
__
1 1
0 2
_
=
_
0 2
1 1
_
= (AB)
t
,
so (AB)
t
= B
t
A
t
. c) Because det A =

1 0
1 2

= 2 ,= 0, it results that A
1
exists. We get
A
1
=
1
det A
_
2 0
1 1
_
, so A
1
=
_
1 0
1/2 1/2
_
.
Otherwise. The system method consists of considering the system AX = B, where B is an
arbitrary column vector. From the solution X = A
1
B of the system we then extract the
matrix coecients A
1
. We solve the system,
_
1 x + 0 y = a
1 x + 2 y = b

_
x = a
y =
a
2
+
b
2

_
x
y
_
=
_
1 0
1/2 1/2
__
a
b
_
,
so A
1
=
_
1 0
1/2 1/2
_
. d) We have
det AB =

0 1
2 1

= 2, det BA =

1 2
1 0

= 2,
det A =

1 0
1 2

= 2, det B =

0 1
1 0

= 1,
so the relation det AB = det BA = det A det B is satised.
2. a) Applying the Sarrus rule, we get
det A =

1 0 2
0 1 1
1 1 0

=
= [1 1 0 + 0 1 2 + (1) 0 1] [2 1 (1) + 1 1 1 + 0 0 0] = 1.
b) Developing after the rst line, we get:
det A = (1)
1+1
1

1 1
1 0

+ (1)
1+2
0

0 1
1 0

+ (1)
1+3
2

0 1
1 1

= 1.
c) Developing after the rst column, we get:
det A = (1)
1+1
1

1 1
1 0

+ (1)
2+1
0

0 2
1 0

+ (1)
3+1
(1)

0 2
1 1

= 1.
d) We add the rst column to the second and then we develop after the last line:
det A =

1 0 2
0 1 1
1 1 0

1 1 2
0 1 1
1 0 0

= (1)

1 2
1 1

= (1) (1) = 1.
Solutions 27
3. a) We calculate the coecients of the adjoint matrix A

=
_
_
a

11
a

21
a

31
a

12
a

22
a

32
a

13
a

23
a

33
_
_
,
a

11
= (1)
1+1

1 1
1 0

= 1, a

12
= (1)
1+2

0 1
1 0

= 1, a

13
= (1)
1+3

0 1
1 1

= 1,
a

21
= (1)
2+1

0 2
1 0

= 2, a

22
= (1)
2+2

1 2
1 0

= 2, a

23
= (1)
2+3

1 0
1 1

= 1,
a

31
= (1)
3+1

0 2
1 1

= 2, a

32
= (1)
3+2

1 2
0 1

= 1, a

33
= (1)
3+3

1 0
0 1

= 1.
But det A = 1; in conclusion A
1
=
1
det A
A

=
_
_
1 2 2
1 2 1
1 1 1
_
_
.
b) We consider the system written in matrix form AX = B, equivalent to
_
_
_
x + 2z = a
y +z = b
x +y = c

_
_
_
x = a + 2b 2c
y = a + 2b c
z = a b +c

_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
1 2 2
1 2 1
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
,
so A
1
=
_
_
1 2 2
1 2 1
1 1 1
_
_
.
c) We note that the principal minors of the matrix A are all nonzero:

1
= 1 ,= 0,
2
=

1 0
0 1

= 1 ,= 0,
3
=

1 0 2
0 1 1
1 1 0

= det A = 1 ,= 0,
hence by subsequent pivoting over the diagonal of the extended matrix (A[I
3
), we infer:
(A[I
3
) =
_
_
1 0 2
0 1 1
1 1 0

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_

_
_
1 0 2
0 1 1
0 1 2

1 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
_
_

_
_
1 0 2
0 1 1
0 0 1

1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
_
_

_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

1 2 2
1 2 1
1 1 1
_
_
.
We remark that in the right block of the last matrix one nds the matrix A
1
.
4. 1) a) We solve the system. The matrix of the system coecients is A =
_
_
_
_
1 2 3
3 0 2
2 1 1
2 2 3
_
_
_
_
and has the rank 3 given by the minor

1 2 3
3 0 2
2 1 1

= 9 ,= 0. The system is compatible

because the only characteristic determinant is the one corresponding to the last equation of
the system
car,4
=

1 2 3 1
3 0 2 0
2 1 1 1/2
2 2 3 1

= 0. The reduced system, consisting of the rst three

equations is hence
_
_
_
x + 2y + 3z = 1
3x + 2z = 0
2x +y +z = 1/2
and has the solution X = (0, 1/2, 0)
t
.
28 LAAG-DGDE
b) We note that the principal minors of the matrix A are all nonzero (
1
= 1,
2
= 6,

3
= 9), and hence, using the (complete straightforward) Gauss-Jordan method, we get:

A =
_
1 2 3
3 0 2
2 1 1
2 2 3

1
0
1/2
1
_
_

_
_
1 2 3
0 6 7
0 3 5
0 2 3

1
3
3/2
1
_
_

_
_
_
1 0 2/3
0 1 7/6
0 0 3/2
0 0 2/3

0
1/2
0
0
_
_

_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0

0
1/2
0
0
_
_
,
so we nd the solution by solving the system
_

_
x = 0
y = 1/2
z = 0
0 = 0

_
_
_
x = 0
y = 1/2
z = 0
X =
_
_
0
1/2
0
_
_
.
2) a) The matrix of the system coecients is A =
_
_
_
_
1 1 1
2 1 1
2 1 1
5 1 1
_
_
_
_
and is of rank 2, one of
its principal minors being

1 1
2 1

= 1 ,= 0. There exist two characteristic minors:

car,3
=

1 1 3
2 1 5
2 1 3

= 0,
car,4
=

1 1 3
2 1 5
5 1 11

= 0
which being null, the system is compatible. We solve the system composed of the rst and
the second equation of the initial system; we write the secondary unknown x
3
in the right
side denoted by s, so we get
_
_
_
x
1
+x
2
= 3 +s
2x
1
+x
2
= 5 +s
x
3
= s
, s R
_
_
_
x
1
= 2
x
2
= s + 1
x
3
= s
, s R,
so the solution of the initial system is X

= (2, s + 1, s)
t
, s R.
b) We note that the rank of the matrix A is 2, and that the rst principal minors are nonzero
(
1
= 1,
2
= 1). Hence, by using the Gauss-Jordan method, we get:

A =
_
_
_
_
1 1 1
2 1 1
2 1 1
5 1 1

3
5
3
11
_
_
_
_

_
_
_
_
1 1 1
0 1 1
0 3 3
0 4 4

3
1
3
4
_
_
_
_

_
_
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 0
0 0 0

2
1
0
0
_
_
_
_
,
which yields the undetermined compatible system
_
_
_
x = 2
y z = 1
0 = 0, 0 = 0

_
_
_
x = 2
y = s + 1
z = s
, s R.
3) a) The matrix of the coecients is A =
_
_
1 8
2 1
4 7
_
_
and has the rank 2, one of its principal
minors being

1 8
2 1

= 17 ,= 0. There exists only one characteristic minor, namely

car,3
=

1 8 3
2 1 1
4 7 4

= 77 ,= 0. Since this is not null, the system is incompatible, and

so the solution is X
g

.
Solutions 29
b) We remark that the principal minors of the matrix A are both nonzero (
1
= 1,
2
= 17);
by applying the Gauss-Jordan method, we get:

A =
_
_
1 8
2 1
4 7

3
1
4
_
_

_
_
1 8
0 17
0 39

3
5
16
_
_

_
_
1 0
0 1
0 0

11/17
5/17
77/17
_
_
and hence we yield the system
_
_
_
x = 11/17
y = 5/17
0 = 77/17
; since its last equation (0 = 77/17) is a
contradiction, it follows that the given linear system is incompatible.
5. a) The extended matrix associated to the system is

A = (A[b) =
_
_
1 0 1
2 0 2
1 1 1

1
2
3
_
_
.
Because det A =

1 0 1
2 0 2
1 1 1

= 0, let us consider as a principal minor

pr
=

2 0
1 1

=
2 ,= 0. So the last two equations are principal, and the rst is secondary. Then, the only
characteristic determinant obtained by padding is
car,1
=

2 0 2
1 1 3
1 0 1

= 2 2 = 0, so the
system is compatible. Because the rank is 2 - smaller than the number 3 of unknowns, the
system is undetermined compatible, with the secondary unknown corresponding to the third
column, i.e., z = t. We solve the system reduced to the main equations and we get:
_
_
_
z = t
x = 1 t
x +y = 3 t
, t R
_
_
_
x = 1 t
y = 2
z = t
, t R
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
1 t
2
t
_
_
, t R.
b) The extended matrix associated to the system is

A = (A[b) =
_
_
_
_
1 1
1 1
2 2
1 2

2
0
4
2
_
_
_
_
. We con-
sider the principal minor
pr
=

1 1
1 1

= 2 ,= 0. Then the characteristic determinants

(obtained by padding of the principal minor with the column of the free terms) are:

car,3
=

1 1 2
1 1 0
2 2 4

= 0,
car,4
=

1 1 2
1 1 0
1 2 2

= 2 ,= 0.
Because not all of the characteristic determinants are null, it results, according to the Rouche
theorem, that the system is incompatible.
I.2. The straight line in the plane. Conics
6. The slope of the line is m = tg(/3) =

3, so applying the formula : yy

A
=
m(x x
A
), the line equation can be written as
: y + 1 =

3(x 2)

3x +y + (1 2

3) = 0.
7. We apply the formula :
x x
A
x
B
x
A
=
y y
A
y
B
y
A
. We get :
x 1
3 1
=
y 2
1 2

3x + 2y 7 = 0.
30 LAAG-DGDE
8. The three points A(0, 1), B(1, 1) and C(1, 0) are collinear if we have:

x
A
y
A
1
x
B
y
B
1
x
C
y
C
1

=
0. In this case we have =

0 1 1
1 1 1
1 0 1

= 0 1 1 1 = 0 false, so A, B and C are not

collinear. The area ABC is A
ABC
=
1
2
[[ =
1
2
[1[ =
1
2
. We notice that because < 0,
the points A, B and C are not taken in trigonometric order.
9. The distance d from a point A(x
A
, y
A
) to a line : ax + by + c = 0 is given by the
formula
d =
[a x
A
+b y
A
+c[

a
2
+b
2
.
In our case a = 2, b = 1, c = 1, x
A
= 1, y
A
= 2, so we get
d =
[2 1 + (1) 2 + (1)[
_
2
2
+ (1)
2
=
1

5
.
10. a) The Cartesian equation of the circle
1
with the center C
1
(1, 2) and with the
radius r
1
= 2 is
1
: (x 1)
2
+ (y (2))
2
= 2
2
.
Developing, we get the general (normal) Cartesian equation of the circle:

1
: x
2
+y
2
2x + 4y + 1 = 0.
The parametric equations of the circle
1
are

1
:
_
x = x
C
1
+r
1
cos t
y = y
C
1
+r
1
sint

_
x = 1 + 2 cos t
y = 2 + 2 sin t
, t [0, 2).
b) The circle passing through the points A(0, 3), B(1, 2) and C(2, 0) has the equation:

2
:

x
2
+ y
2
x y 1
x
2
A
+ y
2
A
x
A
y
A
1
x
2
B
+ y
2
B
x
B
y
B
1
x
2
C
+ y
2
C
x
C
y
C
1

= 0

x
2
+ y
2
x y 1
9 0 3 1
5 1 2 1
4 2 0 1

= 0
x
2
+y
2
+ 7x + 3y 18 = 0.
Grouping the terms in order to form perfect squares, we get:

2
:
_
x
2
+ 7x +
_
7
2
_
2
_

_
7
2
_
2
+
_
y
2
+ 3y +
_
3
2
_
2
_

_
3
2
_
2
18 = 0

_
x +
7
2
_
2
+
_
y +
3
2
_
2
= 32, 5
so the center and the radius of the circle
2
respectively are C
2
(
7
2
,
3
2
), and r
2
=

32, 5.
c) After calculations, it results d(C
1
, C
2
) =

20, 5 and [r
1
r
2
[ =

32, 5 2 < d(C

1
, C
2
) <
r
1
+r
2
= 2 +

32, 5, so the two circles are secant.

11. a) We nd the equation of the tangent line to the circle through the point
A(6, 1) by duplication of the circle equation with the point coordinates A:

tg,A
: (x 6)(x
A
6) + (y 3)(y
A
3) = 4
(6 6)(x 6) + (1 3)(y 3) = 4 y = 1.
Otherwise. Developing the squares in the circle equation, we get
: x
2
+y
2
12x 6y + 41 = 0,
Solutions 31
and hence,

tg,A
: xx
A
+yy
A
12
1
2
(x +x
A
) 6
1
2
(y +y
A
) + 41 = 0
6x +y 6(x + 6) 3(y + 1) + 41 = 0 2y + 2 = 0 y = 1.
b) The polar to the circle relative to the pole B(1, 2) is obtained by duplicating the
equation of the circle with the coordinates of the point B, and has the equation

pol
: (1 6)(x 6) + (2 3)(y 3) = 4 7x + 5y 53 = 0.
The points at which the polar intersects the circle are the points T
1,2
=
pol
at the
intersection with , of the two tangents taken to the circle from the point B(1, 2).

pol
:
_
7x + 5y 53 = 0
(x 6)
2
+ (y 3)
2
= 4

_
x
1
= (208 + 5

70)/37, y
1
= (101 7

70)/37
x
2
= (208 5

70)/37, y
2
= (101 + 7

70)/37.
Tangents taken from the point B(1, 2) to the circle are the lines BT
1
and BT
2
, so they
have the equations:

t
tg,B
:
x + 1
x
1
+ 1
=
y + 2
y
1
+ 2
,
tt
tg,B
:
x + 1
x
2
+ 1
=
y + 2
y
2
+ 2
.
12. a) The general canonical equation of an ellipse has the form E :
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
= 1,
where a and b are the semi-axes of the ellipse. If a > b, the foci are F
t
(

a
2
b
2
, 0) and
F(

a
2
b
2
, 0), and A
t
(a, 0), A(a, 0), B
t
(0, b) and B(0, b) are the vertices of the ellipse.
In our case, the canonical equation of the ellipse is E :
x
2
4
+
y
2
1
= 1, so the semi-axes are
a = 2 and b = 1. We conclude that the foci and the vertices of the ellipse are F
t
(

3, 0),
F(

3, 0), respectively A
t
(2, 0), A(2, 0), B
t
(0, 1) and B(0, 1). b) We nd the tangent
equation through the point A(1,

3/2) E to the ellipse E : x

2
+4y
2
4 = 0 by halvings:

tg,A
: x 1 + 4 y

3
2
4 = 0 x + 2

3y 4 = 0.
c) In order to nd the tangent equations taken from the point B(3, 1) / E to the ellipse,
we write the equation of the polar line, taken relative to B,
pol,B
: 3x 4y 4 = 0. We
nd the intersection points T
1,2
of the tangents taken from the point B with the ellipse,
by solving the system:
E
pol,B
:
_
3x 4y 4 = 0
x
2
+ 4y
2
4 = 0

_
y =
3x4
4
13x
2
24x = 0

_
x
1
= 0, y
1
= 1
x
2
= 24/13, y
2
= 5/13.
It follows that T
1
(0, 1) and T
2
(
24
13
,
5
13
), so the two equations of tangents are

t
tg,B
= BT
1
:
x 3
0 3
=
y + 1
1 + 1
y = 1

tt
tg,B
= BT
2
:
x 3
24
13
3
=
y + 1
5
13
+ 1

x 3
5
=
y + 1
6
.
32 LAAG-DGDE
13. a) The canonical equation of a hyperbola has the form H :
x
2
a
2

y
2
b
2
= 1, where a and
b are semi-axes of the hyperbola; the foci are F
t
(

a
2
+b
2
, 0), F(

a
2
+b
2
, 0), and A
t
(a, 0)
and A(a, 0) are the vertices of the hyperbola; the asymptotes are the lines
1,2
: y =
b
a
x
which pass through the origin and have the slopes
b
a
.
In our case, the canonical equation of the hyperbola is H :
x
2
2

y
2
1
= 1, so the semi-axes
are a =

2 and b = 1. We conclude that the foci and the vertices of the hyperbola are
F
t
(

3, 0), F(

3, 0), respectively A
t
(

2, 0) and A(

2, 0), and the equations of the two

asymptotes are y =
1

2
x.
b) The tangent through the point A(2, 1) H is

tg,A
: 2 x 2 y 2 = 0 x y 1 = 0.
c) The polar relative to the point B(0, 1) / H has the equation

pol,B
: 0 x 2 y 1 2 = 0 y = 1.
We nd the intersection points T
1,2
of the tangent from the point B with the hyperbola
by solving the system
H
pol,B
:
_
y = 1
x
2
2y
2
2 = 0,
so we get the points T
1
(2, 1)and T
2
(2, 1), and the equations of the two tangents are

t
:
x 0
2 0
=
y 1
1 1
x y = 1,
tt
:
x 0
2 0
=
y 1
1 1
x +y = 1.
14. a) The focal distance of a parabola given by the equation P : y
2
= 2p x is
p
2
, so in
our case
p
2
=
4/2
2
= 1.
b) The tangent taken through the point A(9, 6) P at the parabola has the equation

tg,A
: y (6) = 2(x + 9) x + 3y + 9 = 0.
c) The polar relative to the point B(2, 3) / P has the equation

pol,B
: y (3) = 2(x + 2) 2x + 3y + 4 = 0
and intersecting with the parabola, we get the tangent points T
1
(4, 4) and T
2
(1, 2). The
equations of the two tangents are

t
tg,B
:
x 2
4 2
=
y + 3
4 + 3
x + 2y + 4 = 0,

tt
tg,B
:
x 2
1 2
=
y + 3
2 + 3
x +y + 1 = 0.
II.1. Vector spaces. Vector subspaces. Linear dependence
15. a) 1. We notice that addition of vectors is properly dened: x, y R
2
x+y R
2
.
2. In order to satisfy the associativity property of the addition, we must have:
(x +y) +z = x + (y +z) ((x
1
+y
1
) +z
1
, x
2
+[y
2
[ +[z
2
[) =
= (x
1
+ (y
1
+z
1
), x
2
+[y
2
+[z
2
[[) [y
2
[ +[z
2
[ = [y
2
+[z
2
[[.
Solutions 33
But, from a property of the module, we have:
[y
2
+[z
2
[[ [y
2
[ +[z
2
[
and the inequality can be strict. As an example, for y
2
= 1, z
2
= 1 this becomes 0 < 2.
Then for example, for x = (0, 0), y = (0, 1), z = (0, 1), we get (x +y) + z = (0, 2), and
x + (y +z) = (0, 0) and so (x + y) + z ,= x + (y + z). Therefore the associativity property
does not occur.
3. The zero element. The property e V s.t. x V, x +e = e +x = x can be written as
_
(x
1
+e
1
, x
2
+[e
2
[) = (x
1
, x
2
)
(e
1
+x
1
, e
2
+[x
2
[) = (x
1
, x
2
)

_
(e
1
, [e
2
[) = (0, 0)
(e
1
, e
2
+[x
2
[) = (0, x
2
)

_
e
1
= e
2
= 0
[x
2
[ = x
2
so it is equivalent with the conditions
_
e
1
= e
2
= 0
x
2
0.
(1)
The relations (1) do not occur for any x R
2
(for example, for e = (0, 0) and x = (0, 1)
we have x + e = (0, 1) = x, but e + x = (0, 1) ,= x) and so the existence property of the
zero element does not hold.
4. The symmetric element. Obviously, if the zero element does not exist, then the property
of symmetric element does not hold either.
5. The commutativity. x + y = y + x (x
1
+y
1
, x
2
+[y
2
[) = (y
1
+x
1
, y
2
+[x
2
[)
x
2
+ [y
2
[ = y
2
+ [x
2
[. The above relation is not true for any x = (x
1
, x
2
) and for any
y = (y
1
, y
2
). As an example, for x = (0, 1), y = (0, 1) we get x+y = (0, 1), y+x = (0, 1).
Therefore, the commutativity property is not satised.
6. We notice that the multiplication with scalars is properly dened: k R, x R
2
,
results k x R
2
.
7. We have 1 x = x (x
1
, 0) = (x
1
, x
2
) x
2
= 0, so the equality does not occur for any
x R
2
. As an example, for x = (0, 1), we have 1 x = (0, 0) ,= x. Therefore the property of
multiplication with the unity element does not hold true.
8. (kl)x = k(lx) ((kl)x
1
, 0) = (k(lx
1
), 0) klx
1
= klx
1
, so the property holds.
9. (k +l)x = kx + lx ((k +l)x
1
, 0) = (kx
1
, 0) + (lx
1
, 0) (k +l)x
1
= kx
1
+ lx
1
, so the
property holds.
10. k(x +y) = kx +ky (k(x
1
+y
1
), 0) = (kx
1
, 0) +(ky
1
, 0) k(x
1
+y
1
) = kx
1
+ky
1
, so
the property does occur.
b) We dene on R
2
the operations of addition and of multiplication with scalars, as:
x +y = (x
1
+y
1
, x
2
+y
2
), kx = (kx
1
, kx
2
),
x = (x
1
, x
2
), y = (y
1,
y
2
) R
2
, k R. Obviously, these operations dene on R
2
a vector
space structure Homework: check.
c) We dene on R
2
[X] the operations of addition and multiplication with scalars, as:
p +q = p
0
+q
0
+ (p
1
+q
1
)X + (p
2
+q
2
)X
2
, kp = kp
0
+kp
1
X +kp
2
X
2
,
p = p
0
+ p
1
X + p
2
X
2
, q = q
0
+ q
1
X + q
2
X
2
R
2
[X], k R. These operations dene on
R
2
[X] a vector space structure Homework: check.
d) We notice that the addition of the vectors is not properly dened: not any two elements
from the set have their sum in the set. For example, if we choose p = X
3
and q = X
3
, it
34 LAAG-DGDE
results deg (p +q) = deg (0) = 0 ,= 3, hence p +q is not in the set. Also, the multiplication
of the vectors with scalars, is not properly dened. For example, k = 0 and p = X
3
lead to
deg (kp) = deg (0 X
3
) = 0 ,= 3, so k p is not in the set.
e) On C
1
(1, 1) we dene the operations of addition and multiplication with scalars:
(f +g)(x) = f(x) +g(x), (kf)(x) = k f(x),
x (1, 1), f, g C
1
(1, 1), k R. The operations above dene a vector space structure
(check!).
f ) On M
23
we dene the operations:
_

_
_
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
_
+
_
b
11
b
12
b
13
b
21
b
22
b
23
_
=
_
a
11
+b
11
a
12
+b
12
a
13
+b
13
a
21
+b
21
a
22
+b
22
a
23
+b
23
_
k
_
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
_
=
_
ka
11
ka
12
ka
13
ka
21
ka
22
ka
23
_
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
_
, B =
_
b
11
b
12
b
13
b
21
b
22
b
23
_
M
23
(R), k R. The above opera-
tions dene a vector space structure on M
23
(R) (check!).
g) We denote V = f [ f : M R. On the set V we dene the operations of addition and
multiplication with scalars, as:
(f +g)(x) = f(x) +g(x), (kf)(x) = k f(x), x M,f, g V, k R.
The above operations dene a vector space structure on V (check!).
16. a) Let x = (x
1
, x
2
), y = (y
1
, y
2
) W, hence x, y R
2
satisfy the conditions:
_
x
1
+x
2
+a = 0
y
1
+y
2
+a = 0.
(2)
Then x +y W only if the following relation is satised:
x
1
+y
1
+x
2
+y
2
+a = 0, , R.
But from relation (2), it results x
1
+y
1
+x
2
+y
2
+a( +) = 0, so
x +y W a( + 1) = 0, , R a = 0
and hence the set W is a vector subspace in R
2
if and only if a = 0.
b) Let x, y R
n
such that x =
1
v, y =
2
v, where
1
,
2
R. Then for , R, it
results
1
+
2
R and so
x +y = (
1
+
2
)v W.
Therefore W is a vector subspace of R
n
.
c) Let p, q R
1
[X]. Then p and q are polynomials of maximal rank 1 and have the form
p = p
0
+p
1
X, q = q
0
+q
1
X, where p
0
, p
1
, q
0
, q
1
R. For , R, p +q = (p
0
+q
0
) +
(p
1
+q
1
)X R
1
[X], hence R
1
[X] forms a vector subspace in R
3
[X].
d) For , R and f, g C
1
(1, 1), using the properties of continuous and of derivable
functions, it results that f +g C
1
(1, 1), so the set W is a vector subspace in C
0
(1, 1).
e) Let p, q R
2
[X], with
p(1) +p(1) = 0, q(1) +q(1) = 0. (3)
Solutions 35
Then for , R,
(p +q)(1) + (p +q)(1) = p(1) +q(1) +p(1) +q(1) =
= (p(1) +p(1)) +(q(1) +q(1))
(3)
= 0.
Therefore p +q W. Hence W is a vector subspace of R[X].
f ) Let A, B M
22
(R), A =
_
a
1
0
1 a
2
_
, B =
_
b
1
0
1 b
2
_
. Then for , R,
we have A + B =
_
a
1
+b
1
0
+ a
2
+b
2
_
. We notice that generally A + B /
__
a 0
1 b
_

a, b R
_
, because + = 1 does not occur for any , R and so the set W
does not form a vector subspace.
g) Let x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
), y = (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
, y
4
) R
4
such that
x
1
+x
2
= a, x
1
x
3
= b 1 and y
1
+y
2
= a, y
1
y
3
= b 1. (4)
For any , R, x +y = (x
1
+y
1
, x
2
+y
2
, x
3
+y
3
, x
4
+y
4
).
Then
x +y W x
1
+y
1
+x
2
+y
2
= a and x
1
+y
1
x
3
y
3
= b 1
(4)
( +)a = a and ( +)(b 1) = (b 1), , R

_
a( + 1) = 0
(b 1)( + 1) = 0
, , R
_
a = 0
b 1 = 0.
Therefore the set W forms a vector subspace a = 0 and b = 1.
17. a) Let f, g : (1, 1) R be two even functions, hence satisfying the conditions
f(x) = f(x), g(x) = g(x), x (1, 1). (5)
Then for any scalars , R, the function f +g :(1, 1) R satises the relations
(f +g)(x) = f(x) +g(x)
(5)
= f(x) +g(x) = (f +g)(x), x (1, 1)
and hence f + g is an even function. It results that the set of the even functions W
1
is
a vector subspace in V . Analogously, it can be shown that the set of the odd functions on
(1, 1),
W
2
= f :(1, 1) R[f(x) = f(x), x (1.1)
forms a vector subspace in V as well.
b) We have W
1
W
2
= 0, because
f W
1
W
2
f(x) = f(x) = f(x), x (1, 1)
f(x) = 0,x (1, 1), so f 0.
It results W
1
W
2
0. The reverse inclusion is immediate, because the null function is
simultaneously even and odd on (1, 1). Also, we have W
1
+W
2
= V because the inclusion
W
1
+W
2
V is provided by the decomposition in which f
1
W
1
, f
2
W
2
:
f(x) =
f(x) +f(x)
2
. .
=f
1
(x)
+
f(x) f(x)
2
. .
=f
2
(x)
, x (1, 1).
36 LAAG-DGDE
c) Particularly, for the exponential function we have:
e
x
=
e
x
+e
x
2
+
e
x
e
x
2
= chx + shx, ch W
1
, sh W
2
, x (1, 1).
18. a) Obviously, P
2
= L(1, t, t
2
), because p P
2
, this uniquely can be written as
p(t) = a +bt +ct
2
, a, b, c R.
Let p L(1 +t, t, 1 t
2
). Then p(t) = (1 +t) + t + (1 t
2
), , , R. It results
that p(t) = ( +) + ( +)t + ()t
2
, so p L(1, t, t
2
).
We prove the reverse inclusion. Let q = +t +t
2
L(1, t, t
2
), (, , R); then q has
the form q = a(1+t) +bt +c(1t
2
). From the identication of coecients of the monomials
1, t, t
2
, it results a = +, b = + , c = , so q = ( +)(1 +t) +( + )t +
()(1 t
2
). Hence q L(1 +t, t, 1 t
2
).
b) Let p L(1, x,
x
2
2!
, . . . ,
x
n
n!
). Then p =
0
+
1
x +
2
x
2
2!
+ . . . +
n
x
n
n!
and considering
that a ,= 1, we get
p =
_

0
+
1
a +

2
2!
a + +

n
n!
a
1 a
_
(1 a) +
1
(x a) +

2
2!
(x
2
a) + +

n
n!
(x
n
a),
and hence p L(1 a, x a, x
2
a, . . . , x
n
a).
We prove the reverse inclusion: let q L(1 a, x a, x
2
a, . . . , x
n
a). Then q =

0
(1 a) +
1
(x a) +
2
(x
2
a) + +
n
(x
n
a), which infers
q = [
0
(1 a) a(
1
+
2
+ +
n
)] +
1
x + 2!
2
x
2
2!
+ +n!
n
x
n
n!
and therefore q L(1, x,
x
2
2!
, . . . ,
x
n
n!
).
19. a) Consider k
1
, k
2
R such that k
1
e
1
+ k
2
e
2
= 0. This relation can be written as
k
1
(1, 0) +k
2
(0, 1) = (0, 0), and hence it results k
1
= k
2
= 0, which implies ind e
1
, e
2
.
b) Let k
1
, k
2
, k
3
R such that
k
1
v
1
+k
2
v
2
+k
3
v
3
= 0 (6)
We get
_
_
_
k
1
+k
2
k
3
= 0
2k
1
+k
2
= 0
k
2
2k
3
= 0

_
_
_
k
1
=
k
2
= 2
k
3
=
, R.
For example, for = 1 ,= 0 we get by replacing in (6) the following relation of linear
dependence:
v
1
2v
2
v
3
= 0 v
1
= 2v
2
+v
3
.
c) Let , , R such that
f
1
+f
2
+f
3
= 0 (7)
By substituting f
1
, f
2
and f
3
into this relation, we infer

e
x
+e
x
2
+
e
x
e
x
2
+e
x
= 0, x R

2
+

2
+
_
e
x
+
_

2


2
_
e
x
= 0, x R

_
+ + 2 = 0
= 0

_
_
_
= t
= t
= t, t R.
Solutions 37
For example, for t = 1, we get = = 1, = 1 and replacing in (7), it results the relation
of linear dependence f
1
+f
2
f
3
= 0 f
3
= f
1
+f
2
.
d) Since m
3
= 0, it results that the 3 matrices are linearly dependent: it is enough to consider
k
1
= k
2
= 0 and k
3
= 1 ,= 0 and we have the relation of linear dependence
k
1
m
1
+k
2
m
2
+k
3
m
3
= 0.
Remark. Generally, any set of vectors which contains the null vector is linearly dependent.
e) Let k
1
, k
2
, k
3
R such that
k
1
p
1
+k
2
p
2
+k
3
p
3
= 0. (8)
This relation leads to
_
_
_
k
1
+k
2
+ 3k
3
= 0
k
1
k
2
+k
3
= 0
k
2
+k
3
= 0

_
_
_
k
1
= 2t
k
2
= t
k
3
= t, t R.
For example, for t = 1, we get k
1
= 2, k
2
= 1, k
3
= 1 and replacing in (8) it results the
relation of linear dependence:
2p
1
+p
2
p
3
= 0 p
3
= 2p
1
+p
2
.
f ) It is enough to show that any nite subset of the given set is linearly independent. We
prove this for the subset 1, cos t, cos
2
t, . . . , cos
n
t, the proof for an arbitrary subset of type
cos
k
1
t, . . . , cos
k
n
t, 0 k
1
< < k
n
, n 1 is analogous. Let k
0
, k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
n
R be
such that
k
0
+k
1
cos t +k
2
cos
2
t +. . . +k
n
cos
n
t = 0, t R.
We choose t
1
, t
2
, . . . , t
n+1
R such that cos t
1
, cos t
2
, . . . , cos t
n+1
are two by two distinct,
for example t
k
=

3

1
2
k
, k = 1, n + 1, (0 < t
n+1
< t
n
< < t
1
=

6
).
We get the linear homogeneous system with n+1 equations and n+1 unknowns (k
0
, . . . , k
n
):
_

_
k
0
+k
1
cos t
1
+k
2
cos
2
t
1
+. . . +k
n
cos
n
t
1
= 0
k
0
+k
1
cos t
2
+k
2
cos
2
t
2
+. . . +k
n
cos
n
t
2
= 0
. . .
k
0
+k
1
cos t
n+1
+k
2
cos
2
t
n+1
+. . . +k
n
cos
n
t
n+1
= 0.
(9)
The determinant of the matrix coecients is of Vandermonde type,

1 cos t
1
cos
2
t
1
. . . cos
n
t
1
1 cos t
2
cos
2
t
2
. . . cos
n
t
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 cos t
n+1
cos
2
t
n+1
. . . cos
n
t
n+1

i < j
i, j = 1, n + 1
(cos t
i
cos t
j
) ,= 0.
Therefore the homogeneous system (9) admits only the trivial solution k
0
= k
1
= k
2
=
. . . k
n
= 0 and in conclusion the set 1, cos t, cos
2
t, . . . , cos
n
t is linearly independent.
20. a) Let k
1
, k
2
R. The vectors e
1
, e
2
are linearly independent because: k
1
e
1
+k
2
e
2
=
0 (k
1
, k
2
) = (0, 0), hence it results k
1
= k
2
= 0.
On the other hand, x = (x
1
, x
2
) R
2
we have x = x
1
e
1
+ x
2
e
2
L(e
1
, e
2
), so
R
2
L(e
1
, e
2
). The reverse inclusion is trivial, because (x, y) R
2
, we have (x, y) =
xe
1
+ye
2
L(e
1
, e
2
). Therefore e
1
, e
2
generates R
2
.
38 LAAG-DGDE
Because e
1
, e
2
are linearly independent and form a generating system for R
2
, it results
that the set e
1
, e
2
form a basis in R
2
.
b) The set m
11
, m
12
, m
21
, m
22
represent a basis in M
22
(R). Indeed, the set is linearly
independent, because:
k
1
m
11
+k
2
m
12
+k
3
m
21
+k
4
m
22
= 0
_
k
1
k
2
k
3
k
4
_
=
_
0 0
0 0
_
,
hence it results k
1
= k
2
= k
3
= k
4
= 0 and any matrix from the space M
22
(R) is a linear
combination of the matrices m
11
, m
12
, m
21
, m
22
. For example, the matrix
_
1 5
3 1
_

M
22
(R) can be uniquely expressed as:
_
1 5
3 1
_
= m
11
+ 5m
12
+ 3m
21
m
22
.
c) The vector space R
3
[X] = p R[X][ deg p 3 of all the polynomials with the rank
at most 3, has the dimension 3 + 1 = 4. Indeed, we notice that the family of polynomials
1 = X
0
, X
1
, X
2
, X
3
is linearly independent, because
k
0
+k
1
X +k
2
X
2
+k
3
X
3
= 0 k
0
= k
1
= k
2
= k
3
= 0
and any polynomial with the rank at most 3 is a nite linear combination of the monomials
1, X, X
2
, X
3
. For example, the polynomial p = 3 +X + 5X
3
uniquely can be written as:
p = 3 1 + 1 X + 0 X
2
+ 5 X
3
.
21. a) The dimension of the space R
3
is 3, and the family B
t
has 3 vectors, so it is
enough to prove that the vectors f
1
, f
2
, f
3
are linearly independent (then they will form a
basis of R
3
). But det[f
1
, f
2
, f
3
] =

1 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 0

= 1 ,= 0, so we have indf
1
, f
2
, f
3
. In
conclusion B
t
is a basis in the space R
3
. Similarly, one can prove that B
tt
form a basis in
R
3
.
b) The passing matrix C
B
0
B
from the canonical basis B
0
to the basis B
t
= f
1
, f
2
, f
3
has
on its columns the coecients of the vectors f
1
, f
2
, f
3
relative to B
0
.
We have f
1
= 1e
1
+ 1e
2
+ 1e
3
= [f
1
]
B
0
= (1, 1, 1)
t
; a similar decomposition for f
2
and f
3
leads to:
C
B
0
B
= [f
1
, f
2
, f
3
]
B
0
=
_
_
1 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 0
_
_
.
The passing matrix C
B

B
0
from the basis B
tt
= g
1
, g
2
, g
3
to the basis B
0
= e
1
, e
2
, e
3

has on its columns the coecients of the vectors e

1
, e
2
, e
3
relative to B
tt
. We determine the
matrix C
B

B
0
. We express e
1
relative to the basis B
tt
,
e
1
=
1
g
1
+
2
g
2
+
3
g
3
and we get the system:
_
_
_

3
= 1

2
+ 2
3
= 0

1
+
2
+ 3
3
= 0,
whose solution is
1
= 1;
2
= 2;
3
= 1, so [e
1
]
B
= (1, 2, 1)
t
.
Solutions 39
Analogously we get the components of e
2
relative to the basis B
tt
,
e
2
=
1
g
1
+
2
g
2
+
3
g
3

1
= 1;
2
= 1;
3
= 0, [e
2
]
B
= (1, 1, 0)
t
,
and for e
3
,
e
3
=
1
g
1
+
2
g
2
+
3
g
3

1
= 1;
2
= 0;
3
= 0, [e
3
]
B
= (1, 0, 0)
t
.
Arranging the components of the basis vectors B
0
relative to B
tt
on columns, we get the
passing matrix from B
tt
to B
0
,
C
B

B
0
= [e
1
, e
2
, e
3
]
B
=
_
_
1 1 1
2 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
.
Otherwise. Generally, we have
_
[v]
B
1
= C
B
1
B
2
[v]
B
2
[v]
B
2
= C
1
B
1
B
2
[v]
B
1
[v]
B
2
= C
B
2
B
1
[v]
B
1
C
B
2
B
1
= C
1
B
1
B
2
,
so in our case we get C
B

B
0
= C
1
B
0
B
=
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 2
1 1 3
_
_
1
=
_
_
1 1 1
2 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
.
The passing matrix C
B

B
from the basis B
t
= f
1
, f
2
, f
3
to the basis B
tt
= g
1
, g
2
, g
3

has on its columns the coecients of the vectors g

1
, g
2
, g
3
relative to B
t
.
We determine the matrix C
B

B
. We express g
1
relative to the basis B
t
.
g
1
=
1
f
1
+
2
f
2
+
3
f
3
and we get the system:
_
_
_

1
+
3
= 0

1
+
2
+
3
= 0

1
+
2
= 1,
whose solution is
1
= 1;
2
= 0;
3
= 1, hence [g
1
]
B
= (1, 0, 1)
t
.
Analogously we get the new components of the other two vectors
[g
2
]
B
= (0, 1, 0)
t
, [g
3
]
B
= (2, 1, 1)
t
.
Putting the components of the basis vectors B
tt
relative to B
t
on columns, we get the passing
matrix from B
t
to B
tt
,
C
B

B
= [g
1
, g
2
, g
3
]
B

=f
1
,f
2
,f
3
]
=
_
_
1 0 2
0 1 1
1 0 1
_
_
.
Otherwise. Generally, we have
_
[v]
B
1
= C
B
1
B
2
[v]
B
2
= C
B
1
B
2
(C
B
2
B
3
[v]
B
3
)
[v]
B
1
= C
B
1
B
3
[v]
B
3
C
B
1
B
3
= C
B
1
B
2
C
B
2
B
3
,
so in our case we get
C
B

B
= C
B

B
0
C
B
0
B
= C
1
B
0
B
C
B
0
B
=
_
_
1 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 0
_
_
1
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 2
1 1 3
_
_
=
_
_
1 0 2
0 1 1
1 0 1
_
_
.
40 LAAG-DGDE
c) From the formula X = CX
t
for X = [v]
B
, X
t
= [v]
B
, where C is the passing matrix
C
B

B
from the basis B
tt
to the basis B
t
, it results [v]
B
= C
B

B
[v]
B
, so
[v]
B
= C
1
B

B
[v]
B
=
_
_
1 0 2
1 1 1
1 0 1
_
_
_
_
1
1
5
_
_
=
_
_
11
5
6
_
_
.
22. a) We note that cardT = n + 1 = dimR
n
[x], and hence it suces to verify that
[T]
B
0
is nonsingular, where B
0
= 1, x, x
2
, ..., x
n
is the canonic basis of the vector space
R
n
[x]. Using Newtons binomial formula, we get
p
k
= C
k
n
x
k
(1 x)
nk
=
nk

j=0
C
k
n
C
j
nk
(1)
j
x
k+j
, k = 0, n.
But p
k
contains monomials of degree at least k and that the coecient of x
k
in p
k
is C
k
n
.
Hence the matrix [T]
B
0
is lower triangular, and has on the diagonal the positive coecients
C
0
n
, C
1
n
, . . . , C
n
n
. Hence det[T]
B
0
= C
0
n
C
1
n
...C
n
n
,= 0, and consequently, T is a basis in R
n
[x].
b) Using the Newton binomial formula, we remark that
q = 1 = [(1 x) +x]
n
=
n

k=0
C
k
n
(1 x)
nk
x
k
=
n

k=0
p
k
= 1 p
0
+ 1 p
1
+... + 1 p
n
,
and the coordinates of q relative to T are [q]
J
= (1, 1, ..., 1)
t
R
n+1
.
23. a) Since card B = 3 = dimR
3
, we have to verify only the non-singularity of the
matrix associated to the family B relative to the canonical basis B
0
of R
3
. But
det[B]
B
0
=

1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

= 4 ,= 0,
and hence B is a basis in R
3
.
b) We use the formulas of computing the dual basis in V
3
R
3
,
g
1
=
1

(f
2
f
3
), g
1
=
1

(f
3
f
1
), g
1
=
1

(f
1
f
2
),
where = f
1
, f
2
f
3
) = det[f
1
, f
2
, f
3
]
t
B
= det[B]
B
0
= 4. By direct computation, we get
B
t
=
_
g
1
=
_
0,
1
2
,
1
2
_
, g
2
=
_
1
2
, 0,
1
2
_
, g
3
=
_
1
2
,
1
2
, 0
__
.
Further, the claimed relations can be checked by direct computation.
Otherwise. Using the relations from the statement, written in matrix form,
[g
1
, g
2
, g
3
]
t
B
0
[f
1
, f
2
, f
3
]
B
0
= I
3
[g
1
, g
2
, g
3
]
B
0
= ([f
1
, f
2
, f
3
]
1
B
0
)
t
=
_
_
0 1/2 1/2
1/2 0 1/2
1/2 1/2 0
_
_
,
we obtain the components of the vectors of the dual basis w.r.t B
0
on the columns of the
obtained matrix.
24. a) In order to nd a basis in the subspace U it is enough to nd a maximal
family of linearly independent vectors from the given generating system (we notice that
Solutions 41
we should have card B 3 = dimR
3
). For this, we calculate the rank of the matrix
formed with the components of the vectors u
1
, u
2
, u
3
and u
4
relative to the canonical basis
B = e
1
, e
2
, e
3
R
3
. We subsequently get:
u
1
= 1e
1
+ 1e
2
+ 1e
3
= [u
1
]
B
0
= (1, 1, 1)
t
.
Similarly, for u
2
, u
3
and u
4
, we get:
rank [u
1
, u
2
, u
3
, u
4
]
B
0
= rank
_
_
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 2
1 0 1 2
_
_
= 2,
because on columns 3, 4 it is formed a maximal non-zero minor.
It results indu
3
, u
4
and u
1
, u
2
L(u
3
, u
4
), so U = L(u
1
, u
2
, u
3
, u
4
) = L(u
3
, u
4
). Hence
the vectors u
3
, u
4
also form a generating linearly independent system for U. Therefore a
basis of the subspace U is B
U
= u
3
, u
4
.
In order to nd a basis of the subspace V , we notice that denoting y = t, z = s, the
equation x + y 2z = 0 has the solutions (x, y, z) = (t + 2s, t, s) = t(1, 1, 0) + s(2, 0, 1).
Therefore any vector (x, y, z) V can be written as:
v = (x, y, z) = (t + 2s, t, s) = t (1, 1, 0)
. .
v
1
+s (2, 0, 1)
. .
v
2
L(v
1
, v
2
);
it results V = L(v
1
= (1, 1, 0), v
2
= (2, 0, 1)).
On the other hand, the vectors v
1
, v
2
are linearly independent, because:
k
1
v
1
+k
2
v
2
= 0
_
k
1
+ 2k
2
= 0
k
1
= 0, k
2
= 0
k
1
= k
2
= 0.
Otherwise. We have rank [v
1
, v
2
] = rank
_
_
1 2
1 0
0 1
_
_
= 2, so indv
1
, v
2
. In conclusion,
B
V
= v
1
, v
2
form a basis in the subspace V .
We nd a basis for U V . We have v V U a, b, m, n R such that
v = a(1, 1, 0) +b(2, 0, 1) = m(0, 1, 1) +n(1, 2, 2). (10)
We get the system with the unknowns a and b:
_
_
_
a + 2b = n
a = m+ 2n
b = m+ 2n,
which is compatible (according to Rouche theorem) only if:

1 2 n
1 0 m+ 2n
0 1 m+ 2n

= 0 m+n = 0 m = n.
Therefore, by using the relation (10), it results that v UV v = n(0, 1, 1)+n(1, 2, 2) =
n(1, 1, 1), n R and consequently U V = L(v
0
), where v
0
= (1, 1, 1). Since v
0
,= 0
R
3, we
have indv
0
, so a basis of the subspace U V is B
UV
= v
0
= (1, 1, 1).
In order to nd a basis in U + V , we nd a maximal family of linearly independent vectors
from B
U
B
V
, because U + V = L(B
U
) + L(B
V
) = L(B
U
B
V
). For this, we calculate
42 LAAG-DGDE
the rank of the matrix formed by the components of the vectors u
3
, u
4
, v
1
, v
2
relative to the
canonical basis,
rank
_
_
0 1 1 2
1 2 1 0
1 2 0 1
_
_
= 3.
The columns formed by the vectors u
3
, v
1
, v
2
form a non null minor, therefore u
4
L(u
3
, v
1
, v
2
)
and indu
3
, v
1
, v
2
. The three linearly independent vectors determine a basis of U + V ,
B
U+V
= u
3
, v
1
, v
2
and hence dim(U +V ) = 3.
We notice that U + V R
3
and the spaces U + V and R
3
have the same dimension, so
U + V = R
3
. We can equivalently choose for U + V the canonical basis of the space R
3
,
B
t
U+V
= e
1
, e
2
, e
3
.
b) Because a basis in U V is B
UV
= (1, 1, 1), it results U V ,= 0. In conclusion, U
and V do not form a direct sum and hence they are not supplementary.
c) Because both the subspace bases U, V have each one two vectors, and the subspace bases
U V and U +V have one vector, respectively three vectors, it results dimU = dimV = 2,
dim(U V ) = 1, dim(U +V ) = 3, so the Grassmann theorem which states that the following
equality is satised
dimU + dimV = dim(U +V ) + dim(U V ),
is veried for our case (2 + 2 = 3 + 1).
25. a) The dimension of the space P
2
is 3, equal to the number of vectors, so it is enough
to prove that the vectors p
1
, p
2
, p
3
are linearly independent (then they will form a basis).
Let be k
1
, k
2
, k
3
, such that k
1
p
1
+k
2
p
2
+k
3
p
3
= 0. It results:
k
2
X
2
+ (k
1
+k
2
)X + (k
1
+k
3
) = 0
_
_
_
k
2
= 0
k
1
+k
2
= 0
k
1
+k
3
= 0,
a system which has the solution k
1
= k
2
= k
3
= 0, so we have indp
1
, p
2
, p
3
.
Otherwise. We calculate the determinant of the matrix formed by the components of the
vectors p
1
, p
2
, p
3
relative to the canonical basis 1, X, X
2
set on the columns.

1 0 1
1 1 0
0 1 0

= 1 ,= 0.
In conclusion we have indp
1
, p
2
, p
3
.
b) In order to nd the components of the vector p relative to the basis F = p
1
, p
2
, p
3
, we
nd the scalars , , R such that:
p = p
1
+p
2
+p
3
.
By replacing in this relation the vectors p
1
, p
2
, p
3
, we get:
1 + 2X + 3X
2
= ( +) + ( +)X +X
2
or equivalently:
_
_
_
+ = 1
+ = 2
= 3

_
_
_
= 1
= 3
= 2,
Solutions 43
so [p]
F
= (1, 3, 2)
t
.
Otherwise. Denoting B = 1, X, X
2
the canonical basis of the space P
2
, we use the relation
X = CX
t
, where X = [p]
B
, X
t
= [p]
F
= (, , )
t
, C = C
BF
and we get
_
_
3
2
1
_
_
=
_
_
0 1 0
1 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
_
_

_
_

_
_
_
= 3
+ = 2
+ = 1
, so [p]
F
=
_
_
1
3
2
_
_
.
II.2. Inner product spaces
26. a) We verify the properties of the inner product. Let x = (x
1
, x
2
), y = (y
1
, y
2
),
z = (z
1
, z
2
) R
2
, R. Then
x, y) = y, x) x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
= y
1
x
1
+ y
2
x
2
. The equality is true, considering the
commutativity of the multiplication of real numbers.
x, y +z) = x
1
(y
1
+z
1
) +x
2
(y
2
+z
2
) = x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
+x
1
z
1
+x
2
z
2
= x, y) +x, z);
x, y) = x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
= (x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
) = x, y);
x, x) 0, x R
2
x
2
1
+x
2
2
0, x R
2
0, and
x, x) = 0 x
2
1
+x
2
2
= 0
_
x
2
1
= 0
x
2
2
= 0
;
this system is equivalent to x = (x
1
, x
2
) = (0, 0) if and only if > 0.
In conclusion the operation dened in the text is an inner product only for > 0 .
b) Let A, B, C M
22
(C). Then
B, A) = Tr(B

A
t
) = Tr(B

A
t
) = Tr(

B A
t
) = Tr((

B A
t
)
t
) = Tr(A

B
t
) =
A, B). We used the property TrA = Tr(A
t
);
A, B +C) = Tr(A (B +C)
t
) = Tr(A (

B
t
+

C
t
)) = Tr(A

B
t
) + Tr(A

C
t
) =
A, B) +A, C);
A, B) = Tr(A

B
t
) = Tr(A

B
t
) = A, B);

_
A, A) = Tr(A

A
t
) = a
2
11
+a
2
12
+a
2
21
+a
2
22
0
A, A) = 0 a
11
= a
12
= a
21
= a
22
= 0.
Let A =
_
z
1
z
2
z
3
z
4
_
, z
i
C, i = 1, 4. It results that
Tr(A

A
t
) = Tr
_
z
1
z
2
z
3
z
4
__
z
1
z
3
z
2
z
4
_
= z
1
z
1
+z
2
z
2
+z
3
z
3
+z
4
z
4
=
= [z
1
[
2
+[z
2
[
2
+[z
3
[
2
+[z
4
[
2
0, A M
22
(C);
A, A) = 0 [z
1
[
2
+[z
2
[
2
+[z
3
[
2
+[z
4
[
2
= 0
z
1
= z
2
= z
3
= z
4
= 0 A = O
M
22
(C).
c) We verify the properties of the inner product. Let x = (x
1
, x
2
), y = (y
1
, y
2
), C
2
.
x, y) = y, x) x
1
y
2
= y
1
x
2
.
44 LAAG-DGDE
The relation obtained is not true for any x, y C
2
. For example, for x = (0, 1) and y = (1, 1),
we get x
1
y
2
= 0 ,= 1 = y
1
x
2
. In conclusion, the operation dened in the text is not an inner
product, because the Hermiticity property is not satised.
27. We need to verify, in each case, the properties of the inner product.
a) Let x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), y = (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
), z = (z
1
, z
2
, z
3
) R
3
, R. Indeed, we have:
x, y) = x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
+x
3
y
3
= y
1
x
1
+y
2
x
2
+y
3
x
3
= y, x);
x, y +z) = x
1
(y
1
+z
1
) + x
2
(y
2
+z
2
) + x
3
(y
3
+z
3
) = x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
+ x
3
y
3
+ x
1
z
1
+
x
2
z
2
+x
3
z
3
= x, y) +x, z);
x, y) = (x
1
)y
1
+ (x
2
)y
2
+ (x
3
)y
3
= (x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
+x
3
y
3
) = x, y);
x, x) = x
2
1
+x
2
2
+x
2
3
0, x R
3
;
x, x) = 0 x
2
1
+x
2
2
+x
2
3
= 0 x
1
= x
2
= x
3
= 0 x = O
R
3
b) Let p = a
0
+a
1
x +a
2
x
2
, q = b
0
+b
1
x +b
2
x
2
, r = c
0
+c
1
x +c
2
x
2
P
2
and R. Then
p, q) = a
0
b
0
+a
1
b
1
+a
2
b
2
= b
0
a
0
+b
1
a
1
+b
2
a
2
= q, p);
p, q +r) = a
0
(b
0
+c
0
) +a
1
(b
1
+c
1
) +a
2
(b
2
+c
2
) = a
0
b
0
+a
1
b
1
+a
2
b
2
+a
0
c
0
+a
1
c
1
+
a
2
c
2
= p, q) +p, r);
p, q) = (a
0
)b
0
+ (a
1
)b
1
+ (a
2
)b
2
= (a
0
b
0
+a
1
b
1
+a
2
b
2
) = p, q);
p, p) = a
2
0
+a
2
1
+a
2
2
0, p P
2
;
p, p) = 0 a
2
0
+a
2
1
+a
2
2
= 0 a
0
= a
1
= a
2
= 0 p = 0.
c) Let p, q, r be the polynomials dened at item b).
p, q) =
_
1
1
p(x)q(x)dx =
_
1
1
q(x)p(x)dx = q, p);
p, q +r) =
_
1
1
p(x)(q +r)(x)dx =
_
1
1
p(x)(q(x) +r(x))dx =
=
_
1
1
p(x)q(x)dx +
_
1
1
p(x)r(x)dx = p, q) +p, r);
p, q) =
_
1
1
(p)(x)q(x)dx =
_
1
1
p(x)q(x)dx = p, q);
Solutions 45
positivity:
p, p) =
_
1
1
(p(x))
2
dx =
_
1
1
(a
0
+a
1
x +a
2
x
2
)
2
dx =
=
_
1
1
[a
2
0
+ (a
1
x)
2
+ (a
2
x
2
)
2
+ 2a
0
a
1
x + 2a
0
a
2
x
2
+ 2a
1
x a
2
x
2
]dx =
=
_
1
1
[a
2
0
+ 2a
0
a
1
x + (a
2
1
+ 2a
0
a
2
)x
2
+ 2a
1
a
2
x
3
+a
2
2
x
4
]dx =
=
_
a
2
0
x +a
0
a
1
x
2
+ (a
2
1
+ 2a
0
a
2
)
x
3
3
+a
1
a
2
x
4
2
+a
2
2
x
5
5
_

1
1
= 2a
2
0
+
2
3
(a
2
1
+ 2a
0
p
2
) +
2
5
a
2
2
= 2
_
a
0
+
1
3
a
2
_
2
+
8
45
a
2
2
+
2
3
a
2
1
0, p P
2
;
p, p) = 0 2(a
0
+
1
3
a
2
)
2
+
8
45
a
2
2
+
2
3
a
2
1
= 0

_
_
_
a
0
+
1
3
a
2
= 0
a
2
= 0
a
1
= 0
a
0
= a
1
= a
2
= 0 p = 0
P
2
.
d) The rst property of the inner product results from the commutativity of the real numbers
multiplication, and the other two result from the property of the linearity of the integral.
The fourth property
f, f) =
_
b
a
f
2
(x)dx 0,
occurs because g(x) 0, x [a, b] ,=
g

implies
_
b
a
g(x)dx 0 (the monotony property of
the denite integral operator).
We show that f, f) = 0 f = 0. If f 0, then we have f, f) =
_
b
a
0
2
dx = 0. The
implication f, f) = 0 f 0 is equivalent with the implication
f , 0 f, f) ,= 0.
We suppose that f ,= 0. Then there exists x
0
[a, b] such that f(x
0
) ,= 0. Let = [f(x
0
)[/2.
Because the function is continuous, it results that there exists a neighborhood V of x
0
such
that f(x) (f(x
0
) , f(x
0
) +), so [f(x)[ (/2, 3/2) f
2
(x) >
2
/4, x V . Then in
the set V [a, b] there exists an interval I = [c, d] ,=
g

such that f
2
(x) >
2
/4, x [c, d].
Then f, f) =
_
b
a
f
2
(x)
_
d
c

2
4
dx

2
4
(d c) > 0, so f, f) ,= 0.
e) Let A, B, C M
22
(R), R.
A, B) = Tr(A
t
B) = Tr(A
t
B)
t
= Tr(B
t
A) = B, A). We used the property
TrA = Tr(A
t
);
A, B +C) = Tr(A
t
(B +C)) = Tr(A
t
B +A
t
C) = Tr(A
t
B) +Tr(A
t
C) =
= A, B) +A, C)
A, B) = Tr((A)
t
B) = Tr(A
t
B) = Tr(A
t
B) = A, B);
46 LAAG-DGDE
A, A) = Tr(A
t
A).
Let A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
, a
ij
R, i, j = 1, 2. It results
Tr(A
t
A) = a
2
11
+a
2
12
+a
2
21
+a
2
22
0, A M
22
(R);
A, A) = 0 a
2
11
+a
2
12
+a
2
21
+a
2
22
= 0 a
11
= a
12
= a
21
= a
22
= 0 A = O
M
22(R)
.
f ) Let x = (x
1
, x
2
), y = (y
1
, y
2
), z = (z
1
, z
2
) C
2
, C. Then there occur the relations
x, y) = x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
= x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
= y
1
x
1
+y
2
x
2
= y, x);
x, y +z) = x
1
(y
1
+z
1
) +x
2
(y
2
+z
2
) = x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
+x
1
z
1
+x
2
z
2
= x, y) +x, z);
x, y) = (x
1
)y
1
+ (x
2
)y
2
= (x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
) = x, y)
x, x) = x
1
x
1
+x
2
x
2
= [x
1
[
2
+[x
2
[
2
0, x C
2
;
x, x) = 0 [x
1
[ = [x
2
[ = 0 x
1
= x
2
= 0 x = 0
C
2.
28. Using the canonical inner products on the considered spaces and the formulas
[[u[[ =
_
u, u), pr
v
u =
u, v)
v, v)
v, cos

(u, v) =
u, v)
|u| |v|
,
we get:
a) For u = (1, 2), v = (2, 1) R
2
, we have u, v) = 1 (2) + 2 1 = 0 and
_

_
|u| =
_
u, u) =

1
2
+ 2
2
=

5, |v| =
_
(2)
2
+ 1
2
=

5;
d(u, v) = [[u v[[ = [[(3, 1)[[ =

3
2
+ 1
2
=

10
pr
v
u =
u, v)
v, v)
v =
0
5
(2, 1) = (0, 0), pr
u
v =
v, u)
u, u)
u =
0
5
(1, 2) = (0, 0);
cos

(u, v) =
u, v)
|u| |v|
= 0

(u, v) = arccos(0) =

2
.
Because u, v) = 0, it results that the two vectors are orthogonal.
b) For u = (1, 1, 1), v = (1, 2, 0) R
3
, we have u, v) = 1 1 + 1 (2) + 1 0 = 1 and
_

_
|u| =
_
u, u) =

1
2
+ 1
2
+ 1
2
=

3, [[v[[ =
_
v, v) =
_
1
2
+ (2)
2
=

5;
d(u, v) = [[u v[[ = [[(0, 3, 1)[[ =

10
pr
v
u =
u, v)
v, v)
v =
1
5
(1, 2, 0) =
_

1
5
,
2
5
, 0
_
,
pr
u
v =
v, u)
u, u)
u =
1
3
(1, 1, 1) = (
1
3
,
1
3
,
1
3
);
cos

(u, v) =
u, v)
|u| |v|
=
1

5
=
1

15
[1, 1],
hence results

(u, v) = arccos
_

15
_
= arccos
1

15
. Because u, v) = 1 ,= 0, the two
vectors are not orthogonal.
Solutions 47
c) Using the canonical inner product on P
2
, p, q) =
_
1
1
p(x)q(x)dx, p, q P
2
, we get
_

_
u, v) =
_
1
1
u(x)v(x)dx =
_
1
1
(1 +x)x
2
dx =
_
x
3
3
+
x
4
4
_

1
1
=
2
3
;
|u| =
_
u, u) =

_
1
1
(u(x))
2
dx =

_
1
1
(1 +x)
2
dx =
_
8
3
;
|v| =
_
v, v) =

_
1
1
(v(x))
2
dx =

_
1
1
x
4
dx =
_
2
5
;
d(u, v) = [[u v[[ = [[1 +x x
2
[[ =

_
1
1
(1 +x x
2
)
2
dx =
_
26
15
pr
v
u =
u, v)
v, v)
v =
2/3
2/5
x
2
=
5
3
x
2
;
pr
u
v =
v, u)
u, u)
u =
2/3
8/3
(1 +x) =
1
4
(1 +x),
and cos

(u, v) =
u, v)
|u| |v|
=
2/3
4/

15
=

15
6
[1, 1]; hence it results

(u, v) = arccos

15
6
.
Because u, v) , = 0, the two vectors are not orthogonal.
Using the second canonical inner product on P
2
, p, q) = p
0
q
0
+ p
1
q
1
+ p
2
q
2
, where
p = p
0
+p
1
x +p
2
x
2
, q = q
0
+q
1
x +q
2
x
2
P
2
, we get
_

_
u, v) = 0, |u| =

1 + 1 =

2, |v| =

1 = 1;
d(u, v) = [[u v[[ = [[1 +x x
2
[[ =
_
1
2
+ 1
2
+ (1)
2
=

3
pr
v
u = pr
u
v = 0, cos

(u, v) = 0 [1, 1],
hence it follows that

(u, v) = arccos 0 =

2
, so uv. We notice that the obtained results using
the two inner products are dierent, although the vectors are the same.
d) We calculate
u, v) =
_
1
0
u(x)v(x)dx =
_
1
0
e
x

e
x
+e
x
2
dx =
=
1
2
_
1
0
e
2x
dx +
1
2
_
1
0
dx =
_
e
2x
4
+
x
2
_

1
0
=
e
2
+ 1
4
;
u, u) =
_
1
0
(u(x))
2
dx =
_
1
0
e
2x
dx =
e
2x
2

1
0
=
e
2
1
2
,
hence it results |u| =
_
u, u) =
_
e
2
1
2
; also, we have
v, v) =
_
1
0
(v(x))
2
dx =
_
1
0
_
e
x
+e
x
2
_
2
dx =
1
4
_
1
0
(e
2x
+ 2 +e
2x
)dx =
=
1
4
_
e
2x
2
+ 2x
e
2x
2
_

1
0
=
e
2
e
2
+ 4
8
;
48 LAAG-DGDE
it results |v| =
_
e
2
e
2
+ 4
8
;
d(u, v) = [[u v[[ =

_
1
0
(e
x
coshx)
2
dx =

_
1
0
sinh
2
xdx =
_
cosh1 sinh1 1
2
.
Also, we get
_

_
pr
v
u =
u,v)
v,v)
v =
e
2
+1
4
e
2
e
2
+4
8

e
x
+e
x
2
=
e
2
+1
e
2
e
2
+4
(e
x
+e
x
);
pr
u
v =
v,u)
u,u)
u =
e
2
+1
4
e
2
1
2
e
x
=
e
2
+1
2(e
2
1)
e
x
;
cos

(u, v) =
u,v)
|u||v|
=
e
2
+1
4

e
2
1
2

e
2
e
2
+4
8
=
e
2
+1

(e
2
1)(e
2
e
2
+4)
[1, 1],
hence we get

(u, v) = arccos
e
2
+ 1
_
(e
2
1)(e
2
e
2
+ 4)
. Because u, v) =
e
2
+1
4
,= 0, the vectors
u and v are not orthogonal.
e) We have
_

_
u, v) = Tr(u
t
v) = Tr
_
2 1
1 0
_
= 2 + 0 = 2;
u, u) = Tr(u
t
u) = Tr
_
5 2
2 1
_
= 5 + 1 = 6;
v, v) = Tr(v
t
v) = Tr
_
1 0
0 1
_
= 1 + 1 = 2,
so |u| =
_
u, u) =

6, |v| =
_
v, v) =

2 and
d(u, v) = [[u v[[ =
_
Tr((u v)
t
(u v)) =

Tr
_
2 2
2 2
_
=

2 + 2 = 2
_

_
pr
v
u =
u, v)
v, v)
v =
2
2

_
0 1
1 0
_
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
;
pr
u
v =
v, u)
u, u)
u =
2
6

_
1 0
2 1
_
=
_
1/3 0
2/3 1/3
_
.
Also, cos

(u, v) =
u, v)
|u| |v|
=
2

12
=

3
3
[1, 1], so

(u, v) = arccos

3
3
. Because u, v) =
2 ,= 0, the vectors u and v are not orthogonal.
f ) Using the preliminary computations
_

_
u, v) = i(1 i) + (i)(1 +i) = i(1 +i) i(1 i) = 2;
u, u) = i i + (i) (i) = 2;
v, v) = (1 i) (1 i) + (1 +i) (1 +i) = 4;
Solutions 49
we infer
_

_
|u| =
_
u, u) =

2; |v| =
_
v, v) = 2;
d(u, v) = [[u v[[ = [[(2i 1, 2i 1)[[ =
_
(2i 1)(2i 1) + (2i 1)(2i 1) =

10
pr
v
u =
u, v)
v, v)
v =
2
4
(1 i, 1 +i) =
_

1
2
+
1
2
i ,
1
2

1
2
i
_
;
pr
u
v =
v, u)
u, u)
u =
u, v)
u, u)
u =
2
2
(i, i) = (i, i).
II.3. Orthogonality. The Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process
29. a) The family S is orthogonal because v
1
, v
2
) = 1 (2) + 0 1 + 2 1 = 0.
b) We determine a vector v
3
R
3
, v
3
= (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), v
3
,= 0 such that the following conditions
are satised:
v
1
, v
3
) = 0, v
2
, v
3
) = 0.
We get the linear system
_
x
1
+ 2x
3
= 0
2x
1
+x
2
+x
3
= 0

_
_
_
x
1
= 2
x
2
= 5
x
3
=
, R
Consequently, we can complete the system of vectors to an orthogonal basis in innite ways.
For example, if we choose = 1, we get v
3
= (2, 5, 1).
The vectors v
1
, v
2
, v
3
are orthogonal and non null, so they are linearly independent. Their
number being equal to the dimension of R
3
, it results that they form an (orthogonal) basis
of R
3
.
30. a) The orthogonal complement of the subspace W is the set
W

= y R
4
[ y v
1
, y v
2

In order to nd the vectors y W, it is enough to impose the conditions y, v
1
) = 0, y, v
2
) =
0. Denoting y = (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
, y
4
), these conditions are equivalent to the system
_
y
1
+y
3
+y
4
= 0
y
1
y
2
+y
3
= 0
in which the minor corresponding to y
1
and y
2
is

1 0
1 1

= 1 ,= 0, so we will consider
y
1
and y
2
as main unknowns, and y
3
and y
4
secondary unknowns. Then the system has the
solutions: y
1
= a b, y
2
= b, y
3
= a, y
4
= b, where a, b R.
Then
W

= (a b, b, a, b) [ a, b R
We notice that (a b, b, a, b) = a(1, 0, 1, 0) + b (1, 1, 0, 1) and so a basis in W

is
formed by the vectors
u
1
= (1, 0, 1, 0), u
2
= (1, 1, 0, 1).
b) Since the determinant
det [v
1
, v
2
, u
1
, u
2
] =

1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1

= 5 ,= 0,
50 LAAG-DGDE
is nonzero, there results that the vectors v
1
, v
2
, u
1
, u
2
are linearly independent. Their number
is equal to the dimension of the total space R
4
, and hence they form a basis in R
4
, so
L(v
1
, v
2
, u
1
, u
2
) = R
4
. But W + W

= L(v
1
, v
2
) + L(u
1
, u
2
) = L(v
1
, v
2
, u
1
, u
2
), and then
W +W

= R
4
. Because we always have W W

= 0, it results R
4
= W W

.
c) Since W W

= R
4
, it results that v uniquely decomposes as v = v
0
+ v

, with
v
0
W and v

. From v
0
W, we infer that v
0
= k
1
v
1
+ k
2
v
2
with k
1
, k
2
R; the
condition v

leads to

v

, v
1
_
= 0 and v

, v
2
) = 0. Given that
v

= v v
0
= v k
1
v
1
k
2
v
2
,
the previous relations become:
_
k
1
v
1
, v
1
) +k
2
v
2
, v
1
) = v, v
1
)
k
1
v
1
, v
2
) +k
2
v
2
, v
2
) = v, v
2
)
Consequently, k
1
and k
2
are the solutions of the system:
_
3k
1
+ 2k
2
= 3
2k
1
+ 3k
2
= 1

_
k
1
= 7/5
k
2
= 3/5
We conclude that v
0
=
7
5
v
1

3
5
v
2
=
_
4
5
,
3
5
,
4
5
,
7
5
_
and v

= v v
0
=
_
1
5
,
2
5
,
1
5
,
2
5
_
.
Also, by direct calculation we get [[v[[ = 2, [[v
0
[[ =
_
18/5, [[v

[[ =
_
2/5, so the Pythagorean
theorem is veried: [[v[[
2
4 =
18
5
+
2
5
[[v
0
[[
2
+[[v

[[
2
.
d) Because the basis B
W
= v
1
, v
2
of the subspace W is not orthogonal, we orthogonalize
it by means of the Gram-Schmidt process v
1
, v
2
w
1
, w
2
.
w
1
= v
1
= (1, 0, 1, 1)
w
2
= v
2
pr
w
1
v
2
= v
2

v
2
,w
1
)
w
1
,w
1
)
w
1
=
= (1, 1, 1, 0)
2
3
(1, 0, 1, 1) = (
1
3
, 1,
1
3
,
2
3
).
The vector
_
1
3
, 1,
1
3
,
2
3
_
is parallel to the vector (1, 3, 1, 2), so a new orthogonal basis
of W is B
0
= w
1
= (1, 0, 1, 1), w
2
= (1, 3, 1, 2).
We notice that we have
v
0
= pr
W
v = pr
w
1
v +pr
w
2
v =
v, w
1
)
w
1
, w
1
)
w
1
+
v, w
2
)
w
2
, w
2
)
w
2
=
=
3
3
(1, 0, 1, 1) +
3
15
(1, 3, 1, 2) = (
4
5
,
3
5
,
4
5
,
7
5
),
and the orthogonal component of the vector v relative to W is
v

= v pr
W
v = (1, 1, 1, 1)
_
4
5
,
3
5
,
4
5
,
7
5
_
=
_
1
5
,
2
5
,
1
5
,
2
5
_
.
e) By norming the vectors w
1
, w
2
, it results the orthonormal basis B = f
1
, f
2
of the
subspace W formed by the vectors:
f
1
=
1
[[w
1
[[
w
1
=
_
1

3
, 0,
1

3
,
1

3
_
, f
2
=
1
[[w
2
[[
w
2
=
_
1

15
,
3

15
,
1

15
,
2

15
_
f ) The Fourier coecients of v relative to B are
1
= v, f
1
) =
3

3
=

3 and
2
=
v, f
2
) =
3

15
=
_
3
5
. We notice that these coecients are exactly the components of the
Solutions 51
projection v
0
of v onto W, relative to the basis B of the subspace W: [pr
W
v]
B
= [v
0
]
B
=
_

1

2
_
=
_
3

_
3/5
_
. Moreover, the Bessel inequality occurs: 2
2

3
2
+ (
_
3/5)
2
.
g) The Parseval equality is veried:
_
18/5
2
=

3
2
+ (
_
3/5)
2
;
h) For w =
1
f
1
+
2
f
2
W, we have
d(v, w)
2
= [[v w[[
2
= [[v

+ (v
0
w)[[
2
=
_
v

+ (v
0
w), v

+ (v
0
w)).
But v

and v
0
w W imply orthogonality of the two vectors, so v

, v
0
w) = 0.
Therefore:
d(v, w)
2
= v

, v

) +v
0
w, v
0
w) = [[v

[[
2
+[[v
0
w[[
2
=
= [[v

[[
2
+[[(
1

1
)f
1
+ (
2

2
)f
2
[[
2
.
But B = f
1
, f
2
is orthonormal family, so
d(v, w)
2
= [[v

[[
2
+ (
1

1
)
2
+ (
2

2
)
2
.
We notice that when w varies in W, i.e., when
1
,
2
R vary, the minimum of the expression
d(v, w) is achieved for
1
=
1
and
2
=
2
, hence for w = v
0
= pr
W
v, and the minimum
has the value d(v, v
0
) = [[v

[[.
31. a) Using the Gram-Schmidt method, we build an orthogonal basis F
1
= u
1
, u
2
, u
3

formed by the vectors

u
1
= v
1
= (1, 1, 1)
u
2
= v
2

v
2
, u
1
)
u
1
, u
1
)
u
1
= (1, 1, 0)
2
3
(1, 1, 1) =
_
1
3
,
1
3
,
2
3
_
[[(1, 1, 2)
u
3
= v
3

v
3
, u
1
)
u
1
, u
1
)
u
1

v
3
, u
2
)
u
2
, u
2
)
u
2
=
= (1, 0, 0)
1
3
(1, 1, 1)
1
6
(1, 1, 2) = (
1
2
,
1
2
, 0)[[(1, 1, 0).
We divide each vector from the orthogonal basis by its norm and we get an orthonormal
basis F
tt
= w
1
, w
2
, w
3
formed by the vectors
_

_
w
1
=
u
1
|u
1
|
=
_
1

3
,
1

3
,
1

3
_
w
2
=
u
2
|u
2
|
=
_
1

6
,
1

6
,
2

6
_
w
3
=
u
3
|u
3
|
=
_
1

2
,
1

2
, 0
_
Homework. Check that the family of vectors F
tt
is orthonormal.
b) It can be veried that f
1
= cosh and f
2
= id are linearly independent vectors, where
f
1
(x) = cosh x =
e
x
+e
x
2
and f
2
(x) = id(x) = x, for any x [0, 1]. More accurate,

1
f
1
+
2
f
2
= 0
1
coshx +
2
x = 0, x [0, 1]. But for x = 0 and x = 1, we get the
system
_

1
= 0
e+e
1
2

1
+
2
= 0
with the solution
1
=
2
= 0, so indf
1
, f
2
.
Using the canonical inner product from C
0
[0, 1] , f, g) =
_
1
0
f(x)g(x)dx, f, g
C
0
[0, 1] and the Gram-Schmidt method, we build an orthogonal basis F
t
= g
1
, g
2
formed
52 LAAG-DGDE
by the vectors
g
1
= f
1
= ch
g
2
= f
2

f
2
,g
1
)
g
1
,g
1
)
g
1
=
= id
_
1
0
xcoshxdx
_
1
0
cosh
2
xdx
cosh = id
1 e
1
(e
2
e
2
+ 4)/8
cosh = id
8(e 1)
e(e
2
+e
2
+ 4)
cosh.
We norm these functions and we get the orthonormal family F
tt
= e
1
, e
2

_
e
1
=
g
1
|g
1
|
=
_
8
e
2
+4e
2
ch
e
2
=
g
2
|g
2
|
=
id a cosh
_
_
1
0
(x a coshx)
2
dx
, a =
8(e 1)
e(e
2
+e
2
+ 4)
.
c) Like in the previous items, we orthogonalize the family
_
p
1
= 1 +x, p
2
= x +x
2
, p
3
= x
_
in order to get the orthogonal family q
1
, q
2
, q
3
, where:
q
1
= p
1
= 1 +x , q
2
= p
2

p
2
, q
1
)
q
1
, q
1
)
q
1
, q
3
= p
3

p
3
, q
1
)
q
1
, q
1
)
q
1

p
3
, q
2
)
q
2
, q
2
)
q
2
.
We have
q
1
, q
1
) =
_
1
1
q
2
1
(x)dx =
_
1
1
(1 +x)
2
dx =
8
3
.
and because
p
2
, q
1
) =
_
1
1
p
2
(x)q
1
(x)dx =
_
1
1
(x +x
2
)(1 +x)dx =
4
3
,
it results q
2
=
1
2
+
1
2
x +x
2
. Then we calculate the inner products
q
2
, q
2
) =
_
1
1
q
2
2
(x)dx =
_
1
1
_

1
2
+
1
2
x +x
2
_
2
dx =
2
5
,
p
3
, q
1
) =
_
1
1
x(1 +x)dx =
2
3
,
p
3
, q
2
) =
_
1
1
x
_

1
2
+
1
2
x +x
2
_
dx =
1
3
.
Then
q
3
= x
1
4
(1 +x)
5
6
_

1
2
+
1
2
x +x
2
_
=
1
6
+
1
3
x
5
6
x
2
.
We norm these polynomials and we get the orthonormal family r
1
, r
2
, r
3
, where
r
1
=

6
4
+

6
4
x , r
2
=

10
4
+

10
4
x +

10
2
x
2
, r
3
=

2
4
+

2
2
x
5

2
4
x
2
.
d) We orthogonalize the given set, by using the relations:
u
1
= w
1
, u
2
= w
2

w
2
, u
1
)
u
1
, u
1
)
u
1
, u
3
= w
3

w
3
, u
1
)
u
1
, u
1
)
u
1

w
3
, u
2
)
u
2
, u
2
)
u
2
.
We subsequently get: w
2
, u
1
) = i, u
1
, u
1
) = 2, u
2
= (
1
2
, i,
i
2
)[[(1, 2i, i) and w
3
, u
1
) =
0, w
3
, u
2
) = 1, u
2
, u
2
) =
3
2
, u
3
= (
1
3
,
i
3
,
i
3
)[[(1, i, i). After calculations we get the
orthogonal family
u
1
= (i, 0, 1) , u
2
= (1, 2i, i), u
3
= (1, i, i)
Solutions 53
and by norming, the orthonormal family v
1
, v
2
, v
3
, where
v
1
=
u
1
|u
1
|
=
_

2
, 0,
1

2
_
, v
2
=
_
1

6
,
2i

6
,
i

6
_
, v
3
=
_
1

3
,
i

3
,
i

3
_
.
32. a) By orthogonalization of the basis B
W
= p
1
= 1 +x
2
, p
2
= 1 we get w
1
= p
1
=
1 +x
2
,
w
2
= p
2
pr
w
1
p
2
= p
2

p
2
, w
1
)
w
1
, w
1
)
w
1
= 1
_
1
1
(1 +t
2
)dt
__
1
1
(1 +t
2
)
2
dt
_1
w
1
=
= 1
8/3
56/15
(1 +x
2
) =
2
7

5
7
x
2
,
so B
W,orthog.
=
_
w
1
= 1 +x
2
, w
2
=
2
7

5
7
x
2
_
. Then
v
0
= pr
w
1
v +pr
w
2
v =
v, w
1
)
w
1
, w
1
)
w
1
+
v, w
2
)
w
2
, w
2
)
w
2
=
=
8/3
56/15
w
1
+
2/21
2/21
w
2
=
_
5
7
+
5
7
x
2
_
+
_
2
7

5
7
x
2
_
= 1. Therefore v

= v v
0
= x.
b) B
W
= v
1
= (2, 1, 0), v
2
= (1, 4, 1) is not an orthogonal basis, and we can orthogonalize
this using the Gram-Schmidt method v
1
, v
2
w
1
, w
2
.
w
1
= v
1
= (2, 1, 0)
w
2
= v
2
pr
w
1
v
2
= v
2

v
2
, w
1
)
w
1
, w
1
)
w
1
=
= ( 1, 4, 1)
2
5
(2, 1, 0) =
_

9
5
,
18
5
, 1
_
[[(9, 18, 5)
and we get B
orthog, W
= w
1
= (2, 1, 0) , w
2
= (9, 18, 5). Then we have:
v
0
= pr
w
v = pr
w
1
v +pr
w
2
v =
4
5
(2, 1, 0) +
32
430
(9, 18, 5) =
_
40
43
,
92
43
,
16
43
_
and so v

= v v
0
=
_
3
43
,
6
43
,
27
43
_
.
c) We notice that C, D) = D, C) = 0, so the basis B
W
=
_
C =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, D =
_
0 1
2 0
_
_
is orthogonal; we get
v
0
= pr
C
v +pr
D
v =
2
2
_
1 0
0 1
_
+
10
5
_
0 1
2 0
_
=
_
1 2
4 1
_
and v

= vv
0
= 0. Remark. v

= 0 v L(C, D). Indeed, C+D = v = 1, = 2,

so v = C + 2D L(C, D). d) We notice that:
W = (x, x + 2z, z) [ x, z R = x(1, 1, 0)
. .
v
1
+z (0, 2, 1)
. .
v
2
[ x, z R,
so a basis of W is B
W
= v
1
= (1, 1, 0) , v
2
= (0, 2, 1). Orthogonalizing B
W
, we get the
orthogonal basis B
t
W
= w
1
= (1, 1, 0), w
2
= (1, 1, 1), and hence
_

_
v
0
= pr
w
1
v +pr
w
2
v =
1
2
(1, 1, 0) +
2
3
(1, 1, 1) =
_
7
6
,
1
6
,
2
3
_
v

= (2, 1, 1)
_
7
6
,
1
6
,
2
3
_
=
_
5
6
,
5
6
,
5
3
_
.
54 LAAG-DGDE
II.4. Linear transformations
33. a) For T to be linear we must show that k R and x, y R
3
, we have
_
T(x +y) = T(x) +T(y)
T(kx) = kT(x)
. Indeed, we subsequently get
T(x +y) = (x
1
+y
1
x
3
y
3
, x
2
+y
2
, 2x
1
+ 2y
1
2x
3
2y
3
) =
= ((x
1
x
3
) + (y
1
y
3
), x
2
+y
2
, (2x
1
2x
3
) + (2y
1
2y
3
)) =
= (x
1
x
3
, x
2
, 2x
1
2x
3
) + (y
1
y
3
, y
2
, 2y
1
2y
3
) = T(x) +T(y)
T(kx) = (kx
1
kx
3
, kx
2
, 2kx
1
2kx
3
) = (k(x
1
x
3
), kx
2
, k(2x
1
2x
3
)) =
= k(x
1
x
3
, x
2
, 2x
1
2x
3
) = kT(x).
The kernel and the image of a linear mapping T : V W are
Ker T = v V [ T(v) = 0, ImT = w W [ v V such that T(v) = w.
In our case, the equation T(x) = 0 with the unknown x R
3
leads us to the system
_
_
_
x
1
x
3
= 0
x
2
= 0
2x
1
2x
3
= 0

_
_
_
x
1
= a
x
2
= 0
x
3
= a
, a R.
It results that Ker T = (a, 0, a) [ a R. A basis for Ker T is formed of the vector
v
1
= (1, 0, 1), hence
dim Ker T = 1 (11)
and consequently the nullity of T is 1. From the relation (11), it results that Ker T ,= 0,
so T is not injective.
The action of T on the canonical basis B = e
1
= (1, 0, 0), e
2
= (0, 1, 0), e
3
= (0, 0, 1) of
the space R
3
, gives us vectors whose coecients relative to the basis B are the columns of
the transformation matrix T relative to B. From the relations
_

_
T(e
1
) = T((1, 0, 0)) = (1 0, 0, 2 1 0) = (1, 0, 2) = e
1
+ 2e
3
T(e
2
) = T((0, 1, 0)) = (0 0, 1, 0 0) = (0, 1, 0) = e
2
T(e
3
) = T((0, 0, 1)) = (0 1, 0, 0 2 1) = (1, 0, 2) = e
1
2e
3
,
we get [T(e
1
)]
B
= (1, 0, 2)
t
, [T(e
2
)]
B
= (0, 1, 0)
t
, [T(e
3
)]
B
= (1, 0, 2)
t
, so the claimed
matrix is [T]
B
=
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 0
2 0 2
_
_
. If e
1
, e
2
, e
3
is the canonical basis of R
3
, then the
vectors T(e
1
), T(e
2
), T(e
3
) generate the vector subspace ImT. From these vectors we
extract a maximal system of linearly independent vectors and in this way we obtain a basis
for ImT. Because the linear mapping matrix T has on its columns the components of the
vectors T(e
1
), T(e
2
), T(e
3
) relative to the canonical basis, it results that suces to calculate
the rank of this matrix. This will be the dimension of the space ImT, hence the rank of
T. Because rank A = 2, (for example

1 0
0 1

= 1 ,= 0), we infer that the rank of the

linear mapping T is 2, a basis in ImT being formed of the vectors T(e
1
) = (1, 0, 2) and
T(e
2
) = (0, 1, 0).
As dimR
3
= 3, we notice that ImT ,= R
3
, so T is not surjective, and hence non-bijective.
Solutions 55
b) Let k R and p, q P
2
. Then
(T(p +q))(x) = x
_
1
0
(p +q)(t)dt + (p +q)(1) (p +q)
t
(0) =
= x
_
1
0
(p(t) +q(t))dt +p(1) +q(1) p
t
(0) q
t
(0) =
= x
_
1
0
p(t)dt +p(1) p
t
(0) +x
_
1
0
q(t)dt +q(1) q
t
(0) =
= (T(p))(x) + (T(q))(x) = (T(p) +T(q))(x), x R,
so T(p +q) = T(p) +T(q), p, q P
2
. Also, we have
(T(kp))(x) = x
_
1
0
(kp)(t)dt + (kp)(1) (kp)
t
(0) =
= x
_
1
0
kp(t)dt +kp(1) kp
t
(0) =
= k
_
x
_
1
0
p(t)dt +p(1) p
t
(0)
_
= (kT(p))(x), x R,
so T(kp) = kT(p), p P
2
, k R. Let p = a
0
+ a
1
X + a
2
X
2
P
2
. Then the equation
T(p) = 0 becomes
x
_
1
0
(a
0
+a
1
t +a
2
t
2
)dt +p(1) p
t
(0) = 0, x R
x
_
a
0
t +a
1
t
2
2
+a
2
t
3
3
_

1
0
+ (a
0
+a
1
+a
2
) a
1
= 0, x R
x
_
a
0
+
a
1
2
+
a
2
3
_
+a
0
+a
2
= 0, x R
_
a
0
+
a
1
2
+
a
2
3
= 0
a
0
+a
2
= 0,
with the solution a
0
= , a
1
=
4
3
, a
2
= . Consequently Ker T = (1+
4
3
X+X
2
) [
R. A basis for Ker T is the polynomial p
0
= 1 +
4
3
X +X
2
, so
dim Ker T = 1 (12)
and consequently the nullity of T is 1. From the relation (12), we get Ker T ,= 0, so T is
not injective.
The action of T on the canonical basis B = 1, X, X
2
of the space P
2
is given by
_

_
T(1) = X
_
1
0
dt + 1 0 = X + 1,
T(X) = X
_
1
0
tdt + 1 1 =
X
2
,
T(X
2
) = X
_
1
0
t
2
dt + 1 0 =
X
3
+ 1.
The matrix of T has on its columns the coecients of the polynomials T(1), T(X), T(X
2
)
relative to the basis 1, X, X
2
of the range P
2
. Then
A = [T]
B
=
_
_
1 0 1
1 1/2 1/3
0 0 0
_
_
.
56 LAAG-DGDE
In order to nd the image of T, we repeat the reasonings from item a), and calculate the
rank of the matrix A = [T]
B
= [T(1), T(X), T(X
2
)]
B
. Because det A = 0, but there exists
a nonvanishing minor with the rank 2 of A (for example,

1 0
1 1/2

,= 0), we infer that the

rank of the matrix A is 2, this being also the rank of the transformation T.
A basis of ImT is formed by T(1), T(X). As dimP
2
= 3, we get ImT ,= P
2
, so T is
not surjective. Since T is not injective nor surjective, it follows that T is non bijective.
c) For k, R and A, B M
22
(R), we have
T(kA+B) = (kA+B)
t
2 Tr (kA+B)I
2
= (kA)
t
+ (B)
t
2( Tr (kA) + Tr (B))I
2
=
= k A
t
+ B
t
2k Tr (A)I
2
2 Tr (B) I
2
= kT(A) +T(B).
Let A =
_
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
_
M
22
(R). Then the equation T(A) = 0 can be written as
_
a
1
a
3
a
2
a
4
_
2(a
1
+a
4
)
_
1 0
0 1
_
= O
M
22
(R)

_
a
1
2a
1
2a
4
a
3
a
2
a
4
2a
1
2a
4
_
=
_
0 0
0 0
_

a
1
2a
4
= 0, a
3
= 0, a
2
= 0, 2a
1
a
4
= 0,
and so a
1
= a
2
= a
3
= a
4
= 0. Consequently Ker T 0 and because the inclusion
0 Ker T is always true, we get Ker T = 0, so T is injective and the nullity of T is
dim Ker T = 0.
The canonical basis of the space M
22
(R) is
B =
_
m
11
=
_
1 0
0 0
_
, m
12
=
_
0 1
0 0
_
, m
21
=
_
0 0
1 0
_
, m
22
=
_
0 0
0 1
__
.
From the relations
_

_
T(m
11
) =
_
1 0
0 0
_
2 1
_
1 0
0 1
_
=
_
1 0
0 2
_
= m
11
2m
22
T(m
12
) =
_
0 0
1 0
_
2 0
_
1 0
0 1
_
=
_
0 0
1 0
_
= m
21
T(m
21
) =
_
0 1
0 0
_
2 0
_
1 0
0 1
_
=
_
0 1
0 0
_
= m
12
T(m
22
) =
_
0 0
0 1
_
2 1
_
1 0
0 1
_
=
_
2 0
0 1
_
= 2m
11
m
22
,
we obtain the requested matrix
A = [T]
B
=
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 2
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
2 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
.
The rank of the matrix A = [T]
B
= [T(m
11
), T(m
12
), T(m
21
), T(m
22
)] is 4 (because det A ,=
0); it results that the rank of the transformation T is 4, a basis in ImT being formed of
T(m
11
), T(m
12
), T(m
21
), T(m
22
). Since dimM
22
(R) = 4, we infer that this set is also basis
for M
22
(R). Then
ImT = L(T(m
11
), T(m
12
), T(m
21
), T(m
22
)) = M
22
(R),
Solutions 57
and hence T is surjective. We conclude that T is bijective.
Otherwise. We use the theorem according to which an endomorphism on a nite-dimensional
vector space V
n
is simultaneously injective/surjective/bijective. In our case we have
dimV
n
= dimM
22
(R), n = 4 < , and Ker T = 0, so T is injective, surjective and
bijective; from the surjectivity, it results ImT = M
22
(R).
34. a) For k, l R and p, q R
1
[X], we have
(T(kp +lq))(x) = x
_
1
0
(kp +lq)(t)dt + (kp +lq)
_
1
2
_
=
= k
_
x
_
1
0
p(t)dt +p
_
1
2
__
+l
_
x
_
1
0
q(t)dt +q
_
1
2
__
=
= (kT(p) +lT(q))(x), x R,
so T(kp +lq) = kT(p) +lT(q), k, l R, p, q R
1
[X].
b) The kernel of the linear mapping T is
Ker T = p R
1
[X] [ T(p) = 0,
But T(p) = 0 only if (T(p))(x) = 0, x R. We consider the polynomial p = a
0
+ a
1
X
R
1
[X]. Then
(T(p))(x) = 0 x
_
1
0
(a
0
+a
1
t)dt +a
0
+a
1

1
2
= 0
x
_
a
0
+a
1

1
2
_
+
_
a
0
+a
1

1
2
_
= 0
(x + 1)
_
a
0
+a
1

1
2
_
= 0.
Because this equality occurs for any x R, we will get
a
0
+a
1

1
2
= 0
with the solution a
1
= 2a
0
, so p = a
0
(1 2x), a
0
R.
Consequently
Ker T = a
0
(1 2X) [ a
0
R, (13)
so a basis in Ker T is formed by the polynomial (1 2X).
The image of the linear mapping T is ImT = q R
1
[X] [ p R
1
[X] s.t. T(p) = q.
Let q R
1
[X] and p = a
0
+a
1
X. Then
T(p) = q X
_
1
0
(a
0
+a
1
t)dt +a
0
+a
1

1
2
= q
(X + 1)(a
0
+
a
1
2
) = q. The equation T(p) = q with the unknown p R
1
[X] has a
solution only for q L(X + 1), and so
ImT = (1 +X) [ R. (14)
But X + 1 , 0 and consequently the polynomial (1 +X) forms a basis in the image of T.
c) Because a basis in Ker T is formed by the polynomial (1 2X), it follows that Ker T ,=
0, so T is not injective. Because ImT ,= R
1
[X], T is not surjective either.
58 LAAG-DGDE
d) We have dimKer
. .
1
T + dim Im
. .
1
T = dimR
1
[X]
. .
2
.
e) The canonical basis of the space R
1
[X] is B = 1, X, hence in order to nd the matrix
of the linear mapping T, we calculate
T(1) = X
_
1
0
dt + 1 = X + 1
T(X) = X
_
1
0
tdt +
1
2
=
X
2
+
1
2
.
In conclusion, the linear mapping matrix T is
A = [T]
B
= [T(1), T(X)]
B
=
_
1 1/2
1 1/2
_
.
T is injective if and only if the system given by T(a
0
+a
1
X) = 0 [T]
_
a
0
a
1
_
=
_
0
0
_
(writing in the matrix form) is determined compatible. But, because the system
is homogeneous and det A =

1 1/2
1 1/2

= 0, it follows that the system is undetermined

compatible, so T is not injective.
Because the rank of the matrix A is 1, it results that the rank of the transformation T
is 1, so a basis in ImT is formed of a single vector (T(1) or T(X)). Since dimR
1
[X] = 2, it
results that ImT ,= R
1
[X], so T is not surjective.
f ) We denote with B = 1, X the canonical basis of the space R
1
[X] and
B
t
= q
1
= 1 2X, q
2
= 1 +X.
The following relation occurs
[T]
B
t
= [B
t
]
1
B
[T]
B
[B
t
]
B
,
where [B
t
]
B
=
_
1 1
2 1
_
, [T]
B
=
_
1 1/2
1 1/2
_
, hence it results [T]
B
t
=
_
0 0
0 3/2
_
.
Otherwise. The required matrix can be obtained setting on the columns the coecients of
the polynomials T(q
1
), T(q
2
) relative to the new basis B
t
= q
1
, q
2
.
g) In order to prove that the image and the kernel of T are supplementary subspaces in
R
1
[X], we must have Ker T ImT = 0 and Ker T + ImT = R
1
[X].
Let p Ker T ImT. From the relations (13) and (14) we yield
_
p = a
0
(1 2X)
p = (1 +X)
a
0
2a
0
X = +X
_
a
0
=
2a
0
=
,
so a
0
= = 0. In conclusion p 0, so Ker T ImT 0. As the reverse inclusion
0 Ker T ImT is trivial , we have Ker T ImT = 0.
Using the Grassmann theorem, we have
dim( Ker T + ImT) = dim Ker T+dim ImTdim( Ker T ImT) = 1+10 = 2 = dimR
1
[x].
As Ker T + ImT R
1
[X] and the subspace has the same dimension as the total space, we
get Ker T + ImT = R
1
[X]; so the two subspaces are supplementary.
Solutions 59
Otherwise. Fromind12X, 1+X and Ker T+ImT = L(1 +X)+L(1 2X) = L(1 +X, 1 2X)
it results that 1 2X, 1 +X is basis in Ker T + ImT. But Ker T + ImT R
1
[X], so
Ker T + ImT = R
1
[X] and dim( Ker T + ImT) = 2.
Hence the equality dim Ker T +dim ImT = dimR
1
[X] is veried. Then using the Grass-
mann theorem, we have
dim( Ker T ImT) = dim( Ker T) + dim( ImT) dim( Ker T + ImT) = 1 + 1 2 = 0,
so Ker T ImT = 0 and the two subspaces are supplementary.
35. a) The dimension of the space R
3
is 3, so is enough to prove that the vectors v
1
, v
2
, v
3
are linearly independent (then they will form a basis of R
3
). But
det[v
1
, v
2
, v
3
] =

1 0 0
1 1 1
1 1 0

= 1 ,= 0,
so we have indv
1
, v
2
, v
3
.
b) By replacing the vectors v
1
, v
2
, v
3
, w
1
and w
2
in the relations which dene the application
T, we get
T((1, 0, 1)) = (0, 1), T((0, 3, 1)) = (1, 1), T((1, 1, 1)) = (1, 0),
so
T(e
1
+e
3
) = f
2
, T(3e
2
+e
3
) = f
1
+f
2
, T(e
1
e
2
e
3
) = f
1
,
where B = e
1
= (1, 0, 0), e
2
= (0, 1, 0), e
3
= (0, 0, 1) and B
t
= f
1
= (1, 0), f
2
= (0, 1)
represent the canonical bases of the space R
3
, respectively R
2
.
The linearity of T permits us to write these relations as:
_
_
_
T(e
1
) + T(e
3
) = f
2
3T(e
2
) + T(e
3
) = f
1
+ f
2
T(e
1
) T(e
2
) T(e
3
) = f
1
[T(e
1
), T(e
2
), T(e
3
)]
_
_
1 0 1
0 3 1
1 1 1
_
_
= [f
1
, f
2
]
_
0 1 1
1 1 0
_
,
i.e., a compatible system in the unknowns T(e
1
), T(e
2
), T(e
3
), with the solution
T(e
1
) = 2f
1
3f
2
, T(e
2
) = f
1
f
2
, T(e
3
) = 2f
1
+ 4f
2
,
so the wanted matrix is A = [T]
B,B
= [T(e
1
), T(e
2
), T(e
3
)]
B
t
=
_
2 1 2
3 1 4
_
.
c) We have
[T(x)]
B
t
= [T]
BB

_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
2x
1
+x
2
2x
3
3x
1
x
2
+ 4x
3
_
,
so T(x) = (2x
1
+x
2
2x
3
, 3x
1
x
2
+ 4x
3
), x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) R
3
.
d) T is injective if and only if the homogeneous system given by [T]
BB

_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_
is determined compatible. We notice that in this case the rank of the matrix [T]
BB
being
strictly less than the number of columns, the system is undetermined compatible, hence T is
not injective.
The rank of the matrix [T] is 2, hence the rank of the transformation T is also 2, a basis in
ImT being formed of the vectors T(e
1
) = (2, 3)
t
and T(e
2
) = (1, 1)
t
. This is a basis for
R
2
, so ImT = R
2
, i.e., T is surjective.
60 LAAG-DGDE
36. a) For k, l R and f, g C
1
(0, 1), we have
(T(kf +lg))(x) = (kf +lg)
t
(x) = k f
t
(x) +l g
t
(x) =
= k(T(f))(x) +l(T(g))(x), x (0, 1)
and hence T(kf +lg) = kT(f) +lT(g).
b) The kernel of the linear mapping T is Ker T = f C
1
(0, 1) [ T(f) = 0. But
T(f) = 0 (T(f))(x) = 0, x (0, 1) f
t
(x) = 0, x (0, 1).
Hence, Ker T is the set of the constant functions on (0, 1).
The image of the linear mapping T is
ImT = g C
0
(0, 1) [ f C
1
(0, 1) such that T(f) = g.
But for g C
0
(0, 1), we have
T(f) = g T(f)(x) = g(x), x (0, 1) f
t
(x) = g(x), x (0, 1),
i.e. f(x) =
_
g(x)dx + c, c R and so f C
1
(0, 1) such that T(f) = g; it results
C
0
(0, 1) ImT. As ImT C
0
(0, 1), results ImT = C
0
(0, 1).
c) We have T(f)(x) = 1 x
2
f
t
(x) = 1 x
2
f(x) = x
x
3
3
+c, c R.
d) The dimension theorem cannot be applied, because dim DomT = dimC
1
(0, 1) = .
37. a) Because the canonical basis of the space R
1
[X] is B = 1, X, in order to nd
the image of T we compute
(T(1))(x) = x 1, (T(X))(x) = x
2
.
Therefore ImT = L(X 1, X
2
), and because X 1, X
2
is a family of linearly indepen-
dent vectors, it results that B
t
= u
1
= X 1, u
2
= X
2
is a basis in ImT.
Using the Gram-Schmidt method we build an orthogonal basis B
tt
= v
1
, v
2

v
1
= u
1
= X 1
v
2
= u
2
pr
v
1
u
2
= u
2

u
2
, v
1
)
v
1
, v
1
)
v
1
.
We calculate
u
2
, v
1
) =
_
1
1
u
2
(x)v
1
(x)dx =
_
1
1
x
2
(x 1)dx =
2
3
,
v
1
, v
1
) =
_
1
1
v
2
1
(x)dx =
_
1
1
(x 1)
2
dx =
8
3
,
and we get v
2
=
1
4
(4X
2
+X 1). In order to nd an orthonormal basis, we calculate
_

_
|v
1
| =
_
v
1
, v
1
) =
_
8
3
|v
2
| =
_
v
2
, v
2
) =
_
_
1
1
1
16
(4x
2
+x 1)
2
dx =
_
7
30
and so the required basis is B
ttt
=
_
1
|v
1
|
v
1
,
1
|v
2
|
v
2
_
=
__
3
8
(X 1), 4
_
30
7
(4X
2
+X 1)
_
.
b) We get T(1 2X) = X(1 2X) 1 = 2X
2
+X 1.
Solutions 61
II.5. Particular linear mappings
38. a) The kernel and the image of a linear mapping T : V W are respectively given
by:
Ker T = x V [T(x) = 0, ImT = y W[x V s.t. T(x) = y.
In our case the equation T(x) = 0, in the unknown x V = R
3
leads us to the system
_
_
_
x
1
+x
2
+x
3
= 0
x
2
+x
3
= 0
x
3
= 0

_
_
_
x
1
= 0
x
2
= 0
x
3
= 0.
It results that Ker T = 0, so T is injective.
Because B = e
1
= (1, 0, 0), e
2
= (0, 1, 0), e
3
= (0, 0, 1) is a basis (the canonical basis) of
R
3
, it follows that the vectors T(e
1
) = (1, 0, 0), T(e
2
) = (1, 1, 0), T(e
3
) = (1, 1, 1) generates
the vector subspace ImT. Because
det[T(B)]
B
= det[T(e
1
), T(e
2
)
,
T(e
3
)]
B
=

1 1 1
0 1 1
0 0 1

= 1 ,= 0,
it results that the vectors T(e
1
), T(e
2
), T(e
3
) are linearly independent and so form a basis in
ImT. This is a basis for R
3
also (because T(e
1
), T(e
2
), T(e
3
) has three linearly independent
vectors in a 3-dimensional space), hence results ImT = R
3
, so T is surjective.
Being injective and surjective, results T bijective, so T
1
exists.
We calculate the linear mapping matrix T
1
, as being the inverse of the matrix [T]
B
; we
get [T
1
]
B
= [T]
1
B
=
_
_
1 1 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
, and [T
1
(x)]
B
=
_
_
1 1 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
2
+x
3
x
3
_
_
, so the analytical expression of T
1
is
T
1
(x) = (x
1
x
2
)e
1
+ (x
2
+x
3
)e
2
+ (x
3
)e
3
=
= (x
1
x
2
, x
2
+x
3
, x
3
), x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) R
3
.
b) T(v) = T((1, 1, 1)) = (3, 2, 1); T
1
(v) = T
1
((1, 1, 1)) = (0, 2, 1). In order to nd the
value of the expression (T
3
2T +Id)(v), we rst calculate [T
3
]
B
= [T]
3
B
=
_
_
1 3 2
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
,
which infers
[T
3
2T +Id]
B
= [T
3
]
B
2[T]
B
+ [Id]
B
=
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 2
_
_
.
Therefore, [(T
3
2T + Id)(v)]
B
= [T
3
2T + Id]
B
(1, 1, 1)
t
= (1, 1, 2)
t
and so (T
3
2T +Id)(v) = (1, 1, 2).
39. a) The canonical basis B = e
1
= (1, 0), e
2
= (0, 1) is orthonormal, so the endomor-
phism T is a Hermitian transformation whose matrix A = [T]
B
satises the relation A =

A
t
.
This equality is satised in this case, because:
t
A =
_
1 i
i 0
_
=
_
1 i
i 0
_
= A.
b) Because a, b R, it results a = a and

b = b, so we have

A
t
=
_
a z
z b
_
=
_
a z
z b
_
= A.
62 LAAG-DGDE
c) We have
t
A =
_
ia z
z ib
_
=
_
ia z
z ib
_
= A, so the endomorphism T is skew-
Hermitian.
d) The endomorphism T is unitary if A A

= A

A = I
2
, where A

=
t
A. We
have

A
t
=
_
u v

v

u
_
=
_
u v
v u
_
and hence A A

=
_
u v
v u
_

_
u v
v u
_
=
_
[u[
2
+[v[
2
0
0 [v[
2
+[u[
2
_
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
= I
2
. Similarly, one can verify the equality
A

A = I
2
.
e) The real endomorphism T is called symmetric if its matrix A = [T]
B
relative to the
canonical orthonormal basis B = e
1
, e
2
R
2
satises the relation A =
t
A. Obviously, in
our case this relation holds true.
f ) The endomorphism T is skew-symmetric because A = A
t
(which can be easily be
checked). T is called complex structure if A
2
= I
2
; we have A
2
=
_
0 1
1 0
__
0 1
1 0
_
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
= I
2
. Because A A
t
=
_
0 1
1 0
__
0 1
1 0
_
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
= I
2
and
similarly, A
t
A = I
2
. It results that T is an orthogonal endomorphism.
g) We have
AA
t
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_

_
cos sin
sin cos
_
=
_
cos
2
+ sin
2
0
0 sin
2
+ cos
2

_
= I
2
and analogously, A
t
A = I
2
, so T is orthogonal.
h) The endomorphism T is called projection if A
2
= A. But A
2
=
_
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
_
= A, so T
is a projection.
i) T is nilpotent operator of order three if A
3
= 0
M
33
(R)
, equality which is veried.
40. a) We use the inner product A, B)=Tr A B
t
), A, B M
2
(R). If the real
endomorphism T has the property T = T

, i.e. TA, B) = A, TB), A, B M

2
(R), then
T is called symmetric transformation.
In this case, using the trace properties Tr(C) = Tr(C
t
), Tr(AB) = Tr(BA), we have
TA, B) = A
t
, B) = TrA
t
B
t
) = Tr(BA)
t
= Tr(BA) = Tr(AB) = Tr(A
t
B
t
)=
A, B
t
) = A, TB), so T is symmetric relative to the canonical inner product on M
22
(R).
b) We use the inner product f, g) =
_
b
a
f(x)g(x)dx, f, g C
0
[a, b] V .
Let f, g V . Using the integration by parts and the equalities f(a) = f(b), g(a) = g(b), we
get:
Tf, g) =
_
b
a
(T(f)(x))g(x)dx =
_
b
a
f
t
(x)g(x)dx = f(x)g(x)[
b
a

_
b
a
f(x)g
t
(x)dx =
= f(b)g(b) f(a)g(a)
_
b
a
f(x)(T(g)(x))dx = 0 f, Tg) = f, Tg),
hence the mapping is skew-symmetric relative to the canonical inner product on C
0
[a, b] V .
41. a) T
v
is linear if T(x +y) = T(x) +T(y), , R, x, y V . We have
T
v
(x +y) = x +y +v, T
v
(x) +T
v
(y) = (x +v) +(y +v) = x +y +v +v,
so T
v
is linear if and only if v = v +v, , R (+ 1)v = 0, , R, condition
which is equivalent to v = 0. Obviously, for v = 0, we get T
v
= Id, the only case in which
T
v
is linear.
Solutions 63
b) Let v ,= 0. It is known that T = T
v
preserves the inner product if x, y V we have
Tx, Ty) = x, y) x +v, y +v) = x, y)
x, y) +x, v) +v, y) +v, v) = x, y) x, v) +v, y) +v, v) = 0,
relation which must take place for any x, y V . But for x = y = v we get
3v, v) = 0 3|v|
2
= 0 |v| = 0 v = 0,
in contradiction with the assumption v ,= 0; so T does not preserve the inner product. Also,
T = T
v
does not preserve the norm for v ,= 0, because
|T
v
(v)| = |2v| = 2|v| ,= |v|,
and so the relation |T
v
(x)| = |x|, x V does not occur.
c) We notice that y V , we have T
v
(y v) = y, so T
v
is surjective. Also, we notice that
the application T = T
v
preserves the distance if d(T
v
(x), T
v
(y)) = d(x, y), x, y V , where
d(x, y) = |x y|, x, y V . We have
d(T
v
(x), T
v
(y)) = |T(x) T(y)| = |(x +v) (y +v)| = |x y| = d(x, y),
so T = T
v
preserves the distance induced by the norm given by the inner product.
Remark. If [[ [[ is any norm on V , it can be analogously proved that T = T
v
preserves the
distance induced by [[ [[.
II.6. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Diagonal form
42. a) We calculate the characteristic polynomial
P() = det(AI
3
) =

2 0 0
0 1
0 1

=
3
+ 2
2
+ 2.
b) We solve the characteristic equation
P() = 0
3
+ 2
2
+ 2 = 0,
so the algebraic equation (
2
+ 1)( 2) = 0. The real roots of these equations are the
eigenvalues of the matrix A and form the spectrum of the transformation T, (T) = 2.
Because not all the roots of the polynomial P() are real, it results that T is not Jordanizable,
hence neither diagonalizable.
In this case (T
C
) = 2, i, +i , R.
c) We notice that for =
1
= 2 we have
a
(
1
) = 1, for = i we have
a
(i) = 1, and
for = i we have
a
(i) = 1.
For =
1
= 2 the associated characteristic system is a system of linear equations which
has as solutions the eigenvectors associated to the eigenvalues
1
= 2. This system is:
(A2I
3
)(v) = 0
_
_
0 0 0
0 2 1
0 1 2
_
_
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
2y +z = 0
y 2z = 0,
and has the solutions v = (x, y, z) = (t, 0, 0) = t(1, 0, 0), t R. Therefore S

1
= L(v
1
) , where
v
1
= (1, 0, 0) is non null, so linearly independent, which form as basis in the eigenspace S

1
,
hence
g
(
1
) = dim S

1
= 1.
64 LAAG-DGDE
We emphasize this, because
2,3
= i / R,
2,3
are not eigenvalues of the endomorphism
T. Yet for T
C
(the complexication of the morphism T), and for the matrix A = [T
C
]
M
33
(C), the diagonalization is possible.
For =
2
= i, the associated characteristic system is:
(A+iI
3
)v = 0
_
_
2 +i 0 0
0 i 1
0 1 i
_
_
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
_
(2 +i)x = 0
iy +z = 0
y +iz = 0
and has the solutions v = (x, y, z) = (0, it, t) = t(0, i, 1), t C. Therefore S

2
= L(v
2
) ,
where v
2
= (0, i, 1) is non null, so linearly independent, and form a basis in the eigenspace
S

2
, hence
g
(
2
) = dimS

2
= 1.
For =
3
= i, the associated characteristic system is:
(AiI
3
)v = 0
_
_
2 i 0 0
0 i 1
0 1 i
_
_
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
_
(2 i)x = 0
iy +z = 0
y iz = 0
and has the solutions v = (x, y, z) = (0, it, t) = t(0, i, 1), t C. Therefore S

3
= L(v
3
)
, where v
3
= (0, i, 1) is non null, hence linearly independent, which form a basis in the
eigenspace S

3
, hence
g
(
3
) = dim S

3
= 1.
We notice that
a
() =
g
(), for any =
1
,
2
,
3
, so the transformation T
C
is diagonal-
izable.
43. a) We calculate the characteristic polynomial
P() = det(AI) =

3 0 0
0 2 1
0 0 2

=
3
+ 7
2
16 + 12.
We solve the characteristic equation
P() = 0
3
+ 7
2
16 + 12 = 0,
so the algebraic equation (3)(2)
2
= 0. The eigenvalues of the matrix A are the real
roots of this equations and because all the roots are real, the spectrum is (T) = (T
C
) =
3, 2, 2. Because (T
C
) R, it results that T is Jordanizable.
For =
1
= 3 and =
2
= 2 we have
a
(3) = 1, respectively
a
(2) = 2.
For =
1
= 3, the associated characteristic system is
(A3I)v = 0
_
_
0 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
b +c = 0
c = 0,
and has the solutions (a, b, c) = (t, 0, 0) = t(1, 0, 0), t R. Therefore a basis in the eigenspace
S

1
is the non null generator (hence linearly independent) v
1
= (1, 0, 0), hence it results

g
(
1
) = dim S

1
= 1 =
a
(
1
).
For =
2
= 2, the associated characteristic system is:
(A2I)v = 0
_
_
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
a = 0
c = 0,
and has the solutions v = (a, b, c) = (0, t, 0) = t(0, 1, 0), t R. We conclude that the vector
v
2
= (0, 1, 0)
t
provides a basis for S

2
. Hence it results that
g
(
2
) = dimS

2
= 1.
Solutions 65
Because for =
2
we have
g
(
2
) = 1 ,=
a
(
2
) = 2 it results that the endomorphism
T is not diagonalizable.
b) We calculate the characteristic polynomial
P() = det(AI
3
) =

7 4 1
4 7 1
4 4 4

=
3
+ 18
2
81 + 108.
We solve the characteristic equation
P() = 0
3
+ 18
2
81 + 108 = 0,
so the algebraic equation (3)
2
(12) = 0. The eigenvalues of the matrix A are the roots
of this equations and because all of them are real, the spectrum is (T) = (T
C
) = 12, 3, 3.
Because (T
C
) R, it results that T is Jordanizable.
For =
1
= 12 and =
2
= 3 we have
a
(
1
) = 1, respectively
a
(
2
) = 2.
For =
1
= 12 the associated characteristic system is
(A12I)v = 0
_
_
5 4 1
4 5 1
4 4 8
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
_
5a + 4b c = 0
4a 5b c = 0
4a 4b 8c = 0
and has the solutions v = (a, b, c) = (t, t, t) = t(1, 1, 1), t R. Therefore a basis in the
eigenspace S

1
is the vector v
1
= (1, 1, 1), hence
g
(
1
) = dimS

1
= 1 =
a
(
1
).
For =
2
= 3 the associated characteristic system is
(A3I)v = 0
_
_
4 4 1
4 4 1
4 4 1
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_
4a + 4b c = 0
and has the solutions v = (a, b, c) = (, , 4 + 4) = (1, 0, 4) + (0, 1, 4). In conclusion,
a basis in S

2
is formed of the vectors v
2
= (1, 0, 4) and v
3
= (0, 1, 4), hence
g
(
2
) =
dimS

2
= 2 =
a
(
2
).
Since
a
(
1
) =
g
(
1
)(= 1) and
a
(
2
) =
g
(
2
)(= 2), the endomorphism T is diagonaliz-
able.
The basis B
t
of the space R
3
relative to which the endomorphism matrix T is diagonal, is
formed of the vectors (eigenvectors) of the bases of eigenspaces of T, i.e. B
t
= v
1
, v
2
, v
3
.
In conclusion, the endomorphism T is diagonalizable, and admits the following diagonalizing
matrix and the diagonal matrix, respectively
C = [v
1
, v
2
, v
3
]
B
=
_
_
1 1 0
1 0 1
1 4 4
_
_
, D =
_
_
12 0 0
0 3 0
0 0 3
_
_
.
We verify the relation D = C
1
AC in the form CD = AC. We have
C D =
_
_
1 1 0
1 0 1
1 4 4
_
_
_
_
12 0 0
0 3 0
0 0 3
_
_
=
_
_
12 3 0
12 0 3
12 12 12
_
_
;
A C =
_
_
7 4 1
4 7 1
4 4 4
_
_
_
_
1 1 0
1 0 1
1 4 4
_
_
=
_
_
12 3 0
12 0 3
12 12 12
_
_
= CD.
66 LAAG-DGDE
II.7. Jordan canonical form
44. a) We calculate the characteristic polynomial
P() = det(AI
3
) =

3 3 3
1 11 6
2 14 7

=
3
+ 7
2
16 + 12.
We solve the characteristic equation P() = 0
3
+ 7
2
16 + 12, so the algebraic
equation ( 3)( 2)
2
= 0. The real roots of this equations are the eigenvalues of the
matrix A and form the spectrum of the transformation T, (T) = 3, 2, 2. Because all the
roots of the polynomial P() are real, it results that T is Jordanizable.
b) We notice that for =
1
= 3 we have
a
(
1
) = 1, and for =
2
= 2 we have

a
(
2
) = 2.
For =
1
= 3 the associated characteristic system is a system of linear equations which
has as solutions the eigenvectors associated to the eigenvalues
1
= 3. This system is:
(A3I
3
)v = 0
_
_
0 3 3
1 8 6
2 14 10
_
_
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
_
3y + 3z = 0
x + 8y + 6z = 0
2x 14y 10z = 0
and has the solutions (x, y, z) = (2t, t, t) = t(2, 1, 1), t R. Therefore S

1
= L(v
1
)
where v
1
= (2, 1, 1) is non-zero vector (so linearly independent), which forms a basis in
the eigenspace S

1
; it results
g
(
1
) = dimS

1
= 1 =
a
(
1
). Therefore
a
(
1
) =
g
(
1
)
and a basis in S

1
is v
1
= (2, 1, 1)
t
; to the family v
1
there corresponds the Jordan cell
J
1
(3) = (3).
For =
2
= 2, the associated characteristic system is
(A2I
3
)v = 0
_
_
1 3 3
1 9 6
2 14 9
_
_
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
_
x + 3y + 3z = 0
x + 9y + 6z = 0
2x 14y 9z = 0
and has the solutions v = (x, y, z) = (3t, 3t, 4t) = t(3, 3, 4), t R. Therefore S

2
=
L(v
2
), where v
2
= (3, 3, 4) is non null (and hence, linearly independent), which forms a
basis in the eigenspace S

2
; results
g
(
2
) = dimS

2
= 1. Because we have
g
(
2
) = 1 ,=
2 =
a
(
2
), results that the endomorphism T is not diagonalizable.
The number of necessary principal vectors is
a
(
2
)
g
(
2
) = 2 1 = 1. The
eigenvectors have the form v = (3t, 3t, 4t), t R; we determine the associated principal
vectors p = (a, b, c) by solving the system
(A
2
I
3
)p = v
_
_
1 3 3
1 9 6
2 14 9
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
3t
3t
4t
_
_

_
_
_
a + 3b + 3c = 3t
a + 9b + 6c = 3t
2a 14b 9c = 4t,
with the main minor

1 3
1 6

,= 0. The compatibility condition

car
=

1 3 3t
1 6 3t
2 9 4t

0 is satised, so the system is undetermined compatible. Let us consider b as secondary un-

known; we denote b = s and we get p = (a, b, c) = (s t, s,
4
3
s
2
3
t). We get for example,
for t = 1 and s = 1, the eigenvector v = (3, 3, 4)
t
and the principal vector p = (0, 1, 2)
t
.
To the family v
2
, p there corresponds the Jordan cell J
2
(2) =
_
2 1
0 2
_
.
Solutions 67
c) Taking the union of the families of vectors determined above, we get the Jordan basis
B
t
= v
1
= (2, 1, 1); v
2
= (3, 3, 4), p = (0, 1, 2), to which corresponds the Jordan
matrix J = diag (J
1
(3), J
2
(2)) =
_
_
3 0 0
0 2 1
0 0 2
_
_
.
d) The passing matrix from the canonical basis to the Jordan basis is C = [B
t
]
B
0
=
[v
1
; v
2
, p]
B
0
=
_
_
2 3 0
1 3 1
1 4 2
_
_
.
e) see item c). f ) The Jordan matrix associated to the endomorphism T relative to the basis
B
t
satises the relation J = C
1
AC. We verify an equivalent form of this relation CJ = AC:
C J =
_
_
2 3 0
1 3 1
1 4 2
_
_
_
_
3 0 0
0 2 1
0 0 2
_
_
=
_
_
6 6 3
3 6 1
3 8 0
_
_
;
A C =
_
_
3 3 3
1 11 6
2 14 7
_
_
_
_
2 3 0
1 3 1
1 4 2
_
_
=
_
_
6 6 3
3 6 1
3 8 0
_
_
= C J.
Therefore C J = A C.
45. a) We solve the characteristic equation
P() = 0 det(AI
3
) = 0
_
_
2 1 2
5 3 3
1 0 2
_
_
= 0,
so the algebraic equation (+1)
3
= 0. The real roots of of this equation are the eigenvalues
of the matrix A and form the spectrum of the linear mapping, (T) = 1, 1, 1.
Because all the roots of the characteristic polynomial are real, it results that T is Jor-
danizable.
For =
1
= 1, with the algebraic multiplicity order
a
(
1
) = 3, the associated
characteristic system is a system of linear equations which has as nontrivial solutions the
eigenvectors v = (a, b, c) associated to the eigenvalues = 1. This system is
(A+I
3
)v = 0
_
_
3 1 2
5 2 3
1 0 1
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
_
3a b + 2c = 0
5a 2b + 3c = 0
a c = 0
and has the solutions v = (a, b, c) = (t, t, t) = t(1, 1, 1), t R. Therefore S

= L(v
1
)
where v
1
= (1, 1, 1) is non null (hence linearly independent) and form as a basis in the
eigenspace S

1
; hence it results
g
(
1
) = dimS

1
= 1 ,= 3 =
a
(
1
).
The number of necessary principal vectors is
a
(
1
)
g
(
1
) = 3 1 = 2; we determine
these vectors by solving, on turn, the systems (A+I
3
)p
1
= v and (A+I
3
)p
2
= p
1
.
We solve (A + I
3
)p
1
= v, with p
1
= (a, b, c), imposing the compatibility conditions, the
system being non-homogenous. We have
(A+I
3
)p
1
= v
_
_
3 1 2
5 2 3
1 0 1
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
t
t
t
_
_

_
_
_
3a b + 2c = t
5a 2b + 3c = t
a c = t.
The system is compatible (
car
= 0, verify!) undetermined. Let us consider c = s as the
secondary unknown, we get p
1
= (a, b, c) = (t s, 2t s, s).
68 LAAG-DGDE
In order to nd the second principal vector p
2
= (a, b, c), we solve the system
(A+I
3
)p
2
= p
1

_
_
3 1 2
5 2 3
1 0 1
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
t s
2t s
s
_
_

_
_
_
3a b + 2c = t s
5a 2b + 3c = 2t s
a c = s.
(15)
In order to have a compatible system we impose the condition
car

3 1 t s
5 2 2t s
1 0 s

=
0, condition satised. For s = t, the system (15) becomes
_
_
_
3a b + 2c = 0
5a 2b + 3c = t
a c = t
, with the
solutions p
2
= (a, b, c) = ( + t, + 3t, ), R. We get, e.g., for t = 1 and s = 1
the eigenvector v = (1, 1, 1) and the principal vectors associated to p
1
= (0, 1, 1) and
p
2
= (2, 4, 1). Taking the union of the families of vectors determined above, we get the
Jordan basis
B
t
= v = (1, 1, 1); p
1
= (0, 1, 1); p
2
= (2, 4, 1),
which corresponds to the Jordan cell J
3
(1) =
_
_
1 1 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
= J.
In conclusion, the passing matrix from the canonical basis to the Jordan basis is C = [B
t
]
B
0
=
[v, p
1
, p
2
]
B
0
=
_
_
1 0 2
1 1 4
1 1 1
_
_
, and the Jordan matrix J associated to the endomorphism
T relative to the basis B
t
satises the relation J = C
1
AC CJ = AC. Indeed, we have
C J =
_
_
1 0 2
1 1 4
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
1 1 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
=
_
_
1 1 2
1 0 5
1 2 0
_
_
A C =
_
_
2 1 2
5 3 3
1 0 2
_
_
_
_
1 0 2
1 1 4
1 1 1
_
_
=
_
_
1 1 2
1 0 5
1 2 0
_
_
= C J.
b) We solve the characteristic equation
P() = 0 det(AI
3
) = 0

4 7 5
2 3 3
1 2 1

= 0,
which reduces to the algebraic equation
3
= 0. The real roots of this equation are the
eigenvalues of the matrix A and form the spectrum of the linear mapping, (T) = 0, 0, 0.
Because all the roots the characteristic polynomial are real, it results that T is Jordanizable.
For = 0, we have
a
() = 3; we determine the eigenvectors associated to v = (a, b, c)
S

1
, by solving the associated characteristic system
A v = 0
_
_
4 7 5
2 3 3
1 2 1
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
_
4a 7b 5c = 0
2a + 3b + 3c = 0
a + 2b +c = 0,
which has the solutions v = (a, b, c) = (3t, t, t) = t(3, 1, 1), t R. In conclusion, a basis
in S

is formed by the vector v

1
= (3, 1, 1), hence it results
g
() = dimS

= 1.
Solutions 69
The number of necessary principal vectors is
a
()
g
() = 3 1 = 2 which vectors we
will be determined by solving on turn, the systems A p
1
= v and A p
2
= p
1
.
We solve A p
1
= v with p
1
= (a, b, c), imposing the compatibility conditions, the system
being non-homogenous. We have
A p
1
= v
_
_
4 7 5
2 3 3
1 2 1
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
3t
t
t
_
_

_
_
_
4a 7b 5c = 3t
2a + 3b + 3c = t
a + 2b +c = t.
The system is compatible (
car
= 0, verify!) undetermined. Considering c = s as secondary
unknown, we get p
1
= (a, b, c) = (3s t, s +t, s).
In order to nd the second principal vector p
2
= (a, b, c), we solve
A p
2
= p
1

_
_
4 7 5
2 3 3
1 2 1
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
3s t
s +t
s
_
_

_
_
_
4a 7b 5c = 3s t
2a + 3b + 3c = s +t
a + 2b +c = s.
(16)
In order to have compatible system we impose the condition
car
=

4 7 3s t
2 3 s +t
1 2 s

=
0 0 s + 0 t = 0; so the system is compatible for any s, t R and has the solutions
p
2
= (a, b, c) = (3 s + 2t, +s t, ), R.
We get, for example, for t = s = = 1, the eigenvector v = (3, 1, 1) and the principal
vectors associated to p
1
= (4, 2, 1) and p
2
= (2, 1, 1).
The family of the three vectors form the Jordan basis
B
t
= v = (3, 1, 1), p
1
= (4, 2, 1), p
2
= (2, 1, 1),
which corresponds the Jordan cell J
3
(0) =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
. In conclusion, the passing matrix
from the canonical basis to the Jordan basis is C = [B
t
]
B
0
= [v, p
1
, p
2
]
B
0
=
_
_
3 4 2
1 2 1
1 1 1
_
_
,
and the Jordan matrix J associated to the endomorphism T relative to the basis B
t
is
J = diag (J
3
(0)) =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
. The relation J = C
1
AC CJ = AC occurs; indeed,
we get:
C J =
_
_
3 4 2
1 2 1
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
=
_
_
0 3 4
0 1 2
0 1 1
_
_
A C =
_
_
4 7 5
2 3 3
1 2 1
_
_
_
_
3 4 2
1 2 1
1 1 1
_
_
=
_
_
0 3 4
0 1 2
0 1 1
_
_
= C J.
c) We solve the characteristic equation P() = 0 det(AI
3
) = 0

1 0
4 4 0
0 0 2

,
so the algebraic equation (2)
3
= 0. The real roots of these equations are the eigenval-
ues of the matrix A and form the spectrum of the linear mapping, (T) = 2, 2, 2. Because
all the roots of the characteristic polynomial are real, it results that T is Jordanizable.
70 LAAG-DGDE
For = 2, with the algebraic multiplicity order
a
() = 3, the associated characteristic
system is a system of linear equations which has as nontrivial solutions the eigenvectors
v = (a, b, c) associated to the eigenvalues = 2. This system is
(A2I
3
)v = 0
_
_
2 1 0
4 2 0
0 0 0
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
_
2a +b = 0
4a + 2b = 0
0 = 0
and has the solutions v = (a, b, c) = (t, 2t, s) = t(1, 2, 0) +s(0, 0, 1), s, t R. In conclusion, a
basis in S

1
is formed by the vectors v
1
= (1, 2, 0) and v
2
= (0, 0, 1), hence results
g
(
1
) =
dimS

1
= 2.
The number of necessary principal vectors is
a
(
1
)
g
(
1
) = 3 2 = 1, which are the
solutions of the system (A 2I
3
)p = v. We solve this system, imposing the compatibility
conditions, the system being non-homogenous. Denoting p = (a, b, c), the system can be
written as
(A2I
3
)p = v
_
_
2 1 0
4 2 0
0 0 0
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
t
2t
s
_
_

_
_
_
2a +b = t
4a + 2b = 2t
0 = s.
In order to have a compatible system, we impose the conditions
car
1
=

1 t
2 2t

= 0 and

car
2
=

1 t
0 s

= 0, hence results that we must have s = 0.

Let us consider a and c as secondary unknowns and denote a = and c = ; then the
solution is p = (a, b, c) = (, t + 2, ).
E.g., for t = 1, s = 0, = 1 and = 2, we get the eigenvector v
1
= (1, 2, 0) and the
principal associated vector p
1
= (1, 3, 2). The second eigenvector will be chosen such that
s ,= 0; e.g., for t = 1, s = 1, we get v
2
= (1, 2, 1). Taking the union of the families of
vectors determined above, we get the Jordan basis
B
t
= v
1
= (1, 2, 0), p
1
= (1, 3, 2); v
2
= (1, 2, 1),
so the passing matrix from the canonical basis to the Jordan basis is C = [B
t
]
B
0
= [v
1
, p
1
; v
2
]
B
0
=
_
_
1 1 1
2 3 2
0 2 1
_
_
. The Jordan matrix J associated to the endomorphism T relative to the
basis B
t
is J = diag (J
2
(2), J
1
(2)) =
_
_
2 1 0
0 2 0
0 0 2
_
_
. The relation J = C
1
AC CJ = AC
occurs; indeed, we get
C J =
_
_
1 1 1
2 3 2
0 2 1
_
_
_
_
2 1 0
0 2 0
0 0 2
_
_
=
_
_
2 3 2
4 8 4
0 4 2
_
_
A C =
_
_
0 1 0
4 4 0
0 0 2
_
_
_
_
1 1 1
2 3 2
0 2 1
_
_
=
_
_
2 3 2
4 8 4
0 4 2
_
_
= C J.
d) The eigenspace associated to distinct eigenvalues = 0 (
a
() = 4) is S
=0
= L(f
1
=
(1, 2, 1, 6)
t
, f
2
= (0, 0, 1, 1)
t
). Therefore the geometric multiplicity is
g
() = 2(< 4).
We determine the 4 2 = 2 principal vectors by solving the system (A 0I
4
)p = v, where
v = af
1
+bf
2
. Choosing the principal minor at the intersection of the second and third rows
Solutions 71
with the rst two columns, the compatibility of secondary equations 2 and 4 is identically
satised, and the solutions are of type p = (s, a 2s, b t 5s, t)
t
. For s = t = b =
0, a = 1 it results v
1
= (1, 2, 1, 6)
t
, p
1
= (0, 1, 0, 0)
t
, and for s = t = a = 0, b = 1 we
get v
2
= (0, 0, 1, 1)
t
, p
2
= (0, 0, 1, 0)
t
. The two families of vectors accordingly correspond
to two Jordan cells of type J
2
(0) in the Jordan matrix J. The Jordan basis is hence B
t
=
v
1
, p
1
; v
2
, p
2
, the Jordanizing matrix is C = [B
t
]
B
=
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
2 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
6 0 1 0
_
_
_
_
and the Jordan
matrix associated to it, is J = diag (J
2
(0), J
2
(0)).
e) The two distinct eigenvalues are (A) =
1
= 1,
2
= 2 with algebraic multiplicities

1
= 1,
2
= 2 respectively. For
1
= 1 we have S

1
= L(v
1
= (1, 1, 1)
t
), so the algebraic
and geometric multiplicities are pairwise equal, and B
1
= v
1
is a basis for the eigenspace
S

1
. For
2
= 2, we have S

2
= L(v
2
= (0, 1, 1)
t
), so the geometric multiplicity is
1 <
2
= 2. We determine a principal vector p by solving the linear system (A2I
3
)p = v,
where v = (0, t, t)
t
. The compatibility condition of the non-homogenous system is identically
satised and we get the solution p = (0, s, s +t)
t
; choosing t = 1, s = 0 leads to the family of
vectors B
2
= v
2
= (0, 1, 1)
t
, p
2
= (0, 0, 1)
t
, a basis for the invariant subspace associated to
the eigenvalues
2
= 2. Then the Jordan basis is B
t
= B
1
B
2
= v
1
; v
2
, p
2
, the Jordanizing
matrix is C = [B
t
]
B
=
_
_
1 0 0
1 1 0
1 1 1
_
_
and the Jordan matrix, J = diag (J
1
(1), J
2
(2)).
46. We present the Jordanization algorithm based on the sequence of kernels method.
We determine the distinct complex roots (A) =
1
, . . . ,
p
of the characteristic
polynomial P() = det(A I
n
) of the matrix A of the endomorphism T End(V )
(dim
K
V = n).
If (A) , K, then T is not Jordanizable, and the algorithm stops. In the other case,
T admits the canonic Jordan form and the algorithm continues.
For each distinct eigenvalue =
i
(i = 1, p) whose algebraic multiplicity is denoted
by
i
, we proceed as follows:
i) we determine a basis for the eigenspace S
i
= Ker (T Id). If dimS
i
=
i
, then we
denote this basis with B
i
(to this, in the Jordan matrix there corresponds the block
diag (
i
, . . . ,
i
) of order
i
) and we pass to the subsequent distinct eigenvalue. In the
contrary case, we proceed with the next item.
ii) we denote = T Id, M = [] = AI
n
and K
j
= Ker (
j
). We determine the
maximal order of the Jordan cell which is associated to the eigenvalue (i.e., the order
of nilpotency) as the natural number s 2 for which K
1
K
2
K
s
= K
s+1
=
K
s+2
= . . . .
iii) we subsequently decompose the bases
j
of the subspaces K
j
(j = 1, s), as follows:

s
=
s1
C
s

s1
=
s2
(C
s
) C
s1

s2
=
s3

2
(C
s
) (C
s1
) C
s2
. . .

2
=
1

s2
(C
s
)
s3
(C
s1
) . . . (C
3
) C
2

1
=
g

s1
(C
s
)
s2
(C
s1
) . . .
2
(C
3
) (C
2
) C
1
72 LAAG-DGDE
where C
s
, C
s1
, . . . C
1
vectors sets (not all empty) constructed in order to ll the pre-
ceding unions to the bases
s
, . . .
1
, respectively. For each k 1, s and each vector
p
k
C
k
, we construct the family
v =
k1
(p),
k2
(p), . . . , (p), p,
formed of k vectors (v = eigenvector and k 1 principal vectors for k 2 and the
eigenvector v = p for k = 1), to which in the Jordan matrix J there corresponds the
Jordan cell J
k
(). We denote with B
i
the union of these families. This is a basis for
the invariant subspace K
s
(K
s
K
1
= S
1
) associated to the eigenvalue
i
.
We build the Jordan basis B
t
= B
1
B
p
and the passing matrix to this basis,
C = [B
t
]
B
. We build the Jordan matrix J = [T]
B
associated to the endomorphism
T, putting on the diagonal the blocks/cells associated to the families of vectors which
form B
t
, according to the order of their occurrence within the new basis B
t
.
We verify the relation J = C
1
AC in its equivalent form CJ = AC.
a) For the unique distinct eigenvalue = 1 ( = 3), we get M
2
,= 0
3
, M
3
= 0, so s = 3 and
K
3
= R
3
. Because K
2
= L((1, 0, 2), (0, 1, 1) , e
3
= (0, 0, 1), we choose C
3
= p = e
3
.
Then we have

3
=
2
p = e
3

2
=
1
(e
3
)
g

1
=
g

2
(e
3
)
g

.
The family of vectors
B
t
= B
1
= v = M
2
e
3
= (1, 1, 1)
t
, p
1
= Me
3
= (2, 3, 1)
t
, p
2
= e
3
= (0, 0, 1)
is the basis of the invariant subspace K
3
= R
3
and represent a Jordan basis of the en-
domorphism T. To it there corresponds the matrix of change of basis C = [v, p
1
, p
2
]
B
=
_
_
1 2 0
1 3 0
1 1 1
_
_
and the Jordan matrix J = J
3
(1). We notice that by choosing p =
(2, 4, 1)
t
, K
2
, we get the Jordan basis which was determined in problem 45-a),
B
t
= v = M
2
p = (1, 1, 1)
t
, Mp = (0, 1, 1)
t
, p = (2, 4, 1)
t
.
b) For the unique distinct eigenvalue = 0 we get M
2
,= 0
3
, M
3
= 0
3
, so s = 3 and K
3
=
R
3
. Because K
2
= L((1, 1, 0)
t
, (0, 2, 1)
t
, e
3
= (0, 0, 1)
t
, we choose C
3
= p = e
3
.
Then we have

3
=
2
p = e
3

2
=
1
(e
3
)
g

1
=
g

2
(e
3
)
g

.
The family of vectors B
t
= B
1
= v = M
2
e
3
= (6, 2, 2)
t
, p
1
= Me
3
= (5, 3, 1)
t
, p
2
=
e
3
= (0, 0, 1)
t
is a basis of the invariant subspace K
3
= R
3
, a Jordan basis B
t
. To it
there corresponds the matrix of change of basis C = [v, p
1
, p
2
]
B
=
_
_
6 5 0
2 3 0
2 1 1
_
_
and
the Jordan matrix J = J
3
(0). We notice that choosing p = (2, 1, 1)
t
, K
2
, we get the
Jordan basis which was determined in problem 45-b), B
t
= v = M
2
p = (3, 1, 1)
t
, Mp =
(4, 2, 1)
t
, p = (2, 1, 1)
t
.
Solutions 73
c) For the unique distinct eigenvalue = 2 we get M
2
= 0, so s = 2 and K
2
= R
3
. Because
K
1
= L((1, 2, 0)
t
, e
3
= (0, 0, 1)
t
, e
2
= (0, 1, 0), we choose C
2
= p = e
2
. Then we have

2
=
1
e
2

1
=
g

(e
2
) e
3
.
To the family of vectors v
1
= Mp
1
= (1, 3, 2)
t
, p
1
= (0, 1, 0)
t
there corresponds the Jordan
cell J
2
(2), and to the vector C
1
= v
2
= e
3
, the Jordan cell J
1
(2). A basis of the
invariant subspace K
2
= R
3
is B
t
= v
1
, p
1
; v
2
, Jordan basis. To it there corresponds
the matrix of change of basis C = [v
1
, p
1
, v
2
]
B
=
_
_
1 0 0
2 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
and the Jordan matrix
J = [T]
B
= diag (J
2
(2), J
1
(2)). We notice that choosing p = (1, 3, 2)
t
, K
1
and by selecting
C
1
= v
2
= (1, 2, 1)
t
, we get the Jordan basis which was determined in problem 45-c),
B
t
= v = Mp = (1, 2, 0)
t
, p = (1, 3, 2)
t
; v
2
= (1, 2, 1)
t
.
d) We have (A) =
1
= 0,
1
= 4 and for the unique distinct eigenvalue = 0 we get
M = A, M
2
= 0, so s = 2 and K
2
= R
4
. Because K
1
= L((0, 0, 1, 1)
t
, (1, 2, 1, 6)
t
,
p
1
= e
2
= (0, 1, 0, 0)
t
, p
2
= e
3
= (0, 0, 1, 0)
t
, we choose C
3
= e
2
, e
3
. Then we have

2
=
1
e
2
, e
3

1
=
g

(e
2
), (e
3
)
g

.
The family of vectors B
t
= B
1
= v
1
= Me
2
= (1, 2, 1, 6)
t
, p
1
= e
2
= (0, 1, 0, 0)
t
; v
2
=
Me
3
= (0, 0, 1, 1)
t
, p
2
= e
3
= (0, 0, 1, 0)
t
basis of the invariant subspace K
4
= R
4
, a Jordan
basis for T. The Jordanizing matrix is the matrix of change of basis C = [v
1
, p
1
; v
2
, p
2
]
B
=
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
2 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
6 0 1 0
_
_
_
_
and the Jordan matrix is J = diag (J
2
(0), J
2
(0)). We notice that we
obtained the same results as in exercise 45-d).
e) For
1
= 1 we have S
1
= K
1
= K
2
= . . . , so s = 1 and by solving the system
(A + I
3
)v = 0
3
results B
1
=
g

v
1
= (1, 1, 1)
t
= v
1
, basis a the eigenspace, to which
in the Jordan matrix corresponds the block (the Jordan cell) J
1
(1). For = 2 we get
K
1
K
2
= K
3
= . . . , so s = 2 and we have K
2
= L(e
1
, e
2
). We choose p
2
= e
3
, K
2
and
we get

2
=
1
e
3

1
=
g

(e
3
)
g

.
The family of vectors B
2
= v
2
= Me
3
= (1, 1, 1)
t
, p
2
= e
3
= (0, 0, 1)
t
is a basis of the
invariant subspace K
2
. To it there corresponds, in the matrix J, the Jordan cell J
2
(2). Then
the Jordan basis is B
t
= B
1
B
2
= v
1
; v
2
, p
2
and we obtain the same results as in exercise
45-e).
II.8. Diagonalization of symmetric endomorphisms
47. a) We solve the characteristic equation:
P( ) = 0 det(A I
3
) = 0

3 2 0
2 0 0
0 0 1

= 0 ( + 1)
2
( 4) = 0.
The roots of this equations being real, they are the eigenvalues of the matrix A and form the
spectrum of the transformation (T) = 1, 1, 4.
74 LAAG-DGDE
Because the matrix A is symmetric (A = A
t
), it results that the endomorphism T is
diagonalizable and the eigenvectors which belong to distinct eigenspaces, are orthogonal.
For =
1
= 1, the associated characteristic system is
(A+I
3
)v = 0
_
_
4 2 0
2 1 0
0 0 0
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_
2a +b = 0
and has the solutions v = (a, b, c) = s(1, 2, 0) + t(0, 0, 1), s, t R. Therefore we obtained
the generating eigenvectors v
1
= (1, 2, 0) and v
2
= (0, 0, 1). We notice that v
1
, v
2
) = 0, so
v
1
v
2
.
For =
2
= 4, the associated characteristic system is
(A4I
3
)v = 0
_
_
1 2 0
2 4 0
0 0 5
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
a + 2b = 0
5c = 0
and has the solutions v = (a, b, c) = t(2, 1, 0), t R.
We denote by v
3
= (2, 1, 0) the generating eigenvector of the eigenspace S

2
. Because
v
1
, v
2
, v
3
form a diagonalizing orthogonal basis, the orthonormal diagonalizing basis is
B =
_
v
1
|v
1
|
,
v
2
|v
2
|
,
v
3
|v
3
|
_
=
__
1

5
,
2

5
, 0
_
, (0, 0, 1) ,
_
2

5
,
1

5
, 0
__
.
b) We solve the characteristic equation
P( ) = 0 det(A I
3
) = 0

2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2

= 0 ( + 3)
2
= 0.
The roots of this equations are real, so they form the spectrum of the transformation (T) =
0, 3, 3. Because the matrix A is symmetric (A = A
t
), it results that the endomorphism
T is diagonalizable and that its eigenvectors from distinct eigenspaces are orthogonal.
For =
1
= 0, the associated characteristic system is
A v = 0
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
_
2a +b +c = 0
a 2b +c = 0
a +b 2c = 0
and has the solutions
v = (a, b, c) = (t, t, t) = t (1, 1, 1), t R.
Therefore we obtained the generating eigenvector v
1
= (1, 1, 1).
For =
2
= 3, the associated characteristic system is
(A+ 3I
3
)v = 0
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_
a +b +c = 0
and has the solutions v = (a, b, c) = (s t, s, t) = s(1, 1, 0) +t(1, 0, 1), s, t R.
We notice that the vectors v
2
= (1, 1, 0) and v
3
= (1, 0, 1) are not orthogonal. Using the
Gram-Schmidt method we get the orthogonal vectors u
2
= (1, 1, 0)and u
3
=
_

1
2
,
1
2
, 1
_
.
Solutions 75
We conclude that the vectors v
1
= (1, 1, 1), u
2
= (1, 1, 0) and u
3
=
_

1
2
,
1
2
, 1
_
form a
diagonalizing orthogonal basis, so the required diagonalizing orthonormal basis is
B =
_
v
1
|v
1
|
,
u
2
|u
2
|
,
u
3
|u
3
|
_
=
__
1

3
,
1

3
,
1

3
_
,
_

2
,
1

2
, 0
_
,
_

6
,
1

6
,
2

6
_ _
.
II.9. The Cayley-Hamilton theorem. Functions of matrices
48. 1. a) The characteristic polynomial of the matrix A =
_
_
1 2 0
0 2 0
2 2 1
_
_
is
P
A
() = det(AI) = (1 )(1 )(2 ) =
3
+ 2
2
+ 2.
The free term of the characteristic polynomial is 2 = det A (nonzero number), hence the
matrix A is invertible. According to the Cayley-Hamilton theorem, we have the equality
P(A) = 0, i.e.
P(A) A
3
+ 2A
2
+A2I = 0. (17)
In our case, this relation can be written as A
3
+ 2A
2
+A = 2I A(A
2
+ 2A+I) = 2I.
Multiplying this from left with
1
2
A
1
, we get
1
2
(A
2
+ 2A+I) = A
1
and so
A
1
=
1
2
(A
2
2AI) =
_
_
1 1 0
0 1/2 0
2 1 1
_
_
.
b) Applying the theorem of dividing polynomials in R[t], we get
Q(t) t
5
+ 2t
4
t
2
+ 5 = (t
2
4t 9) P(t) + 19t
2
+t 13.
But P(A) = 0, and then
Q(A) = 19A
2
+A13I
3
= 19
_
_
1 6 0
0 4 0
0 6 1
_
_
+
_
_
1 2 0
0 2 0
2 2 1
_
_
+
+
_
_
13 0 0
0 13 0
0 0 13
_
_
=
_
_
7 116 0
0 65 0
2 116 5
_
_
.
c) The eigenvalues of the matrix A are distinct:
1
= 1,
2
= 1,
3
= 2. We can write:
f(A) = f(1)Z
1
+f(1)Z
2
+f(2)Z
3
(18)
where the matrices Z
j
, j = 1, 3 do not depend on f; in order to nd these matrices, we
particularize the function f subsequently:
f(t) = t 1 f(A) = AI = 2Z
1
+Z
3
f(t) = t + 1 f(A) = A+I = 2Z
2
+ 3Z
3
f(t) = t
2
f(A) = A
2
= Z
1
+Z
2
+ 4Z
3
,
hence we get the linear system with matrix unknowns
_
_
_
2Z
1
+Z
3
= AI
2Z
2
+ 3Z
3
= A+I
Z
1
+Z
2
+ 4Z
3
= A
2
which admits
76 LAAG-DGDE
the solution
Z
1
=

AI 0 1
A + I 2 3
A
2
1 4

2 0 1
0 2 3
1 1 4

=
1
6
(A
2
3A+ 2I) =
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 1
_
_
Z
2
=

2 AI 1
0 A + I 3
1 A
2
4

2 0 1
0 2 3
1 1 4

=
1
6
(3A
2
+ 3A+ 6I) =
_
_
1 2 0
0 0 0
1 2 0
_
_
Z
3
=

2 0 AI
0 2 A + I
1 1 A
2

2 0 1
0 2 3
1 1 4

=
1
6
(2A
2
2I) =
_
_
0 2 0
0 1 0
0 2 0
_
_
.
Then, for f(z) = Q(z) = z
5
+ 2z
4
z
2
+ 5 in the relation (18) we get:
f(A) = f(1)Z
1
+f(1)Z
2
+f(2)Z
3
= 5
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 1
_
_
+ 7
_
_
1 2 0
0 0 0
1 2 0
_
_
+
+65
_
_
0 2 0
0 1 0
0 2 0
_
_
=
_
_
7 116 0
0 65 0
2 116 5
_
_
.
(19)
For f(A) = e
A
, by replacing the function f and the solutions Z
1
, Z
2
, Z
3
in the relation (19),
we get:
e
A
=
1
6
[e
1
(A
2
3A+ 2I) +e(3A
2
+ 3A+ 6I) +e
2
(2A
2
2I)],
and so e
A
=
_
_
e 2e
2
2e 0
0 e
2
0
e
1
e 2e 2e
2
e
1
_
_
.
Otherwise. For the three eigenvalues
1
= 1,
2
= 1,
3
= 2 we get the generating eigen-
vectors for the corresponding eigenspaces,
v
1
= (0, 0, 1), v
2
= (1, 0, 1), v
3
= (2, 1, 2),
so the diagonalizing matrix is C = [v
1
, v
2
, v
3
] =
_
_
0 1 2
0 0 1
1 1 2
_
_
. Then e
A
= Ce
D
C
1
,
where D =
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 2
_
_
is the diagonal matrix D = C
1
AC associated to A. By direct
calculation we get:
e
A
=
_
_
0 1 2
0 0 1
1 1 2
_
_
_
_
e
1
0 0
0 e 0
0 0 e
2
_
_
_
_
1 0 1
1 2 0
0 1 0
_
_
=
_
_
e 2e
2
2e 0
0 e
2
0
e
1
e 2e 2e
2
e
1
_
_
2) a) The characteristic polynomial of the matrix A =
_
_
1 2 0
0 2 0
2 2 1
_
_
is
P() = det(AI) = (1 )
2
(2 ) =
3
+ 4
2
5 + 2
and so, based on the Cayley-Hamilton theorem, we have
A
3
+ 4A
2
5A+ 2I = 0
1
2
(A
3
4A
2
+ 5A) = I,
Solutions 77
so A
1
=
1
2
(A
2
4A+ 5I) =
_
_
1 1 0
0 1/2 0
2 1 1
_
_
.
b) We apply the division theorem for polynomials in R[t]; we divide the polynomial Q by
P(t) = t
3
+4t
2
5t+2 and we get Q(t) t
5
+2t
4
t
2
+5 = (t
2
6t19)P(t)+47t
2
83t+43.
Considering that P(A) = 0, we yield
Q(A) = A
5
+ 2A
4
A
2
+ 5I = 47A
2
83A+ 43I =
_
_
7 116 0
0 65 0
22 304 7
_
_
.
c) The eigenvalues of the matrix A are
1
=
2
= 1 and
3
= 2. Because
1
=
2
, in this
case we write:
f(A) = f(
1
)Z
1
+f
t
(
1
)Z
2
+f(
3
)Z
3
(20)
or equivalently
f(A) = f(1)Z
1
+f
t
(1)Z
2
+f(2)Z
3
, (21)
where the matrices Z
j
, j = 1, 3 do not depend on f; in order to nd these matrices, we
particularize the function f subsequently:
f(t) = t 1 f(A) = AI = Z
2
+Z
3
f(t) = t + 1 f(A) = A+I = 2Z
1
+Z
2
+ 3Z
3
f(t) = t
2
f(A) = A
2
= Z
1
+ 2Z
2
+ 4Z
3
,
hence we get the linear system with matrix unknowns Z
1
, Z
2
, Z
3
_
_
_
Z
2
+Z
3
= AI
2Z
1
+Z
2
+ 3Z
3
= A+I
Z
1
+ 2Z
2
+ 4Z
3
= A
2
.
system whose solution is Z
1
= A
2
+ 2A, Z
2
= A
2
+ 3A2I, Z
3
= A
2
2A+I, so
Z
1
=
_
_
1 2 0
0 0 0
0 6 1
_
_
, Z
2
=
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0
2 4 0
_
_
, Z
3
=
_
_
0 2 0
0 1 0
0 6 0
_
_
.
For f(A) = e
A
, by replacing the function f and the solutions Z
1
, Z
2
, Z
3
in relation (21), we
get:
e
A
= (A
2
+ 2A)e + (A
2
+ 3A2I)e + (A
2
2A+I)e
2
=
= (2A
2
+ 5A2I)e + (A
2
2A+I)e
2
=
= e
_
_
1 2 0
0 0 0
2 10 1
_
_
+e
2
_
_
0 2 0
0 1 0
0 6 0
_
_
=
_
_
e 2e
2
2e 0
0 e
2
0
2e 10e 6e
2
e
_
_
.
By using f(z) = Q(z) = z
5
+ 2z
4
z
2
+ 5 in the relation (20), we infer
Q(A) = Q(1)Z
1
+Q
t
(1)Z
2
+Q(2)Z
3
=
= 7
_
_
1 2 0
0 0 0
0 6 1
_
_
+ 11
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0
2 4 0
_
_
+ 65
_
_
0 2 0
0 1 0
0 6 0
_
_
=
=
_
_
7 116 0
0 65 0
22 304 7
_
_
.
78 LAAG-DGDE
49. 1) For A =
_
_
1 2 0
0 2 0
2 2 1
_
_
and f(A) = cotan A, by replacing the function f in
the relation (18), we get:
cotanA =
1
6
[(A
2
3A+ 2I) cotan(1) + (3A
2
+ 3A+ 6I) cotan1 + (2A
2
2I) cotan2] =
=
1
6
[(4A
2
+ 6A+ 4I) cotan1 + (2A
2
2I) cotan2] =
=
1
6
_
_
6 12 0
0 0 0
12 12 6
_
_
cotan1 +
1
6
_
_
0 12 0
0 6 0
0 12 0
_
_
ctg2.
2) For A =
_
_
1 2 0
0 2 0
2 2 1
_
_
and f(A) = cotanA, by replacement in the relation (20), we
have
cotanA = (A
2
+ 2A) cotan1 + (A
2
+ 3A2I)(
1
sin
2
1
) + (A
2
2A+I) cotan2 =
=
_
_
1 2 0
0 0 0
0 6 1
_
_
cotan1 +
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0
2 4 0
_
_
1
sin
2
1
+
_
_
0 2 0
0 1 0
0 6 0
_
_
cotan2.
50. a) The characteristic polynomial of the matrix A =
_
1 2
2 1
_
is
P() = det(AI) = ( + 1)( 3) =
2
2 3.
The free term (3) of this polynomial is exactly the determinant of the matrix A, so A is
invertible. According to the Cayley-Hamilton theorem, we have
P(A) A
2
2A3I = 0 A
2
2A = 3I A(A2I) = (A2I)A = 3I
and multiplying to left (respectively to right) with
1
3
A
1
, we get
A
1
=
1
3
(A2I) =
_
1/3 2/3
2/3 1/3
_
.
b) We apply the theorem of polynomial division in R[t]; we divide the polynomial Q by
P = t
2
2t 3 and we get
Q(t) = t
4
2t
3
+ 3t 4 = (t
2
+ 3)(t
2
2t 3) + 9t + 5,
and since P(A) A
2
2A3I = 0, we infer
Q(A) = A
4
2A
3
+ 3A4I = 9A+ 5I =
_
14 18
18 14
_
.
51. The characteristic polynomial of the matrix A =
_
0 2
2 0
_
is
P() = det(AI) =
2
4 = ( 2)( + 2),
so the eigenvalues are
1
= 2 and
2
= 2. We can write
f(A) = f(
1
)Z
1
+f(
2
)Z
2
,
Solutions 79
so
f(A) = f(2)Z
1
+f(2)Z
2
, (22)
where the matrices Z
j
, j = 1, 3 do not depend on f; in order to nd these matrices, we
particularize the function f subsequently:
f(t) = t 1 f(A) = AI = 3Z
1
+Z
2
f(t) = t + 1 f(A) = A+I = Z
1
+ 3Z
2
,
hence we get the linear system with matrix unknowns
_
3Z
1
+Z
3
= AI
Z
1
+ 3Z
3
= A+I,
which admits the solution
Z
1
=
1
4
(A+ 2I) =
_
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
_
, Z
2
=
1
4
(A+ 2I) =
_
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
_
.
For f(t) = e
t
, by replacing the function f and the solutions Z
1
and Z
2
in relation (22) we
get
e
A
=
1
4
(A+ 2I)e
2
+
1
4
(A+ 2I)e
2
=
_
(e
2
+ e
2
)/2 (e
2
e
2
)/2
(e
2
e
2
)/2 (e
2
+ e
2
)/2
_
.
For f(t) = sint, by replacing the function f in the relation (22) we get
sinA =
1
4
(A+ 2I) sin(2) +
1
4
(A+ 2I) sin2 =
1
2
Asin2 =
_
0 sin2
sin2 0
_
.
II.10. Bilinear and quadratic forms
52. a) Check the additivity and homogeneity of the mapping / relative to f and g:
/(f +g, h) =
_
1
0
(f(t) + g(t)) dt
_
1
0
h(s)ds =
=
_
1
0
f (t)dt
_
1
0
h(s)ds+
_
1
0
g (t)dt
_
1
0
h(s)ds =
= /(f, h) + /(g, h)
/(f, g +h) =
_
1
0
f(t)dt
_
1
0
(g(s) +h(s)) ds =
=
_
1
0
f (t)dt
_
1
0
g (s)ds+
_
1
0
f (t)dt
_
1
0
h(s)ds =
= /(f, g) + /(f, h) , f, g, h V, , R.
b) We have
/(f, g) =
_
1
0
f(t)dt
_
1
0
g (s)ds =
=
_
1
0
g (s)ds
_
1
0
f(t)dt = A(g, f) , f, g V,
and hence / is a symmetric bilinear form.
80 LAAG-DGDE
c) Q(f) = /(f, f) =
__
1
0
f(t)dt
_2
, f C
0
[0, 1].
d) The isotropic vectors of the quadratic form Q are the functions f V for which Q(f) = 0.
Since f V C
0
[0, 1], we have
_
1
0
f(t)dt = 0. As an example, the isotropic vectors of the
quadratic form Q are the functions of the form f(t) = t
n

1
n+1
, n R. (Check this!)
53. a) We verify the additivity and the homogeneity relative to x and y:
/(x +x
t
, y) = (x
1
+x
1
t
)y
1
2(x
1
+x
1
t
)y
2
2(x
2
+x
2
t
)y
1
+ 3(x
2
+x
2
t
)y
2
=
= (x
1
y
1
2x
1
y
2
2x
2
y
1
+ 3x
2
y
2
) +(x
1
t
y
1
2x
1
t
y
2
2x
2
t
y
1
+ 3x
2
t
y
2
) =
= /(x, y) +/(x
t
, y).
Similarly,
/( x, y +y
t
) = /(x, y) + A(x, y
t
) , x, x
t
, y, y
t
R
2
, , R.
We show that the bilinear form / is symmetric:
/(x, y) = x
1
y
1
2x
1
y
2
2x
2
y
1
+ 3x
2
y
2
=
= y
1
x
1
2y
1
x
2
2y
2
x
1
+ 3y
2
x
2
= /(y, x).
b) Q(x) = /(x, x) = x
2
1
2x
1
x
2
2x
2
x
1
+ 3x
2
2
= x
2
1
4x
1
x
2
+ 3x
2
2
.
c) The matrix associated to the quadratic form Q relative to B = e
1
, e
2
is
A = [/]
e
1
,e
2
]
=
_
/(e
1
, e
1
) /(e
1
, e
2
)
/(e
2
, e
1
) /(e
2
, e
2
)
_
.
But
_
/(e
1
, e
1
) = 1, /(e
1
, e
2
) = 2
/(e
2
, e
1
) = 2, /(e
2
, e
2
) = 3,
hence the matrix associated to / (and to Q) relative
to the natural basis is A = [/]
B
=
_
1 2
2 3
_
.
d) [/]
B
= [B
t
]
B
t
[/]
B
[B
t
]
B
=
_
1 1
1 1
__
1 2
2 3
__
1 1
1 1
_
=
_
0 2
2 8
_
.
54. By halvings, i.e., by replacing
_
x
i
x
j

1
2
(x
i
y
j
+x
j
y
i
)
x
2
i

1
2
(x
i
y
i
+y
i
x
i
) = x
i
y
i
operated in the analytic expression of the quadratic form Q, we get the analytic expression
of the associated polar form
/(x, y) = x
1
y
1
4
1
2
(x
1
y
2
+x
2
y
1
) + 3x
2
y
2
= x
1
y
1
2x
1
y
2
2x
2
y
1
+ 3x
2
y
2
.
55. a)-b) In both items, we check additivity and the relative to x and y.
a) We remark that / is not a bilinear form, since
/(x +x
t
, y) = (x
1
+x
t
1
) y
2
(x
2
+x
t
2
)
2
,=
,= x
1
y
2
+x
t
1
y
2
x
2
2
x
t
2
2
= /(x, y) +/(x
t
, y).
Solutions 81
b) We have
/(x +x
t
, y) = (x
1
+x
1
t
) y
2
(x
2
+x
2
t
) y
1
=
= (x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
) +(x
1
t
y
2
x
2
t
y
1
) =
= /(x, y) +/(x
t
, y)
/(x, y +y
t
) = x
1
(y
2
+y
2
t
) x
2
(y
1
+y
1
t
) =
= (x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
) +(x
1
y
2
t
x
2
y
1
t
) =
= /(x, y) +/(x, y
t
), x, x
t
, y, y
t
R
2
, , R.
56. a)-b) We have
/(x, y) = x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
, /(y, x) = y
1
x
2
y
2
x
1
= x
1
y
2
+x
2
y
1
.
We remark that /(x, y) = /(y, x) , x, y R
2
, hence the bilinear form / is skew-
symmetric.
c) We denote B = e
1
= (1, 0), e
2
= (0, 1) the canonic basis of R
2
. We compute
_
/(e
1
, e
1
) = 0, /(e
1
, e
2
) = 1
/(e
2
, e
1
) = 1, /(e
2
, e
2
) = 0,
from where it results A = [/]
B
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
. Since A = A
t
, it results that the bilinear
form / is skew-symmetric.
d) [/]
B
= [B
t
]
B
t
[/]
B
[B
t
]
B
=
_
1 2
3 1
__
0 1
1 0
__
1 3
2 1
_
=
_
0 7
7 0
_
.
57. a) We get
A(x + x

, y) = 2(x
1
+ x
1

)y
1
3(x
1
+ x
1

) y
3
3(x
3
+ x
3

)y
1
+ 4(x
2
+ x
2

)y
2
=
= (2x
1
y
2
3x
1
y
3
3x
3
y
1
+ 4x
2
y
2
) + (2x
1

y
1
3x
1

y
3
3x
3

y
1
+ 4x
2

y
2
) =
= A(x, y) + A(x

, y).
Similarly,
/( x, y +y
t
) = /(x, y) +/(x, y
t
) , x, x
t
, y, y
t
R
3
, , R.
We show that the bilinear form / is symmetric:
/(x, y) = 2x
1
y
1
3x
1
y
3
3x
3
y
1
+4x
2
y
2
= 2y
1
x
1
3y
1
x
3
3y
3
x
1
+4y
2
x
2
= /(y, x) , x, y R
3
.
b) We denote B = e
1
= (1, 0, 0), e
2
= (0, 1, 0), e
3
= (0, 0, 1) the canonic basis of R
3
. We
compute
_

_
/(e
1
, e
1
) = 2, /(e
1
, e
2
) = 0, /(e
1
, e
3
) = 3
/(e
2
, e
1
) = 0, /(e
2
, e
2
) = 4, /(e
2
, e
3
) = 0
/(e
3
, e
1
) = 3, /(e
3
, e
2
) = 0, /(e
3
, e
3
) = 0,
from where it results A = [/]
B
=
_
_
2 0 3
0 4 0
3 0 0
_
_
. We perform the check
/(x, y) = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
_
_
2 0 3
0 4 0
3 0 0
_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
= (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
_
_
2y
1
3y
3
4y
2
3y
1
_
_
=
= 2x
1
y
1
3x
1
y
3
+ 4x
2
y
2
3x
3
y
1
.
82 LAAG-DGDE
c) The kernel of a bilinear symmetric form is dened by
Ker / = x V [ /(x, y) = 0, y V .
We have
/(x, y) = 0, y V 2x
1
y
1
3x
1
y
3
3x
3
y
1
+ 4x
2
y
2
= 0, y = (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
)
x
1
= x
2
= x
3
= 0 x = 0
R
3,
hence Ker / = 0, from where it results dim Ker / = 0. The rank of the bilinear form / is
equal with the rank of the matrix A. Since det A = 36 ,= 0, it results rank / = rank A =
3. We conclude that it is satised the Theorem of dimension:
dim Ker /
. .
0
+ rank /
. .
3
= dimR
3
. .
3
.
d) Q(x) = /(x, x) = 2x
2
1
3x
1
x
3
3x
3
x
1
+ 4x
2
2
= 2x
2
1
6x
1
x
3
+ 4x
2
2
.
e) Since the matrix A is non-singular, it results that the bilinear form / is non-degenerate.
Q admits nonzero isotropic vectors if and only if
Q(x) = 0, x ,= 0 2x
2
1
6x
1
x
3
+ 4x
2
2
= 0, (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) ,= (0, 0, 0).
Assuming x
1
,= 0, we get x
3
=
2x
2
1
+4x
2
2
6x
1
=
x
1
3
+
2x
2
2
3x
1
. As an example, for x
1
= 1, x
2
= 1 it
results x
3
= 1; hence for the nonzero vector x = (1, 1, 1) ,= 0
R
3, we have Q(x) = 0.
58. a) We proceed like in problem 52, item a).
b) We compute [/]
B
:
_

_
a
11
= /(q
1
, q
1
) =
__
1
0
(1 +t)dt
_2
=
_
_
t +
t
2
2
_

1
0
_
2
=
9
4
a
12
= /(q
1
, q
2
) =
__
1
0
(1 +t)dt
___
1
0
s
2
ds
_
=
_
t +
t
2
2
_

1
0

_
s
3
3
_

1
0
=
1
2
a
13
= /(q
1
, q
3
) =
_
1
0
(1 +t)dt
_
1
0
1ds =
3
2
a
21
= a
12
=
1
2
, a
22
= /(q
2
, q
2
) =
__
1
0
t
2
dt
_2
=
1
9
a
23
= /(q
2
, q
3
) =
_
1
0
t
2
dt
_
1
0
1ds =
1
3
a
31
= a
13
=
3
2
, a
32
= a
23
=
1
3
, a
33
= /(q
3
, q
3
) =
__
1
0
1ds
_2
= 1,
hence A = [/]
B
=
_
_
9/4 1/2 3/2
1/2 1/9 1/3
3/2 1/3 1
_
_
.
c) The kernel of the bilinear form / is:
Ker / = p V = R
2
[x] [ /(p, q) = 0, q R
2
[x] .
We have
/(p, q) = 0, q R
2
[x]
_
1
0
p(t)dt
_
1
0
q(s)ds = 0 , q R
2
[x]
_
1
0
p(t)dt = 0. (23)
Solutions 83
We consider the polynomial p R
2
[x] of the form p(x) = ax
2
+ bx + c. Then the relation
(23) can be written
_
1
0
(at
2
+bt +c)dt = 0
_
a
t
3
3
+b
t
2
2
+ct
_

1
0
= 0

a
3
+
b
2
+c = 0 c =
a
3

b
2
.
It follows that
p(x) = ax
2
+bx
_
a
3
+
b
2
_
= a
_
x
2

1
3
_
+b
_
x
1
2
_
,
hence Ker / = L
__
v
1
= x
2

1
3
, v
2
= x
1
2
__
and since the vectors v
1
and v
2
are linearly
independent we have B = v
1
, v
2
a basis in Ker / = 0. Hence dim Ker / = 2.
The rank of the bilinear form / is equal with the rank of the matrix A, which is equal with
1.
It is hence satised the Theorem of dimension, dim Ker /
. .
2
+ rank /
. .
1
= dimR
2
[x]
. .
3
.
d) Q(p) = /(p, p) = (
_
1
0
p(t)dt)
2
.
e) Since the matrix A is singular, it results that the bilinear form / is degenerate. Q admits
non-zero isotropic vectors only if
_
1
0
p(t)dt = 0, p ,= 0
_
1
0
(at
2
+bt +c)dt = 0 c =

a
3

b
2
.
59. a) By halvings, hence using the substitutions
_
x
i
x
j

1
2
(x
i
y
j
+x
j
y
i
)
x
2
i

1
2
(x
i
y
i
+y
i
x
i
) = x
i
y
i
performed in the analytic expression of the quadratic form Q, we get the analytic expression
of the attached polar form:
/(x, y) = x
1
y
1

1
2
(x
1
y
2
+x
2
y
1
) +2
1
2
(x
2
y
3
+x
3
y
2
) = x
1
y
1

1
2
x
1
y
2

1
2
x
2
y
1
+x
2
y
3
+x
3
y
2
.
b) Let B = e
1
= (1, 0, 0), e
2
= (0, 1, 0), e
3
= (0, 0, 1) be the canonic basis of the space R
3
.
We have:
_

_
/(e
1
, e
1
) = 1, /(e
1
, e
2
) =
1
2
, /(e
1
, e
3
) = 0
/(e
2
, e
1
) =
1
2
, /(e
2
, e
2
) = 0, /(e
2
, e
3
) = 1
/(e
3
, e
1
) = 0, /(e
3
, e
2
) = 1, /(e
3
, e
3
) = 0,
hence A = [/]
B
=
_
_
1 1/2 0
1/2 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
.
60. a) We have U

=
_
y = (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
) R
3
[ /(v
1
, y) = 0, /(v
2
, y) = 0
_
. We form the
system of equations
_
/(v
1
, y) = 0
/(v
2
, y) = 0

_
2y
1
3y
3
+ 4y
2
= 0
3y
1
+ 4y
2
= 0,
84 LAAG-DGDE
which has the solutions y = (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
) =
_
t,
3
4
t,
5
3
t
_
, t R. We conclude that U

=
_
t
_
1,
3
4
,
5
3
_
[ t R
_
= L(v
3
), where v
3
=
_
1,
3
4
,
5
3
_
,= 0
R
3. Hence a basis in U

is v
3
=
(1; 3/4; 5/3).
b) From the Grassmann Theorem, we have dim(UU

) = dimU+dimU

dim(U+U

) =
2 + 1 3 = 0, from where it results
U U

= 0 . (24)
Since v
1
, v
2
and v
3
are three linearly independent vectors in the space R
3
of dimension 3, it
results that v
1
, v
2
and v
3
form a basis in R
3
, hence
R
3
= U +U

(25)
From the relations (24) and (25) it results U U

= R
3
.
c) Since U U

= R
3
, the restriction A[
U
is non-degenerate.
II.11. The canonic expression of quadratic forms
61. Using the relation Q = X
t
A X, we get the analytic expression of a quadratic form
Q:
Q(x) = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
_
_
0 1 2
1 0 3
2 3 0
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
= (x
2
2x
3
, x
1
+ 3x
3
, 2x
1
+ 3x
2
)
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
= x
1
x
2
2x
1
x
3
+x
1
x
2
+ 3x
2
x
3
2x
1
x
3
+ 3x
2
x
3
=
= 2x
1
x
2
4x
1
x
3
+ 6x
2
x
3
.
Since the quadratic form Q contains no square, we apply the change of coordinates:
_
_
_
x
1
= y
1
+y
2
x
2
= y
1
y
2
x
3
= y
3

_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
1 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
.
We get
Q(y) = 2(y
1
+y
2
)(y
1
y
2
) 4(y
1
+y
2
)y
3
+ 6(y
1
y
2
)y
3
= 2y
2
1
2y
2
2
+ 2y
1
y
3
10y
2
y
3
.
Grouping the terms in order to form squares we get:
Q(y) = 2y
2
1
+ 2y
1
y
3
2y
2
2
10y
2
y
3
=
1
2
(2y
1
+y
3
)
2
2y
2
2
10y
2
y
3

1
2
y
2
3
=
=
1
2
(2y
1
+y
3
)
2
+
1
2
(2y
2
5y
3
)
2
+
25y
2
3
2

y
2
3
2
=
=
1
2
(2y
1
+y
3
)
2

1
2
(2y
2
5y
3
)
2
+ 12y
2
3
,
from where, examining the groupings of squares, it results the change of coordinates
_
_
_
z
1
= 2y
1
+y
3
z
2
= 2y
2
5y
3
z
3
= y
3

_
_
z
1
z
2
z
3
_
_
=
_
_
2 0 1
0 2 5
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
.
Solutions 85
We remark that in these coordinates, the quadratic form as the canonic expression. In
order to obtain the basis to which these coordinates correspond, we note that the coordinate
transformation inverse is:
_

_
y
1
=
1
2
z
1

1
2
z
3
y
2
=
1
2
z
2

5
2
z
3
y
3
= z
3

_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
=
_
_
1/2 0 1/2
0 1/2 5/2
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
z
1
z
2
z
3
_
_
.
Finally, the relation between the initial coordinates (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) and the nal ones (z
1
, z
2
, z
3
)
is:
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
1 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
1/2 0 1/2
0 1/2 5/2
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
z
1
z
2
z
3
_
_
=
_
_
1/2 1/2 3
1/2 1/2 2
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
z
1
z
2
z
3
_
_
,
hence the matrix of passing to the diagonalizing basis is:
[B
t
] = M =
_
_
1/2 1/2 3
1/2 1/2 2
0 0 1
_
_
= C.
The matrix of the quadratic form relative to this basis is the diagonal matrix
[Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
1/2 0 0
0 1/2 0
0 0 12
_
_
.
We remark that the signature of the quadratic form Q is (+, , +) or yet (n
+
, n

, n
0
) =
(2, 1, 0).
62. Let A = [/] the matrix of the polar form
/(x, y) = x
1
y
1
2x
1
y
2
2x
2
y
1
+x
2
y
2
(obtained by halvings) associated to the quadratic form Q relative to the natural basis. We
have A =
_
1 2
2 1
_
. By applying the Jacobi method, by direct calculation we get the
minors

0
= 1,
1
= 1,
2
=

1 2
2 1

= 3
and the vectors of the basis corresponding to:
v
1
=
1

1
e
1

_
1
0
_
t
, v
2
=
1

e
1
e
2
1 2

=
1
3
(2e
1
e
2
)
_
2/3
1/3
_
,
hence the matrix of passing to the new basis B
t
and the diagonal matrix attached to the
quadratic form relative to this basis are respectively
C = [B
t
]
B
=
_
1 2/3
0 1/3
_
, [Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_

0
/
1
0
0
1
/
2
_
=
_
1 0
0 1/3
_
,
and the analytic expression of the form relative to the new coordinates [x]
B
= (x
t
1
, x
t
2
)
t
is
Q(x) = x
t2
1

1
3
x
t2
2
.
63. The spectrum of the matrix A =
_
1 2
2 1
_
associated to the quadratic form Q
is (A) = 1, 3. For
1
= 1 we nd an associated generating eigenvector, by solving the
characteristic system
(A(1)I)v = 0
_
2 2
2 2
__
x
y
_
=
_
0
0
_

_
x = t
y = t
, t R.
86 LAAG-DGDE
The solutions this system are of the form v = (t, t) = t(1, 1), t R, hence an associated
eigenvector is v
1
= (1, 1). Similarly, for
2
= 3 we have the associated eigenvector v
2
=
(1, 1). By norming the orthogonal basis B = v
1
, v
2
we get an orthonormal basis
B
t
=
_
w
1
=
_
1

2
,
1

2
_
, w
2
=
_
1

2
,
1

2
__
that consists of eigenvectors of the matrix A, whose associated matrix is
C = [B
t
]
B
= [w
1
, w
2
] =
_
1/

2 1/

2
1/

2 1/

2
_
.
Then the matrix of the quadratic form Q relative to B
t
is
[Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_

1
0
0
2
_
=
_
1 0
0 3
_
,
and the canonic expression of Q is Q(x) = x
t2
1
+ 3x
t2
2
, where we denoted [x]
B
=
_
x
t
1
x
t
2
_
.
The signature of the quadratic form Q is (, +), (n
+
, n

, n
0
) = (1, 1, 0).
64. a) The Gauss method. Grouping the terms to form squares according to the
Gauss method, ax
2
+bx =
1
a
(ax +
b
2
)
2

b
2
4a
, we get:
Q(v) = (x
2
8xy 16xz) + 7y
2
8yz +z
2
=
= x
2
+ 2x (4y 8z) + 7y
2
8yz +z
2
=
= (x 4y 8z)
2
(4y + 8z)
2
+ 7y
2
8yz +z
2
=
= (x 4y 8z)
2
9y
2
72yz 63z
2
=
= (x 4y 8z)
2

1
9
(9y 36z)
2
+ 144z
2
63z
2
=
= (x 4y 8z)
2

1
9
(9y 36z)
2
+ 81z
2
= x
t2

1
9
y
t2
+ 81z
t2
,
from where examining the groupings of squares we get the change of coordinates
_
_
_
x
t
= x 4y 8z
y
t
= 9y 36z
z
t
= z.
We remark that relative to these coordinates, the quadratic form has the canonic expres-
sion. In order to obtain the basis to which these coordinates correspond, we note that the
coordinate transformation inverse is
_

_
x = x
t

4
9
y
t
8z
t
y =
1
9
y
t
4z
t
z = z
t

_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
1 4/9 8
0 1/9 4
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
x

_
_
,
hence the matrix of passing to the diagonalizing basis is C = [B
t
] =
_
_
1 4/9 8
0 1/9 4
0 0 1
_
_
.
The initial matrix A of the quadratic form Q and its new (diagonal) matrix relative to the
new basis B
t
, are
A =
_
_
1 4 8
4 7 4
8 4 1
_
_
, [Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
1 0 0
0 1/9 0
0 0 81
_
_
.
Solutions 87
The method of eigenvalues. By halvings, we get the polar form / associated to the
quadratic form Q,
/(v
1
, v
2
) = x
1
x
2
4x
1
y
2
4x
2
y
1
8x
1
z
2
8x
2
z
1
+ 7y
1
y
2
4y
1
z
2
4y
2
z
1
+z
1
z
2
,
v
1
= (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
), v
2
= (x
2
, y
2
, z
2
). The matrix of this form relative to the natural basis is
A = [/] =
_
_
1 4 8
4 7 4
8 4 1
_
_
, with the spectrum (A) = 9, 9, 9. We determine a basis
formed of orthonormal eigenvectors of the matrix (this is possible, since the matrix A is a
symmetric matrix). For = 9, we get the characteristic system
(A9I)v = 0, v
_
_
a
b
c
_
_

_
_
_
8a 4b 8c = 0
4a 2b 4c = 0
8a 4b 8c = 0
b = 2a 2c,
with the solutions v = (t, 2t 2s, s) = t(1, 2, 0) + s(0, 2, 1), t, s R, hence two linearly
independent eigenvectors are v
1
= (1, 2, 0), v
2
= (0, 2, 1). We orthogonalize v
1
, v
2
using
the Gram-Schmidt process and we get
_

_
u
1
= v
1
= (1, 2, 0)
u
2
= v
2
pr
u
1
v
2
= v
2

v
2
, u
1
)
u
1
, u
1
)
u
1
=
= (0, 2, 1)
4
5
(1, 2, 0) = (
4
5
,
2
5
, 1)[[(4, 2, 5).
We nd the third eigenvector. The characteristic system associated to the eigenvalue = 9
is
(A+ 9I)v = 0
_
_
_
10a 4b 8c = 0
4a + 16b 4c = 0
8a 4b + 10c = 0
,
are the solutions v = (2t, t, 2t) = t(2, 1, 2), t R, hence we get u
3
= v
3
= (2, 1, 2).
By norming the orthogonal basis formed of the eigenvectors u
1
, u
2
and u
3
, it results the
claimed orthonormal basis with the associated change of coordinate matrix [B
t
] =
_
_
1/

5 4/3

5 2/3
2/

5 2/3

5 1/3
0 5/3

5 2/3
_
_
. The diagonal matrix attached to the quadratic form relative to
this basis is [Q]
B
=
_
_
9 0 0
0 9 0
0 0 9
_
_
. The Jacobi method. By straightforward calculation,
we get the minors:

0
= 1,
1
= 1,
2
=

1 4
4 7

= 7 16 = 9,
3
=

1 4 8
4 7 4
8 4 1

= 729
and the vectors of the basis corresponding to:
v
1
=
1

1
e
1

_
_
1
0
0
_
_
, v
2
=
1

e
1
e
2
1 4

=
1
9
(4e
1
e
2
)
_
_
4/9
1/9
0
_
_
,
v
3
=
1

e
1
e
2
e
3
1 4 8
4 7 4

=
1
729
(72e
1
+ 36e
2
9e
3
)
_
_
8/81
4/81
1/81
_
_
,
88 LAAG-DGDE
hence the matrix of passing to the new basis B
t
and the diagonal matrix attached to the
quadratic form relative to this basis are respectively [B
t
] =
_
_
1 4/9 8/81
0 1/9 4/81
0 0 1/81
_
_
and
[Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_

0
/
1
0 0
0
1
/
2
0
0 0
2
/
3
_
_
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 1/9 0
0 0 1/81
_
_
,
and the analytic expression of the quadratic form Q relative to the new coordinates (x
t
, y
t
, z
t
)
is
Q(v
t
) = x
t2
1/9y
t2
+ 1/81z
t2
, v = x
t
v
1
+y
t
v
2
+z
t
v
3
R
3
.
We remark that all the applied methods which aim to provide the canonic expression of the
quadratic form Q, lead to the signature (+, +, ), i.e., (n
+
, n

, n
0
) = (2, 1, 0).
b) The Gauss method. Grouping the terms to form squares by the Gauss method, hence
using groupings of squares of the form ax
2
+bx =
1
a
(ax +
b
2
)
2

b
2
4a
, we get
Q(x) = 5x
2
2
+ 4x
1
x
2
=
1
5
(5x
2
+ 2x
1
)
2
+
4
5
x
2
1
=
1
5
y
2
1
+
4
5
y
2
2
,
from where it results the change of coordinates
_
y
1
= 2x
1
5x
2
y
2
= x
1

_
y
1
y
2
_
=
_
2 5
1 0
__
x
1
x
2
_
.
In order to obtain the basis to which these coordinates correspond, we note that the inverse
coordinate transformation is
_
x
1
= y
2
x
2
=
y
1
5
+
2
5
y
2

_
x
1
x
2
_
=
_
0 1
1/5 2/5
__
y
1
y
2
_
,
hence the matrix of passing to the diagonalizing basis, respectively the diagonal matrix of
the quadratic form relative to this basis are
C = [B
t
] =
_
0 1
1/5 2/5
_
, [Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
1/5 0
0 4/5
_
.
The method of eigenvalues. Let / be the polar form which is associated to the quadratic
form Q,
/(x, y) = 5x
2
y
2
+ 2x
1
y
2
+ 2x
2
y
1
, x = (x
1
, x
2
), y = (y
1
, y
2
) R
2
obtained by halving. Its matrix A = [/] relative to the natural basis is
A = [/] =
_
A(e
1
, e
1
) A(e
1
, e
2
)
A(e
2
, e
1
) A(e
2
, e
2
)
_
=
_
0 2
2 5
_
where e
1
= (1, 0), e
2
= (0, 1). The spectrum of this matrix is (A) =

= (5

41)/2.
We determine a basis that consists of orthonormal eigenvectors of the matrix A (this is
possible, since A is a symmetric matrix); e.g., we get this basis by norming an orthogonal
basis formed of eigenvectors, [

B] = v

= (4, (5

41)); after norming these vectors and

denoting n

= [[v

[[ =
_
2(41 5

41), we respectively get the matrix C of passing to the

new basis B
t
, and the diagonal matrix [Q]
B
attached to the quadratic form relative to B
t
,
C = [B
t
] =
_
4/n
+
4/n

(5 +

41)/n
+
(

41 5)/n

_
, [Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_

+
0
0

_
.
Solutions 89
The Jacobi method. By straightforward calculation, we get the minors
0
= 1,
1
=
0,
2
=

0 2
2 0

= 4. One of the Jacobi minors being null, the method is not applicable.
We remark that the signature of the quadratic form Q is (+, ) or, moreover, (n
+
, n

, n
0
) =
(1, 1, 0).
c) The Gauss method. Using the relation Q = X
t
AX where A = [Q]
B
, X = [x]
B
, we get
the analytic expression of the quadratic form Q,
Q(x) = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
_
_
3 2 4
2 6 2
4 2 3
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
= 3x
2
1
4x
1
x
2
8x
1
x
3
+ 6x
2
2
4x
2
x
3
+ 3x
2
3
.
Grouping the terms in order to form squares, we get:
Q(x) = 3x
2
1
4x
1
x
2
8x
1
x
3
+ 6x
2
2
4x
2
x
3
+ 3x
2
3
=
=
1
3
(3x
1
2x
2
4x
3
)
2

16
3
x
2
x
3

4
3
x
2
2

16
3
x
2
3
+ 6x
2
2
4x
2
x
3
+ 3x
2
3
=
=
1
3
(3x
1
2x
2
4x
3
)
2
+
14
3
x
2
2

7
3
x
2
3

28
3
x
2
x
3
=
=
1
3
(3x
1
2x
2
4x
3
)
2
+
3
14
_
14
3
x
2

14
3
x
3
_
2

3
14

14
2
3
2
x
2
3

7
3
x
2
3
=
=
1
3
(3x
1
2x
2
4x
3
)
2
+
3
14
_
14
3
x
2

14
3
x
3
_
2
7x
2
3
=
1
3
y
2
1
+
3
14
y
2
2
7y
2
3
,
from where, examining the groupings of squares, it results the change of coordinates:
_
_
_
y
1
= 3x
1
2x
2
4x
3
y
2
=
14
3
x
2

14
3
x
3
y
3
= x
3

_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
=
_
_
3 2 4
0 14/3 14/3
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
.
In order to obtain the basis to which these coordinates correspond, we note that the coordi-
nate transformation inverse is
_

_
x
1
=
1
3
y
1
+
1
7
y
2
+ 2y
3
x
2
=
3
14
y
2
+y
3
x
3
= y
3

_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
1/3 1/7 2
0 3/14 1
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
,
hence the matrix of passing to the diagonalizing basis, respectively the diagonal matrix
associated to the quadratic form relative to this basis, are
C = [B
t
] =
_
_
1/3 1/7 2
0 3/14 1
0 0 1
_
_
, [Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
1/3 0 0
0 3/14 0
0 0 7
_
_
.
The method of eigenvalues. Similar to item a), we get the spectrum of the given matrix
(A) = 2, 7, 7 and the eigenvectors which correspond to v
1
= (2, 1, 2), v
2
= (1, 2, 0),
v
3
= (0, 2, 1). Let u
1
= v
1
. We remark that v
1
v
2
, v
1
v
3
. By orthogonalizing v
2
, v
3

with the Gram-Schmidt process, we get

_
u
2
= v
2
= (1, 2, 0)
u
3
= v
3
pr
u
2
v
3
= (4/5, 2/5, 1)[[(4, 2, 5).
By norming the orthogonal basis formed of the eigenvectors v
1
, u
2
, u
3
we get the claimed
orthonormal basis with the matrix associated to C = [B
t
] =
_
_
2/3 1/

5 4/3

5
1/3 2/

5 2/3

5
2/3 0 5/3

5
_
_
.
90 LAAG-DGDE
The diagonal matrix attached to the quadratic form relative to this basis is [Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
2 0 0
0 7 0
0 0 7
_
_
.
The Jacobi method. By straightforward calculation, we get the minors:

0
= 1,
1
= 3,
2
=

3 2
2 6

= 14,
3
=

3 2 4
2 6 2
4 2 3

= 98
and the vectors of the basis corresponding to
v
1
=
1

1
e
1

_
_
1/3
0
0
_
_
, v
2
=
1

e
1
e
2
3 2

=
1
14
(2e
1
3e
2
)
_
_
1/7
3/14
0
_
_
,
v
3
=
1

e
1
e
2
e
3
3 2 4
2 6 2

=
1
98
(28e
1
+ 14e
2
+ 14e
3
)
_
_
2/7
1/7
1/7
_
_
,
hence the matrix of passing to the new basis B
t
and the diagonal matrix attached to the
quadratic form relative to this basis are respectively:
C = [B
t
] =
_
_
1/3 1/7 2/7
0 3/14 1/7
0 0 1/7
_
_
, [Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
1/3 0 0
0 3/14 0
0 0 1/7
_
_
,
and the analytic expression of the form relative to the new coordinates (x
t
, y
t
, z
t
) is:
Q(v
t
) =
1
3
x
t2
+
3
14
y
t2

1
7
z
t2
, v = x
t
v
1
+y
t
v
2
+z
t
v
3
R
3
.
We remark that the signature of the quadratic form Q is (+, +, ), (n
+
, n

, n
0
) = (2, 1, 0).
d) The Gauss method. Using the relation Q = X
t
AX, where A = [Q]
B
, X = [x]
B
=
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
t
, we get the analytic expression of the quadratic form
Q(x) = x
2
1
+ 2x
1
x
2
2x
1
x
3
+ 2x
2
2
+ 3x
2
3
,
which after the grouping of the terms in order to form squares becomes Q(x) = (x
1
+x
2
x
3
)
2
+
(x
2
+x
3
)
2
+x
2
3
.
Examining the groupings of squares, it results the change of coordinates:
_
_
_
y
1
= x
1
+x
2
x
3
y
2
= x
2
+x
3
y
3
= x
3

_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
=
_
_
1 1 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
,
and the coordinate transformation inverse is:
_
_
_
x
1
= y
1
y
2
+ 2y
3
x
2
= y
2
y
3
x
3
= y
3

_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
1 1 2
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
,
hence the matrix of passing to the diagonalizing basis, respectively the diagonal matrix of
the quadratic form relative to this basis are
C = [B
t
] = M =
_
_
1 1 2
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
, [Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
.
Solutions 91
The method of eigenvalues. The characteristic polynomial of the matrix A is P() =

3
+ 6
2
9 + 1. The roots the polynomial are real, since A is a symmetric matrix;
still these are irrational, and hence they cannot generally be exactly determined. Hence the
method of eigenvalues cannot be applied.
The Jacobi method. We get the Jacobi minors
0
= 1,
1
= 1,
2
=

1 1
1 2

= 1,
3
=

1 1 1
1 2 0
1 0 3

= 1 and the associated basis

v
1
=
1

1
e
1

_
_
1
0
0
_
_
, v
2
=
1

2
_
e
1
e
2
1 1
_
= e
1
e
2

_
_
1
1
0
_
_
,
v
3
=
1

e
1
e
2
e
3
1 1 1
1 2 0

= 2e
1
e
2
+e
3

_
_
2
1
1
_
_
,
hence the matrix of passing to the new basis B
t
and the diagonal matrix are respectively:
C = [B
t
] =
_
_
1 1 2
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
, [Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
.
We remark that the signature of the quadratic form Q is (+, +, +), (n
+
, n

, n
0
) = (3, 0, 0).
e) The Gauss method. Grouping the terms in order to form squares we get:
Q(x) =
1
1
(x
1
+ 3x
3
)
2
+x
2
2
+ 4x
2
x
3
+ 4x
3
3
=
= (x
1
+ 3x
3
)
2
+ (x
2
+ 2x
3
)
2
= y
2
1
+y
2
2
.
From the relations of the change of coordinates
_
_
_
y
1
= x
1
+ 3x
3
y
2
= x
2
+ 2x
3
y
3
= x
3

_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
=
_
_
1 0 3
0 1 2
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
we get
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
1 0 3
0 1 2
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
,
hence the matrix of the new basis and the diagonal matrix of the quadratic form are respec-
tively:
C = [B
t
] =
_
_
1 0 3
0 1 2
0 0 1
_
_
, [Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
_
_
.
The method of eigenvalues. The matrix relative to the natural basis of the polar form
/ (obtained by halving the quadratic form Q) is A = [/]
B
=
_
_
1 0 3
0 1 2
3 2 5
_
_
, has the
spectrum (A) = 7, 2, 0 and the eigenvectors which correspond to v
1
= (2, 1, 4),
v
2
= (1, 2, 1), v
3
= (3, 2, 1). By norming the orthogonal basis formed of the eigenvec-
tors v
1
, v
2
, v
3
we get the claimed orthonormal basis with the matrix associated to
C = [B
t
] =
_
_
2/

21 1/

6 3/

14
1/

21 2/

6 2/

14
4/

21 1/

6 1/

14
_
_
.
92 LAAG-DGDE
The diagonal matrix attached to the quadratic form relative to this basis is
[Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
7 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 0
_
_
.
The Jacobi method. By straightforward calculation we get the minors:

0
= 1,
1
= 1,
2
=

1 0
0 1

= 1,
3
=

1 0 3
0 1 2
3 2 5

= 0.
One of the minors is null, and hence the method is not applicable.
We remark that the signature of the quadratic form Q is (+, , 0) or (n
+
, n

, n
0
) = (1, 1, 1).
f ) The Gauss method. Using the relation Q(x) = X
t
A X, where A = [Q]
B
, X = [x]
B
,
we get the analytic expression of the quadratic form Q,
Q(x) = 2x
1
x
2
6x
1
x
3
6x
2
x
4
+ 2x
3
x
4
, x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) R
4
.
Since the quadratic form Q does not contain terms of the form a
ii
x
2
i
, i = 1, 4, we perform
the change of coordinates
_
_
_
x
1
= y
1
+y
2
x
2
= y
1
y
2
x
3
= y
3
, x
4
= y
4

_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
y
4
_
_
_
_
;
We denote with M the matrix from the right hand side. Relative to the new coordinates, we
have
Q(x) = 2y
2
1
2y
2
2
6y
1
y
3
6y
1
y
4
6y
2
y
3
+ 6y
2
y
4
+ 2y
3
y
4
.
Grouping the terms in order to form squares we nally get
Q(y) =
1
2
(2y
1
3y
3
3y
4
)
2
9
_

9
2
y
3
3y
2

7
2
y
4
_
2
+
1
2
(2y
2

2
3
y
4
)
2
2y
2
4
=
=
1
2
z
2
1

2
9
z
2
2
+
1
2
z
2
3
2z
2
4
,
from where it results the coordinate transformation
_

_
z
1
= 2y
1
3y
3
3y
4
z
2
= 3y
2

9
2
y
3

7
2
y
4
z
3
= 2y
2

2
3
y
4
z
4
= y
4
,

_
_
_
_
z
1
z
2
z
3
z
4
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
2 0 3 3
0 3 9/2 7/2
0 2 0 2/3
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
y
4
_
_
_
_
,
whose inverse is
_

_
y
1
=
1
2
z
1
+
1
3
z
2

1
2
z
3
y
2
=
1
2
z
3
+
1
3
z
4
y
3
=
2
9
z
2

1
3
z
3
z
4
y
4
= z
4

_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
y
4
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
1/2 1/3 1/2 0
0 0 1/2 1/3
0 2/9 1/3 1
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
z
1
z
2
z
3
z
4
_
_
_
_
.
We denote with N the matrix from the right hand side. The matrix of passing to the
diagonalizing basis is obtained using the relations X = MY = MNZ CZ; we get the
Solutions 93
passing matrix C and respectively the diagonal matrix of the quadratic form relative to this
basis:
C = [B
t
] = MN =
_
_
_
_
1/2 1/3 0 1/3
1/2 1/3 1 1/3
0 2/9 1/3 1
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
,
[Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
_
_
1/2 0 0 0
0 2/9 0 0
0 0 1/2 0
0 0 0 2
_
_
_
_
.
The method of eigenvalues. The spectrum of the matrix A is (A) = 4, 2, 2, 4, and
the eigenvectors which correspond to are
v
1
= (1, 1, 1, 1), v
2
= (1, 1, 1, 1), v
3
= (1, 1, 1, 1), v
4
= (1, 1, 1, 1).
By norming the orthogonal basis formed of the eigenvectors v
1
, v
2
, v
3
and v
4
we get the
claimed orthonormal basis with the matrix associated to
C = [B
t
] =
_
_
_
_
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
_
_
_
_
.
The diagonal matrix attached to the quadratic form relative to this basis is
[Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
_
_
4 0 0 0
0 2 0 0
0 0 2 0
0 0 0 4
_
_
_
_
.
The Jacobi method. Since the minor
1
= 0 is null, the method is not applicable.
We remark that the signature of the quadratic form Q is (+, +, , ) or (n
+
, n

, n
0
) =
(2, 2, 0).
g) The Gauss method. Similar to item c), we get the analytic expression of the quadratic
form Q,
Q(x) = 5x
2
1
4x
1
x
2
4x
1
x
3
+ 6x
2
2
+ 4x
2
3
.
Grouping the terms in order to form squares we get:
Q(x) =
1
5
(5x
1
2x
2
2x
3
)
2
+
26
5
x
2
2
+
16
5
x
2
3

8
5
x
2
x
3
=
=
1
5
(5x
1
2x
2
2x
3
)
2
+
5
26
_
26
5
x
2

4
5
x
3
_
2

40
13
x
2
3
=
=
1
5
y
2
1
+
5
26
y
2
2

40
13
y
2
3
,
from where it results the inverse transform of coordinates:
_

_
x
1
=
1
5
y
1
+
1
13
y
2
+
6
13
y
3
x
2
=
5
26
y
2
+
2
13
y
3
x
3
= y
3

_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
1/5 1/13 6/13
0 5/26 2/13
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
,
hence the matrix of passing to the diagonalizing basis, respectively the diagonal matrix of
the quadratic form relative to this basis are:
C = [B
t
] = M =
_
_
1/5 1/13 6/13
0 5/26 2/13
0 0 1
_
_
, [Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
1/5 0 0
0 5/26 0
0 0 40/13
_
_
.
94 LAAG-DGDE
The method of eigenvalues. The spectrum of the matrix A is (A) = 2, 5, 8, and the
corresponding eigenvectors are
v
1
= (2, 1, 2), v
2
= (1, 2, 2), v
3
= (2, 2, 1).
By norming the orthogonal basis formed of the eigenvectors v
1
, v
2
and v
3
, we get the claimed
orthonormal basis with the associated matrix [B
t
] =
_
_
2/3 1/3 2/3
1/3 2/3 2/3
2/3 2/3 1/3
_
_
. The diagonal
matrix attached to the quadratic form relative to this basis is [Q]
B
=
_
_
2 0 0
0 5 0
0 0 8
_
_
.
The Jacobi method. By straightforward calculation, we get the minors:

0
= 1,
1
= 5,
2
=

5 2
2 6

= 26,
3
=

5 2 2
2 6 0
2 0 4

= 80
and the vectors of the basis corresponding to:
v
1
=
1

1
e
1

_
_
1/5
0
0
_
_
, v
2
=
1

e
1
e
2
5 2

=
1
26
(2e
1
5e
2
)
_
_
1/13
5/26
0
_
_
,
v
3
=
1

e
1
e
2
e
3
5 2 2
2 6 0

=
1
80
(12e
1
+ 4e
2
+ 26e
3
)
_
_
3/20
1/20
13/40
_
_
,
hence the matrix of passing to the new basis B
t
and the diagonal matrix attached to the
quadratic form relative to this basis are respectively:
C = [B
t
] =
_
_
1/5 1/13 3/20
0 5/26 1/20
0 0 13/40
_
_
, [Q]
B
= C
t
AC =
_
_
1/5 0 0
0 5/26 0
0 0 13/40
_
_
.
We remark that the signature of the quadratic form Q is (+, +, +) or (n
+
, n

, n
0
) = (3, 0, 0).
III.1. Free vectors
65. a) We identify the free vectors with the triples of their coordinates relative to the
canonic orthonormal basis
_

i,

j,

k
_
, a (1, 2, ),

b (1, 1, 2). By straightforward calculation

we get:
a

b =

i

j

k
1 2
1 1 2

= (4 )

i + (2 +)

k.
b) We have ind
_
a,

b
_
a

b ,= 0. In our case a

b = (4 )

i + (2 + )

k ,=

0 (the
coecient of

k is always non-zero), hence ind
_
a,

b
_
. But a

b ,= 0, ( a

b) a, ( a

b)

b,
hence a

b / L( a,

b); hence a basis in V

3
is given by
_
a,

b, a

b
_
.
c) Let O(0, 0, 0) be the origin of the coordinate system and let
_

i,

j,

k
_
be its basis. Then
the triangle determined by the representatives

OA and

OB having the same origin O of the
free vectors a and respectively

b as adjacent edges has the three vertices O(0, 0, 0), A(1, 2, 2)
and B(1, 1, 2). The area of the triangle OAB is given by formula:
A
[OAB]
=
1
2
_
_
a

b
_
_
=
1
2
|(1, 2, 2) (1, 1, 2)| =
1
2
|(2, 0, 1)| =
1
2

5.
Solutions 95
Obviously, the area of the parallelogram determined by a and

b as adjacent edges is equal
with the double of the area of the triangle OAB, hence equal with

5.
66. a) We identify the free vectors with the triples of the coordinates relative to canonic
orthonormal basis

i,

j,

k, a (1, 1, 1),

b (0, 1, ), c (0, 1, 1). We get their joint product:

a,

b c) =

1 1 1
0 1
0 1 1

= 1 .
b) For = 1, the three vectors are coplanar (linearly dependent). Since for ,= 1 we have

a,

b c
_
,= 0, it results that in this case the three vectors are linearly independent, hence
are non-coplanar. The vectors a,

b, c determine in V
3
a positive oriented basis if and only if

a,

b c
_
> 0, this being equivalent with < 1.
c) The volume of the tetrahedron determined by the vectors a,

b, c as adjacent edges is
given by formula V
t
=
1
6
[ a, (

b c))[. Since a triangular prism can be naturally decomposed

into three tetrahedrons of equal volumes, and the parallelepiped - into two prisms of equal
volumes, we have V
pr
= 3V
t
, V
pp
= 2V
pr
= 6V
t
, hence for = 0 we get V
t
=
1
6
[1 0[ =
1
6
, V
pr
=
1
2
, V
pp
= 1.
67. We have
V
[ABCD]
=
1
6
mod

x
A
y
A
z
A
1
x
B
y
B
z
B
1
x
C
y
C
z
C
1
x
D
y
D
z
D
1

=
1
6
[ 1[ =
1
6
.
Otherwise. Since AB = OB OA (1, 0, 0) (0, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 0), AC (0, 1, 0), and
AD (0, 0, 1), we infer
V
[ABCD]
=
1
6
mod (AB, AC AD)) =
1
6
mod

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

=
1
6
.
68. a) We identify the free vectors with the triples of their coordinates relative to
the canonic orthonormal basis
_

i,

j,

k
_
, a (1, 1, 1),

b (1, 2, 3), c (0, 1, 1). By

straightforward calculation, we get:

b c =

i

j

k
1 2 3
0 1 1

j +

k (1, 1, 1) and then,

the double cross product:
a (

b c) =

i

j

k
1 1 1
1 1 1

= 2

j 2

k (0, 2, 2).
b) By applying the formula a (

b c) = a, c)

a,

b
_
c, we have a (

b c) 0 (1, 2, 3)
2 (0, 1, 1) = (0, 2, 2) 2

j 2

k.
c) We remark that the double cross product w = a(

b c) is orthogonal both on a, and also

on

b c (being the cross product of these vectors). From the relation w = a, c)

a,

b
_
c
we remark that the vector w belong to the subspace L(

b, c), being a linear combination of

the generators of the subspace, hence w is coplanar with

b and c.
96 LAAG-DGDE
III.2. The straight line and the plane in space
69. a) The straight line which passes through the points A(1, 2, 3) and B(4, 2, 1) is
given by the Cartesian equations:
:
x 1
4 1
=
y 2
2 2
=
z 3
1 3

x 1
3
=
y 2
0
=
z 3
2
.
Making equal the three ratios with t, we get the parametric equations of the straight line,
: (x, y, z) = (1 + 3t, 2, 3 2t), t R.
b) We identify the director vector v with the triple of the coordinates relative to the canonic
orthonormal basis
_

i,

j,

k
_
, v (1, 0, 2). The straight line determined by the direction
v and item C(2, 6, 1) has the Cartesian equations
x2
1
=
y6
0
=
z1
2
; by equalizing the ratios
with t, we get the parametric equations of straight line : (x, y, z) = (2 t, 6, 1 +2t), t R.
70. Solving the system of equations
_
2x +y 5z = 12
4x + 7y 33z = 1
and by considering as sec-
ondary unknown y = t, we get the parametric equations of straight line : (x, y, z) =
(
17
2
+
1
23
t, t, 1 +
5
23
t), t R. Extracting t from each equality, we get t =
x
17
2
1
23
=
y0
1
=
z1
5
23
,
hence the director vector is v
_
1
23
, 1,
5
23
_

1
23

i +

j +
5
23

k. Giving values to t R in the

parametric equations of the straight line , we get points on this straight line. As an
example, for t = 0 and t = 1 we get respectively the points A
0
(
17
2
, 0, 1), A
1
(
393
46
, 1,
28
23
) .
71. We have A, B, C - non-collinear only if indAB, AC AB AC ,=

0. But
AB =

i 3

j, AC = 2

j and AB AC =

i

j

k
1 3 0
2 1 0

= 5

k ,=

0, hence the points A, B
and C are not collinear. The equation of the plane determined of the points A, B, C is
given by:
:

x y z 1
1 2 1 1
2 5 1 1
3 3 1 1

= 0 z = 1.
b) We identify the vector n with the triple of its coordinates relative to the canonic orthonor-
mal basis
_

i,

j,

k
_
, n (0, 3, 2). The plane which passes through the point D(1, 5, 0) and
has the normal direction n (0, 3, 2) is
: 0(x 1) + 3(y 5) + 2(z 0) = 0 3y + 2z 15 = 0.
Otherwise. is part of the parallel pencil of planes of common normal direction n (0, 3, 2),
of the equation

: 0x + 3y + 2z + = 0, R. The claimed plane contains the point

D(1, 5, 0). The condition D

leads to 3 5 +2 0 + = 0 = 15, hence the plane is

=
=15
: 3y + 2z 15 = 0.
c) We have the vectors u (2, 0, 0) and v (1, 0, 3). Then the plane which passes
through the point E(2, 1, 2) and is parallel with the directions u and v is given by :

x 2 y 1 z 2
2 0 0
1 0 3

= 0 6y 6 = 0 y = 1.
d) The normal to the plane unit vector is n = n
0
/[[n
0
[[
_
1
3
,
2
3
,
2
3
_
(cos , cos , cos ),
where
= (Ox, n
0
), = (Oy, n
0
), = (Oz, n
0
)
Solutions 97
are the director angles of the direction given by n
0
. Applying the Hesse formula, it results
the equation of the plane
: xcos +y cos +z cos d = 0, (d 0)

1
3
x +
2
3
y +
2
3
z 2 = 0 x + 2y 2z = 6.
Otherwise. The pencil of planes whose normal direction is given by n
0
has the Cartesian
equation

: 1 x + 2 y 2 z + = 0 =

OM, n
0
_
, (26)
where M(x, y, z) . We have d (0,

) =
]]
| n
0
|
=
]]
3
. Using the hypothesis, it results
]]
3
= 2 6. We want
_
OM, n
0
_
to be an acute angle, hence using the relation
(26), we get < 0 = 6, which nally yields
: x + 2y 2z 6 = 0.
72. We remark that a normal vector of the plane x + 2y 3z = 4 is u = (1, 2, 3), and
three points which belong to the plane are A(1, 0, 1),B(2, 1, 0) and C(0, 2, 0). Since, e.g.,
the point C does not belong to straight line determined by the points A and B (which has
the equations x 1 = y = z + 1) it results that A, B and C are non-collinear (equivalently,
check that AB AC ,=

0).
In order to nd the parametric equations of the plane, we need a point which belongs to
the plane and two non-collinear vectors u = a
1

i + b
1

j + c
1

k and v = a
2

i + b
2

j + c
2

k which
admit representatives which are contained in the plane . Since we know that the oriented
segments

AB and

AC are contained in the plane, we choose u and v such that

AB u and

AC v. Then we have :

AB (a
1
, b
1
, c
1
) = (2 1, 1 0, 0 (1)) = (1, 1, 1),

AC (a
2
, b
2
, c
2
) = (0 1, 2 0, 0 (1)) = (1, 2, 1).
We conclude that the plane , which contains the point A(1, 0, 1) = (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) and which
is parallel to the directions u =

i +

j +

k (a
1
, b
1
, c
1
) = (1, 1, 1) and v =

i + 2

j +

k
(a
2
, b
2
, c
2
) = (1, 2, 1), has the parametric equations:
:
_
_
_
x = x
0
+a
1
s +a
2
t
y = y
0
+b
1
s +b
2
t
z = z
0
+c
1
s +c
2
t

_
_
_
x = 1 +s t
y = 0 +s + 2t
z = 1 +s +t
, s, t R,
and the Cartesian equation:
:

x 1 y 0 z + 1
1 1 1
1 2 1

= 0 1(x 1) 2y + 3(z + 1) = 0 x + 2y 3z = 4.
Homework. Show that A, B, C .
73. a) If the algebraic magnitudes of the segments determined by on the coordinate
axes Ox, Oy and Oz are respectively 1, 3 and 2, it results that the plane intersects the
coordinate axes at the points M
1
(1, 0, 0), M
2
(0, 3, 0) and M
3
(0, 0, 2). We write the equation
of the plane by intercepts:
:
x
1
+
y
3
+
z
2
1 = 0 6x 2y + 3z 6 = 0.
98 LAAG-DGDE
b) We have a point F(1, 2, 3) which belongs to the plane, and a vector parallel to it u
(1, 1, 0) (which is given by the director vector of the straight line :
x
1
=
y1
1
=
z1
0
. We
consider v = FM as the second vector parallel to the plane, where M is an arbitrary
point of the straight line . Let M(0, 1, 1). It follows that v = FM (0 1, 1 2, 1 3) =
(1, 1, 2). We get:
:

x 1 y 2 z 3
1 1 0
1 1 2

= 0 x +y z = 0.
Otherwise. We consider : x = 1 y =
z1
0
as being the straight line located at the
intersection of the planes
_
x = 1 y
x =
z1
0

_
x +y 1 = 0
z 1 = 0,
hence the equation of the reduced pencil of planes which pass through the straight line is:
(x +y 1) +r(z 1) = 0, r R.
But belongs to this pencil and since F(1, 2, 3) , we have
(1 + 2 1) +r(3 1) = 0 2 + 2r = 0 r = 1,
and hence: : (x +y 1) 1(z 1) = 0 : x +y z = 0.
c) The plane passes through the point G(2, 0, 1) and has the normal vector n = (1, 0, 3)
(the same as the one of the plane

: x 3z + 1 = 0). We have
: 1(x 2) + 0(y 0) + (3)(z + 1) = 0 x 3z 5 = 0.
Otherwise. The reduced pencil of parallel planes which have the same normal direction given
by n = (1, 0, 3) has the equation of the form

: 1 x + 0 y 3 z + = 0, R.
The plane belong to this pencil and contains the point G(2, 0, 1), hence the condition
G

can be written 1 2 + 0 0 3 (1) + = 0 = 5; hence : x 3z 5 = 0.

III.3. Problems relative to straight lines and planes
74. a) In order to determine the relative position of the straight lines
1
and
2
, we
solve the system determined by the two 2 + 2 equations of the lines:
_
x y = 2, x +z = 3
2x + 3z = 4, y = 1.
We remark that the system is incompatible, hence their intersection is the empty set. The
director vectors of the straight lines
1
:
x
1
=
y+2
1
=
z3
1
and
2
:
x
1
2
3
2
=
y+1
0
=
z1
1
are respectively v
1
= (1, 1, 1) and v
2
=
_
3
2
, 0, 1
_
. From calculation it results that
v
1
v
2

_
1,
1
2
,
3
2
_
,= 0
R
3, hence the straight lines
1
and
2
are not parallel. Since
v
1
, v
2
) =
5
2
,= 0, it results that the straight lines
1
and
2
are not perpendicular.
b) The planes
1
: x 3y = 1 and
2
: 2y + z = 2 have the normal vectors n
1
= (1, 3, 0),
respectively n
2
= (0, 2, 1). Since n
1
n
2
= (3, 1, 2) ,=

0, the two planes are neither
Solutions 99
parallel, nor confounded, hence their intersection is a straight line

, whose points satisfy

the system of equations:
_
x 3y 1 = 0
2y +z 2 = 0.
We remark that the system is a compatible simple undetermined system, hence
1
and
2
intersect by a straight line. Since n
1
, n
2
) = 6 ,= 0, it results that the two planes are not
perpendicular.
75. a) Considering x the secondary unknown in the system
_
x y = 2
x +z = 3
, we get the
solutions:
_
_
_
x = t
y = 2 +t
z = 3 t
, t R, from where, extracting t in each of the three relations, it
results the Cartesian equations of straight lines are
1
:
x0
1
=
y+2
1
=
z3
1
= t, hence a
director vector of straight lines
1
is v
1
=

i +

k (1, 1, 1).
The Cartesian equations of the straight lines
2
are
2
:
x
1
2
3
2
=
y + 1
0
=
z 1
1
, hence this
admits as director vector v
2

_
3
2
, 0, 1
_
. We have
cos(
1
,
2
) = cos( v
1
, v
2
) =
v
1
, v
2
)
| v
1
| | v
2
|
=
3
2
+ 0 + 1

3
_
13
4
=
5

39
39
,
and hence (
1
,
2
) = arccos
5

39
39

_
0,

2
_
.
b) We remark that a director vector of the straight lines is :
x1
1
=
y
2
=
z+1
5
is v
(1, 2, 5), and a normal vector to the plane : y z = 1 is n (0, 1, 1). Let be the
angle between the straight line and the plane . We have
sin =
v, n)
| v| | n|
=
3

30

2
=

15
10
,
hence = arcsin

15
10
= arcsin

15
10

_

2
, 0
_
.
c) We remark that two normal vectors to the planes
1
: x 3y = 1 and
2
: 2y +z = 2 are
respectively n
1
= (1, 3, 0) and n
2
= (0, 2, 1). Let angle between the two planes. Then:
cos = cos( n
1
, n
2
) =
n
1
, n
2
)
| n
1
| | n
2
|
=
6

10

5
=
6
5

2
,
hence = arccos
6
5

2

_

2
,
_
.
76. a) We have d(A, B) =
_
(1 1)
2
+ (0 2)
2
+ (1 3)
2
=

12 = 2

3.
b) The straight line :
x1
1
=
y
2
=
z+1
5
admits as director vector v (1, 2, 5) and contains
the point C(1, 0, 1), which is obtained by canceling the numerators of the ratios. Then
d(A, ) =
|AC v|
| v|
. But AC (0, 2, 4), hence AC v =

i

j

k
0 2 4
1 2 5

(2, 4, 2).
It follows that
_
_
AC v
_
_
=

24 = 2

6; | v| =

30, hence d(A, ) =

2

30
=
2

5
5
.
c) The plane has the equation y z 1 = 0. The distance from the point A(1, 2, 3) to
is d (A, ) =
]01+12+(1)31]

0
2
+1
2
+(1)
2
=
2

2
=

2.
100 LAAG-DGDE
77. a) The plane is given by the equation : y z = 1, hence a vector normal to the
plane is n (0, 1, 1). The projection of the point A on the plane is the point B located
at the intersection of the perpendicular d which passes through A on . The straight line
which passes through A(1, 2, 3) and has the director vector n (0, 1, 1) has the equations

:
x 1
0
=
y 2
1
=
z 3
1
.
We nd the coordinates of the point B by solving the system:
B =

:
_
x1
0
=
y2
1
=
z3
1
y z = 1

_
_
_
x = 1
y +z = 5
y z = 1

_
_
_
x = 1
y = 3
z = 2.
It follows that B(1, 3, 2).
b) We remark that the straight line :
x 1
1
=
y
2
=
z + 1
5
has the director vector v
(1, 2, 5). The plane which passes through the point A and is perpendicular on the straight
line has the equation:

0
: 1(x 1) + 2(y 2) + 5(z 3) = 0 x 2y 5z + 18 = 0.
The projection A
t
of the point A onto the straight line is found by solving the system:
A
t
=
0
d :
_
x 2y 5z + 18 = 0
x1
1
=
y
2
=
z+1
5
,
from where it results A
t
_
1
5
,
8
5
, 3
_
.
c) We nd the plane

which passes through :

x1
1
=
y
2
=
z+1
5
and is perpendicular on
: y z = 1. This contains the point C(1, 0, 1) , the director vector v (1, 2, 5) of
the straight line is and the vector n (0, 1, 1) normal to , hence

x 1 y z + 1
1 2 5
0 1 1

= 0 7x +y +z = 6.
In this way we nd the projection
t
=

:
_
y z = 1
7x +y +z = 6
78. a) Let A
t
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) be the symmetric of the point A(1, 2, 3) with respect to B.
Since B is the middle of the segment [AA
t
], we have
x
B
=
x
A
+x
A

2
, y
B
=
y
A
+y
A

2
, z
B
=
z
A
+z
A

2
,
hence
x
0
+1
2
= 1,
y
0
+2
2
= 0,
z
0
+3
2
= 1, from where it results A
t
(3, 2, 1).
b) Let A
t
be the projection the point A(1, 2, 3) on the straight line , hence A
t
is the foot of
the perpendicular from point A(1, 2, 3) on the straight line :
x1
1
=
y
2
=
z+1
5
. The plane

which passes through A and is perpendicular on has the equation

: 1(x 1) + 2(y 2) + 5(z 3) = 0 x 2y 5z + 18 = 0

We nd the coordinates of the point A
t
=

by solving the system

A
t
:
_
x 2y 5z + 18 = 0
x1
1
=
y
2
=
z+1
5
,
from where it results A
t
_
1
5
,
8
5
, 3
_
. The symmetric of the point
A relative to the straight line is the symmetric of A with respect to A
t
, hence it has the
coordinates A
tt
_

3
5
,
6
5
, 3
_
.
Solutions 101
c) Let A
tt
be the symmetric of A with respect to the plane . In order to nd A
t
, we write
rst the equations of the straight line

which passes through A

t
and is perpendicular on
,

:
x 1
0
=
y 2
1
=
z 3
1
.
The intersection A
t
=

:
_
_
_
x = 1
y +z = 5
y z = 1
leads to pr

A = A
t
(1, 3, 2). We nd the
coordinates of A
tt
: we note that A
t
is the middle of AA
tt
. Hence, from the relations
1+x
A

2
=
1,
2+y
A

2
= 3,
3+z
A

2
= 2, it results A
tt
(1, 4, 1).
d) The parametric equations of the straight line :
x1
1
=
y
2
=
z+1
5
= t are : (x, y, z) =
(1 t, 2t, 1 + 5t), t R. For t = 0 and t = 1 we get the points E(1, 0, 1), respectively
F(0, 2, 4) of the straight lines is . Similarly with item c), we nd the symmetric points E
tt
and F
tt
of the points E, respectively F, with respect to the plane : y z = 1. We remark
that E , hence E
tt
= E(1, 0, 1). After calculations, we get F
tt
(0, 5, 1). The symmetric
of the straight line with respect to the plane is the straight line

which passes through

E
tt
(1, 0, 1) and F
tt
(0, 5, 1).

:
x 1
0 1
=
y 0
5 0
=
z + 1
1 + 1

:
x 1
1
=
y
5
=
z + 1
2
.
79. Method I. The Cartesian equations of the two straight lines are:
1
:
x0
1
=
y+2
1
=
z3
1
(see ex. 75), respectively
2
:
x
1
2
3
2
=
y+1
0
=
z1
1
, hence their director vectors are
v
1
(1, 1, 1), respectively v
2

_
3
2
, 0, 1
_
.
The common perpendicular of the two straight lines has the direction given by the free vector
u = v
1
v
2
=

i

j

k
1 1 1
3
2
0 1

_
1,
1
2
,
3
2
_
.
Let

the plane which passes through

1
(hence contains a point of the straight line
1
, e.g.,
A(0, 2, 3)
1
and the direction of
1
, given by v
1
(1, 1, 1)) and which contains the
direction of the common perpendicular of the two straight lines, given by n
_
1,
1
2
,
3
2
_
.
Then:

x 0 y + 2 z 3
1 1 1
1
1
2

3
2

= 0 4x + 5y +z + 7 = 0.
A point A
t
of the common perpendicular is located at the intersection of

with
2
,
A
t
=
2

:
_
2x1
3
=
y+1
0
= 1 z
4x + 5y +z + 7 = 0

_
_
_
y = 1
2x + 3z = 4
4x + 5y +z = 7

_
_
_
x =
5
7
y = 1
z =
6
7
,
hence A
t
_
5
7
, 1,
6
7
_
.
The common perpendicular

contains the point A

t
and has the direction given by n
_
1,
1
2
,
3
2
_
. Then its equations are:

:
x
5
7
1
=
y + 1

1
2
=
z
6
7

3
2

7x 5
7
=
2y + 2
1
=
2z 12
21
.
Method II. Let v

= v
1
v
2
the free vector which gives the direction of the common per-
pendicular. The common perpendicular of the straight lines
1
and
2
is located at the
102 LAAG-DGDE
intersection between the plane
1
=

which passes through

1
and is parallel with v

(see
Method I) and the plane
2
which passes through
2
and is parallel with v

.
The plane
2
contains a point of the straight line
2
(e.g., B(
1
2
, 1, 1)
2
), the direction
of
2
given by v
2
(
3
2
, 0, 1) and the direction given by the common perpendicular of
1
and
2
, hence of v

(1,
1
2
,
3
2
).
Then

2
:

x 1/2 y + 1 z 1
3/2 0 1
1 1/2 3/2

= 0
2
: 2x + 13y 3z + 7 = 0.
We conclude that we have

=
1

2
:
_
4x + 5y +z + 7 = 0
2x + 13y 3z + 17 = 0.
Method III. Using the parametric equations of the two straight lines, we consider the points
C
1
(t) = (t, t 2, t + 3)
1
, t R, C
2
(s) = (3/2s + 1/2, 1, s + 1)
2
, s R.
The segment C
1
(t)C
2
(s) is included in the common perpendicular
1
of the two straight
lines only when the vector w = C
1
(t)C
2
(s) (
3s+1
2
t, t + 1, s +t 2) is orthogonal on
the two director vectors v
1
and v
2
. This condition can be written as
_
w v
1
w v
2

_
w, v
1
) = 0
w, v
2
) = 0

_
6t + 5s + 7 = 0
10t + 13s + 11 = 0

_
t = 9/7
s = 1/7.
The points corresponding to the two values obtained for s and t are respectively
B
1
= C
1
_
9
7
_
=
_
9
7
,
5
7
,
12
7
_

1
, B
2
= C
2
_
1
7
_
=
_
5
7
, 1,
6
7
_

2
.
These are the feet of the common perpendicular

, and the straight line B

1
B
2
is exactly
the common perpendicular. We get

:
x 5/7
4/7
=
y + 1
2/7
=
z 6/7
6/7

7x 5
4
=
7y + 7
2
=
7z 6
6
.
We remark that in this way, we can easily compute as well the distance between the two
straight lines. Since B
1

1
and B
2

2
are the feet of the common perpendicular, we
have
d(
1
,
2
) = d(B
1
, B
2
) =

_
9
7

5
7
_
2
+
_

5
7
+ 1
_
2
+
_
12
7

6
7
_
2
=
2

14
7
.
Method IV. We consider two points C
1
(t)
1
and C
2
(s)
2
and the function f(s, t) =
[[

C
1
(t)C
2
(s)[[
2
, s, t R. The distance between the two straight lines is given by the minimal
value of the function f when s, t R. We have
f(s, t) = (
3s+1
2
t)
2
+ (t + 1)
2
+ (s +t 2)
2
=
=
13
4
s
2
3t
2
5st +
11
2
s 7t +
21
4
.
The critical points (s, t) R
2
of the function f (which contains the minimum points) are
located by solving the system
_
f
s
= 0
f
t
= 0

_
13
2
s 5t +
11
2
= 0
6t 5s z = 0

_
s = 1/7
t = 9/7,
Solutions 103
a unique solution (see the values which were obtained by the method III). Further, in order
to determine the common perpendicular of the straight lines
1
and
2
, we proceed as in
Method III.
80. Two director vectors of the straight lines
1
:
x0
1
=
y+2
1
=
z3
1
and
2
:
x
1
2
3
2
=
y+1
0
=
z1
1
are v
1
(1, 1, 1) and v
2
(3/2, 0, 1), respectively. Then v
1
v
2

(1, 1/2, 3/2) ,= 0
R
3, which yields that the two lines do not have the same direction. Two
points on the straight lines are A
1
(0, 2, 3), and respectively A
2
_
1
2
, 1, 1
_
. Then:
d(
1
,
2
) =
[A
1
A
2
, v
1
v
2
)[
[[ v
1
v
2
[[
=

_
1
2
, 1, 2
_
,
_
1,
1
2
,
3
2
__

_
_
_
1,
1
2
,
3
2
__
_
=
=
[
1
2
(1) + 1
_

1
2
_
+ (2)
_

3
2
_
[

14/2
=
2

14
7
.
81. Two director vectors of the straight lines
1
:
x0
1
=
y+2
1
=
z3
1
and
2
:
x+
1
2
1
=
y1
1
=
z1
1
are v
1
(1, 1, 1) and v
2
(1, 1, 1), respectively. Then v
1
v
2
(0, 0, 0) =
0
R
3, which yields that the two lines have the same direction. Two points on the straight lines
are A
1
(0, 2, 3), and respectively A
2
_

1
2
, 1, 1
_
, which yields A
1
A
2
(1/2, 3, 2). Then
d(
1
,
2
) = d(A
1
,
2
) =
[[ v
2
A
1
A
2
[[
[[ v
2
[[
=
[[(1, 5/2, 7/2)[[
[[(1, 1, 1)[[
=

78/2

3
=
_
13
2
.
III.4. Curvilinear coordinates
82. a) We use the formulas
_

_
=
_
x
2
+y
2
=
_

_
k + arctan
y
x
, for x ,= 0
/2, for x = 0, y > 0
3/2, for x = 0, y < 0,
(27)
where k = 0, 1, 2, as the point (x, y) is located respectively in quadrants I, II & III, or IV.
We have x = 1, y = 2. Then it results =
_
x
2
+y
2
=

5 and since item is located in the

quadrant IV, = 2 + arctan(2) = 2 arctan2.
b) We use the formulas
_
x = cos
y = sin
, (, ) [0, ) [0, 2].
The Cartesian coordinates for = 2 and =
3
4
are
_
x = 2 cos
3
4
= 2cos
_


4
_
= 2cos

4
=

2
y = 2 sin
3
4
= 2 sin
_


4
_
= 2 sin

4
=

2.
83. a) We use the formulas (27). We have x = 1, y = 2, z = 3. Hence =
_
x
2
+y
2
=

5; the projection the point on the plane x0y being located in the quadrant
IV, it results = 2 + arctan
y
x
= 2arctan2, and z = 3.
b) We use the formulas
_
_
_
x = cos
y = sin
z = z
, (, , z) [0, ) [0, 2] R.
104 LAAG-DGDE
We have = 1, =
4
3
, z = 2. Then it results:
_
_
_
x = 1 cos
4
3
= cos
_
+

3
_
= cos

3
=
1
2
y = 1 sin
4
3
= sin
_
+

3
_
= sin

3
=

3
2
z = 2.
84. a) We use the formulas
_

_
r =
_
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= arccos(z/r)
=
_
_
_
k + arctan
y
x
, for x ,= 0
/2, for x = 0, y > 0
3/2, for x = 0, y < 0.
where k = 0, 1, 2, as the point (x, y, 0) is located respectively in the quadrants I, II &
III, or IV of the plane xOy R
2
. We have x = 1, y = 2, z = 3, from where we get
r =
_
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
=

14 and = arccos
_
z
r
_
= arccos
_

14
_
= arccos
_
3

14
_
. We
solve the system
_
x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin

_
1 =

14

x
2
+y
2

14
cos
2 =

14

x
2
+y
2

14
sin

_
_
_
cos =
1

5
sin =
2

5
tan = 2
and since we are in the quadrant IV, it results = 2+ arctan(2) = 2 arctan2 [0, 2).
As well, we can write = 2 arcsin
2

5
= 2 arccos
1

5
.
b) We use the formulas
_
_
_
x = r sincos
y = r sinsin
z = r cos
, (r, , ) [0, ) [0, ] [0, 2].
We have r = 1, =
2
3
, =
5
3
and we get
cos = cos(

3
) = cos

3
=
1
2
, sin = sin(

3
) = sin

3
=

3
2
,
cos = cos(2

3
) = cos

3
=
1
2
, sin = sin(2

3
) = sin(

3
) = sin

3
=

3
2
,
hence
_

_
x = r sincos = 1

3
2

1
2
=

3
4
,
y = r sinsin = 1

3
2
(

3
2
) =
3
4
,
z = r cos = 1 (
1
2
) =
1
2
.
Finally, the Cartesian coordinates of the point are (x, y, z) = (

3
4
,
3
4
,
1
2
).
III.5. Conics
85. Method 1. The points of the conic satisfy an equation of the form
a
11
x
2
+ 2a
12
xy +a
22
y
2
+ 2a
10
x + 2a
20
y +a
00
= 0, (28)
Solutions 105
where the coecients a
11
, a
12
, a
22
, a
10
, a
20
, a
00
can be found by solving the system:
_

_
a
11
+ 2a
12
+a
22
+ 2a
10
+ 2a
20
+a
00
= 0
a
11
2a
12
+a
22
+ 2a
10
2a
20
+a
00
= 0
a
11
2a
12
+a
22
2a
10
+ 2a
20
+a
00
= 0
a
11
+ 2a
12
+a
22
2a
10
2a
20
+a
00
= 0
1
4
a
11
+a
10
+a
00
= 0

_
a
11
= 4
a
12
= a
10
= a
20
= 0
a
22
= 3
a
00
=
, where R

.
We conclude that by replacing the coecients in (28) and simplifying by ,= 0, we get
the equation of the conic : 4x
2
+ 3y
2
+ 1 = 0. We remark that =

a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22

4 0
0 3

= 12 < 0, hence we have a conic of hyperbolic genus. Moreover, since =

a
11
a
12
a
10
a
12
a
22
a
20
a
10
a
20
a
00

4 0 0
0 3 0
0 0 1

= 12 ,= 0, the conic is non-degenerate, hence it is a

hyperbola.
Method 2. We develop the determinant
:

x
2
xy y
2
x y 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
4
0 0
1
2
0 1

= 0 x
2
+
1
4
+
3
4
y
2
= 0.
We obtain the equation of the claimed conic (hyperbola)
: 4x
2
+ 3y
2
+ 1 = 0
x
2
1/4

y
2
1/3
= 1.
86. Method I. The claimed conics satisfy equations of the form (28). The condition
A, B, C, D can be written
_

_
a
22
+ 2a
20
+a
00
= 0
a
11
2a
10
+a
00
= 0
a
22
2a
20
+a
00
= 0
a
11
+ 2a
10
+a
00
= 0

_
_
_
a
11
= , a
12
=
a
22
=
a
10
= a
20
= 0, a
00
= ,
where , R are both null. We conclude that the conics which contain the points A, B, C
and D satisfy the equation
: x
2
2xy +y
2
= 0, , R,
2
+
2
> 0.
Method II. We apply the formula
: (AB)(CD) +(AC)(BD) = 0, , R.
The general equations of the straight lines (AB), (CD), (AC), (BD) are respectively
x y + 1 = 0, x y 1 = 0, x = 0, y = 0.
It follows that the equation of the conic
: (x y + 1)(x y 1) +xy = 0 x
2
(2 )xy +y
2
= 0,
106 LAAG-DGDE
where , R,
2
+
2
> 0. By denoting = 2 , it results the obtained equation at
the method 1.
87. Method I. The conic is described by a equation of the form (28). The coecients
are determined from the conditions A, B, C , which are
_
_
_
a
11
+ 2a
10
+a
00
= 0
a
00
= 0
a
22
+ 2a
20
+a
00
= 0

_
a
11
= 2, a
12
= , a
22
= 2
a
10
= , a
20
= , a
00
= 0
where , R are not both null. By replacing in the general equation (28) and by dividing
by 2, there result the equations of the conics which contain the points A, B and C,
: x
2
xy +y
2
x y = 0.
Method II. We apply the formula
a(AB)(AC) +a(BC)(BA) +c(CA)(CB) = 0, a, b, c R.
The general equations of the straight lines (AB), (AC), (BC), (BA), (CA) and (CB) are
respectively
(AB) (BA) : y = 0, (AC) (CA) : x +y 1 = 0, (BC) (CB) : x = 0.
It follows that the equation of the conic
: ay(x +y 1) +bxy +c(x +y 1) x = 0
cx
2
+ (a +b +c)xy +ay
2
cx ay = 0,
where a, b, c R, a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
> 0. Denoting = c, = a, = (a + b + c), it results the
equation obtained by method I.
88. a) We remark that =

0 2
2 3

= 4 < 0, hence the conic is of hyperbolic genus.

Since =

0 2 2
2 3 7
2 7 7

= 16 ,= 0, the conic is a hyperbola.

b) The center of the hyperbola is C(2, 1). This is determined by solving the system
_
f/x 4y + 4 = 0
f/y 4x 6y 14 = 0

_
x = 2
y = 1
C(2, 1).
c) The slopes of the symmetry axes of the conic satisfy the relation (a
11
a
22
)k +
a
12
(k
2
1) = 0. In our case we have 2k
2
+ 3k 2 = 0 k 2,
1
2
and hence k
1
= 2
and k
2
=
1
2
are respectively the slopes of the axes.
Taking into account that the axes should pass through the center of the conic C
0
(2, 1),
it results that the equations of the two axes are respectively

1
: y + 1 = 2(x 2) 2x +y 3 = 0,
2
: y + 1 =
1
2
(x 2) x 2y 4 = 0.
The directions of the two asymptotic lines are given by the free vectors v = l

i + m

j which
satisfy the relation
a
11
l
2
+ 2a
12
lm+a
22
m
2
= 0 4lm3m
2
= 0 m(4l 3m) = 0,
Solutions 107
hence we have (l, m) (1, 0), (3, 4). Then the Cartesian equations of the asymptotic lines
associated to the two asymptotic directions given by the vectors v
1
(1, 0) and v
2
(3, 4)
are

1
:
x2
1
=
y+1
0
y = 1

2
:
x2
3
=
y+1
4
4x 3y 11 = 0.
To nd the vertices of the conic, we intersect with its symmetry axes
1
and
2
. We get
V
1,2
=
1
:
_
4xy 3y
2
+ 4x 14y 7 = 0
y = 2x + 3

_
y = 2x + 3
5x
2
20x + 19 = 0,
hence
_
x = 2 1/

5
y = 1 2/

5
. Hence the vertices are V
1
(2+
1

5
, 1
2

5
), V
2
(2
1

5
, 1+
2

5
);
these are located at the intersection of the conic with the rst axis of symmetry. As well,

2
=
g

, hence
2
is the non-transverse axis of symmetry of the conic (see Fig 1).
Figure 1 Figure 2
89. a) We remark that =

9 3
3 1

= 0, hence the conic is of parabola genus. Since

=

9 3 2
3 1 4
2 4 4

= 100 ,= 0, the conic is a parabola.

b) Since the conic is a parabola, the equation of the axis of symmetry is of the form
: a
11
f
x
+a
12
f
y
= 0, where f
x
= f/x and f
y
= f/y. In our case, we have
: 9(18x + 6y 4) + 3(6x + 2y 8) = 0 y = 3x + 1.
We nd the vertex V of the parabola by intersecting the parabola with its symmetry axis
.
V :
_
9x
2
+ 6xy +y
2
4x 8y 4 = 0
y = 3x + 1

_
(3x +y)
2
= 4(x + 2y + 1)
3x +y = 1

_
x + 2y + 1 = 1/4
3x +y = 1

_
x = 11/20
y = 13/20,
hence we found the vertex V (
11
20
,
13
20
).
c) We get
Ox :
_
9x
2
+ 6xy +y
2
4x 8y 4 = 0
y = 0

_
9x
2
4x 4 = 0
y = 0,
108 LAAG-DGDE
hence Ox =
_
A
1,2
_
2(1

10)
9
, 0
__
, and
Oy :
_
9x
2
+ 6xy +y
2
4x 8y 4 = 0
x = 0

_
x = 0
y
2
8y 4 = 0,
hence Oy = B
1,2
(0, 4 2

5) (see Fig 2).

90. a) We remark that =

16 2
2 19

= 300 > 0, hence the conic is of elliptic genus.

As =

16 2 40
2 19 5
40 5 40

= 18000 ,= 0, the conic is an ellipse.

b) We nd the center C of the ellipse by solving the system
_
f/x 32x + 4y + 80 = 0
f/y 4x + 38y + 10 = 0

_
x = 5/2
y = 0
C
_

5
2
, 0
_
.
c) The slopes k
1,2
of the symmetry axes are given by the equation
(a
11
a
22
)k +a
12
(k
2
1) = 0 (16 19)k + 2(k
2
1) = 0 2k
2
3k 2 = 0,
and hence we have k
1
= 2 and k
2
=
1
2
. Taking into account that the axes have to pass
through the center of the conic C(
5
2
, 0), it results that the equations of the two axes are
respectively
1
: y = 2(x +
5
2
) and
2
: y =
1
2
(x +
5
2
). The vertices of the conic are the
points of intersection between and the symmetry axes
1
,
2
. Solving the system

1
:
_
16x
2
+ 4xy + 19y
2
+ 80x + 10y + 40 = 0
y = 2x + 5

_
20x
2
+ 100x + 113 = 0
y = 2x + 5,
we get the vertices
1
=
_
V
1,2
_
252

15
10
,
2

15
5
__
. As well,

2
:
_
16x
2
+ 4xy + 19y
2
+ 80x + 10y + 40 = 0
y =
x
2

5
4

_
20x
2
+ 100x + 61 = 0
y =
x
2

5
4
,
from where it results
2
=
_
V
3,4
(
258

5
10
,
2

5
5
)
_
(see Fig 3).
Figure 3
91. a) The equation of the polar of the point A relative to the conic is obtained by the
halving of the equation of the conic with the coordinates of the point A(1, 2); we get

pol,A
: 1 x 2
1
2
(x 2 + 1 y) + 3 2y 4
1
2
(x + 1) + 6
1
2
(y + 2) 4 = 0 y =
3
8
x.
Solutions 109
The intersection between the polar straight line and the conic is given by
_
x
2
2xy + 3y
2
4x + 6y 4 = 0
y = 3x/8

_
43x
2
112x 256 = 0
y = 3x/8,
hence we get the points T
1,2
(
568

221
43
,
213

221
43
). Then the two tangent lines which pass
through A have the equations

1,2
: y 2 = (x 1)
65 3

221
13 8

221
.
b) The diameter of the conic which is conjugate with the direction v =

i 2

j (1, 2) is
given by the equation

conj, v
: 1 f
x
+(2)f
y
= 0 1 (2x 2y 4)+(2)(2x + 6y + 6) = 0 3x7y8 = 0,
where we denoted f
x
= f/x and f
y
= f/y. If we construct the tangents whose directions
are v (1, 2) to the conic, then the tangency points A, B can be found by solving the
system
A, B =
conj
:
_
x
2
2xy + 3y
2
4x + 6y 4 = 0
3x 7y 8 = 0

_
x = (7y + 8)/3
y
2
+y 2 = 0
,
from where it results A(2, 2) and B(5, 1). We conclude that the equations of the tangent
straight lines which have the direction v to the conic are respectively

1
:
x+2
1
=
y+2
2
2x +y + 6 = 0

2
:
x5
1
=
y1
2
2x +y 11 = 0.
c) The tangent line through the point B(1, 1) to the conic is obtained by halving with
the coordinated the point B,

tg,B
: 1 x (x +y) + 3 y 2(x + 1) + 3(y + 1) 4 = 0
or, equivalently, 2x 5y + 3 = 0.
92. We remark that =

0 2
2 3

= 4 < 0, hence we have a conic of hyperbolic

genus. But =

0 2 2
2 3 7
2 7 7

= 16 ,= 0, and hence the conic is a hyperbola. By denoting

k = tan , the rotation angle is obtained from the equation
tan 2 =
2a
12
a
11
a
22

2k
1 k
2
=
4
0 + 3
4k
2
+ 6k 4 = 0 k
1,2

_
2,
1
2
_
.
For k = 2, it results
_
_
_
cos =
1

1+k
2
=
1

5
sin =
k

1+k
2
=
2

5
. By choosing cos =
1

5
and sin =
2

5
,
we get the rotation matrix C =
_
1

5
2

5
1

5
_
, hence the equations of the rotation of frames
xOy x
t
Oy
t
become
_
x
y
_
= C
_
x
t
y
t
_

_
x = (x
t
+ 2y
t
)/

5
y = (2x
t
+y
t
)/

5.
110 LAAG-DGDE
By replacing x, y in the equation of the conic : 4xy 3y
2
+4x 14y 7 = 0, it results its
new equation, relative to the rotated coordinate system x
t
Oy
t
:
:
4
5
(x
t
+ 2y
t
)(2x
t
+y
t
)
3
5
(2x
t
+y
t
)
2
+
4

5
(x
t
+ 2y
t
)
14

5
(2x
t
+y
t
) 7 = 0,
which after grouping the squares in x
t
and y
t
, can be written
4
_
x
t

5
_
. .
x

2
+
_
y
t

5
_
. .
y

2
+ 4 = 0,
hence we perform the translation X
t
= X
tt
+V
t
given by the relations
_
x
t
y
t
_

_
x
tt
y
tt
_
=
_
x
t

5
y
t

5
_

_
x
t
y
t
_
=
_
x
tt
y
tt
_
+
_
4

5
3

5
_
.
Relative to the new coordinates, has a canonic equation (of a hyperbola) : 4x
tt2
+
y
tt2
+ 4 = 0 x
tt2

y
2
4
= 1.
Remark 1. The rotation matrix can be obtained as well by the method of eigenvalues, as
follows. The matrix associated to the quadratic form attached to the conic is:
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
=
_
0 2
2 3
_
.
We have P
A
() = det (AI) =

2
2 3

=
2
+ 3 4. The roots of the charac-
teristic equation
2
+ 3 4 = 0 are
1
= 4 < 0 and
2
= 1 > 0, hence the conic is of
hyperbolic genus.
For = 1, the associated eigenvectors v = (a, b) satisfy the system
(AI)v = 0
_
1 2
2 4
__
a
b
_
=
_
0
0
_

_
a + 2b = 0
2a 4b = 0
,
which admits the solutions v = (2t, t) = t(2, 1), t R. For t = 1 we get the associated
eigenvector v
1
= (2, 1). Similarly, for = 4, we get the eigenvector v
2
= (1, 2). By
norming the two vectors we get the orthonormal basis :
_
f
1
=
_
2

5
,
1

5
_
, f
2
=
_
1

5
,
2

5
__
.
Since det [f
1
, f
2
] < 0, by permuting the columns of the matrix and denoting e
1
= f
2
, e
2
= f
1
,
it results the matrix C of the rotation:
C = [e
1
, e
2
] =
_
1/

5 2/

5
2/

5 1/

5
_
,
and the equations of the rotation xOy x
t
Oy
t
become
_
x = (x
t
+ 2y
t
)/

5
y = (2x
t
+y
t
)/

5
. Using the
eigenvalues and the invariants we can anticipate the canonic equation a of the conic. We
have
1
= 4,
2
= 1 and

=
16
4
= 4, hence

tt
:
1
x
tt2
+
2
y
tt2
+

= 0 4x
tt2
+y
tt2
+ 4 = 0 x
tt2

y
tt2
4
= 1.
Solutions 111
Remark 2. The coordinates of the center of symmetry of the hyperbola C
0
(x, y) satisfy the
system:
_
2y + 2 = 0
2x 3y 7 = 0

_
x = 2
y = 1
hence we can rst perform a translation of the coordinate system xOy x
t
C
0
y
t
, of vector
OC
0
(2, 1)
t
:
_
x
y
_
=
_
x
t
y
t
_
+
_
2
1
_

_
x = x
t
+ 2
y = y
t
1
,
from where it results : 4x
t
y
t
3y
t2
+ 4 = 0. We remark that it is necessary to perform a
rotation of frame x
t
C
0
y
t
x
tt
C
0
y
tt
of matrix C, given by the relations: X
t
= CX
tt
. The
matrix C can be determined either by applying the formula
tan2 =
2a
12
a
11
a
22
, C =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, (29)
or using the method of eigenvalues (see Rem. 1). We obtain the reduced equation of the
conic (see Fig 1),
: x
tt
2

y
tt2
4
= 1.
93. The invariants of the conic are:
=

9 3 2
3 1 4
2 4 4

= 100 ,= 0, =

9 3
3 1

= 0,
hence the conic is a parabola (a conic without center). Since a
12
,= 0, we perform a rotation
whose angle is the solution of the equation
tan =
a
11
a
12
tan = 3.
One can choose cos =
1

10
, sin =
3

10
(an equivalent choice being cos =
1

10
, sin =
3

10
), hence the rotation matrix is R =
_
1/

10 3/

10
3/

10 1/

10
_
, and the rotation formulas are:
_
x
y
_
= R
_
x
t
y
t
_

_
x = (x
t
+ 3y
t
)/

10
y = (3x
t
+y
t
)/

10.
The equation of the conic relative to the rotated system x
t
Oy
t
is (after regrouping a square
and grouping the rst degree term and the remaining free term):
10
_
y
t

10
_
2
= 2

10
_
x
t

5
2

10
_
.
Hence the new coordinates of the translated system x
tt
Oy
tt
are given by the relations y
tt
=
y
t

10
, x
tt
= x
t

5
2

10
and the relations that dene the translation are
_
x
t
y
t
_
=
_
x
tt
y
tt
_
+
_
_
5
2

10
1

10
_
_
.
The origin O
tt
is exactly the vertex of the parabola, which has the coordinates (x
tt
, y
tt
) = (0, 0)
and (x
t
, y
t
) = (
5
2

10
,
1

10
). Relative to the frame x
tt
Oy
tt
the conic has the canonic equation
112 LAAG-DGDE
: y
tt2
=
2

10
x
tt
. Remark. The rotation matrix can be obtained as well by the method
of eigenvalues, as follows. The matrix associated to the quadratic form attached to the conic
the conic is A =
_
9 3
3 1
_
. We have P
A
() = det(A I) =

9 3
3 1

=
2
10.
The roots of the characteristic equation
2
10 = 0 are
1
= 0,
2
= 10, hence the conic is
of parabolic genus. For = 0, the associated eigenvectors v = (a, b) satisfy the system
(AI)v = 0
_
9 3
3 1
__
a
b
_
=
_
0
0
_

_
9a + 3b = 0
3a +b = 0
which are the solutions v = (t, 3t) = t(1, 3), t R. For t = 1, we get the associated
eigenvector v
1
= (1, 3). Similarly, for = 10, we get the eigenvector v
2
= (3, 1). By
norming the vectors v
1
and v
2
, we get the orthonormal basis
B
t
=
_
e
1
=
_
1

10
,
3

10
_
, e
2
=
_
3

10
,
1

10
__
,
hence the rotation matrix is: R = [e
1
, e
2
] =
_
1

10
3

10

10
1

10
_
; the passing from the coordinate
system xOy to the new, rotated one x
t
Oy
t
is described by the relations
_
x = (x
t
+ 3y
t
)/

10
y = (3x
t
+y
t
)/

10.
By replacing this in the equation of the conic relative to the frame xOy, we get the equation
relative to the new frame:
: 10
_
y
t

10
_
2
= 2

10
_
x
t

5
2

10
_
The two the brackets are the expressions of the new coordinates, respectively y
tt
= y
t

1

10
, x
tt
= x
t

5
2

10
, from where there result the equations of the translation x
t
Oy
t
x
tt
Oy
tt
:
_
_
_
x
tt
= x
t

5
2

10
y
tt
= y
t

10

_
x
t
y
t
_
=
_
x
tt
y
tt
_
+
_
_
5
2

10
1

10
_
_
,
of vector OO
tt
=
_
5
2

10
,
1

10
_
. Finally, the canonic equation of the conic (relative to the
frame x
tt
O
tt
y
tt
) is : y
tt2
=
2

10
x
tt
(see Fig 2).
Check. We have = 100, = 0, I = 10 p =
_

I
3
=
1

10
hence the reduced equation
of the conic is of the form y
2
= 2px y
tt2
=
2

10
x
tt
(we obtain the variant with minus
sign).
94. The invariants of the conic are:
=

16 2 40
2 19 5
40 5 40

= 18.000 ,= 0, =

16 2
2 19

= 300 > 0,
hence the conic is an ellipse (a conic with center). Since a
12
,= 0, we perform a rotation of
angle , is determined by applying the formula
tan2 =
2a
12
a
11
a
22

2 tan
1 tan
2

=
4
3
;
Solutions 113
it results tan
_
2,
1
2
_
. For tan = 2, one may choose cos =
1

5
, sin =
2

5
, hence the
rotation matrix is C =
_
1

5

2

5
2

5
1

5
_
, and the rotation formulas are:
_
x
y
_
= C
_
x
t
y
t
_

_
x = (x
t
2y
t
)/

5
y = (2x
t
+y
t
)/

5.
By replacing x, y in the equation of the conic : 16x
2
+4xy +19y
2
+80x +10y +40 = 0, it
results its new equation, relative to the rotated system of coordinates x
t
Oy
t
:
: 20x
t2
+ 15y
t2
+ 20

5 x
t
30

5 y
t
+ 40 = 0
20
_
x
t
+

5
2
_
. .
x

2
+ 15
_
y
t

5
_
. .
y

2
= 60,
hence the new coordinates of the translated system x
tt
Oy
tt
are given by the relations x
tt
=
x
t
+

5
2
, y
tt
= y
t

5, and the relations dening the translation are

_
x
t
y
t
_
=
_
x
tt
y
tt
_
+
_

5/2

5
_
.
We obtain the canonic equation of the ellipse : 20x
tt2
+ 15y
tt2
= 60
x
2
3
+
y
2
4
= 1.
Remark 1. The rotation matrix can be obtained as well by the method of eigenvalues, as fol-
lows. The matrix associated to the quadratic form attached to the conic is A =
_
16 2
2 19
_
.
We have P
A
() =

16 2
2 19

=
2
35 +300. The roots of the characteristic equa-
tion
2
35 + 300 = 0 are
1
= 15 and
2
= 20, and the orthonormal eigenvectors are
B
t
=
_
e
1
=
_

5
,
1

5
_
, e
2
=
_
1

5
,
2

5
__
.
Since det [e
1
, e
2
] < 0, by permuting the columns of the matrix, it results the rotation ma-
trix R: R = [e
2
, e
1
] =
_
1/

5 2/

5
2/

5 1/

5
_
, and the equations of the rotation xOy x
t
Oy
t
become
_
x = (x
t
2y
t
)/

5
y = (2x
t
+y
t
)/

5
. Considering the eigenvalues and the invariants we can an-
ticipate the canonic equation of the conic. We have
1
= 15,
2
= 20,

= 60, hence

tt
:
1
x
tt2
+
2
y
tt2
+

= 0 15x
tt2
+ 20y
tt2
60 = 0
x
tt2
4
+
y
tt2
3
= 1.
Remark 2. The coordinates of the center of symmetry of the ellipse C
0
(x, y) satisfy the
system
_
8x +y + 20 = 0
2x + 19y + 5 = 0

_
x =
5
2
y = 0
,
hence we can rst perform a translation of the coordinate system xOy x
t
C
0
y
t
, of vector
OC
_

5
2
, 0
_
t
, described by the relations:
_
x
y
_
=
_
x
t
y
t
_
+
_
5/2
0
_

_
x = x
t
5/2
y = y
t
.
114 LAAG-DGDE
Relative to the new system of coordinates, the equation of the conic is: : 16x
t2
+ 4x
t
y
t
+
19y
t2
60 = 0. The presence of the term x
t
y
t
in the equation shows that a rotation of
frame is needed, x
t
C
0
y
t
x
tt
C
0
y
tt
of matrix C: X
t
= CX
tt
. One can nd the matrix C
either by applying the formula tan2 =
2a
12
a
11
a
22
, C =
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, or using the
method of eigenvalues (see Rem. 1 and solving by the method in which rotation proceeds
the translation). Finally, we get :
x
2
3
+
y
2
4
= 1 (see Fig 3).
III.6. Quadrics
95. a) We remark that by grouping the squares, the equation of the sphere can be
written as
: (x + 1)
2
+ (y 3)
2
+ (z + 2)
2
= 4 [x (1)]
2
+ (y 3)
2
+ [z (2)]
2
= 4.
It follows that the center sphere, the point C(1, 3, 2) and the radius sphere r = 2.
b) The distance from the center C(1, 3, 2) of sphere to the plane is
d = d(C, ) =
[ 4 + 3 6 + 13[

4
2
+ 1
2
+ 3
2
=
6

26
< 2,
hence the plane is secant to the sphere.
c) By denoting with C
t
the center of the circle obtained by cutting the sphere with the
plane , considering an arbitrary point A of the circle and denoting with r
t
its radius, by
applying the Pythagorean Theorem in triangle CC
t
A, it results the radius of the sectional
circle r
t
=

r
2
d
2
=
_
34
13
. The center C
t
of the circle is located at the intersection of the
plane with the straight line which passes through C and which is perpendicular on . We
have
_
_
_
4x +y + 3z + 13 = 0
x + 1
4
=
y 3
1
=
z + 2
3

_
_
_
x = 25/13
y = 36/13
z = 35/13
hence we obtain the center C
t
(
25
13
,
36
13
,
35
13
).
96. I. a) For the quadric
1
, we get g (x, y, z) = x
2
y
2
+z
2
2xy2yz2zx. The matrix
associated to the quadratic form is: A =
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
, hence (A) = 1, 2, 2. The
invariants of the quadric are:
=

1 1 1 5/2
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 0
5/2 0 0 1

=
33
2
, = det A =

1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

= 4
J =

1 1
1 1

1 1
1 1

1 1
1 1

= 2 + 0 2 = 4,
I = Tr A = 1 1 + 1 = 1.
We conclude that the quadric is non-degenerate ( ,= 0) and admits center of symmetry
(since ,= 0).
b) The center of symmetry of the quadric is solution of the system:
_
_
_
g
x
= 0
g
y
= 0
g
z
= 0

_
_
_
2x 2y 2z = 5
2y 2x 2z = 0
2z 2y 2x = 0

_
_
_
x = 5/4
y = 5/4
z = 0,
C
s
(5/4, 5/4, 0) .
Solutions 115
c) The eigenvalues of the matrix are
1
= 1,
2
= 2 and
3
= 2. The eigenvectors
v = (a, b, c) associated to the eigenvalue
1
= 1 can be found by solving the system:
(A
1
I) v = 0
_
_
0 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 0
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
_
b c = 0
a 2b c = 0
a b = 0,
whose solution is v = (t, t, t) = t (1, 1, 1) , t R, hence a generator of the eigenspace is
v
1
= (1, 1, 1).
Similarly we nd the eigenvectors v
2
= (1, 2, 1) and v
3
= (1, 0, 1). By norming, we get
the orthonormal basis
B
t
=
_
e
t
1
=
_
1

3
,
1

3
,
1

3
_
, e
t
2
=
_
1

6
,
2

6
,
1

6
_
, e
t
3
=
_

2
, 0,
1

2
,
__
.
The relations of passing to the new coordinate system are:
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
= C
_
_
x
t
y
t
z
t
_
_

_
x =
1

3
x
t
+
1

6
y
t

2
z
t
y =
1

3
x
t
+
2

6
y
t
z =
1

3
x
t
+
1

6
y
t
+
1

2
z
t
.
By replacing the obtained expressions of the coordinates x, y, z in the equation of the quadric,
it results the equation of the quadric relative to the new system of coordinates:

1
: x
t2
2y
t2
+ 2z
t2

3
x
t

6
y
t
+
5

2
z
t
1 = 0

_
x
t

5
2

3
_
2
2
_
y
t

5
4

6
_
2
+ 2
_
z
t
+
5
4

2
_
2

33
8
= 0.
Taking into account the expressions from the brackets, we perform the translation Ox
t
y
t
z
t

O
tt
x
tt
y
tt
z
tt
given by the formulas:
_
_
_
x
tt
= x
t
5
_
2

3
y
tt
= y
t
5
_
4

6
z
tt
= z
t
+ 5
_
4

_
_
x
t
y
t
z
t
_
_
=
_
_
x
tt
y
tt
z
tt
_
_
+
_
_
5
_
2

3
5
_
4

6
5
_
4

2
_
_
.
By replacement of the coordinates (x
t
, y
t
, z
t
) in the equation of the quadric it results the
equation relative to the frame O
tt
x
tt
y
tt
z
tt
,
x
tt2
2y
tt2
+ 2z
tt2

33
8
= 0,
from where it results the canonic equation

1
:
x
tt
33/8

y
tt
33/16
+
z
tt
33/16
1 = 0, (30)
hence the quadric is a hyperboloid of one sheet.
Otherwise. Since = 4 ,= 0, we have a quadric with center of symmetry C
s
(5/4, 5/4, 0)
and we can rst perform a translation of coordinates system Oxyz O
t
x
t
y
t
z
t
, (O
t
= C
s
) of
vector OO
t
= (5/4, 5/4, 0), described by the relations:
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
x
t
y
t
z
t
_
_
+
_
_
5/4
5/4
0
_
_

_
_
_
x = x
t
+ 5/4
y = y
t
5/4
z = z
t
.
116 LAAG-DGDE
It follows that the equation of the quadric relative to Ox
t
y
t
z
t
,

1
: x
t2
y
t2
+z
t2
2x
t
y
t
2x
t
z
t
2y
t
z
t
1 = 0.
We perform a rotation of frame Ox
t
y
t
z
t
O
t
x
tt
y
tt
z
tt
of matrix C, given by the relations
X
t
= CX
tt
; we determine the matrix C using the method of eigenvalues, as presented before.
Finally, we obtain the canonic equation (reduced) of the quadric
1
, given by (30) (see Fig
4).
Figure 4
II. a) We consider the quadric
2
.
a) We have A =
_
_
0

3 0

3 2 0
0 0 7
_
_
, hence (A) = 1, 3, 7. The invariants of
the quadric are:
=

3 0 56

3 2 0 8
0 0 7 7
56 8 7 87

= 112
_
377 56

3
_
, =

3 0

3 2 0
0 0 7

= 21,
J =

3 2

0 0
0 7

2 0
0 7

= 17, I = TrA = 5.
We conclude that
2
is non-degenerate ( ,= 0) and admits a center of symmetry (since
,= 0).
b) The coordinates of the center of symmetry of the quadric satisfy the system:
_
_
_
2

3y + 112 = 0
2

3x + 4y 16 = 0
14z 14 = 0

_
_
_
x = 112/3 8/

3
y = 56/

3
z = 1
C
s
_
112
3

8

3
,
56

3
, 1
_
.
c) The matrix of the quadratic formg (x, y, z) = 2

3xy+2y
2
7z
2
is A =
_
_
0

3 0

3 2 0
0 0 7
_
_
,
and its eigenvalues are
1
= 1,
2
= 3 and
3
= 7. The eigenvectors v = (a, b, c) asso-
ciated to the eigenvalue
1
= 1 are found by solving the system:
(A
1
I) v = 0
_
_
1

3 0

3 3 0
0 0 6
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
_
a

3b = 0

3a + 3b = 0
6c = 0
Solutions 117
whose solutions are v = t
_
3, 1, 0
_
, t R. For t = 1 we get the generator v
1
= (

3, 1, 0).
Similarly, we nd the eigenvectors v
2
= (1,

3, 0) and v
3
= (0, 0, 1). By norming, we get
the orthonormal basis
B
t
=
_
e
t
1
=
_

3
2
,
1
2
, 0
_
, e
t
2
=
_
1
2
,

3
2
, 0
_
, e
t
3
= (0, 0, 1)
_
,
whose associated matrix relative to the old basis is:
C
0
= [e
t
1
, e
t
2
, e
t
3
] =
_
_

3
_
2 1/2 0
1/2

3
_
2 0
0 0 1
_
_
.
Since det C
0
< 0, we get the rotation matrix C by interchanging the rst two columns,
C =
_
_
1/2

3/2 0

3/2 1/2 0
0 0 1
_
_
.
The relations of passing to the new coordinate system are:
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
= C
_
_
x
t
y
t
z
t
_
_

_
x =
1
2
x
t
+

3
2
y
t
y =

3
2
x
t
+
1
2
y
t
z = z
t
.
The equation of the quadric relative to the new rotated coordinate system Ox
t
y
t
z
t
is:

2
: 3x
t2
y
t2
7z
t2
+ 8
_
7 +

3
_
x
t
+ 8
_
7

3 1
_
y
t
14z
t
87 = 0
3
_
x
t
+
4(7+

3)
3
_
2

_
y
t
4
_
7

3 1
__
2
7 (z
t
+ 1)
2
+a = 0,
where a =
16(37756

3)
3
> 0. Taking into account the expressions from the brackets, we
perform the translation Ox
t
y
t
z
t
O
tt
x
tt
y
tt
z
tt
given by the formulas:
_

_
x
tt
= x
t
+
4(7+

3)
3
y
tt
= y
t
4
_
7

3 1
_
z
tt
= z
t
+ 1

_
_
x
t
y
t
z
t
_
_
=
_
_
x
tt
y
tt
z
tt
_
_
+
_
_
4
_
7 +

3
__
3
4
_
7 +

3
_
1
_
_
.
By replacing (x
t
, y
t
, z
t
) in the equation of the quadric, it results a hyperboloid of one sheet,
whose reduced equation is (see Fig 5)
x
2
a/3
+
y
2
a
+
z
2
a/7
= 1.
III. a) We have A =
_
_
1 3 1
3 1 1
1 1 5
_
_
, hence (A) = 2, 3, 6. The invariants of the
quadric are:
=

1 3 1 2
3 1 1 4
1 1 5 6
2 4 6 14

= 216, =

1 3 1
3 1 1
1 1 5

= 36
J =

1 3
3 1

1 1
1 5

1 1
1 5

= 8 + 4 + 4 = 0, I = TrA = 1 + 1 + 5 = 7.
118 LAAG-DGDE
Figure 5
b) The coordinates of the center of symmetry of the quadric are the solutions the system:
_
_
_
2x 6y + 2z 4 = 0
2y 6x 2z + 8 = 0
10z + 2x 2y 12 = 0

_
_
_
x 3y +z = 2
3x +y z = 4
x y + 5z = 6
C
s
(1, 0, 1).
c) The matrix associated to the quadratic form
g(x, y, z) = x
2
+y
2
+ 5z
2
6xy + 2xz 2yz
of the quadric is A =
_
_
1 3 1
3 1 1
1 1 5
_
_
. A basis that consists of eigenvectors associated to
the eigenvalues
1
= 2,
2
= 3 and
3
= 6 is v
1
= (1, 1, 0), v
2
= (1, 1, 1), v
3
= (1, 1, 2).
By norming, we get the orthonormal basis
B
t
=
_
e
t
1
=
_
1

2
,
1

2
, 0
_
, e
t
2
=
_

3
,
1

3
,
1

3
_
, e
t
3
=
_
1

6
,
1

6
,
2

6
__
,
whose matrix associated relative to the old basis is
C
0
= [e
t
1
, e
t
2
, e
t
3
] =
_
_
1/

2 1/

3 1/

6
1/

2 1/

3 1/

6
0 1/

3 2/

6
_
_
.
Since det C
0
> 0, it results the rotation matrix C = C
0
. The relations of change to the new
coordinate system are:
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
= C
_
_
x
t
y
t
z
t
_
_

_
x =
1

2
x
t

3
y
t
+
1

6
z
t
y =
1

2
x
t
+
1

3
y
t

6
z
t
z =
1

3
y
t
+
2

6
z
t
.
The equation of the quadric relative to the new coordinate system is

2
: 2x
t2
+ 3y
t2
+ 6z
t2
+
2

2
x
t

6
z
t
+ 14 = 0
2
_
x
t

2
_
2
+ 3y
t2
+ 6
_
z
t

6
2
_
2
+ 1 = 0.
(31)
Taking into account the expressions from the brackets, we perform the translation Ox
t
y
t
z
t

O
tt
x
tt
y
tt
z
tt
given by the formulas:
_
_
_
x
tt
= x
t

2
y
tt
= y
t
z
tt
= z
t

6
2

_
_
x
t
y
t
z
t
_
_
=
_
_
x
tt
y
tt
z
tt
_
_
+
_
_
1/

2
0

6/2
_
_
.
Solutions 119
By replacement in the equation (31) of the quadric relative to the system of coordinates
Ox
t
y
t
z
t
, it results the equation relative to the frame O
tt
x
tt
y
tt
z
tt
:
2x
tt2
+ 3y
tt2
+ 6z
tt2
= 1,
from where it results the canonic equation

3
:
x
tt2
1/2
+
y
tt2
1/3
+
z
tt2
1/6
= 1, (32)
hence the quadric is a hyperboloid of two sheets (see Fig 6).
Figure 6
Otherwise. Since we have a quadric with center of symmetry C
s
(1, 0, 1) ( = 36 ,= 0),
we can rst perform a translation of the coordinate system Oxyz O
t
x
t
y
t
z
t
, where O
t
= C
s
,
of vector OO
t
(1, 0, 1).
_
_
x
y
z
_
_
=
_
_
x
t
y
t
z
t
_
_
+
_
_
1
0
1
_
_

_
_
_
x = x
t
+ 1
y = y
t
z = z
t
+ 1
hence the equation of the quadric becomes : x
t2
+y
t2
+5z
t2
6x
t
y
t
+2x
t
z
t
2y
t
z
t
+5 = 0. The
presence of mixed terms shows the need to perform a frame rotation O
t
x
t
y
t
z
t
O
t
x
tt
y
tt
z
tt
of
matrix C : X
t
= C X
tt
, which we determine using the method of eigenvalues, as previously
described. Finally, we get the canonic equation (32).
97. By denoting g (x, y, z) =
x
2
9
+y
2
2z and (a, b, c) =
_
g
x
,
g
y
,
g
z
_
=
_
2x
A
9
, 2y
A
, 2
_
,
the equation of the plane tangent is of the form : a (x x
A
) +b (y y
A
) +c(z z
A
) = 0,
hence
: (x x
A
)
2x
A
9
+ (y y
A
) 2y
A
+ (z z
A
) (2) = 0,
where x
A
= 3, y
A
= 1 and z
A
= 1. By replacing (x
A
, y
A
, z
A
) = (3, 1, 1), we get
: x + 3y + 3z + 3 = 0.
98. The quadric is a (hyperbolic paraboloid), hence it admits two families of rulings.
The rulings are straight lines and have the equations of the form

:
x 3
a
=
y 1
b
=
z
c
= t, t R (x, y, z) = (at + 3, bt + 1, ct), t R.
The condition

requires that the current point of the straight line

to satisfy the
equation of the quadric , for any t R. By replacement, we get
120 LAAG-DGDE
(at + 3)
2
9

(ct)
2
4
= bt + 1
_
a
2
9

c
2
4
_
t
2
+
_
2a
3
b
_
t = 0, t R,
hence from the system obtained by canceling the coecients of the polynomial in t, it results
b = 2a/3; c = 2a/3, the solutions v
_
a,
2a
3
,
2a
3
_
=
a
3
(3, 2, 2). According to the two
distinct directions given by the vectors (3, 2, 2), it results that the rulings are given by

:
x3
3
=
y1
2
=
z
2
= t, t R.
The angle between the two rulings is the one formed by their director vectors; hence
= arccos
(3, 2, 2) , (3, 2, 2))
|(3, 2, 2)| |(3, 2, 2)|
= arccos (9/17) .
The plane which is tangent to the quadric at its point M(3, 1, 0) can be obtained by halving
the equation of the quadric with the coordinates the point M. We get
:
x 3
9

z 0
4
=
1
2
(y + 1) 2x 3y 3 = 0.
The normal straight line
t
M(3, 1, 0) is given by the free vector u (2, 3, 0) which is
normal to the tangent plane; it results
t
:
x3
2
=
y1
3
=
z
0
.
III.7. Generated surfaces
99. The cylinder has its ruling lines parallel to the given straight line only if their
equations are of the form

t
:
x a
1
=
y b
1
=
z c
1

_
x y = a b
y +z = c b

_
x y =
y +z = ,
where
= a b, = c b, , R. (33)
We impose
t
to lay on the curve
_
x = y
2
z = 0
. This is equivalent to the compatibility of the
system

t
Ga :
_
x = y
2
, z = 0
x y = , y +z =

_
x = +, z = 0
y = , x = y
2
,
hence with the fulllment of the condition of compatibility + =
2
. By replacing and
given by the relations (33) in the obtained condition of compatibility, it results the equation
of the claimed cylindric surface
: x y +y +z = (y +z)
2
y
2
+ 2yz +z
2
x z = 0,
a cylinder parabolic (quadric).
100. The rulings of the conic surface pass all through its vertex V (1, 0, 0), hence their
equations are of the form

t
:
x 1
a
=
y 0
b
=
z 0
c
, (a
2
+b
2
+c
2
> 0);
assuming a ,= 0, by dividing by a and denoting =
b
a
, =
c
a
R, these equations can be
written as
x 1
1
=
y 0

=
z 0

_
x = y
x = z,
Solutions 121
where
=
y
x 1
, =
z
x 1
. (34)
Moreover, the fact that
t
lays on the curve :
_
x
2
+y
2
= 1
x z = 0
leads to the compatibility
condition of the system

t
:
_
x
2
+y
2
= 1, x z = 0
x = y, x = z

_
x = z =

1
y =

1
, x
2
+y
2
= 1,
namely
2
+
2
= ( 1)
2

2
+ 2 1 = 0. By replacing and from the relations
(34) in the obtained condition of compatibility, it results the equation of the claimed conic
surface
:
_
y
2
x 1
_
+ 2
_
z
x 1
_
1 = 0 (x 1)
2
2 (x 1) z y
2
= 0
hence a cone (a quadric).
101. a) The plane in which is located the generating circle of the quadric is perpen-
dicular on the axis Oy :
x
0
=
y
1
=
z
0
, hence has the equation of the form

: 0 x+1 y+0 z =
y = , R. Moreover, the generating circle is included in a sphere
r
with the center
on the axis Oy. Assuming the center of the sphere
r
at C(0, 0, 0) Oy, then it has the
equation
r
: x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= , hence the generator circle has the equations

,
:
_
y =
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= .
(35)
The fact that this generating circle lays on the director straight line :
x1
0
=
y+2
2
=
z3
0
is equivalent with satisfying the compatibility condition of the system
_
y = , x
2
+y
2
+z
2
=
x = 1, z = 3.
(36)
By eliminating x, y, z from the system we get the condition of compatibility
1 +
2
+ 9 =
2
+ 10 = .
By replacing and from the relations (35) in (36) we get the equation of the claimed
surface (a right circular cylinder having as axis of symmetry, the Oy axis): : x
2
+z
2
= 10.
b) The plane and the sphere which determine the generator circle have the equations y =
, R, respectively x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= , where = R
2
> 0. We get the condition of
compatibility of the system
_
y = , x
2
+y
2
+z
2
=
x = 3y + 6, z = y 2,
given by 11
2
+ 40 + 40 = . By replacing and from their initial values, it results the
equation of the claimed surface, a cone with the symmetry axis - the Oy axis, of equation
: x
2
10y
2
+z
2
40y + 40 = 0 x
2
10 (y + 2)
2
+z
2
= 0.
c) In the same manner, we get the compatibility condition 11
2
+34+37 = , where = y,
and = x
2
+y
2
+z
2
, and the obtained surface of revolution is the hyperboloid of one sheet
: x
2
10y
2
+z
2
34y 37 = 0 x
2
10
_
y +
17
10
_
2
+z
2
=
81
10
.
122 LAAG-DGDE
IV.1. Dierentiable mappings
102. a) Let s, t R. Then
f(s) = f(t) (s
2
, s
3
) = (t
2
, t
3
)
_
s
2
= t
2
s
3
= t
3
s = t,
and hence f is one-to-one. Let (x, y) R
2
be an arbitrary point from the range of the
function. Since
f(s) = (x, y) (s
2
, s
3
) = (x, y)
_
s
2
= x
s
3
= y,
and for x < 0 the system has no solutions, it results that the function f is not surjective.
Not being surjective, f is not bijective.
b) The Jacobian matrix of the function f = (f
1
, f
2
) is
[J(f)] =
_
df
1
ds
df
2
ds
_
=
_
2s
3s
2
_
.
Since for s = 0 we have rank [J(f)] = 0 < 1, f is neither an immersion, nor a submersion.
Since J(f) is not a quadratic matrix, f cannot be a dieomorphism.
103. a) The relation f(s) = f(t) can be written
_
_
_
2 cos
2
s = 2 cos
2
t
sin2s = sin2t
2 sin s = 2 sin t

_
sins = sin t
cos s = cos t
and since s, t
_
0,

2
_
, it results s = t; hence f is one-to-one. Let (x, y, z) R
3
be an
arbitrary point from the range of the function. Since f(t) = (x, y, z)
_
_
_
2 cos
2
t = x
sin2t = y
2 sint = z
and
since for x (, 2) (2, +) or y (, 1) (1, +) or z (, 2) (2, +),
the system has no solutions, it results that the function f is neither surjective and hence nor
bijective.
b) The Jacobian matrix of the function f is
[J(f)] =
_
_
4 cos t (sin t)
2 cos 2t
2 cos t
_
_
=
_
_
2 sin2t
2 cos 2t
2 cos t
_
_
.
Since for t R, we have (2 sin2t)
2
+ (2 cos 2t)
2
= 4 ,= 0, it results rank [J(f)] = 1,
hence f is an immersion. Obviously, f is neither a submersion ( rank [J(f)] = 1 ,= 3), nor a
dieomorphism.
104. a) For (u, v), (s, t) R
2
, we have f(u, v) = f(s, t)
_
v = s +t u
u
2
u(s +t) +st = 0
,
in which the second equation of the system has the solutions (u, v) = (s, t) or (u, v) = (t, s),
which show the symmetry of the function f relative to the variables u, v. Since (u, v) R
2
,
f(u, v) = f(v, u), it results that f is not one-to-one (e.g., f(0, 1) = f(1, 0) = (1, 0)); f is not
bijective. On the other hand, we have
f(u, v) = (x, y)
_
v = x u
u
2
ux +y = 0,
Solutions 123
and the second equation admits real solutions only if we have y x
2
/4. Hence there exist
pairs (x, y) R
2
which have no pre-image via f; hence f is not surjective. For (x, y) = (0, 1)
we get
f(u, v) = (0, 1)
_
u +v = 0
uv = 1
u
2
= 1,
hence f
1
(0, 1) =
g

. As well, the condition (x, y) Im f leads to the equality from above,

y x
2
/4. Hence, Im f = (x, y) R
2
[ y x
2
/4.
b) The Jacobian matrix of the function f is [J(f)] =
_
1 2v
3u
2
1
_
. We have det[J(f)] =
1 6vu
2
, hence rank [J(f)] = 2 for (u, v) R
2
D, where D = (u, v)[u
2
v =
1
6
, hence
f is both immersion and submersion on R
2
D. Using the Theorem of implicit functions,
it results that f is a local dieomorphism, but being bijective, it results that f is a global
dieomorphism on R
2
D.
105. By denoting f
1
(, ) = cos and f
2
(, ) = sin, we get the Jacobian matrix of
the function f:
J(f) =
_
_
f
1

f
1

f
2

f
2

_
_
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
.
Since det[J(f)] = cos
2
+ sin
2
= > 0, (, ) (0, ) [0, 2), using the Theorem of
the inverse function, it results that f is a dieomorphism. In order to nd the inverse of f,
we solve the following system in the unknowns and :
_
cos = x
sin = y

2
(cos
2
+ sin
2
) = x
2
+y
2
=
_
x
2
+y
2
.
We have the following cases:
1
o
. x = 0, y > 0 = /2; 2
o
. x = 0, y < 0 = 3/2; 3
o
. x > 0, y 0 = arctan
y
x
;
4
o
. x < 0 = + arctan
y
x
; 5
o
. x > 0, y < 0 = 2 + arctan
y
x
, hence f
1
(x, y) =
(
_
x
2
+y
2
, ), where
=
_
_
_
k + arctan
y
x
, for x ,= 0,
/2, for x = 0, y > 0
3/2, for x = 0, y < 0,
(37)
where k takes the values 0, 1 and 2 in accordance to the location of the point (x, y) respectively
in the quadrants I, II or III, or in quadrant IV. We conclude that
f
1
(x, y) = (
_
x
2
+y
2
, ), f
1
: R
2
(0, 0) (0, ) [0, 2),
with the value of the angle given by the equality (37).
IV.2. Curves in R
n
106. We nd the value of the parameter t
0
R for which (t
0
) = (1, 1, 1, 3); from this
equality we get
t
4
0
= 1, 1 = 1, t
5
0
= 1, t
6
0
+ 2 = 3,
from where it results t
0
= 1. The vector
t
(t
0
) tangent at the point A to the curve has
the coordinates (4t
3
0
, 0, 5t
4
0
, 6t
5
0
) = (4, 0, 5, 6), hence the tangent straight line and the normal
hyperplane at the point A are respectively described by the equations

tg,A
:
x
1
1
4
=
x
2
+1
0
=
x
3
1
5
=
x
4
3
6
H
nor,A
: 4(x
1
1) + 0(x
2
+ 1) + 5(x
3
1) + 6(x
4
3) = 0
4x
1
+ 5x
3
+ 6x
4
27 = 0.
124 LAAG-DGDE
107. We remark that (t
0
) = (0, 1, 0, 2) implies t
0
= 0. We have
_

t
(0) = (4t
3
0
, 0, 5t
4
0
, 6t
5
0
) = (0, 0, 0, 0)

tt
(0) = (12t
2
0
, 0, 20t
3
0
, 30t
4
0
) = (0, 0, 0, 0)

ttt
(0) = (24t
0
, 0, 60t
2
0
, 120t
3
0
) = (0, 0, 0, 0)

(iv)
(0) = (24, 0, 120t
0
, 360t
2
0
) = (24, 0, 0, 0) ,= (0, 0, 0, 0),
hence it results that B is a singular point of order 4. We conclude that the tangent straight
line and the normal hyperplane to the curve at the point B are respectively described by
the equations

tg,B
:
x
1
0
24
=
x
2
+1
0
=
x
3
0
0
=
x
4
2
0

_
_
_
x
2
= 1
x
3
= 0
x
4
= 2
H
nor,B
: 24 (x
1
0) + 0 (x
2
+ 1) + 0 (x
3
0) + 0 (x
4
2) = 0 x
1
= 0.
From the relation
t
(t) = 0 it results the unique solution t = 0, hence B is the unique
singular point of the curve.
108. We nd the common points of the curves by solving the system (t) = (s), which
can be written
_
t
2
+ 1 = 2 +s
lnt = s, t = s + 1

_
s
2
+s = 0
lnt = s, t = s + 1

_
s = 0
t = 1,
hence the common point of the curves is (1) = (0) = (2, 0, 1). The tangent vectors at the
common point to the pair of curves, are
t
(1) = (2, 1, 1), respectively
t
(0) = (1, 1, 1), hence
we have

(
t
(1),
t
(0)) = arccos

t
(1),
t
(0))
|
t
(1)| |
t
(0)|
= arccos
4
3

2
.
109. By denoting x(t) = t 1, y(t) =
t
2
t1
, we get
lim
t
x(t) = , lim
t
y(t) = ,
lim
t+
x(t) = , lim
t+
y(t) = ,
and since lim
t
y(t)
x(t)
= lim
t
t
2
(t 1)
2
= 1 = m, it results that v (1, 1) is an asymptotic
direction of the curve for t . Since n = lim
t
(y(t) m x(t)) = lim
t
2t 1
t 1
= 2 it
results that y = x + 2 an asymptotic line a of the curve for t .
At the accumulation point t = 1, we have
lim
t1
x(t) = 0, lim
t,1
y(t) = , lim
t1
y(t) = +,
hence the curve admits for t 1 the bi-lateral asymptotic line x = 0 (the Oy axis).
110. a) According to the denition, the length of the curve segment is
l = ([0, 2]) =
_
2
0
|
t
(t)|dt.
Solutions 125
We have
t
(t) = (a(1 cos t), a sint), hence
|
t
(t)| =
_
a
2
(1 cos t)
2
+a
2
sin
2
t = a

2 2 cos t.
Using the relation cos t = 1 2 sin
2 t
2
, it results
l = a
_
2
0

2 2 cos tdt = a
_
2
0

2 2
_
1 2 sin
2
t
2
_
dt.
But t [0, 2]
t
2
[0, ] sint 0, hence
l = 2a
_
2
0
sin
t
2
dt = 4a cos
t
2

2
0
= 4a(1 1) = 8a.
b) Since the origin (0) = (0, 0) is not a regular point of the curve (since
t
(0) = 0), we
shall compute the normal parameter which corresponds to t = . We have
s(t) =
_
t

|
t
(u)|du = a
_
t

2 2 cos u du = 2a
_
t

sin
u
2
du =
= 4a cos .
u
2

= 4a cos
t
2
, s : [0, 2] [4a, 4a].
We remark that the inverse of the function, t : [4a, 4a] [a, 2] is given by t(s) =
2 arccos(
s
4a
). We conclude that the normal parametrization of the curve is : [4a, 4a]
R
2
,
(s) = ( s
1
)(s) = (s
1
(s)) = (2 arccos(
s
4a
)) =
= (a(2 arccos(
s
4a
) sin(2 arccos(
s
4a
))), a(1 cos(2 arccos(
s
4a
))))
IV.3. Planar curves
111. From the relation (t) = A it results t = 1. But
t
(1) (2, 3) ,= 0, and the
equations of the tangent and normal straight lines at A respectively are

tg
:
x1
2
=
y+3
3
3x + 2y + 3 = 0

nor
: 2(x 1) + 3(y + 3) = 0 2x + 3y + 11 = 0.
The intersection point T of the tangent straight line with the Ox axis is the solution of the
system

tg
Ox :
_
3x + 2y + 3 = 0
y = 0

_
x = 1
y = 0
T(1, 0).
By denoting with C the projection of the point A(1, 3) on the Ox axis, the sub-tangent is
S
t
=
_
AT
2
AC
2
=

13 9 = 2. We nd the intersection point N of the normal with the

Ox axis, given by

nor
Ox :
_
2x + 3y + 11 = 0
y = 0

_
x = 11/2
y = 0
N(11/2, 0).
We conclude that the sub-normal is
S
n
=
_
AN
2
AC
2
=
_
117
4
9 =
9
2
.
126 LAAG-DGDE
112. a) We denote F(x, y) = x
2
y
3
3 and (x
A
, y
A
) = (2, 1). Using the formulas for
the tangent and normal straight line to a plane curve given by implicit Cartesian equation,

tg
: (x x
A
)
_
F
x
_
(x
A
,y
A
)
+ (y y
A
)
_
F
y
_
(x
A
,y
A
)
= 0,

nor
:
x x
A
(
F
x
)
(x
A
,y
A
)
=
y y
A
(
F
y
)
(x
A
,y
A
)
.
We get
tg
: 4x + 3y + 5 = 0, respectively
nor
:
x+2
4
=
y1
3
.
b) We have x
2
y
3
3 = 0 y =
3

x
2
3, hence a parametrization a of the curve is
_
x = t
y =
3

t
2
3
, t R.
113. a) The basis of the Frenet frame R
F
= (t);

T(t),

N(t) of the curve is given
by the pair of vector elds

T,

N, where:
_

T(t)

(t)
|

(t)|
=
_
x

(t)

x
2
(t)+y
2
(t)
,
y

(t)

x
2
(t)+y
2
(t)
_

N(t) = R
/2
(

T(t))
_
y

(t)

x
2
(t)+y
2
(t)
,
x

(t)

x
2
(t)+y
2
(t)
_
.
In our case x(t) = t, y(t) = t
2
, hence x
t
(t) = 1, y
t
(t) = 2t. It follows that
T(t) =
_
1

1 + 4t
2
,
2t

1 + 4t
2
_
, N(t) =
_

2t

1 + 4t
2
,
1

1 + 4t
2
_
.
Since
t
(t) = (1, 2t) ,= O
R
2, it results that is a regular curve and hence the value of the
curvature of the curve is given by the equality
k(t) =
x
t
(t)y
tt
(t) x
tt
(t)y
t
(t)
(x
t2
(t) +y
t2
(t))
3/2
=
1 2 0 2t
(1 + 4t
2
)
3/2
=
2
(1 + 4t
2
)
3/2
. (38)
b) The Frenet frame of the curve at the current point (t) is R
F
= (t);

T(t),

N(t),
where

T(t) =

(t)
|

(t)|
and

N(t) = R

T(t) are the unit vector tangent and respectively normal

to the curve at the point (t). These unit vectors, considered at the point A Im will
be denoted by

T
A
,

N
A
. As (t) = (t, t
2
) it results
t
(t) = (1, 2t). We have A Im, since
A(2, 4) = (2). Since
t
(2) = (1, 4) has its norm |
t
(2)| =

17 ,= 0, the point A is
a regular point of the curve . The claimed unit vectors are:
_

T
A
=

(2)
|

(2)|
= (
1

17
,
4

17
)

N
A
= R

T
A

_
cos

2
sin

2
sin

2
cos

2
_
_
1

17

17
_
=
_
4

17
1

17
_
,
hence the associated Frenet frame of the curve at the point A(2, 4) is
R
F,A
=
_
A(2, 4);
_

T
A
=
_
1

17
,
4

17
_
,

N
A
=
_
4

17
,
1

17
___
.
Using the relation (38), for t = t
A
= 2, we get the value of the curvature at the point
A(2, 4) = (2), k(2) =
2
17

17
.
Solutions 127
c) We nd the equation of the osculating circle at the point A = (2) using the formula
(x x
0
)
2
+ (y y
0
)
2
= R
2
0
, where
x
0
= x
C
(2), y
0
= y
C
(2), R
0
= R(2) =
1
[k(2)[
,
and the coordinates of the center of the osculating circle to the curve at the current point
(t) = (x(t), y(t)) are given by
_
_
_
x
C
(t) = x(t) y
t
(t)
x
2
(t)+y
2
(t)
x

(t)y

(t)x

(t)y

(t)
= 4t
3
y
C
(t) = y(t) +x
t
(t)
x
2
(t)+y
2
(t)
x

(t)y

(t)x

(t)y

(t)
=
1+6t
2
2
.
(39)
The curvature function k(t) at (t) is given by the relation (38), hence the radius of the
osculating circle is
R(t) =
1
[k(t)[
=
(1 + 4t
2
)
3/2
2
.
In item (2), we get, by replacing t = 2:
x
0
= 4 (2)
3
= 32, y
0
=
1 + 6 (2)
2
2
=
25
2
, R
0
=
17

17
2
.
We conclude that the equation of the osculating circle to the curve at the point A = (2)
is (x 32)
2
+ (y
25
2
)
2
=
4913
4
.
d) Using the formulas (39) we get the parametrization of the evolute:

ev
(t) =
_
4t
3
,
6t
2
+ 1
2
_
, t R.
e) We get the Cartesian equation a of the curve by eliminating the parameter t from the
system
_
x = t
y = t
2
. By replacing the obtained value of t from the rst relation in the second,
we get = Im : x
2
y = 0 y = x
2
, i.e., a parabola.
114. a) Denoting x = t, we get for the parametrization : R R
2
, (t) = (t, t
2
), t
R. Then
k(t) =

_
_
x
t2
+y
t2
_
3
=

1 2t
0 2

_
_
1 + (2t)
2
_
3
=
2
(1 + 4t
2
)
3/2
.
But (t) = A (t, t
2
) = (2, 4) t = 2, hence the claimed curvature is k(2) =
2
17

17
.
b) The explicit Cartesian equation of the curve is y = f(x), where f(x) = x
2
. Then
k(x) =
f
tt
(x)
_
_
1 + (f
t
(x))
2
_
3
=
2
(
_
1 + (2x)
2
)
3
,
and for x = 2 we get k(2) =
2
17

17
.
c) Because y = x
2
x
2
y = 0, the implicit Cartesian equation of the curve is
F(x, y) = 0, where F(x, y) = x
2
y. Then
k(x, y) = sign(F
y
)
F
xx
F
2
y
+F
yy
F
2
x
2F
xx
F
x
F
y
_
F
2
x
+F
2
y
_
3/2
,
128 LAAG-DGDE
where F
x
= F/x, F
y
= F/y etc, and hence
k(x, y) = sign(1)
2 (1)
2
+ 0 (2x)
2
2 0 2x (1)
[(2x)
2
+ (1)
2
]
3/2
=
2
(1 + 4x
2
)
3/2
,
which leads to k(2, 4) =
2
17

17
.
115. a) By denoting F(x, y, a) = (x a)
2
+y
2

a
2
2
, the envelope of the family of plane
curves
a
: F(x, y, a) = 0 (if this exists) is contained in the curve

dened by the system

_
F(x, y, a) = 0
F
a
(x, y, a) = 0, a R,
which in our case becomes
_
(x a)
2
+y
2

a
2
2
= 0
2(x a) a = 0

_
a = 2x
(x a)
2
+y
2

a
2
2
= 0
from which, by eliminating on a, we get

: x
2
y
2
= 0 or x = y, hence the curve

is
the union of the two bisectors y = x and y = x.
b) We proceed as in item a); the envelope of the family of curves

: x cos +y sin = 2
is contained in the curve

dened by the system

_
x cos +y sin = 2
x sin +y cos = 2, R.
Multiplying with cos the rst relation and with sin the second relation, and then, with
sin the rst relation and with cos the second one and summing them up, we get
_
x = 2(cos sin)
y = 2(cos + sin)
from which, by eliminating the variable via summing the squares, we get

: x
2
+y
2
= 4,
hence the curve

is the circle with the center at the origin having the radius 2.
c) The envelope of the family of curves

: x
2
+y
2
2x +
2
4 = 0 is contained in the
curve

dened by the system:

_
x
2
+y
2
2x +
2
4 = 0
2x + 2 4 = 0

_
= x + 2
x
2
+y2 2x +
2
4 = 0,
from which, by eliminating the variable , we get

: y
2
4x = 4 y
2
= 4(x + 1), hence a
parabola with the vertex on the Ox axis, which admits Ox as axis of symmetry.
116. a) We use the formulas of tangent, respectively normal to the curve : F(x, y) = 0
at the point (x
0
, y
0
) ,

tg
: (x x
0
)
f
x
(x
0
, y
0
) + (y y
0
)
f
y
(x
0
, y
0
) = 0

nor
:
x x
0
f
x
(x
0
, y
0
)
=
y y
0
f
y
(x
0
, y
0
)
.
For (x
0
, y
0
) = (2, 1) and f(x, y) = x
3
2y
2
we get the equations of the tangent, respectively
of the normal straight lines

tg
: 3x +y 5 = 0,
nor
:
x 2
3
=
y + 1
1
x 3y 5 = 0.
Solutions 129
b) The singular points of the curve are the solutions of the system
_

_
f(x, y) = 0
f
x
(x, y) = 0
f
y
(x, y) = 0

_
_
_
x
3
2y
2
= 0
3x
2
= 0
4y = 0

_
x = 0
y = 0,
hence O(0, 0) is the unique singular point of the curve. Since
det[Hess(f)]
O
=

2
f
x
2
(0, 0)

2
f
xy
(0, 0)

2
f
xy
(0, 0)

2
f
y
2
(0, 0)

0 0
0 4

= 0,
where f(x, y) = x
3
2y
2
, it results that O(0, 0) is a cusp singular point of the curve . The
direction v = (l, m) tangent at O(0, 0) to the curve is given by the relation
l
2

2
f
x
2
(0, 0) + 2l m

2
f
xy
(0, 0) +m
2

2
f
y
2
(0, 0) = 0 m
2
(4) = 0 m = 0,
and hence v = l(1, 0). We conclude that the equations of the tangent, respectively of the
normal to the curve at its point O(0, 0) , are

tg
:
x0
1
=
y0
0
y = 0, (the Ox axis)

nor
: 1 x 0 + 0 (y 0) = 0 x = 0, (the Oy axis).
is not a regular curve, since it contains singular points.
117. We follow several preliminary steps.
i) The denition domain is D

= (, 0) (0, ). We remark that 0 / D

, and
Ox : 2 +t +
1
t
= 0 t
2
+ 2t + 1 = 0 t = 1,
and then Ox = (1) = (2, 0). As well,
Oy : 2 t +
1
t
= 0 t
2
2t 1 = 0 t = 1

2,
hence Oy = (1

2) = (0, 2 2

2).
ii) We study if is o periodic curve, hence if T > 0, (t) = (t +T), t D

s.t.
t +T D

. We have
_
1
t
= T +
1
t+T
1
t
= T +
1
t+T
, t R

T = 0.
It follows that is not a periodic curve.
iii) We nd the asymptotic behavior of the curve = Im (asymptotic points; horizontal,
slant or vertical asymptotic lines). Since D

= (, 0) (0, +), we perform this study

only for t
0
= , 0 (hence at the accumulation points which do not belong to the denition
domain of the curve).
We compute the limits at the accumulation points from R which do not belong to the
domain of the curve, t
0


D

= , 0

, 0
+
. We have
lim
t
(t) = (+, ), lim
t+
(t) = (, +),
lim
t,0
(t) = (, ), lim

t0
(t) = (+, +),
130 LAAG-DGDE
hence does not admit horizontal or vertical asymptotic lines. For t , t 0 and
t 0 there exist innite branches. We study the existence of slant asymptotic lines. We
have:
_

_
m = lim
t
y(t)
x(t)
= lim
t
t(1 +
2
t
+
1
t
2
)
t(1 +
2
t
+
1
t
2
)
= 1
n = lim
t
(y(t) +x(t)) = lim
t
(4 +
2
t
) = 4.
It follows that the straight line
as,
: y = x + 4 is a slant asymptotic line of the curve
for t . As well,
_

_
m = lim
t0
y(t)
x(t)
= lim
t0
t
2
+ 2t + 1
t
2
2t + 1
= 1
n = lim
t0
(y(t) x(t)) = lim
t0
2t = 0,
hence the straight line
as,0
: y = x is a slant asymptotic line of the curve for t 0

and
for t 0
+
.
iv) We study the existence of the singular points and the extremal points for the coordinate
functions of the curve. We have x
t
(t) =
t
2
+1
t
2
, y
t
(t) =
t
2
1
t
2
. We remark that since
x
t
(t) < 0, x ,= 0, we have
t
(t) ,= (0, 0), t ,= 0, hence the curve is a regular curve.
The equation x
t
(t) = 0 has no solutions, and the equation y
t
(t) = 0, which implies t
2
1 =
0 t = 1, hence (1) = (2, 0) and (1) = (2, 4) are local extremum points for y(t).
v) We study the existence of multiple points (t
1
) = (t
2
), t
1
,= t
2
; t
1
, t
2
D

= R

. This
relation leads to the system
_
x(t
1
) = x(t
2
)
y(t
1
) = y(t
2
)

_
t
1
+
1
t
1
+t
2

1
t
2
= 0
t
1
+
1
t
1
t
2

1
t
2
= 0
in the unknown t
2
, with t
1
regarded as a parameter. Subtracting the two relations, we get
t
2
= t
1
, hence the curve has no multiple points.
vi) We study the existence of inexion points. By direct calculation, it results that the
equation
t
(t) =
tt
(t) is equivalent to the system
_

t
2
1
t
2
=
2
t
3
t
2
1
t
2
=
2
t
3
, which are the
unknowns t D

, R. This has no solutions (t, ) D

R (e.g., subtracting the

equations we get 2 = 0), hence the curve has no inexion points.
vii) The variation table of the curve is (see Fig 7):
t 1 1

2 0 1 1 +

2 +
x(t) + 2 0 | 2 0
y(t) 0 2 2

2 | 4 2 + 2

2 +
x

(t) 1 | 1
y

(t) + + 0 | 0 + + + +
Obs. y = x + 4 M
y
A y = x|y = x m
y
B y = x + 4
118. a) For the curve
1
: y
2
(a x) x
3
= 0, the equation of the curve is equivalent
with
1
: y
2
a x(x
2
+y
2
) = 0. We denote y = t x and by replacing in the equation of the
curve, we get
at
2
x
2
t
2
x
3
x
3
= 0 x
2
(x +xt
2
at
2
) = 0.
We have the following cases:
i) for x = 0 we have y = 0, hence we get item A(0, 0) ;
ii) for x ,= 0 we have x +xt
2
at
2
= 0, hence x =
at
2
1+t
2
and y =
at
3
1+t
2
. It follows that for the
curve
1
we have the parametrization (see Fig 8):

1
: R R
2
,
1
(t) = (x(t), y(t)) =
_
at
2
1 +t
2
,
at
3
1 +t
2
_
, t R.
Solutions 131
Figure 7 Figure 8
The equation of the curve can be written
1
: y
2
a x(x
2
+y
2
) = 0. We consider the
relations
_
x = cos
y = sin
, which dene the passing from the Cartesian coordinates to the
polar coordinates ( 0, [0, 2)). By replacing in the equation of the curve, this becomes
a
2
sin
2
cos (
2
cos
2
+
2
sin
2
) = 0,
from where, for > 0 we have
2
(a sin
2
cos ) = 0, hence cos = a sin
2
, and for
D

: [0, 2)

2
,
3
2
we get the polar equation of the curve,
=
a sin
2

cos
, D

.
The accumulation points of the domain D

which are not in D

are
0


D

2
,
3
2
.
We compute the distance from the origin to the asymptotic line using the formula
d = lim

0
() sin(
0
) = lim

0
a sin
2

cos
(sin
0
cos ) = a.
Hence, the polar equations of the two asymptotic lines are

() =
d
sin(
0
)

1,2
() =
a
sin(

2
)
, D

.
b) The Cartesian equation a of the curve
2
: x
3
+y
3
3axy = 0 is of the form : Q
3
(x, y)
P
2
(x, y) = 0, where P
2
(x, y) = 3axy and Q
3
(x, y) = x
3
+ y
3
are homogeneous polynomials
of second and respectively third degree in x and y; in order to obtain a parametrization of
the curve, we use the substitution y = tx. By replacing in the Cartesian equation, we get
(see Fig 9):
x
3
+t
3
x
3
3atx
2
= 0 x
2
(x +t
3
x) 3at = 0.
We have the following cases:
i) for x = 0 it results y = 0, hence we get the point A(0, 0) ;
ii) for x ,= 0 we have x(1 +t
3
) = 3at, hence x =
3at
1+t
3
and y =
3at
2
1+t
3
, t R1.
It follows that that a parametrization of the curve
2
is
2
: D

2
= R1 R
2
,

2
(t) = (x(t), y(t)) =
_
3at
1 +t
3
,
3at
2
1 +t
3
_
, t D

.
132 LAAG-DGDE
Figure 9 Figure 10
Like in the previous item a), the equation of the curve becomes

3
cos
3
+
3
sin
3
3a
2
cos sin = 0
2
( cos
3
+ sin
3
3a cos sin) = 0.
For = 0 we get the point A(0, 0) = (0) of the curve; for ,= 0 (hence > 0), it results
(cos
3
+ sin
3
) = 3a cos sin.
For D

: [0, 2)[ cos

3
+ sin
3
= 0 = [0, 2)
3
4
,
7
4
we get the polar equation of
the curve,
=
3a cos sin
cos
3
+ sin
3

, D

.
The accumulation points of the domain D

which do not belong to it, are

0


D

3
4
,
7
4
. We compute the distance from the origin to the asymptotic line; in both cases
lim

0
() sin(
3
4
) =
a

2
. The polar equations of the two asymptotic lines are

1
:

1
() =
a/

2
sin(
3
4
)
, D

2
:

2
() =
a/

2
sin(
7
4
)
, D

.
c) By replacing y = tx in the equation of the curve
3
: x(x
2
+y
2
) +a(y
2
x
2
) = 0, we get
(see Fig 10)
x
3
+t
2
x
3
+at
2
x
2
ax
2
= 0 x
2
(x +t
2
x +at
2
a) = 0.
We have the following cases:
i) for x = 0 it results y = 0, hence we get item A(0, 0) ;
ii) for x ,= 0 we have x(1 +t
2
) = a at
2
, hence x =
a(1t
2
)
1+t
2
and y =
at(1t
2
)
1+t
2
, t R. It
follows that a parametrization of the curve
3
is
3
: D

3
= R R
2
,

3
(t) = (x(t), y(t)) =
_
a(1 t
2
)
1 +t
2
,
at(1 t
2
)
1 +t
2
_
, t D

3
.
Like in the previous items a) and b), the equation of the curve becomes

3
cos +a
2
(sin
2
cos
2
) = 0.
For > 0, it results cos = a(cos
2
sin
2
), and for D

: [0, 2)

2
,
3
2
we get the
polar equation a of the curve,
=
a(cos
2
sin
2
)
cos
, D

.
Solutions 133
The accumulation points of the domain D

which do not belong to it, are

0


D

2
,
3
2
.
The distance from the origin to the asymptotic line is
lim

0
() sin(
0
) = lim

0
a sin
3

0
= a.
The polar equations of the two asymptotic lines are

1
:

1
() =
a
sin(

2
)
, D

2
:

2
() =
a
sin(
3
2
)
, D

.
119. a) We use the formulas

t
: y =

t
(x ),
n
:

t
y +x = 0,
which respectively provide equations of the tangent and of the normal straight lines to the
curve in the moving frame XOY , and the formula for curvature, k =

2
+2
2

(
2
+
2
)
3/2
.
The graphic plot of the curve for t R and t 0 is given in Figs. 11a and 11 b, respectively.
Figure 11a Figure 11b
For the curve
1
: = a, we get

t
: y =
a
a
(x a) y = (x a),

n
:
a
a
y +x a = 0 y +x a = 0.
Using formula from above, we get the curvature of Archimedes spiral:
k
1
=
a
2

2
+ 2a
2
(a
2

2
+a
2
)
3/2
=
a
2
(
2
+ 2)
a
3
(
2
+ 1)
3/2
=

2
+ 2
a(
2
+ 1)
3/2
.
b) For the curve
2
: = e
a
(see Fig 12), we get

t
: y =
e
a
ae
a
(x e
a
) y =
1
a
(x e
a
),

n
:
e
a
ae
a
y +x e
a
= 0 y +ax ae
a
= 0,
and the curvature of the exponential spiral is:
k
2
=
e
2a
+ 2a
2
e
2a
a
2
e
2a
(e
2a
+a
2
e
2a
)
3/2
=
e
2a
(1 +a
2
)
e
3a
(1 +a
2
)
3/2
=
1
e
a

1 +a
2
.
134 LAAG-DGDE
Figure 12
IV.4. Space curves
120. a) We remark that : I R
3
is a regular curve, since the vector of the tangent to
the curve at the current point is
t
(t) = (2 sin t, 2 cos t, 1), whose norm is |
t
(t)| =

5 ,= 0.
The tangent unit vector is hence

T =

t
(t)
|
t
(t)|
=
_

5
sint,
2

5
cos t,
1

5
_
.
We compute the vector normal to the osculating plane of the curve,
t

tt
= (2 sint, 2 cos t, 4),
with the norm |
t

tt
| = 2

5; we get the binormal unit vector

B(t) =

t
(t)
tt
(t)
|
t
(t)
tt
(t)|
=
_
1

5
sint,
1

5
cos t,
2

5
_
.
The unit vector of the principal normal of the curve at its current point is

N =

B

T, hence

N(t) =
1
5

i

j

k
sint cos t 2
2 sin t 2 cos t 1

= (cos t)

i + (sint)

j (cos t, sint, 0).

Hence we get the moving Frenet frame of the curve at one of its moving points,
R

(t) = (t);

T(t),

N(t),

B(t),
where the unit vector elds are the ones described above. Using the formulas for curvature
and for torsion:
k(t) =
|
t
(t)
tt
(t)|
|
t
(t)|
3
, (t) =

t
(t)
tt
(t),
ttt
(t))
|
t
(t)
tt
(t)|
2
,
we get
k(t) =
2

5
5

5
=
2
5
> 0, (t) =
4 sin
2
t + 4 cos
2
t
20
=
1
5
> 0.
b) We have A(2, 0, ) = () and computing the Frenet elements for t
0
= , we get:
T(t
0
) = (0,
2

5
,
1

5
) (0, 2, 1)
N(t
0
) = (1, 0, 0)
B(t
0
) = (0,
1

5
,
2

5
) (0, 1, 2).
Solutions 135
c) The curve is a helix if the ratio between the curvature and the torsion is constant; in
our case, we have k(t)/(t) =
2/5
1/5
= 2 = const.. We conclude that the curve is a helix.
d) We obtain the Cartesian equations of the curve by eliminating the parameter t from
the system
_
_
_
x = 2 cos t
y = 2 sin t
z = t
. By adding the squares of the two relations, we get x
2
+ y
2
= 4
and by replacing t from the last equations into the rst one, it results x = 2 cos z, and hence
T = Im :
_
x = 2 cos z
x
2
+y
2
= 4.
e) The edges of the Frenet frame at a current point of the curve, are straight lines: tangent,
of the principal normal and binormal. These respectively have the director unit vectors

T(t),

N(t),

B(t). Their Cartesian equations are

tg
:
x 2 cos t

5
sint
=
y 2 sin t
2

5
cos t
=
z t
1

nor.pr.
:
x 2 cos t
cos t
=
y 2 sin t
sint
=
z t
0

bin
:
x 2 cos t
1

5
sint
=
y 2 sin t

5
cos t
=
z t
2

5
.
121. a) The equation of the osculating plane (determined by the current point (t) and
by the vectors
t
(t) and
tt
(t), is

osc,(t)
:

x x(t) y y(t) z z(t)

x

(t) y

(t) z

(t)
x

(t) y

(t) z

(t)

= 0

x (t
2
+ t) y (t
2
t) z (t
2
t)
2t + 1 2t 1 2t 1
2 2 2

= 0
4(y (t
2
t)) + 4(z (t
2
t)) = 0 y z = 0.
Hence the equation of the osculating plane does not depend on the parameter t and hence
is a plane curve. We nd the plane Im.
Let : ax+by +cz +d = 0, a
2
+b
2
+c
2
,= 0; we assume that is included in the plane .
Since (t) = (t
2
+t, t
2
t, t
2
t), t R, by replacing in the equation of the plane we have
a(t
2
+t) +b(t
2
t) +c(t
2
t) +d = 0, t R
t
2
(a +b +c) +t(a b c) +d = 0, t R

_
_
_
a +b +c = 0
a b c = 0
d = 0

_
a = 0, b = ,
c = , d = 0
R.
The solutions of the system are hence (a, b, c, d) = (0, 1, 1, 0), R. By choosing = 1,
we get the equation of the claimed plane in which is contained the curve, : y z = 0. We
notice that the obtained plane is exactly the osculating plane, hence
= Im =
osc,(t)
.
b) We have
_
_
_

t
(t) = (2t + 1, 2t 1, 2t 1)

tt
(t) = (2, 2, 2)

ttt
(t) = (0, 0, 0)
, hence
t
,
tt

ttt
) = 0 and the torsion of
the curve at the current point becomes:
=

t
,
tt

ttt
)
|
t

tt
|
2
= 0, t R.
136 LAAG-DGDE
c) We have

t
(t)
tt
(t) =

i

j

k
2t + 1 2t 1 2t 1
2 2 2

= 0

i 4

j + 4

k (0, 4, 4),
hence the eld of the unit vectors of the binormal is

B(t) =

t
(t)
tt
(t)
|
t
(t)
tt
(t)|
=
1
4

2
(0, 4, 4) =
_
0,

2
2
,

2
2
_
.
which obviously does not depend on t.
122. a) For a space curve which is given by its implicit Cartesian equations, :
_
F(x, y, z) = 0
G(x, y, z) = 0
, the equations of the tangent straight lines and the equation of the normal
plane are respectively

tg,A
:
x x
0
a
=
y y
0
b
=
z z
0
c

nor,A
: a(x x
0
) +b(y y
0
) +c(z z
0
) = 0.
where n = a

i + b

j + c

k = ( deg F deg G)[

A
. In our case, F(x, y, z) = x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2

2, G(x, y, z) = z 1 and
n = ( deg F deg G)[
A
=

i

j

k
2x 2y 2z
0 0 1

A(1,0,1)
=
=

i

j

k
2 0 2
0 0 1

(0, 2, 0) = (a, b, c).

Hence

tg,A
:
x+1
0
=
y0
2
=
z1
0

_
x = 1
z = 1

nor,A
: (x + 1) 0 + (y 0) 2 + (z + 1) 0 = 0 y = 0 (the plane xOz).
b) In the system :
_
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= 2
z = 1
by replacing z from the second the equation in
the rst, we get x
2
+y
2
= 1, hence a parametrization of the curve is
:
_
_
_
x = cos t
y = sint
z = 1
, t [0, 2).
IV.5. Surfaces
123. a) The partial velocities are the partial derivatives of the function r,
_
r
u
=
r
u
= (cos v, sinv, 2u)
r
v
=
r
v
= (usinv, ucos v, 0).
Solutions 137
The mapping r is a parametrization if it is immersion one-to-one. We check its injectivity.
For (u
1
, v
1
), (u
2
, v
2
) D, using the fact that u > 0, we get
r(u
1
, v
1
) = r(u
2
, v
2
)
_
_
_
u
1
cos v
1
= u
2
cos v
2
u
1
sinv
1
= u
2
sinv
2
u
2
1
= u
2
2

_
u
1
= u
2
v
1
= v
2
(u
1
, v
1
) = (u
2
, v
2
),
(40)
hence r is one-to-one. We check that r is an immersion. We have
dr = r
u
du +r
v
dv = [r
u
, r
v
]
r(u,v)

_
du
dv
_
.
We build the Jacobian matrix [J(r)] = [r
u
, r
v
]
r(u,v)
of the mapping r and check if rank [J(r)] =
2. We get
[J(r)] =
_
_
cos v usinv
sinv ucos v
2u 0
_
_
,
and then

cos v usinv
sinv ucos v

= u > 0 rank [J(r)] = 2,

hence r is immersion; being one-to-one too, it results that r is a parametrization. It results
that = r(D) is a simple surface (see Fig 10).
b) We nd the parameters u and v associated to the point A . We solve the system
r(u, v) = A (ucos v, usinv, u
2
) = (2, 0, 4)
_
_
_
ucos v = 2
usinv = 0
u
2
= 4

_
u = 2
v =
A = r(2, ).
We compute the partial velocities in item A.
_
r
u
[
A
= (cos , sin, 2
2
) = (1, 0, 4)
r
v
[
A
= (2 sin , 2 cos , 0) = (0, 2, 0).
Then we have

tg,A
:

x + 2 y z 4
1 0 4
0 2 0

4x +z + 4 = 0.
Hence, a vector which is normal to the plane is n = v
nor
(4, 0, 1), and
nor,A
:
x+2
4
=
y
0
=
z4
1
. Otherwise. We nd the director vector n of the straight line
nor,A
.
n = r
u
r
v
=

i

j

k
cos v sinv 2u
usinv ucos v 0

A=r(2,)
= (2u
2
cos v, 2u
2
sinv, u)
u=2,v=
= (8, 0, 2),
from where it results

nor,A
:
x+2
8
=
y
0
=
z4
2

tg,A
: 8(x + 2) + 0 y + 2(z 4) = 0 4x +z + 4 = 0.
c) We have n =
r
u
r
v
]] r
u
r
v
]]
and using u > 0,
[[ r
u
r
v
[[ =
_
4u
4
cos
2
v + 4u
4
sin
2
v +u
2
=
_
4u
4
+u
2
= u
_
4u
2
+ 1,
138 LAAG-DGDE
hence
n =
_
2ucos v

4u
2
+ 1
,
2usinv

4u
2
+ 1
,
1

4u
2
+ 1
_
.
Then the Gauss moving frame is

G
= r(u, v); r
u
, r
v
, n.
The frame is formed of the point P = r(u, v) and the basis r
u
, r
v
, n of the vector space
T
P
R
3
V
3
.
d) In order to nd the Cartesian equation of the surface, we eliminate the parameters u and
v from its parametric equations,
_
_
_
x = ucos v
y = usinv
z = u
2
x
2
+y
2
= z x
2
+y
2
z = 0,
hence is a quadric (elliptic paraboloid).
e) The rst family of coordinate curves is

u=u
0
,v=t
: (t) = r(u
0
, t) = (u
0
cos t, u
0
sint, u
2
0
), t [0, 2].
In order to see what represents this curve, for dierent values of u
0
, we get its Cartesian
equation
_
_
_
x = u
0
cos t
y = u
0
sint
z = u
2
0

_
x
2
+y
2
= u
2
0
(cylinder)
z u
2
0
= 0 (plane),
hence we have a circle; it results that the rst family of curves coordinate is formed of circles.
The second family of coordinate curves is given by

v=v
0
,u=s
: (s) = r(s, v
0
) = (s cos v
0
, s sinv
0
, s
2
), s > 0.
In order to nd the second family of coordinate curves, we nd their Cartesian equations,
_
_
_
x = s cos v
0
y = s sinv
0
z = s
2

_
y sinv
0
xcos v
0
= 0 (plane)
z =
1
cos
2
v
0
x
2
(parabolic cylinder),
hence a parabola, and the second family of coordinate curves consists of parabolas.
f ) The angle formed by the coordinate curves is given by
= arccos
r
u
, r
v
)
[[r
u
[[ [[r
v
[[

A
= arccos 0 =

2
.
Hence the coordinate curves intersect at A, forming an angle of 90
o
. We remark that for the
given surface we generally have
r
u
, r
v
) = ucos v sinv +usinv cos v + 0 = 0 r
u
r
v
,
hence at any point of the surface the coordinate curves are orthogonal. As well we note that
the two orthogonal vectors, which are tangent to the coordinate curves are not generally unit
vectors, since
[[r
u
[[ =
_
1 + 4u
2
1, [[r
v
[[ =

u
2
= [u[ = u > 0.
Solutions 139
124. a) We denote : f(x, y, z) x
3
z + 1 = 0 and we examine if contains or not
critical points of f. We obtain them by making zero the gradient of the function f. But the
equation
deg f (3x
2
, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0)
_
_
_
3x
2
= 0
0 = 0
1 = 0,
has no solutions, hence f has no critical points; hence the surface : f = 0 has no singular
points, and is a regular surface.
b) The eld of normal unit vectors to the surface is
n =
deg f
[[ deg f[[
=
_
3x
2

1 + 9x
4
, 0,
1

1 + 9x
4
_
.
c) The normal vector to the surface at A is v
nor,A
= deg f[
A
= (3x
2
, 0, 1)[
A(1,0,2)
=
(3, 0, 1), hence
_

nor,A
:
x1
3
=
y
0
=
z2
1

tg,A
: 3(x 1) + 0 y + (1)(z 2) = 0 3x z 1 = 0.
125. Let us denote f(x, y; a, b) = ax + by +

1 a
2
b
2
z p. Then the Cartesian
equation of the envelope results from eliminating the parameters from the following system
:
_

_
f = 0
f
a
= 0
f
b
= 0

_
ax +by +rz p = 0
x
az
r
= 0
y
bz
r
= 0

_
ax +by +rz p = 0
a = rx/z
b = ry/z,
where we denoted r =

1 a
2
b
2
and =
_
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
. By replacing a and b from the
last two relations into the rst one, we get r =
zp

2
, which combined with the last relations
of the system lead to a = px/
2
and b = py/
2
. Then, replacing the obtained expressions of
a, b and r into the relation r =

1 a
2
b
2
, we infer
zp

2
=
_
1
p
2

4
(x
2
+y
2
)
_

4
p
2
(x
2
+y
2
) = zp
2
p
2
=
4

2
(
2
p
2
) = 0,
which yields
2
the equation of the envelope : x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= p
2
. Hence the envelope of the
family of planes is the sphere S(O, p), of center O and radius p.
126. a) The parametric equations of the surface are
r(u, v) = u(cos v, sinv, 0) + (0, 0, v) = (0, 0, v)
. .
(v)
+u(cos v, sinv, 0)
. .

(v)
,
hence the surface = r(R
2
) is a helicoid (see Fig 13a) with the director axis
ax
= Im() =
Oz :
_
_
_
x = 0
y = 0
z = v = t R
(on which lean the rulings of the helicoid) and the director plane

dir
= xOy Im() (relative to which are parallel the rulings of helicoid, whose direction
2
We note that = 0 leads to the point O(0, 0, 0) which, for p > 0, does not belong to the family of planes,
and hence does not belong to the enveloping surface .
140 LAAG-DGDE
is (v)). By eliminating the two parameters u and v from the parametric equations of the
surface, it results its Cartesian equation
_
_
_
x = u cos v
y = u sinv
z = v
x = tanv = tanz tanz
y
x
= 0 xsinz y cos z = 0,
hence we obtain the equation of the form (
y
x
, z) = 0, and the surface is a conoid with the
director plane z = 0 director axis :
_
x = 0
y = 0
, i.e., the Oz axis.
Figure 13a Figure 13b
b) The parametric equations of the surface are
r(u, v) = (cos u, sinu, 0) +v(0, 0, 1) = (cos u, sinu, 0)
. .
(u)
+v (0, 0, 1)
. .

0
,
hence the given surface is of cylindric type (see Fig 13b), with the rulings parallel with the
direction
0
; by eliminating the two parameters from the parametric equations of the surface,
it results its Cartesian equation, x
2
+y
2
1 = 0, an equation of the form (x, y) = 0; hence
the surface is of cylindric type, with the rulings parallel with the straight line :
_
x = 0
y = 0
,
the Oz axis.
c) The parametric equations of the surface are
r(u, v) = (0, 0, 0)
. .

0
+v (cos u, sinu, 1)
. .

(u)
,
hence the given surface is a conic surface (see Fig 13c), with the vertex at O(0, 0, 0); by
eliminating the two parameters from the parametric equations of the surface, it results the
Cartesian equation, x
2
+ y
2
z
2
= 0
_
x
z
_
2
+
_
y
z
_
2
1 = 0, an equation of the form

_
x
z
_
,
_
y
z
_
= 0; hence the surface is a conic, with its vertex at O :
_
_
_
x = 0
y = 0
z = 0
, hence at the
origin.
127. a)-b) The matrix of the rst fundamental form is
[I] =
_
r
u
, r
u
) r
u
, r
v
)
r
v
, r
u
) r
v
, r
v
)
_

_
E F
F G
_
.
Solutions 141
Figure 13c
We subsequently get
_
r
u
= (cos v, sinv, 0)
r
v
= (u sinv, u cos v, 1)

_
_
_
E = 1
F = 0
G = u
2
+ 1
[I] =
_
1 0
0 u
2
+ 1
_
=
_
1 0
0
2
_
,
where we denoted =

u
2
+ 1 > 0. Hence the rst fundamental form of the surface is
ds
2
= (du, dv)
_
E F
F G
__
du
dv
_
= E du
2
+ 2F dudv +G dv
2
= du
2
+ (1 +u
2
)dv
2
.
The matrix of the second fundamental form is
[II] =
_
r
uu
, n) r
uv
, n)
r
vu
, n) r
vv
, n)
_

_
L M
M N
_
,
where n =
r
u
r
v
[[r
u
r
v
[[
. We get
r
u
r
v
=

i

j

k
cos v sinv 0
u sinv u cos v 1

= sinv

i cos v

j +u

k (sinv, cos v, u),

and further
[[r
u
r
v
[[ =
_
u
2
+ 1 n =
_
sinv

,
cos v

,
u

_
.
We remark that
_
_
_
r
uu
= (0, 0, 0)
r
uv
= (sinv, cos v, 0)
r
vv
= (u cos v, u sinv, 0)

_
_
_
L = 0
M = 1/
N = 0
[II] =
_
0 1/
1/ 0
_
.
Then the second fundamental form is
d
2
= (du, dv)
_
L M
M N
__
du
dv
_
=
2

u
2
+ 1
dudv.
The matrix of the third fundamental form is
[III] = [II] [I]
1
[II] =
_
1/
4
0
0 1/
2
_
.
142 LAAG-DGDE
From the coecients of the matrix of the rst fundamental form we remark that
[[r
u
[[
2
= r
u
, r
u
) = E = 1, hence [[r
u
[[ = 1 (r
u
is a unit vector);
[[r
v
[[
2
= r
v
, r
v
) = G =
2
,= 0, hence [[r
u
[[ 1 and r
v
is not generally a unit vector, and
F = r
u
, r
v
) = 0, hence r
u
r
v
.
We conclude that r
v
not being unit vector at each point of the surface, the basis of the Gauss
frame B
G
= r
u
, r
v
, n is not orthonormal.
c) The Gauss and mean curvatures of the surface are given by
K =
det[II]
det[I]
, H =
1
2

EN +LG2FM
det[I]
,
and for the given surface we get,
K =
1/
2

2
=
1

4
< 0, H =
1
2

0 + 0 2

2
= 0.
d) Since K , 0, the surface is not developable, but is minimal, since H 0. Since K < 0,
it results that all the points of the surface are of hyperbolic type.
e) We check the Beltrami-Enneper formula, [III] 2H[II] + K[I] = [0]. Indeed, we have
the identity
_
1/
4
0
0 1/
2
_
2 0
_
0
1

0
_
+
_

4
__
1 0
0
2
_
=
_
0 0
0 0
_
.
128. a) The matrix of the Weingarten operator is given by the relation
[S] = [I]
1
[II] =
_
1 0
0 1/
2
_

_
0 1/
1/ 0
_
=
_
0 1/
1/
3
0
_
.
b) According to the Rodriguez theorem, the principal curvatures k
1,2
are exactly the eigen-
values of the matrix [S], and the principal directions are given by a pair of eigenvectors
w
1,2
associated to them. In order to nd the eigenvalues of the matrix [S], we compute the
characteristic polynomial,
P() = det([S] I
2
) =

1/
1/
3

=
2

4
.
The characteristic equation is P() = 0 and hence the roots are

1
= k
1
=
1

2
,
2
= k
2
=
1

2
.
We look for a pair of eigenvectors which correspond to the two eigenvalues.
For
1
=
1

2
, the characteristic system ([S]
1
I
2
)w = 0 can be written, for w = (a, b)
t
,
_
1

2

1

3
1

2
_
_
a
b
_
=
_
0
0
_

_
b = s
1

2
a
1

s = 0

_
a = s
b = s
(a, b) = s(, 1);
The rst principal direction is hence given by the tangent vector w
1
= (, 1),
w
1
= (, 1) r
u
+ r
v
T
r(u,v)
,
Solutions 143
whose components in the 3-dimensional space are
w
1

_
1 +u
2
(cos v, sinv, 0) + 1 (usinv, ucos v, 1).
For
2
=
1

2
, the characteristic system ([S]
1
I
2
)w = 0 can be written, for w = (a, b)
t
,
_
1/
2
1/
1/
3
1/
2
__
a
b
_
=
_
0
0
_

_
b = s

2
a
1

s = 0

_
a = s
b = s,
hence (a, b) = (s, s) = s(, 1). The second principal direction is hence given by the
vector
w
2
= (, 1) r
u
+ r
v
T
r(u,v)
,
whose components in the 3-dimensional space are
w
2

_
1 +u
2
(cos v, sinv, 0) + 1 (usinv, ucos v, 1).
We can determine the two principal curvatures k
1,2
by using the curvatures K and H of the
surface. These satisfy the equation

2
2H +K = 0
2

4
= 0
_
k
1
=
1

2
k
2
=
1

2
.
c) The tangent vector w = 2r
u
r
v
(2, 1) has its associated normal curvature:
k
n
(w) =
[II](w, w)
[I](w, w)
=
(2, 1)
_
0
1

0
__
2
1
_
(2, 1)
_
1 0
0
2
__
2
1
_ =
4

4 +
2
=
4
(4 +
2
)
.
We nd the values of the parameters u and v which correspond to the point A(1, 0, ), by
solving the system
_
_
_
u cos v = 1
u sinv = 0
v =

_
u = 1
v =
(u, v) = (1, ),
from where [
A
=

2, and k
n
(w) =
4

2(4+2)
=
2
3

2
=

2
3
. Moreover, the eective direction
(in 3D) determined by w is given by
w = (2r
u
r
v
)[
A
2(1, 0, 0) (0, 1, 1) = (2, 1, 1).
d) We remark that in item A we have =

2, hence k
1
=
1
2
, k
2
=
1
2
. Then, relative to a
conveniently chosen coordinate system, the surface has the form similar to the one described
by the Cartesian equation

aprox
: z =
1
2
_

1
2
x
2
+
1
2
y
2
_

y
2
4

x
2
4
= z,
hence locally, the surface has the form of a hyperbolic paraboloid (see Fig 14).
129. We check the Meusnier Theorem, which states:
Let = r (u, v) : I R R
3
be a curve on the surface = Imr. Then
k
n
(
t
) = k

cos , (41)
where:
144 LAAG-DGDE
Figure 14
k
n
(
t
) is the normal curvature of the surface in the direction
t
(t);
k

is the curvature of the curve at the current point (t);

is the angle formed between the normal unit vector N of the curve and the normal
unit vector n of the surface at the point (t) = r(u(t), v(t)).
a) The helix is given by the mapping : R R
3
, (t) = (cos t, sint, t), t R, and its
velocity and acceleration respectively are

t
(t) = (sint, cos t, 1),
tt
(t) = (cos t, sint, 0).
Then

tt
=

i

j

k
sint cos t 1
cos t sin t 0

(sint, cos t, 1) |
t

tt
| =

2
and hence B = (sint, cos t, 1)/

2. Since T =

|
= (sint, cos t, 1)/

2, it results N =
B T = (cos t, sint, 0). On the other hand, we have
_
r
u
= (sinu, cos u, 0)
r
v
= (0, 0, 1)
r
u
r
v
=

i

j

k
sinu cos u 0
0 0 1

(cos u, sinu, 0),

so at the points of the curve we have n = (cos t, sint, 0). Then cos =
N,n)
|N||n|
= 1.
The curvature of the curve at the current point (t) is k

=
|

|
|

|
3
=

2
(

2)
3
=
1
2
.
In order to nd k
n
(
t
), we compute the matrices of the rst two fundamental forms of
the surface. We have
_
_
_
E = r
u
, r
u
) = 1
F = r
u
, r
v
) = 0
G = r
v
, r
v
) = 1
[I] =
_
E F
F G
_
=
_
1 0
0 0
_
.
Furthermore, at the points of the curve , we have
_
_
_
r
uu
= (cos t, sint, 0)
r
uv
= (0, 0, 0)
r
vv
= (0, 0, 0)

_
_
_
L = r
uu
, n) = 1
M = r
uv
, n) = 0
N = r
vv
, n) = 0
[II] =
_
1 0
0 0
_
.
Solutions 145
Also, relative to the basis B = r
u
, r
v
of the tangent space T
(t)
to the surface at (t),
we have

t
(t) = u
t
(t) r
u
[
(t)
+v
t
(t) r
v
[
(t)
= 1 r
u
[
(t)
+ 1 r
v
[
(t)
,
and hence v[
t
]
B
= (1, 1)
t
, and therefore
k
n
(
t
) =
v
t
[II]v
v
t
[I]v
=
(1, 1)
_
1 0
0 0
_
_
1
1
_
(1, 1)
_
1 0
0 1
_
_
1
1
_ =
1
2
.
Then formula (41) becomes
1
2
=
1
2
(1), which is an identity at each point of the curve .
b) The equality z = x becomes, on , v = cos u, which suggests the parametrization
_
u(t) = t
v(t) = cos t,
, and hence (t) = r(u(t), v(t)) = (cos t, sint, cos t). We notice that the
rotation R of angle /4 and Oy as axis of rotation, transforms the curve into = R ,
(t) =
_
_
cos /4 0 sin /4
0 1 0
sin /4 0 cos /4
_
_
_
_
cos t
sint
cos t
_
_
=
_
_
2 cos t/

2
sint
0
_
_
,
and therefore the Cartesian coordinates of the points located on the curve satisfy the
equations Im :
_
x
2
2
+y
2
= 1
z = 0
, an ellipse, and hence = R
1
is an ellipse as well.
In order to compute N and k

, we rst compute:
_

t
(t) = (sint, cos t, sint)

tt
(t) = (cos t, sint, cos t)

t

tt
= (1, 0, 1) B = (1, 0, 1)/

2
and since T = (sint, cos t, sint)/
_
1 + sin
2
t, we infer k

=
|

|
|

|
3
=

2
(1+sin
2
t)
3/2
and
N = B T = (cos t, 2 sin t, cos t)/
_
2(1 + sin
2
t).
Further, according to item a), on the curve we have n = (cos t, sint, 0), and hence
cos =
n, N)
|n| |N|
=
(1 + sin
2
t)
_
2(1 + sin
2
t)
=
_
1 + sin
2
t

2
.
Also,
t
(t) = u
t
(t)r
u
[
(t)
+ v
t
(t)r
v
[
(t)
= 1 r
u
[
(t)
+ 1 r
v
[
(t)
, and hence v = [
t
]

=
(1, sint)
t
, and consequently
k
n
(
t
) =
(1, sint)
_
1 0
0 0
_
_
1
sint
_
(1, sint)
_
1 0
0 0
_
_
1
sint
_ =
1
1 + sin
2
t
.
Then the equality (41) becomes
1
1 + sin
2
t
=

2
(1 + sin
2
t)
3/2

_

_
1 + sin
2
t

2
_
,
which is an identity along the curve .
146 LAAG-DGDE
130. We apply the Euler Theorem, which states:
Let v T
p
be a tangent vector to the surface and we denote by the oriented angle =
(e
1
, v), where e
1
, e
2
are the principal unit vectors respectively associated to the principal
curvatures k
1
and k
2
. Then
k
n
(v) = k
1
cos
2
+k
2
sin
2
. (42)
a) From the previous exercise, we have v = [
t
]
B
= (1, 1)
t
, k
n
(v) =
1
2
. The matrix of the
Weingarten operator relative to the tangent basis r
u
, r
v
is
[S] = [I]
1
[II] =
_
1 0
0 0
_
and its eigenvectors are e
1
= (1, 0)
t
, e
2
= (0, 1)
t
, respectively associated to the eigenvalues
k
1
= 1, k
2
= 0. We have cos =
e
1
,v)
|e
1
||v|
- where the angles are computed using the matrix
of the induced scalar product, [I] = I
2
, and hence cos =
1

2
. Then the relation (42) can be
written as

1
2
= (1)
_
1

2
_
2
+ 0
_

2
_
2
,
hence we get an identity.
b) We have v = [
t
]
B
= (1, sint), k
n
(v) =
1
1+sin
2
t
and cos =
1

1+sin
2
t
, sin =
sin t

1+sin
2
t
.
Then the equality (42) has the form
1
1 + sin
2
t
= (1)
_
1
_
1 + sin
2
t
_
2
+ 0
_
sint
_
1 + sin
2
t
_
2
,
which is an identity.
131. a) We parametrize the curve, by denoting u = t; it results v = 2t, hence
(t) = r(t, 2t) = (t cos 2t, t sin2t, 2t), t [1, 2],
and

t
(t) = (cos 2t 2t sin2t, sin2t + 2t cos 2t, 2) [[
t
(t)[[ =
_
4t
2
+ 1 + 4.
Then, using a replacement of Euler type for computing the denite integral, the arc-length
of the curve follows:
l =
_
2
1
[[
t
(t)[[dt =
_
2
1
_
4t
2
+ 5dt =

21
15
8
ln5 +
5
4
ln(4

5 +

21

5)
3
2
.
b) We apply the area formula
/ =
__
D
_
det[I] dudv =
__
D
_
EGF
2
dudv =
=
__
D
_
1(1 +u
2
) 0
2
dudv =
_
1
0
du
_

0
_
1 +u
2
dv =
=
_
1
0

1 +u
2
du
_

0
dv =
_
1
0

1 +u
2
du.
Using the substitution

u
2
+ 1 = u +t it results
_

_
u
2
+ 1 = u
2
+ 2tu +t
2
u =
1t
2
2t
du =
1
2

2t
2
(1t
2
)
t
2
dt =
1+t
2
2t
2
dt

u
2
+ 1 = u +t =
1t
2
2t
+t =
1+t
2
2t
.
Solutions 147
As well, we have u = 0 t = 1 and u = 1 t =

2 1, hence
/ =
_

21
1
1 +t
2
2t
(
1 +t
2
2t
2
)dt =

4
_
1

21
(1 +t
2
)
2
t
3
dt =

4
_
1

21
(t
2
+
2
t
+
1
t
3
)dt =
=

4
(
t
2
2
+ 2 ln [t[ +
t
2
2
)[
1

21
=

4
_
(
1
2
+ 2 ln1
1
2
) (
32

2
2
+ 2 ln(

2 1) +
1
2(32

2)
)
_
=

4

1
2
_
3 2

2 + 4 ln(

2 1) +
1
2(32

2
_
=

8
(3 2

2 + 4 ln(

2 1) + 3 + 2

2) =
=

8
6 +

8
4 ln(

2 1) =
3
4
+

2
ln(

2 1).
132. a) The dierential equation of the curvature lines (t) = r(u(t), v(t)) is

v
t2
u
t
v
t
u
t2
E F G
L M N

= 0.
We compute the coecients of the lower lines of the determinant,
_
r
u
= (sinu, cos u, 0)
r
v
= (0, 0, 1)

_
_
_
E = r
u
, r
u
) = 1
F = r
u
, r
v
) = 0
G = r
v
, r
v
) = 1.
We get
_
_
_
r
uu
= (cos u, sinu, 0)
r
uv
= (0, 0, 0)
r
vv
= (0, 0, 0)

_
_
_
L = r
uu
, n) = 1
M = r
uv
, n) = 0
N = r
vv
, n) = 0.
We nd the eld n of unit vectors normal to the surface,
r
u
r
v
=

i

j

k
sinu cos u 0
0 0 1

(cos u, sinu, 0) [[r

u
r
v
[[ =

1 = 1,
hence n = (cos u, sinu, 0). Then the dierential equation of the lines of the curvature (the
equation of the principal curves) becomes

v
t2
u
t
v
t
u
t2
1 0 1
1 0 0

= 0 u
t
v
t
= 0.
The following cases appear:
Case I. u
t
= 0 u(t) = a = const.. We denote v(t) = t and we get the curves
(t) = r(a, t) = (cos a, sina, t), t R.
We obtain their Cartesian equations by eliminating the parameter t from the parametric
equations,
_
_
_
x = cos a
y = sina
z = t

_
x cos a = 0 (plane)
y sina = 0 (plane),
hence each of the curves is a straight line. We see this, by noticing that the parametric
equations of these curves are of the form
_
_
_
x = 0t + cos a
y = 0t + sina
z = 1t + 0, t R
from which, by eliminating
the parameter t, we infer the canonic Cartesian equations of a family of straight lines
(t =)
x cos a
0
=
y sina
0
=
z 0
1
148 LAAG-DGDE
whose direction is v = (0, 0, 1)

k, hence these are straight lines parallel with the Oz
axis. These are exact the rulings of the given cylinder. We remark, indeed, that the given
parametrized surface is a cylinder, since its Cartesian equation, obtained from the parametric
equations,
_
_
_
x = cos u
y = sinu
z = v
x
2
+y
2
= 1,
is the equation of a right circular cylinder whose radius is 1 and whose axis of symmetry is
Oz. We conclude that the rst family of principal curves of the given cylinder consists of its
rulings.
Case II. v
t
= 0 v(t) = b = const.. By denoting u = t, we get the parametric equation and
then, the Cartesian ones of the second family of principal curves,
(t) = r(t, b) = (cos t, sint, b)
_
_
_
x = cos t
y = sint
z = b.
By eliminating the parameter t, we infer the Cartesian equations of these curves,
_
x
2
+y
2
= 1 (the given cylinder Im r)
z b = 0 (plane perpendicular to the axis of Im r)
and hence the principal curves of the second family are section circles of the cylinder. We
conclude that the principal curves of the cylinder consist of rulings and circles.
b) The asymptotic curves (asymptotic lines) satisfy the dierential equation
(u
t
, v
t
)[II]
_
u
t
v
t
_
= 0.
By replacing L, M, N determined in item a), we get the matrix [II] =
_
1 0
0 0
_
, hence
the equation of asymptotic lines becomes
(u
t
, v
t
)
_
1 0
0 0
__
u
t
v
t
_
= 0 u
t2
= 0 u
t
= 0.
But u
t
= 0 u(t) = a = const. and v(t) = t, hence we get the rulings of the cylinder
considered in the previous item. We conclude that the asymptotic lines of the cylinder are
its rulings.
c) We nd the geodesics of the cylinder. In order to obtain the equations of geodesics
(t) = r(u(t), v(t)), we impose the conditions that these have unit speed ([[
t
(t)[[ = 1) and
to satisfy the relation
tt
(t) T
(t)
. All in all, these conditions have the form
_
_
_

tt
, r
u
[
(t)
) = 0

tt
, r
v
[
(t)
) = 0

t
,
t
) = 1,
We subsequently get
_

t
= u
t
r
u
+v
t
r
v

tt
= u
tt
r
u
+v
tt
r
v
+u
t2
r
uu
+ 2u
t
v
t
r
uv
+v
t2
r
vv
.
In our case, r(u, v) = (cos u, sinu, v) and we get

t
= u
t
(sinu, cos u, 0) +v
t
(0, 0, 1).
Solutions 149
By replacing in the three relations of the previous system, we infer
_

_
u
tt
E +v
tt
F +u
t2
r
uu
, r
u
) + 2u
t
v
t
r
uv
, r
u
) +v
t2
r
vv
, r
u
) = 0
u
tt
F +v
tt
G+u
t2
r
uu
, r
v
) + 2u
t
v
t
r
uv
, r
v
) +v
t2
r
vv
, r
v
) = 0
Eu
t2
+ 2Fu
t
v
t
+Gv
t2
= 1.
By replacing the partial derivatives, it results
_

_
u
tt
1 +v
tt
0 +u
t2
0 + 2u
t
v
t
0 +v
t2
0 = 0
u
tt
0 +v
tt
1 +u
t2
0 + 2u
t
v
t
0 +v
t2
0 = 0
1 u
t2
+ 2 0 u
t
v
t
+ 1 v
t2
= 1,
from where it results
_

_
u
tt
= 0 u
t
= a u = at +b
v
tt
= 0 v
t
= c v = ct +d
u
t2
+v
t2
= 1 a
2
+c
2
= 1.
(43)
We nd the curve by substituting the obtained functions u and v in the parametric equation
of the surface,
(t) = r(u(t), v(t)) = (cos(at +b), sin(at +b), ct +d).
We examine the curve ; we have three cases:
i) a = 0; from the third relation (43), it results c = 1, hence we get the curves

1
(t) = (cos b, sinb, t +d);
by eliminating the parameter t from the obtained parametric equations, it results that these
are the rulings of the cylinder, which are parallel with the Oz axis and are located at distance
1 relative to the axis,
:
x cos b
0
=
y sinb
a
=
z d
1
(= t).
ii) c = 0; from the third relation (43), it results a = 1; hence, we get

2
(t) = (cos(t +b), sin(t +b), d).
By eliminating the parameter t, we notice that we obtain a family of circles of Cartesian
equations
_
x
2
+y
2
= 1
z = d.
We conclude that the second family of geodesics of the cylinder consists of transversal sec-
tional circles.
iii) If a ,= 0, c ,= 0 and a
2
+c
2
= 1, then

3
(t) = (cos(at +b), sin(at +b), ct +d).
By performing the change of parameter = at+b, it results t =
b
a
and ct+d =
c
a

bc
a
+d =
m + n, where we denoted m =
c
a
, n =
bc
a
+ d. Then, re-parametrizing the curve
3
, we
get its new equation

3
() = (cos , sin, m +n).
150 LAAG-DGDE
We remark that we obtain a family of helices. We conclude that the geodesics of the cylinder
are
straight lines (the rulings of the cylinder),
circles (obtained by cutting the cylinder with planes transversal on its symmetry axis),
helices.
V.1. Ordinary dierential equations
133. By deriving the given relations, it results
y
t
cos y c = 0 c = y
t
cos y.
By replacing the obtained value for c in the relation, it results
siny y
t
cos y x = 0 xy
t
cos y siny = 0,
the given equation, which proves that the implicitly given function y satises the equation.
Otherwise. Using the given relation, we explicitly write the function y,
siny cx = 0 siny = cx y = k + (1)
k
arcsin(cx) y
t
=
(1)
k
c

1c
2
x
2
,
and sin y = sin(k + (1)
k
arcsin(cx)) = cx,
cos y = cos(k + (1)
k
arcsincx) = (1)
k

_
1 sin
2
(arcsincx) = (1)
k
_
1 c
2
x
2
.
By replacing y
t
, sin y and cos y in the equation, this becomes
xy
t
cos y siny = 0 x
(1)
k
c
_
1 c
2
x
2
(1)
k
_
1 c
2
x
2
cx 0 = 0,
identity; hence the function y is the solution of the given dierential equation.
134. We replace y
t
=
dy
dx
in the equation and we get
x
dy
dx
cos y = siny
cos y
siny
dy =
dx
x
from where, by integrating the two members of the equality, it results
_
cos y
siny
dy =
_
dx
x
ln[ siny[ = ln[x[ +c
0
, c
0
R.
By denoting c
0
= ln[c
1
[, we get
ln[ siny[ = ln[c
1
x[ siny = c
1
x siny cx = 0,
where c = c
1
; we have the explicitly given solution y = k + (1)
k
arcsin(cx), k ZZ.
135. a) In case of homogeneous equations, the derivative depends only on the ratio
y
x
,
hence these equations are of the form y
t
= f(
y
x
).
The given equation can be written as y
t
=
y
2
x
2
, hence it is a homogeneous dierential equation.
We apply the integration algorithm for such type of equations, by performing the change of
unknown function y u(x) =
y(x)
x
given by the relations y = u x u =
y
x
. We have
Solutions 151
y = u x y
t
= u
t
x + u. By replacing in the equation we get u
t
x + u = u
2
, the equation
with separable variabile . By substituting u
t
=
du
dx
, it results
du
dx
x = u
2
u
du
u
2
u
=
dx
x

du
u(u 1)
=
dx
x
,
the equation with separate variables. By integration in its both sides, it results F(u) = ln[x[,
where we denoted F(u) =
_
du
u
2
u
= ln [
u1
u
[ + c
1
. By denoting c
1
= ln[c
0
[ (c
0
,= 0) and
considering that u = y/x, we get
ln

u 1
u

ln[c
0
[ = ln[x[ c
0
x =
u 1
u
y =
x
1 c
0
x
, c
0
,= 0.
But for c
0
= 0 we get a solution as well, y = x, hence by extending by continuity for the
parameter c
0
the family of solutions and denoting c = c
0
, it results the general solution of
the equation,
y =
x
1 +cx
, c R.
b) The given equation can be written
y
t
=
sin
y
x
cos
y
x
y
t
= tan
y
x
,
hence it is a homogeneous dierential equation. We apply the integration algorithm of such
equations, by performing the change of unknown function y u(x) =
y(x)
x
given by the
relations y = u x u =
y
x
. We have
y = u x y
t
= u
t
x +u.
By replacing in the equation we get u
t
x + u = tanu, an equation with separable variables.
By substituting u
t
=
du
dx
, it results
du
dx
x = tanu u
du
tanu u
=
dx
x
,
the equation with separate variables; by integrating its both sides, it results F(u) = ln [x[ +
ln[c
0
[, where we denoted F(u) =
_
du
tanuu
. By denoting c = c
0
, it results
F(u) ln[c
0
x[ = 0 c
0
x = e
F(u)
cx = e
F(u)
,
and using u =
y
x
, we have
cx = e
F(y/x)
cx e
F(y/x)
= 0,
hence we obtain the solution y(x) of the equation in implicit form.
136. a) The given equation, (x +y 1)dx +(x y 1)dy = 0, is obviously of the form:
(a
1
x +b
1
y +c
1
)dx + (a
2
x +b
2
y +c
2
)dy = 0, (44)
where a
2
1
+ b
2
1
> 0, a
2
2
+ b
2
2
> 0. We perform the double change of variable and unknown
function x X; y(x) Y (X) given by the relations
_
X = x x
0
Y = y y
0

_
x = X +x
0
y = Y +y
0
,
152 LAAG-DGDE
where (x
0
, y
0
) are the solutions of the system given by the intersection of the straight lines

1
and
2
,
_

1
: x +y 1 = 0

2
: x y 1 = 0

_
x
0
= 1
y
0
= 0.
We practically perform the translation of frame xOy XO
t
Y (where O
t
(x
0
, y
0
)), given by
_
x = X + 1
y = Y + 0.
(45)
By dierentiation, we get
_
dx = dX
dy = dY.
By replacing in the equation, this becomes (X +
Y )dX + (X Y )dY = 0. Dividing the equation by dX and by replacing Y
t
=
dY
dX
, we get
(X +Y ) + (X Y )Y
t
= 0 Y
t
=
Y +X
Y X
Y
t
=
Y
X
+ 1
Y
X
1
,
where the expression from the right hand side depends only on the ratio
Y
X
, hence we obtain
a homogeneous equation. We substitute
u =
Y
X
Y = uX, (46)
from where, by derivation, it results Y
t
= u
t
X+u. By replacing in the equation, this becomes
u
t
X +u =
u+1
u1
.
Denoting u
t
=
du
dX
, we get
du
dX
X =
1 + 2u u
2
u 1

(u 1)du
1 + 2u u
2
=
dX
X
,
from where, by the integration of the obtained equation with separate variables, it results
_
u 1
1 + 2u u
2
du = ln[cX[ F(u) ln[cX[ = 0,
where we denoted F(u) =
_
u1
1+2uu
2
du. We get back to the function Y (X); using the
relation (46), we get F(
Y
X
) ln[c(x1)[ = 0. Then, using (45), we have
_
X = x 1
Y = y
and
we obtain the solution in implicit form of the given dierential equation,
F
_
y
x 1
_
ln[c(x 1)[ = 0.
b) (x + y 1)dx + (x + y)dy = 0 is obviously an equation of type (44). Since the system
_

1
: x +y 1 = 0

2
: x +y = 0
is incompatible, we perform the change of unknown function y(x)
u(x) = x +y(x), given by the relation
u = x +y y = u x, (47)
from where by dierentiation, it results dy = du dx. By replacing in the given equation,
we get
(u 1)dx +u(du dx) = 0 (u 1)dx +udu udx = 0 udu dx = 0 udu = dx,
Solutions 153
an equation with separate variables; by integration, it results
u
2
2
= x +C. Using the substi-
tution (47) it results the solution given by the Cartesian implicit equation
(x +y)
2
2
= x +C. (48)
Check. By isolating the constant C, the equation (48) can be written as
(x+y)
2
2
x = C. We
dierentiate the equality in both its sides and we yield
_
2(x +y)
2
1
_
dx +
2(x +y)
2
dy = 0 (x +y 1)dx + (x +y)dy = 0,
hence the initial equation, which proves that the solution is correct.
137. a) We nd both the general solution of the equation, and the solution which
satises the condition which is indicated in the statement of the problem (y(1) = 1). The
equation and the initial condition form together a Cauchy problem, and the solution of this
problem is unique and is called the solution of the Cauchy problem. At item b) we shall
determine the general solution of the equation.
We rst nd the general solution of the dierential equation; we notice that this is the linear
dierential equation of rst order, i.e., of the form
y
t
= f(x) y +g(x). (49)
Indeed, by dividing the equation to x, we get y
t
= (
2
x
)y + 3, hence the linear dierential
equation with f(x) =
2
x
, g(x) = 3. The algorithm for solving a linear equation has three
steps:
1) We nd the solution y
om
of the associated homogeneous equation y
t
= f(x)y;
2) We nd a solution y
p
of the initial equation y
t
= f(x)y + g(x) using the constant
variation method;
3) The general solution is y = y
om
+y
p
.
We follow the three steps of the integration process.
1) The given equation is y
t
= (
2
x
)y + 3, hence the associated homogeneous equation is the
equation with separable variables
y
t
=
2
x
y
dy
dx
=
2y
x

dy
y
= 2
dx
x
,
from where, by denoting c = c
0
, integration leads to
_
dy
y
= 2
_
dx
x
ln[y[ = 2 ln[x[ + ln[c
0
[ [y[ =

c
0
x
2

y =
c
0
x
2
y =
c
x
2
.
Check. If y =
c
x
2
, then y
t
=
2c
x
3
and hence, by replacing c = x
2
y in the derivative, we get
y
t
=
_

2
x
_
y
2c
x
3
=
2
x

c
x
2
,
which is a valid equality. Hence the solution of the associated homogeneous equation is
y
om
=
c
x
2
.
2) We apply the constant variation method, to obtain a particular solution y
p
of the initial
equation y
t
=
2
x
y+3. By replacing in y
om
, the constant c with a function c(x), we determine
a function c(x), such that y
p
=
c(x)
x
2
to be the solution the initial equation. By derivation,
154 LAAG-DGDE
we get y
p
t
=
c

(x)x
2
2xc(x)
x
4
. By replacing y
p
and y
p
t
in the equation, we put the condition
for the equation to be satised, which leads to
c
t
(x)
x
2

2c(x)
x
3
=
2c(x)
x
3
+ 3 c
t
(x) = 3x
2
,
from where by integration we get c = x
3
and hence y
p
=
c(x)
x
2
=
x
3
x
2
= x.
Check. We replace y
p
= x in the given equation, y
t
=
2
x
y + 3. We get the valid equality
1 =
2
x
x + 3.
3) We conclude that the general solution of the linear equation is
y = y
om
+y
p
=
c
x
2
+x.
where c R. We nd the solution of the Cauchy problem
_
y
t
=
2
x
y + 3
y(1) = 1
. From all the
solutions y =
c
x
2
+ x, we select the one which satises the condition y(1) = 1; by replacing
y in this relation, we get 1 =
c
1
2
+ 1, hence c = 0; we infer that the solution of the Cauchy
problem is y =
0
x
2
+x, i.e., y = x.
b) We have the equation
xy
t
+ 3y = x
2
y
t
= (
3
x
)y +x,
hence the dierential equation is linear, of the form (49), with f(x) =
3
x
and g(x) = x. We
perform the three integration steps.
1) The given equation is y
t
= (
3
x
)y +x, hence the associated homogeneous equation is the
equation with separable variables
y
t
=
3
x
y. (50)
By denoting y
t
=
dy
dx
, this can be subsequently written:
dy
dx
=
3y
x

dy
y
= 3
dx
x
,
from where, by integration, it results (here c = c
0
):
_
dy
y
= 3
_
dx
x
ln[y[ = 3 ln [x[ + ln[c
0
[
[y[ = [
c
0
x
3
[ y =
c
0
x
3
y =
c
x
3
.
Homework. Show that y satises the dierential homogeneous equation (50).
2) We apply the constant variation method to obtain a particular solution y
p
of the initial
equation y
t
= (
3
x
)y +x. We replace in y
om
the constant c with a function c(x) and we put
the condition that y
p
=
c(x)
x
3
to be the solution of the initial equation. By derivation, we get
y
t
p
=
c
t
(x) x c(x) 3
x
4
By replacing y
p
and y
t
p
in the equation, we put the condition that the equation be satised,
from where it results
c
t
(x)
x
3

3c(x)
x
4
=
3c(x)
x
4
+x c
t
(x) = x
4
,
Solutions 155
from where, by integration (by considering a particular integration constant, e.g., null), we
get c =
x
5
5
and hence y
p
=
c(x)
x
3
=
x
5
5x
3
=
x
2
5
.
3) We conclude that the general solution of the linear equation is y = y
om
+ y
p
=
c
x
3
+
x
2
5
,
where c R.
138. a) The equation can be written y
t
= y 1 +y
1/2
(x), hence it is of Bernoulli type,
being of the form
y
t
= y f(x) +y
r
g(x), r R0, 1. (51)
We perform the change of unknown function which is specic to this type of equation,
y(x) z(x) = (y(x))
1r
, given by the relation z = y
1r
. In our case, z = y
1/2
y = z
2
,
from where by derivation it results y
t
= 2z z
t
. By replacing in the given equation, we get
2zz
t
= z
2
xz. We have two cases:
Case I. z = 0 y = z
2
= 0 y = 0, a singular solution of the equation; check: 0 = 0x

0,
identity.
Case II. z ,= 0. We have
2z
t
= z x z
t
=
1
2
z +
_

x
2
_
.
We obtained a linear equation in the unknown function z. We apply the three steps in solving
the linear dierential equation:
1) By denoting c = e
c
1
, it results
z
t
=
z
2

z
t
z
=
1
2
ln[z[ =
x
2
+c
1
[z[ = e
c
1
e
x/2
z = c e
x/2
,
hence we get the solution z
om
= c e
x/2
.
2) We apply the constant variation method: we look for a solution z
p
of the form z
p
=
c(x) e
x/2
; by introducing in the original equation, we get
c
t
e
x/2
+
1
2
c e
x/2
=
1
2
c e
x/2

x
2
c
t
=
x
2
e
x/2
,
from where, by integration, we get
c =
1
2
_
x e
x/2
dx c =
1
2
_
x(e
x/2
)
t
(2)dx =
= x e
x/2

_
e
x/2
dx = x e
x/2
+ 2e
x/2
= (x + 2) e
x/2
,
hence z
p
= (x + 2) e
x/2
. .
c(x)
) e
x/2
= x + 2.
3) The solution of the linear dierential equation is hence z = z
om
+ z
p
= c e
x/2
+ x + 2,
hence y = z
2
= (c e
x/2
+x + 2)
2
.
b)By replacing
dy
dx
= y
t
, the equation can be written y
t
= y x + y
3
(x), hence the
equation is of Bernoulli form (51), with r = 3. We perform the substitution z = y
1s
, hence
z =
1
y
2
y = z
1/2
, from where, by derivation, it results y
t
=
z

z
3
. By replacing in the
given equation, we get

z
t
2

z
3
=
1

z
x
1

z
3
x z
t
= 2zx + 2x.
We obtained the equation linear in the unknown function z. We proceed as in item a):
156 LAAG-DGDE
1) The associated homogeneous equation can be written:
z
t
= 2zx
z
t
z
= 2x ln[z[ = x
2
+c
1

[z[ = e
c
1
e
x
2
z = c e
x
2
,
where we denoted c = e
c
1
, hence we get the solution z
om
= c e
x
2
.
2) By applying the constant variation method, we look for a solution z
p
of the form z
p
=
c(x) e
x
2
; by introducing in the original equation, we get
c
t
e
x
2
+ (2x) c e
x
2
= 2x c e
x
2
+ 2x c
t
= 2x e
x
2
,
from where, by integration we have c = 2
_
x e
x
2
dx = e
x
2
and hence z
p
= e
x
2
e
x
2
= 1.
3) The solution of the linear dierential equation is hence z = z
om
+z
p
= c e
x
2
+1, which
leads to y =
1

z
=
1

ce
x
2
+1
.
139. a) Since we know the form of the particular solution of the equation, for nding
the constant a, we impose that y
1
to satisfy the given equation; we have y
1
=
1
x+a
y
t
1
=

1
(x+a)
2
. By replacing y
1
and y
t
1
in the equation, we get

1
(x +a)
2
=
x
(x +a)
2

1
x +a
a = 1 y
1
=
1
x + 1
.
The given equation can be written
y
t
= y
2
x +y (1) + 0,
and it is of Riccati type, being of the form
y
t
= y
2
f(x) +y g(x) +h(x).
We perform the change of unknown function which is specic to this type of equation,
y(x) z(x) =
1
y(x)y
1
, given by the relation y = y
1
+
1
z
. In our case we have
y =
1
x + 1
+
1
z
, (52)
from where by derivation it results y
t
=
1
(x+1)
2

1
z
2
z
t
. By replacing y and y
t
in the
equation, we get

1
(x + 2)
2

z
t
z
2
=
x
(x + 1)
2
+
2x
z(x + 1)
+
x
z
2

1
x + 1

1
z
.
The equation can be written as
z

z
2
=
x+1
(x+1)
2

1
x+1
+
2x
z(x+1)
+
x
z
2

1
z
and grouping with
common denominator leads to the following linear equation in the unknown z:
z
t
= z
1 x
1 +x
+x.
Homework. Find the general solution z(x, c) = ce
x
(x + 1)
2
+ x + 1, c R of the equation
and then, using (52) deduce the solution of the initial equation, y =
1
x+1
+
1
z(x,c)
=
1
x+1
+
(ce
x
(x + 1)
2
+x + 1)
1
.
Solutions 157
b) The given equation can be written as y
t
= y
2
(1) +y 0 +
2
x
2
, hence it is an equation of
Riccati type. In order to nd the constant a, we impose that y
1
to satisfy the given equation;
we have y
1
=
a
x
y
t
1
=
a
x
2
. By replacing y
1
and y
t
1
in the equation, we get

a
x
2
+
a
2
x
2
=
2
x
2
a
2
a 2 = 0 a
1
= 1 sau a
2
= 2.
In the following we address the case a = 1. We perform the change of unknown function
z =
1
yy
1
, from where y = y
1
+
1
z
. In our case we get
y =
1
x
+
1
z
. (53)
from where, by derivation, it results y
t
=
1
x
2

1
z
2
z
t
. By replacing y and y
t
in the equation,
we get
1
x
2

z
t
z
2
=
1
x
2
+
2
xz

1
z
2
+
2
x
2
z
t
= 2
z
x
+ 1
The equation is of the form z
t
= f(
z
x
), hence it is homogeneous. We change the unknown
function z t = t(x) with t =
z
x
, and it results
dy
dx
= t +x
dt
dx
; by replacing in the equation
we have : t + x
dt
dx
= 2t + 1, i.e.,
dt
3t+1
=
dx
x
, the equation with separate variables. By
integration we get
1
3
ln[3t + 1[ = ln [x[ +ln[c[ , c ,= 0, i.e., t =
1
3
(1
1
(cx)
3
). By replacing
t =
z
x
, it results z =
x
3
(1
1
(cx)
3
).
140. a) The equation is of the form P dx+Qdy = 0 and satises the exactness condition
P
y
=
Q
x
.
Indeed, the equation can be written, by amplifying with dx and using the substitution
y
t
=
dy
dx
,
(x +y)
. .
P
dx + (x + 2y)
. .
Q
dy = 0,
We have
P
y
= 1;
Q
x
= 1, hence the given equation dierential is exact. We get the solution
of the equation in implicit form, by applying the formula
_
x
x
0
P(u, y)du +
_
y
y
0
Q(x
0
, v)dv = c, c R,
and hence,
_
x
x
0
(u +y)du +
_
y
y
0
(x
0
+ 2v)dv = c
u
2
2

x
x
0
+uy[
x
x
0
+x
0
v

y
y
0
+v
2

y=y
y=y
0
= c

x
2
x
2
0
2
+y(x x
0
) +x
0
(y y
0
) +y
2
y
2
0
= c;
choosing x
0
= 0 and y
0
= 0, it results the solution in implicit Cartesian form:
x
2
2
+xy +y
2
= c. (54)
Check. In order to test the solution, we dierentiate the relation (54) and we get
(x +y) dx + (x + 2y) dy = 0,
158 LAAG-DGDE
which is equivalent with the initial equation, and hence the solution satises the given equa-
tion.
b) We have the equation (x
2
+y
2
+ 2x)
. .
P
dx + 2xy
..
Q
dy = 0, and
P
y
= 2y,
Q
x
= 2y, hence the
given dierential equation is exact. By applying formula from item a), we get
x
_
x
0
(u
2
+y
2
+ 2u)du +
y
_
y
0
2x
0
vdv = c

u
3
3
[
x
x
0
+y
2
u[
x
x
0
+u
2
[
x
x
0
+x
0
v
2
[
y
y
0
= c

x
3
x
3
0
3
+y
2
(x x
0
) + (x
2
x
2
0
) +x
0
(y
2
y
2
0
) = c.
By choosing x
0
= 0 and y
0
= 0, it results the solution
x
3
3
+y
2
x +x
2
= c (55)
Check. We dierentiate the relation (55); we get the initial equation.
141. a) In case of the equation (xy x
2
)
. .
Q
dy y
2
..
P
dx = 0 we have P = y
2
, Q = xyx
2
,
hence
P
y
= 2y,
Q
x
= y 2x, hence the given equation is not exact and we look for an
integrating factor for this. Since P and Q are both homogeneous polynomials (of degree
2), the integrating factor is
(x, y) =
1
xP +yQ
=
1
xy
2
+xy
2
x
2
y
=
1
x
2
y
By amplifying the equation with , hence with
1
x
2
y
, we get
y
x
2
..
P
dx +
_

1
x
+
1
y
_
. .
Q
dy = 0
We remark that
P
y
=
1
x
2
,
Q
x
=
1
x
2
, hence the dierential equation is exact. By applying
the formula from sub-item a) of problem (140), we get
x
_
x
0
y
u
2
du +
y
_
y
0
_

1
x
0
+
1
v
_
dv = c
y
u

x
x
0
+
_

v
x
0
+ ln v
_

y
y
0
= c

y
x
+
y
x
0

y
x
0
+
y
0
x
0
+ ln u lny
0
= c.
By choosing x
0
= y
0
= 1, it results the solution in implicit form, given by the relation

y
x
+ lny = c (56)
b) In case of the equation (5x
2
+ 12xy 3y
2
)dx + (3x
2
2xy)dy = 0 we have P = 5x
2
+
12xy3y
2
, Q = 3x
2
2xy, hence
P
y
= 12x6y,
Q
y
= 6x2y and hence the given equation
is not exact. For this, we look for an integrating factor . We remark that we have
1
Q
_
P
y

Q
x
_
=
6x 4y
3x
2
2xy
=
2
x
= (x)
Solutions 159
= e

(x)dx
= e

2
x
dx
= e
2 ln x
= x
2
,
hence (x) = x
2
. By amplifying the equation with , hence with x
2
, we get
(5x
4
+ 12x
3
y 3x
2
y
2
)
. .
P
dx + (3x
4
2x
3
y)
. .
Q
dy = 0.
Since
P
y
= 12x
3
6x
2
y and
Q
y
= 12x
3
6x
2
y, the dierential obtained equation (equivalent
with the initial one) is exact.
Homework. Find the solution of the equation, using the formula in sub-item a) of the problem
140.
c) We replace y
t
=
dy
dx
and the equation can be written dx+
x
y
dy = 0. We have P = 1, Q =
x
y
,
hence
P
y
= 0,
Q
x
=
1
y
; hence the given equation is not exact and we look for an integrating
factor for this. We compute
1
P
_
Q
x

P
y
_
=
1
1
_
1
y
0
_
=
1
y
= (y) = e

(y)dy
= e

1
y
dy
= e
ln y
= y,
hence (x, y) = y. We amplify the equation with , hence with y, and we get
y
..
P new
dx + x
..
Q new
dy = 0,
which is an exact equation; this is equivalent with the initial equation, and has the solution
implicitly given by
_
x
x
0
ydu +
_
y
y
0
x
0
dv = c, c R
We choose x
0
= 0, y
0
= 0 and we get
x u

x
0
+ 0 = c xy = c y =
c
x
, x ,= 0.
142. The equation can be written y = xy
t
+(lny
t
), hence it is of Clairaut type, being
of the form y = xy
t
+ (y
t
). We denote y
t
= p and we dierentiate the equation relative to
x; considering that y
tt
= p
t
, we get:
p = p +xp
t

p
t
p
p
t
_
x
1
p
_
= 0.
We have the following cases:
Case 1. p
t
= 0 p = const. By introducing p in the initial equation and using y
t
= p = c,
we get y = cx lnc, c > 0. Case 2. If x
1
p
= 0, then denoting p = t, it results x =
1
t
; we
replace in the initial equation considering that y
t
= p = t and we get
y =
1
t
t lnt = 1 lnt,
from where it results the singular solution of the equation
x =
1
t
, y = 1 lnt, t > 0 (t) =
_
1
t
, 1 lnt
_
, t > 0.
160 LAAG-DGDE
143. a) The equation can be written y = x(2y
t
) + (y
t2
), hence it has the form of a
Lagrange equation: y = x(y
t
)+(y
t
), where (y
t
) ,= y
t
. In order to integrate the equation,
we denote p = y
t
, hence p
t
= y
tt
; we dierentiate the equation and we get
p = 2p + 2xp
t
2pp
t
p
t
(2x 2p) = p p
t
=
dp
dx
.
The following cases appear:
Case 1. p
t
= 0 p = const. We get p = 0 y
t
= 0 y = const. y = 0, the singular
solution of the equation.
Case 2. We have p
t
,= 0, hence
1
p

=
dx
dp
,= 0; we invert the function x p(x) and we get
p x(p), with the derivative x
t
=
dx
dp
=
1
dp/dx
. By replacing in the obtained equation, it
results
2x 2p = p x
t
..
1
p

x
t
=
2p 2x
p
x
t
= x
_

2
p
_
+ 2.
This is a linear equation in the unknown function x = x(p). By integration this equation
leads to
_
x =
c
t
2
+
2t
3
y = 2t(
c
t
2
+
2t
3
) t
2
=
2c
t
+
t
2
3
, t ,= 0.
We obtained here the general solution of the Lagrange equation, which consists of a family
of parametrized curves.
b) The equation can be written y = xy
t2
+2y
t3
, hence it is a Lagrange equation. In order
to integrate the equation we denote p = y
t
, hence p
t
= y
ttt
, we dierentiate the equation and
we get:
p = p
2
+ 2xpp
t
+ 6p
2
p
t
p
t
(2xp 6p
2
) = p p
2
The following cases appear:
1
o
. p = 0 y
t
= 0 y = C. By replacing in the given equation, we get C = 0, hence it
results the singular solution y = 0.
2
o
. p
t
= 0 p = const. We get p = 0 or p = 1, hence y
t
= 0 or y
t
= 1. It follows that
y = C is a singular solution, like in case 1; as well, the alternative y = x+C, replaced in the
equation, leads to x +C = x + 2 C = 2; hence it results the singular solution y = x + 2.
3
o
. We have p
t
,= 0 and p ,= 0, hence
1
p

=
dx
dp
,= 0. The inverse of the function x p(x)
is p x(p), whose derivative is x
t
=
dx
dp
=
1
dp/dx
. By replacing in the obtained equation
p
t
(2x 6p) = 1 p, it results 2x 6p = (1 p) x
t
..
1/p

x
t
=
2(x3p)
1p
x
t
= x
2
1p

6p
1p
.
The obtained equation is linear, hence it is of the form x
t
= x f(p) + (p). We solve the
associated homogeneous equation:
x
t
=
2
1 p
x
dx
x
=
2
1 p
dp
ln[x[ = 2 ln [p 1[ + ln[C
0
[ ln[x[ = ln
1
(p 1)
2
+ ln[C
0
[
x(p 1)
2
= C x
om
=
c
(p 1)
2
,
where we denoted C = C
0
. We nd a solution particular of the initial given equation
x
p
=
C(p)
(p1)
2
. By replacing in the initial equation, we get
c
t
(p 1)
2
2(p 1)C
(p 1)
4
=
2C
(p 1)
3
+
6p
p 1

Solutions 161
c
t
= 6p
2
6p C = 2p
3
3p
2
.
Then a particular solution of the equation is x
p
= (
p
p1
)
2
(2p 3). Then the general solution
of the given non-homogeneous equations is
x = x
om
+x
p
=
C
(p 1)
2
+
p
2
(2p 3)
(p 1)
2
.
By replacing in the initial equation the obtained function x(p) and replacing then p with t,
it results the general solution of the given equation in parametric form,
(t) =
_
C
(t 1)
2
+
t
2
(2t 3)
(t 1)
2
,
C
(t 1)
2
+
t
2
(2t 3)
(t 1)
2
t
2
+ 2t
3
_
, t R1, C R.
V.2. Higher order dierential equations
144. a) We associate the characteristic equation, using the substitution y
(k)
r
k
and
we get the algebraic equation of order two r
2
+2r3 = 0 whose solutions are r
1
= 1, r
2
= 3.
We use the quasi-polynomials association pattern:
The root The quasi-polynomial
a ib C, simple e
(aib)x
e
ax
cos bx, e
ax
sinbx
a ib C, double e
ax
cos bx, e
ax
sinbx, xe
ax
cos bx, xe
ax
sinbx
a R, simple e
ax
a R, double e
ax
, xe
ax
ib CR, simple e
ibx
cos bx, sin bx
ib CR, double cos bx, sin bx, xcos bx, xsinbx
In our case, to the two simple real roots 1 and 3 there correspond respectively the
quasi-polynomials e
1x
= e
x
and e
3x
. Then the general solution of the given homogeneous
equation is a combination of quasi-polynomials,
y = c
1
e
x
+c
2
e
3x
.
b) We associate the characteristic equation by using the substitution y
(k)
r
k
and we get
the algebraic equation of order two r
2
+ 4 = 0, whose solutions are r
1
= 2i, r
2
= 2i. To
the two simple complex roots 2i there correspond respectively the quasi-polynomials cos 2x
and sin2x (see the table from item a). Then the general solution of the given homogeneous
equation is a combination of quasi-polynomials:
y = C
1
cos(2x) +C
2
sin(2x).
145. 1
o
. The characteristic polynomial of the equation is r
2
+ 2r 3 = 0 and has the
roots r
1
= 1, r
2
= 3, hence the associated quasi-polynomials are e
x
and e
3x
, and the
solution of the homogeneous equation y(x) = c
1
e
x
+c
2
e
3x
.
2
o
. We impose the initial conditions y(0) = 1 and y(1) = 0; it results that
_
1 = c
1
+c
2
0 = c
1
e
1
+c
2
e
3

_
c
1
+c
2
= 1
c
1
+c
2
e
4
= 0

_
c
1
=
e
4
e
4
1
c
2
=
1
e

1
,
and the solution of the boundary problem is
y

=
e
4
e
4
1
e
x
+
1
e
4
1
e
3x
.
162 LAAG-DGDE
146. The equation is of Euler type, since the powers of x coincide with the orders of
dierentiation of the function y. We perform the double replacement x t; y(x) z(t)
given by the relations x = e
t
, z(t) = y(e
t
). We use the relations
z = y, z
t

dz
dt
= y
t
e
t
= y
t
x
z
tt
=
d
dt
(y
t
(e
t
) e
t
) =
dy
t
dx
..
y

de
t
dt
..
x
e
t
..
x
+y
t
(e
t
)
. .
y
t
e
t
..
x
=
= y
tt
x
2
+y
t
x,
(57)
where we denoted y
t
=
dy
dx
, y
tt
=
d
2
y
dx
2
. The relations (57) lead to the equalities
y = z, xy
t
= z
t
, x
tt
y
tt
= z
tt
z
t
.
By replacing the expression of y, y
t
, y
tt
in the given equation, we get
z
tt
z
t
3z
t
+ 4z = 0 z
tt
4z
t
+ 4z = 0,
hence the linear dierential equation of order two with constant coecients, to which we
attach the characteristic polynomial r
2
4r + 4 = 0 (r 2)
2
= 0, whose roots are
r
1
= r
2
= 2; hence z(t) = c
1
e
2t
+c
2
t e
2t
. For x > 0, from the relation e
t
= x, it results
e
2t
= x
2
, where t = lnx. By replacing in the solution, we get
y(x) = z(lnx) = c
1
x
2
+c
2
lnx x
2
;
hence the general solution of the given Euler equation is:
y(x) = c
1
x
2
+c
2
x
2
lnx.
For nding the solution of the problem with constrains, we replace the initial conditions:
_
x = e
y = e
2

_
e
2
= c
1
e
2
+c
2
e
2
1
..
ln e
c
2
= 1
_
x = 1
y = 0
0 = c
1
+c
2
1
2
ln1
..
0
c
1
= 0.
From the system we get c
1
= 0, c
2
= 1; by replacing this into the general solution, we get
y = 0 x
2
+ 1 x
2
lnx y = x
2
lnx.
147. a) We solve the problem in three steps. 1
o
. We solve the associated homogeneous
equation y
tt
+ 2y
t
3y = 0 and we get the solution y
om
= c
1
e
x
+c
2
e
3x
.
2
o
. Using constant variation method we nd a solution particular of the given initial equation,
y
p
= c
1
(x) e
x
+c
2
(x) e
3x
.
The given equation is y
tt
+2y
t
3y = e
3x
, and the two functions c
1
and c
2
are the solutions
of the system
_
c
1
t
e
x
+c
2
t
e
3x
= 0
c
1
t
e
x
3c
2
t
e
3x
= e
3x
,
from where we get
_
4c
2
t
e
3x
= e
3x
c
2
t
=
1
4
c
2
=
x
4
c
1
t
e
x
+
1
4
e
3x
= 0 c
1
t
=
1
4
e
4x
c
1
=
1
16
e
4x
.
Solutions 163
Hence c
1
=
1
16
e
4x
and c
2
=
x
4
. Then
y
p
=
e
4x
16
e
x

x
4
e
3x
=
e
3x
16

x
4
e
3x
.
Check. By deriving the expression of y
p
we get
_
y
t
p
= (
3
16
e
3x
+
1
4
e
3x

3x
4
e
3x
)
y
tt
p
= (
3
16
e
3x

3
4
e
3x
+
9
4
x e
3x
).
Then, the replacement in the given equation leads to the identity
[(
15
16
e
3x
+
9
4
xe
3x
) + 2(
1
16
e
3x

3x
4
e
3x
) 3(
1
16
e
3x
+
x
4
e
3x
)] = e
3x
e
3x
= e
3x
,
3
o
. The general solution of the given non-homogeneous equations is
y = y
om
+y
p
= c
1
e
x
+c
2
e
3x
+
1
16
e
3x

x
4
e
3x
.
We remark that denoting c
1
= c
1
and c
2
= c
2

1
16
, the solution can be equivalently written
y = c
1
e
x
+ c
2
e
3x

x
4
e
3x
.
b) 1
o
. The characteristic equation of the associated homogeneous equation y
ttt
y
tt
y
t
+y = 0
is r
3
r
2
r +1 = 0 and has the roots y
1,2
= 1 and y
3
= 1; the solution the homogeneous
equation is hence
y
om
= c
1
e
x
+c
2
xe
x
+c
3
e
x
.
2
o
. Using constant variation method we nd a solution particular of the given initial equation,
a solution of the form:
y
p
= c
1
(x)e
x
+c
2
(x) x e
x
+c
3
(x)e
x
.
The given equation are y
ttt
y
tt
y
t
+y = x cos x, and the three functions C
1
, C
2
and C
3
are the solutions of the following system, which is linear algebraic system in c
t
1
, c
t
2
, c
t
3
:
_

_
c
t
1
e
x
+c
t
2
x e
x
+c
t
3
e
x
= 0
c
t
1
e
x
+c
t
2
(e
x
+xe
x
) c
t
3
e
x
= 0
c
t
1
e
x
+c
t
2
(2e
x
+xe
x
) +c
t
3
e
x
= x cos x.
It follows that c
t
1
=
1
4
(2x + 1)x e
x
cos x, c
t
2
=
1
2
x e
x
cos x and c
t
3
=
1
4
x e
x
cos x. By
integration, we get
_

_
c
1
(x) =
1
4
(x
2

x
2
+ 1)e
x
cos x +
1
4
(x
2

5
2
x
3
2
)e
x
sinx
c
2
(x) =
1
4
xe
x
cos x
1
2
(
1
2
x
1
2
)e
x
sinx
c
3
(x) =
1
8
xcos xe
x

1
4
(
1
2
x +
1
2
)e
x
sinx,
hence y
p
=
1
4
xcos x
1
4
cos x
1
4
xsinx
1
2
sinx.
3
o
. It follows that the general solution of the given equation,
y = c
1
e
x
+c
2
xe
x
+c
3
e
x
+
1
4
xcos x
1
4
cos x
1
4
xsinx
1
2
sinx.
c) 1
o
. We solve the associated homogeneous equation y
tt
y = 0 and we get the solution
y
om
= C
1
e
x
+C
2
e
x
.
164 LAAG-DGDE
2
o
. Using the constant variation method we nd a particular solution of the initial equation
y
p
= C
1
(x)e
x
+ C
2
(x)e
x
. The given equation is y
tt
y = x e
x
, and the two functions C
1
and C
2
are the solutions of the system:
_
c
t
1
e
x
+c
t
2
e
x
= 0
c
t
1
e
x
c
t
2
e
x
= xe
x

_
c
t
1
=
x
2
c
t
2
=
1
2
xe
2x
.
It follows that c
1
=
x
2
4
and c
2
=
e
2x
4
(2x 1). Then
y
P
=
x
2
4
e
x
+
e
2x
4
(2x 1) e
x
y
p
=
e
x
4
(x
2
+ 2x 1).
3
o
. The general solution of the given non-homogeneous equations is
y = y
om
+y
P
= C
1
e
x
+C
2
e
x
+
e
x
4
(x
2
+ 2x 1)
d) 1
o
. Similar to the items a), b) and c) we get the solution
y
om
= C
1
e
x
+C
2
e
x
+C
3
cos x +C
4
sinx.
2
o
. A solution particular of the initial equation y
iv
y = 8e
x
is
y
P
= C
1
(x)e
x
+C
2
(x)e
x
+C
3
(x) cos x +C
4
(x) sinx.
The four functions C
1
, C
2
, C
3
, C
4
are the solutions of the system
_

_
c
t
1
e
x
+c
t
2
e
x
+c
t
3
cos x +c
t
4
sinx = 0
c
t
1
e
x
c
t
2
e
x
c
t
3
sinx +c
t
4
cos x = 0
c
t
1
e
x
+c
t
2
e
x
c
t
3
cos x c
t
4
sinx = 0
c
t
1
e
x
c
t
2
e
x
+c
t
3
sinx c
t
4
cos x = 8e
x

_
c
t
1
= 2
c
t
2
= 2e
2x
c
t
3
= 2e
x
sinx
c
t
4
= 2e
x
cos x.
Hence we have C
1
= 2x, C
2
= e
2x
, C
3
= e
x
(sinx cos x) and C
4
= e
x
(sinx + cos x).
Then
y
P
= 2xe
x
e
x
+e
x
cos x(sinx cos x) e
x
sinx(sinx + cos x)
y
p
= 2(x 1)e
x
.
3
o
. The general solution of the non-homogeneous equations y
IV
y = 8e
x
is
y = y
om
+y
P
= C
1
e
x
+C
2
e
x
+C
3
cos x +C
4
sinx + 2(x 1)e
x
We further solve the Cauchy problem. We have
_

_
y
t
(0) = 0
y
tt
(0) = 2
y
ttt
(0) = 6
y
IV
(0) = 4

_
C
1
C
2
+C
4
+ 2 = 0
C
1
+C
2
C
3
+ 2 = 2
C
1
C
2
C
4
+ 4 = 6
C
1
+C
2
+C
3
+ 6 = 4

_
C
1
= 1/2
C
2
= 1/2
C
3
= 1
C
4
= 2.
We conclude that the solution of the Cauchy equation is
y =
1
2
(e
x
+e
x
) cos x 2 sinx + 2(x 1)e
x
.
148. a) We have

a
: f(x, y, a) y ax = 0. (58)
Solutions 165
If y is depending on x, by dierentiating the relation (58), it results
y
t
a = 0. (59)
By eliminating the parameter a from the system (58) and (59), it results
_
y ax = 0
y
t
= a
y y
t
x = 0,
the claimed equation of the family of curves. Check. We integrate the obtained equation,
rewritten as
y

y
=
1
x
and denoting a = c, we get
ln[y[ = ln[x[ + ln[c[ [y[ = [cx[ y = cx y = ax,
hence the equation of the family of straight lines.
b) The equation of orthogonal trajectories is: F(x, y,
1
y

) = 0, where F(x, y, y
t
) = 0 is the
dierential equation of the given family. In our case, this is y y
t
x = 0, hence the equation
of the orthogonal trajectories is
y
_
1
y
t
_
x = 0 y +
x
y
t
.
By denoting y
t
=
dy
dx
, this can be written
y +
xdx
dy
= 0 xdx = ydy,
the equation with separate variables which by integration leads to
x
2
2
=
y
2
2
+c
0
x
2
+y
2
= 2c
0
x
2
+y
2
= r
2
,
where for 2c
0
= r
2
> 0 we get a family of circles whose center is the origin.
c) Using the substitution y
t

y

m
1+y

m
, where m = tg in the equation F(x, y, y
t
) = 0, we
get the isogonal family which cuts the initial family under the angle = 45
o
. This has the
dierential equation F(x, y;
y

1
y

+1
) = 0. In our case we get y
y

1
y

+1
x = 0.
149. a) The given equation xy
ttt
y
tt
= 0 is of third order, does not contain y and y
t
.
We denote y
tt
= z, and this leads to y
ttt
= z
t
; then the equation becomes
xz
t
z = 0 z = Cx;
coming back to the unknown function y, we get by subsequent integration
y
tt
= Cx y
t
=
cx
2
2
+c
1
y =
Cx
3
6
+c
1
x +c
2
.
Homework. Amplify the given equation with x
2
, check that we get an Euler type equation,
and then integrate.
b) We remark that the given equation 2yy
t
= y
t2
+ 1 is of the form f(y, y
t
) = 0 and the
variable x is missing; we denote y
t
= p(y); by dierentiating the equation, we get
2y p = p
2
+ 1 y
tt
=
dp
dy

dy
dx
= p
t
p;
166 LAAG-DGDE
we dierentiate the equation,
2(y
t
y
t
+y y
tt
) = 2y
t
y
tt
2y
t2
+ 2yy
tt
= 2y
t
y
tt
2p
2
+ 2yp
t
p = 2p p
t
p,
hence 2p
2
= 2pp
t
(p y) p = p
t
(p y). We denote p
t
=
dp
dy
,= 0, invert the function
y p(y), obtaining p y(p), from where y
t
=
dy
dp
=
1
dp/dy
. By replacing in the equation, it
results
1
p
t
=
p y
p
y
t
= y
_

1
p
_
+ 1,
the linear dierential equation, of lower order than the initial one.
Otherwise. Using the same notations y
t
= p(y), the initial equation can be written as
2yp = p
2
+ 1 y =
p
2
+ 1
2p
,
hence by dierentiating the equation relative to x, it results
dp
dx
=
dp
dy

dy
dx
= p
t
p,
and we get
y
t
= p =
2p
2
2
4p
2
=
p
2
1
2p
2
pp
t
p
t
=
2p
2
p
2
1

dp
dy
=
2p
2
p
2
1

dp(p
2
1)
2p
2
= dy.
We obtained the equation with separate variables
p
2
1
2p
2
dp = dy y =
_
p
2
1
2p
2
dp +c,
where, using
dx
dp
=
1
dp/dx
=
1
p

p
, we have
1
2p
2
p
2
1
p
=
p
2
1
2p
3
,
from where, by integration, it results that
x =
_
p
2
1
2p
3
dp.
c) We remark that the given equation xy
t
+y
tt
= 0 is an equation of the form F(x, y, y
t
, y
tt
) =
0 and is homogeneous of rst order relative to y, y
t
, y
tt
, since
F(x, y, y
t
, y
tt
) = x y
t
+y
tt
=
1
(xy
t
+y
t
) =
1
F(x, y, y
t
, y
tt
).
We perform the change of unknown function y(x) z(y) given by z =
y

y
, which leads to
z
t
=
y

yy
2
y
2
y
t
= zy. By replacing in the equation, it results
z
t
y
2
= y
tt
y y
t2
..
z
2
y
2
y
tt
=
y
2
(z
t
+z
2
)
y
= y(z
t
+z
2
).
We replace in the resulting equation,
x zy +y(z
t
+z
2
) = 0 xz +z
t
+z
2
= 0,
Solutions 167
and we get a dierential equation of rst order, of Bernoulli type, since this admits the form
z
t
= z (x)
. .
f(x)
+z
2
(1)
..
g(x)
.
Homework. Integrate this the equation of Bernoulli type (r = 2) and nd the solution
z = z(x, c
1
) = [e
x
2
/2
(c
1
+
_
e
x
2
/2
dx)]
1
. Then, using the relation
y

y
= z(x, c
1
) (the
equation with separable variables in the unknown function y(x)), nd the general solution
y = c
2
e
z(x,c
1
)
.
V.3. Systems of dierential equations
150. We remark that the dierential system is linear, with constant coecients and
homogeneous; as well, it can be written as X
t
(t) = AX(t), where X(t) = (x(t), y(t)
t
is the
vector of the unknown functions, and the matrix A of the system is A = (
0
1
1
0
). We solve the
system in three steps.
1
o
. We nd the eigenvalues of the matrix A; the characteristic polynomial is P() =

1
1

=
2
1 and the characteristic equation P() = 0 has the roots 1, 1.
2
o
. To the two roots we associate corresponding quasi-polynomials, 1 e
t
, 1 e
t
.
3
o
. The solutions of the homogeneous equation are of the form
X =
_
a
b
_
e
t
+
_
c
d
_
e
t
, a, b, c, d R.
The four constants a, b, c, d are not random, and the relations between them are determined
by imposing the condition that X satises the given system. We subsequently have
X
t
=
_
a
b
_
e
t
+
_
c
d
_
e
t
,
AX =
_
b
a
_
e
t
+
_
d
c
_
e
t
.
By making the two expressions equal, we get

_
a
b
_
e
t
+
_
c
d
_
e
t
=
_
b
a
_
e
t
+
_
d
c
_
e
t
or, equivalently,
_
b +a
a +b
_
e
t
+
_
d c
c d
_
e
t
= 0, t R.
By setting the coecients of the two quasi-polynomials equal to zero, it results
_

_
b +a = 0
a +b = 0
d c = 0
c d = 0

_
a = b
d = c
.
By denoting b = c
1
, c = c
2
, we get a = c
1
, d = c
2
. Hence the solution of the homogeneous
system is
X =
_
c
1
c
1
_
e
t
+
_
c
2
c
2
_
e
t
= c
1
_
e
t
e
t
_
. .
X
1
+c
2
_
e
t
e
t
_
. .
X
2
,
168 LAAG-DGDE
hence componentwise
_
x(t) = c
1
e
t
+c
2
e
t
y(t) = c
1
e
t
+c
2
e
t
. We remark that by using the Wronski ma-
trix associated to the fundamental solutions X
1
=
_
e
t
e
t
_
and X
2
=
_
e
t
e
t
_
, the solution
of the system can be written as
X = WC =
_
e
t
e
t
e
t
e
t
_
. .
=W=[X
1
,X
2
]
_
c
1
c
2
_
. .
C
.
151. The given system can be written in matrix form as X
t
= AX + b, where A is
the matrix determined in the previous problem, and b = (0, 2)
t
. The solution is determined
along three steps:
1
o
. We nd the general solution of the associated homogeneous system X
t
= AX.
X
om
= WC =
_
e
t
e
t
e
t
e
t
_
. .
=W=[X
1
,X
2
]
_
c
1
c
2
_
. .
C
.
2
o
. We look for a particular solution of the given non-homogeneous system (X
t
= AX + b)
using the constant variation method, of the form X
p
= W(t)C(t). From the condition that
X
p
satises the dierential non-homogeneous system, we get
C
t
(t) = W
1
b =
1
2
_
e
t
e
t
e
t
e
t
_
. .
W
1
_
0
2
_
. .
b
=
_
e
t
e
t
_
,
hence
_
c
t
1
= e
t
c
t
2
= e
t

_
c
1
= e
t
c
2
= e
t
. We introduce c
1
and c
2
which are determined in
X
p
(t) and we get
X
p
(t) =
_
e
t
e
t
e
t
e
t
__
e
t
e
t
_
=
_
2
0
_
.
We remark that
W =
_
e
t
e
t
e
t
e
t
_
W
1
=
1
2
_
e
t
e
t
e
t
e
t
_
=
1
2
_
e
t
e
t
e
t
e
t
_
.
Check. We check that X
t
= AX +b, for X = X
p
. By replacement in the system, we get
_
2
0
_
. .
X
p

=
_
0 1
1 0
_
. .
A
_
2
0
_
. .
X
+
_
0
2
_
. .
b
=
_
0
0
_
,
identity. Hence X
p
is a solution of the given non-homogeneous system.
3
o
. The general solution of the non-homogeneous system is
X = X
om
+X
p
= c
1
_
e
t
e
t
_
+c
2
_
e
t
e
t
_
+
_
2
0
_
,
or, componentwise,
_
x(t) = c
1
e
t
+c
2
e
t
2
y(t) = c
1
e
t
+c
2
e
t
.
Solutions 169
152. From the family of solutions of the system (see the previous problem)
_
x(t) = c
1
e
t
+c
2
e
t
2
y(t) = c
1
e
t
+c
2
e
t
,
(60)
we determine that solution, which satises the initial condition x(0) = 0, y(0) = 2. We
replace t = 0, x(0) = 0, y(0) = 2 in (60) and we get the equalities
_
0 = c
1
+c
2
2
2 = c
1
+c
2

_
c
1
= 0
c
2
= 2.
Hence the solution of the Cauchy problem (the claimed solution) is
X

(t) =
_
2e
t
2
2e
t
_

_
x(t) = 2e
t
2
y(t) = 2e
t
.
153. We eliminate one of the two unknown functions, as follows: from the rst equation,
we have x
t
= y, and deriving relative to t, it results x
tt
= y
t
. We replace it in the second
equation and we get x
tt
= x +2, a linear equation of second order with constant coecients,
in the unknown function x = x(t). We remark that this equation is non-homogeneous (it has
a non-vanishing free term. We solve this in three steps.
1
o
. First, we nd the general solution of the homogeneous equation with constant coecients,
which is associated to x
tt
x = 0. We attach the characteristic polynomial (using the
substitution x
(k)
r
k
) and it results r
2
1 = 0 r 1, 1. The quasi-polynomials
which correspond to the two roots are e
t
and e
t
. Then the general solution of the
homogeneous equation is x
om
= c
1
e
t
+c
2
e
t
.
2
o
. We nd a solution x
p
for the non-homogeneous equation x
tt
x = 2, obtained by using
the constant variation method,
x
p
= c
1
(t)e
t
+c
2
(t)e
t
,
where c
1
t
and c
2
t
satisfy the linear algebraic system
_
c
1
t
e
t
+c
2
t
e
t
= 0
c
1
t
e
t
+c
2
t
e
t
=
2
1
.
By adding the two equations, it results
2c
2
t
e
t
= 2 c
2
t
= e
t
c
2
= e
t
.
We replace c
2
t
= e
t
in the rst the equation and this becomes
c
1
t
e
t
+e
t
e
t
= 0 c
1
t
= e
t
c
1
= e
t
,
hence c
1
= e
t
and c
2
= e
t
. We replace in expression of x
p
and we get
x
p
= e
t
e
t
+ (e
t
) e
t
= 2.
Homework. Show that x
p
(t) = 2 satises the given non-homogeneous equation x
tt
x = 2.
3
o
. The general solution of the given non-homogeneous equation is hence
x = x
om
+x
p
= c
1
e
t
+c
2
e
t
2,
hence x
t
= c
1
e
t
+c
2
e
t
. By denoting c
1
= c
1
and c
2
= c
2
we get
_
x(t) = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
2
y(t) = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
.
170 LAAG-DGDE
154. We denote y(x) x(t) and the equation becomes x
tt
x = 2, with the solution
x = c
1
e
1
+c
2
e
t
2, hence y(x) = c
1
e
x
+c
2
e
x
2, from where y
t
(x) = c
1
e
x
+c
2
e
x
.
155. We know that the solution of the given equation is
y(x) = c
1
e
x
+c
2
e
x
2;
we impose the initial condition and we replace x = 0; it results
_
1 = c
1
+c
2
2
2 = c
1
+c
2

_
c
1
= 1/2
c
2
= 5/2.
The solution of the Cauchy problem is
y =
1
2
e
x
+
5
2
e
x
2.
V.4. Stability
156. We remark that both roots of the characteristic polynomial (
1
= 1,
2
= 2)
has negative real roots. Hence the stationary point X
0
=
_
0
0
_
is stable and asymptotically
stable.
157. a) The real part of both roots is strictly negative, hence stationary point is stable
and asymptotically stable.
b) The real part is zero, and the multiplicity of each root is 1, hence the solution is stable,
but not asymptotically stable.
c) The real part is strictly positive, hence the solution is unstable.
V.5. Field lines (symmetric systems, prime integrals)
158. a) To determine the eld lines, we attach the symmetric system
dx
x
=
dy
y
=
dz
x +y
.
From the rst equality (the equation with separate variables), we get
_
dx
x
=
_
dy
y
y = c
1
x
y
x
= c
1
.
We have hence found the rst prime integral of the symmetric system, f
1
(x, y, z) =
y
x
. We
use the symmetric system
dx
x
=
dy
y
=
dz
x+y
to determine the second prime integral f
2
(x, y, z).
The symmetric system can be equivalently written as
dx
x
=
dy
y
=
dz
x +y
=
dx dy +dz
0
=
d(z x y)
0
,
from where it results z xy = c
2
. We obtained the second prime integral of the symmetric
system, f
2
(x, y, z) = z x y. We conclude that the eld lines of X are given by the
Cartesian equations
_
y
x
= c
1
z x y = c
2

_
y c
1
x = 0, plan
1
, n
1
= (c
1
, 1, 0)
z x y = c
2
, plan
2
, n
2
= (1, 1, 1).
Solutions 171
b) We associate the symmetric system
dx
x
2
=
dy
xy
=
dz
y
2
. (61)
From the rst equality, by amplifying with x, we get
dx
x
=
dy
y
ln[x[ + ln[c
1
[ = ln[y[,
from where it results
y
x
= c
1
, (62)
hence the rst prime integral is f
1
(x, y, z) =
y
x
. In order to nd the second prime integral, we
notice that the last relation cannot be directly used (i.e., in the equality
dy
xy
=
dz
y
2

dy
x
=
dz
y
,
the variable x is related to y via (62). We use the rst prime integral, hence the relation
y
x
= c
1
x =
y
c
1
and we replace in the second equality from (61)
dy
x
=
dz
y

dy
y/c
1
=
dz
y
c
1
dy = dz,
from where, by integration, it results yc
1
= z +c
2
. We replace c
1
with f
1
=
y
x
and we get
y
y
x
= z +c
2

y
2
x
z = c
2
.
Finally, the eld lines have the equations
_
y c
1
x = 0 (plane)
y
2
xz c
2
x = 0 (hyperboloid),
hence a family of conics (ellipses, hyperbolas or pairs of straight lines)
159. a) To nd the unknown function u = u(x, y, z) which satises the given equation,
we rst associate the characteristic system
dx
x
=
dy
y
=
dz
x +y
.
We nd the two independent prime integrals of the symmetric system. These are
f
1

y
x
= c
1
, f
2
z y x = c
2
.
The solution of the PDE is then u(x, y, z) =
_
y
x
, z x y
_
, where is an arbitrary dier-
entiable function of two arguments.
b) We associate the characteristic system:
dx
x
2
=
dy
xy
=
dz
y
2
. We nd the two independent
prime integrals of the symmetric system. These are f
1
=
y
x
= C
1
, f
2
=
y
2
x
z = C
2
. The
solution of the PDE is then
u(x, y, z) =
_
y
x
,
y
2
x
z
_
, (63)
172 LAAG-DGDE
where (a, b) is an arbitrary dierentiable function of two arguments. Check. The partial
derivatives of the function are
_

_
u
x
=
a

y
x
2
+
b

y
2
x
2
u
y
=
a

1
x
+
b

2y
x
u
z
=
b
,
where we denoted

a
=

a
(a, b)

a=
y
x
,b=
y
2
x
z
,
b
=

b
(a, b)

a=
y
x
,b=
y
2
x
z.
By replacing in the equation, it results
x
2

a

y
x
2
+
b

y
2
x
2
_
+xy
_

1
x
+
b

2y
x
_
+y
2
(
b
) = 0,
an identity; hence (63) is the general solution of the given equation.
160. We nd the two prime integrals of the associated symmetric system
dx
x
=
dy
y
=
dz
x +y
of the associated homogeneous equation,
x
u
x
+y
u
y
+ (x +y)
u
z
= 0.
These are
f
1
=
y
x
, f
2
= z x y.
We attach the system
_
_
_
y
x
= c
1
z x y = c
2
y = 1, z = x
2
.
We eliminate x, y, z from the system and we get
y = 1, x =
1
c
1
, z =
1
c
2
1
and the condition of compatibility of the system,
c
2
=
1
c
2
1

1
c
1
1.
By replacing c
1
and c
2
respectively with f
1
and f
2
in this relation, we determine the equation
: u(x, y, z) = 0 of the required surface,
x
y
+ 1 + (z x y) =
x
2
y
2
xy +y
2
+ (z x y)y
2
x
2
. .
u(x,y,z)
= 0,
which can be written in Cartesian explicit form as : z =
x
2
xyy
2
y
2
+ x + y. Homework.
Show that the determined function u satises the equation with partial derivatives and that
the surface u = 0 contains the curve :
_
y = 1
z = x
2
: (x, y, z) = (t, 1, t
2
), t R.
Solutions 173
b) We nd the two prime integrals of the associated symmetric system
dx
x
2
=
dy
xy
=
dz
y
2
of the
associated homogeneous equation.
x
2
u
x
+xy
u
y
+y
2
u
z
= 0. (64)
These are f
1
=
y
x
, f
2
=
y
2
x
z. We attach the system
_

_
y
x
= C
1
y
2
x
z = C
2
y = 1, z = x
3
.
We eliminate x, y, z from the system and we get
_
_
_
y = 1, x =
1
C
1
, z =
1
C
3
1
C
1

1
C
3
1
= C
2
.
By replacing C
1
and C
2
respectively with f
1
and f
2
in the last relation (the condition of
compatibility of the system) it results the equation of the required surface:
y
x

x
3
y
3
=
y
2
x
z : y
4
x
4
y
5
+xy
3
z
. .
u(x, y, z)
= 0,
determined by the function u(x, y, z), solution of the PDE (64). Homework. Show that the
determined function u satises the equation with partial derivatives and that the surface
u = 0 contains the curve :
_
y = 1
z = x
3
.
: (x, y, z) = (t, 1, t
3
), t R.
Addenda
MAPLE Programs

1. Linear Algebra: orthonorming (the Gram-Schmidt process and norming)

# Input: three vectors from R^3;
# Output: orthonormal vectors;
> restart: with(linalg): u1:=vector([3,-1,2]);
> u2:=vector([1,2,1]); u3:=vector([1,1,4]); # u1, u2 and u3
> gs:=GramSchmidt({u1,u2,u3},normalized); # orthogonalization
> M:=matrix([gs[1],gs[2],gs[3]]); # M=matrix of orthon. vectors
2. Linear Algebra: the LU decomposition of a matrix
# Input: matrix A;
# Output: matrices L and U of the decomp. A=L*U (L=inf.triang.,U=upper triang.)
> restart: with(linalg): A:=array(1..3,1..3,[[3,1,1],[-1,2,1],[2,1,4]]); # matr.A
# the LU Doolittle decomposition procedure
> x:= LUdecomp(A,L=l,U=u,U1=u1,R=r,P=p,det=d,rank=ran);
# the lower/upper triangular matrices
> evalm(l); evalm(u); # L, U
> map(normal,evalm(l &* u)); # check: A=L*U
3. Linear Algebra: the QR decomposition of a matrix
# Input: square matrix A
# Output: matrices of the QR decomposition A=Q*R
> restart: with(linalg):
> A:=matrix(3,3,[[1,3,3],[2,4,5],[7,3,8]]); # matrix A
> det(A); # det.of matrix A (non-zero)
# the QR decomposition procedure
> R:=QRdecomp(A, Q=q, rank=r); Q:=evalm(q); # matrix Q
> evalm(Q&*R); # check: A=Q*R
4. Linear Algebra: the canonic diagonal and Jordan forms
# Input: matrices A and B;
# Output: the canonic corresponding forms (diagonal, resp. Jordan, );
> restart: with(linalg): A:=array([[1,2,3], [2,3,1], [3,1,2]]); # matrix A
> B:=array([[3,1,0,0], [1,2,0,0], [0,0,2,1], [0,0,0,2]]); # matrix B
# canonic form
> J1:=jordan(A, P1); C1:=print(P1); # diagonal form of matrix A
> J2:=jordan(B, P2); C2:=print(P2); # Jordan form of matrix B
# checks: J1=P1^(-1)*A*P1, J2= P2^(-1)*A*P2
> J1:=simplify(multiply(inverse(P1), A ,P1));
> J2:=simplify(multiply(inverse(P2), B , P2));
# Checks: A=A^t, symmetric diagonalizable matrix
> evalm(A-transpose(A));
5. Linear Algebra: operations with free vectors
# Input: free vectors u,v,w;
# Output: cross product, inner product and mixed product, angle, norm, projection;
> restart: with(linalg):
> u:=vector(3,[1,2,3]); v:=vector(3,[2,3,4]); w:=vector(3,[1,4,2]); # u,v,w
# cross product, inner product
Addenda - MAPLE

Programs 175
> a:=crossprod(u,v); s:=innerprod(u,v); # a= uxv, s= <u,v>
# angle
> Theta:=In/U/V; angle(u,v); # angle between u and v
> A:=norm(a)/2; # A=||a||/2
> c:=crossprod(v,w); d:=crossprod(u,c); # c=vxw, d= <u,c>
# mixed product
> d2:=evalm(innerprod(u,w)*v-innerprod(u,v)*w); # d2=<u,w>v-<u,v>w
> m1:=crossprod(u,v); # m1 = uxv
> m:=crossprod(m1,w); # m = <m1,w>
> e:=innerprod(v,v); # e = <v,v>
> pro:=(evalm(s)/evalm(e))*evalm(v); evalm(pro); # projection of u onto v
> dif:=evalm(d)-evalm(d2); # check
6. Analytic Geometry: straight line and plane
# 6a.
# Input: Points A1,A2,A3 and vectors v1, v2;
# Output: straight lines, planes, vector normal to plane, distances, angles,
projections, symmetries, intersections
> restart: with(geom3d): with(linalg):
> point(A1,1,5,0); point(A2,2,3,4); point(A3,1,0,-2); # A1,A2,A3
> v1:=[1,-2,1]; n1:=[0,-1,2]; # v1,n1
# straight line containing two points; line of given direction, through a point
> line(d1,[A1,A2]); Equation(d1,t); # d1=dr(A1,A2)
> line(d2,[A3,v1]); Equation(d2,t); # d2=dr(A3,v1)
# plane through a point and with given normal vector, resp. plane by intercepts
> plane(p1,[A3,n1]); Equation(p1,[x,y,z]); # p1=pl(A3,n1)
> plane(p2,[A1,A2,A3]); Equation(p2,[x,y,z]); # p2=pl(A1,A2,A3)
# distances
> e1:=distance(A1,A2); e2:=distance(A1,d2); # e1=d(A1,A2), e2=d(A1,d2)
> e3:=distance(A2,p1); e4:=distance(d1,d2); # e3=d(A2,p1), e4=d(d1,d2)
# angles
> u1:=FindAngle(d1,d2); # u1=angle between d1 and d2
> u2:=FindAngle(p1,p2); # u2=angle between p1 and p2
> u3:=FindAngle(p2,d2); # u3=angle between p2 and d2
# projections
> projection(R1,d1,A3); coordinates(R1); # R1=projection of A3 on d1
> projection(R2,p1,A1); coordinates(R2); # R2=projection of A1 on p1
> projection(d3,d2,p2); Equation(d3,t); # d3=projection of d2 on p2
# symmetries
> w1:=coordinates(A1); w2:=coordinates(A2); w3:=coordinates(A3);
> point(S0,2*w2-w1); coordinates(S0); # S0=symmetric of A1 relative to A2
> tz1:=coordinates(R1); point(S1,2*tz1-w3); coordinates(S1);
> # S1=symmetric of A3 relative to R1
> tz2:=coordinates(R2); point(S2,2*tz2-w1); coordinates(S2);
> # S2=symmetric of A1 relative to R2
# checks
> evalf(distance(A3,d1)-distance(A3,R1));
> evalf(distance(A1,p1)-distance(A1,R2));
> point(A4,0,2,-3); qro:=coordinates(A4);
> projection(B4,A4,p2); pro:=coordinates(B4); 2*pro-qro;
176 ALGA-GDED
# 6b.
# Input: points A, B, C, E and vector v2;
# Output: lines, planes, normal vector normal to plane, distances, angles,
# projections, symmetries, intersections
> restart: with(linalg): with(geom3d):
> point(A,2,3,-5); point(B,1,2,1); # A,B
> point(C,1,5,3); point(E,1,1,1); # C,E
> v2:=[3,1,-1]; # v2
# equations of line through two distinct points
> line(d1,[A,B]); Equation(d1,t); # d1=dr(A,B)
> line(d3,[B,C]); Equation(d3,t); # d3=dr(B,C)
> line(d5,[A,E]); Equation(d5,t); # d5=dr(A,E)
# equations of line which passes through a point and has given direction
> line(d2,[C,v2]); Equation(d2,t); # d2=dr(C,v2)
> line(d4,[B,v2]); Equation(d4,t); # d4=dr(B,v2)
# extract the director vector
> v1:=ParallelVector(d1); # v1||d1
# project (point on line)
> projection(D,A,d2); coordinates(D); # D=proj. of A on d2
# plane given by a point and two directions; extracting the normal vector
> plane(p1,[A,d3,d4]); Equation(p1,[x,y,z]); # p1=pl(A,d3,d4)
> n1:=NormalVector(p1); # n1||p1
# projections (point on plan)
> projection(F,E,p1); coordinates(F); # proi.pct.E on p1
# intersection between a line and a plane
> intersection(V,d2,p2); detail(V); coordinates(V);
# checks (distances found by means of prior determined projections)
> distance(E,p1); distance(E,F); # distance from a point to a plane
> distance(A,d2); distance(A,D); # distance from a point to a line
> q:=crossprod(v1,v2); line(d8,[A,v1]);
7. Analytic Geometry: plots of lines and conics
# Input: 5 curves in parametric form;
# Output: simultaneous plots; plot of intersection points with second curve;
> restart: with(linalg): with(plots): with(plottools):
# curves in parametric form
> x1:=3*cos(t1); y1:=2*sin(t1); # C1
> x2:=3*cosh(t2); y2:=2*sinh(t2); # C2
> x3:=t3^2; y3:=2*t3; # C3
> x4:=t4+2; y4:=t4-1; # C4
> x5:=3*t5; y5:=2*t5+1; # C5
# plot curves C1,C2 and C3
> d1:=plot([x1,y1,t1=-3..3],color=blue):
> d2:=plot([x2,y2,t2=-3..3],color=red):
> d3:=plot([x3,y3,t3=-3..3],color=green):
> display(d1,d2,d3); # simultaneously plot curves C1,C2,C3
# plot curves C4 and C5
> d4:=plot([x4,y4,t4=-3..3],color=blue):
> d5:=plot([x5,y5,t5=-3..3],color=red):
> display(d4,d5); # simultaneously plot curves C4,C5
# find points of intersection of curves C4 and C5
> w1:=solve(x4=x5,t4); # sol. t4 of the equation x4=x5 fnc. of t5
Addenda - MAPLE

Programs 177
> t5_:=solve(subs(t4=w1,y5=y4)); t4_:=subs(t5=t5_,w1);
> # t4_ and t5_ are params.at pt. of intersection
> xp1:=subs(t4=t4_,x4); yp1:=subs(t4=t4_,y4);
> xp2:=subs(t5=t5_,x5); yp2:=subs(t5=t5_,y5);
> # pt. of intersection (xp1,yp1)=(xp2,yp2)
# plot points of intersection of curves C1 and C2
> plot([[xp1,yp1],[xp2,yp2]],style=point,color=green);
8. Analytic Geometry: simultaneously plot lines and conics
# Input: two lines and three conics;
# Output: their simultaneous plots
# 8a.
> restart; with(plots): with(linalg): with(plottools):
> # first line in parametric form
> d1:=[3*t+2,2*t-1]: # d1
# first line in Cartesian form
> a:=solve(x=d1[1],t): # a= sol. t of the equation x=3t+2 fnc. of x
> b:=subs(t=a,y=d1[2]): # b= d1 in Cartesian expr. (eq. in x and y)
# the second line in Cartesian form
> d2:=3*x-5*y-4: # d2
# point of intersection of the two lines
> A:=solve({b,d2},{x,y}); # A= solution in x and y of the system b=0, d2=0
> p1:=point([rhs(A[1]),rhs(A[2])],color=blue): # plot point A
# plot lines
> p2:=implicitplot(d2,x=-25..65,y=-25..65,color=green):
> p3:=plot([d1[1],d1[2],t=-25..25]):
> display(p1,p2,p3); # simultaneously plot lines d1, d2 and d3
# curves in Cartesian form
> c1:=x^2/4+y^2=1: c2:=x^2-y^2/9=1: c3:=y^2-2*x=0: # c1, c2 and c3
# plot the three curves
> f1:=implicitplot(c1,x=-10..10,y=-10..10,color=red):
> f2:=implicitplot(c2,x=-10..10,y=-10..10,color=blue):
> f3:=implicitplot(c3,x=-10..10,y=-10..10,color=green):
> display(f1,f2,f3); # simultaneously plot conics c1,c2 and c3
# 8b.
> restart: with(plots): with(plottools):
# lines in parametric form, respectively Cartesian
>d1:={x=t+2,y=-2*t}; d2:=y-2*x+4=0; # d1, d2
# first line in Cartesian form
>s:=solve(d1[1],t); # sol. t of the equation x=t+2 depending on x
>d1_:=subs(t=s,d1[2]); # d1_= Cartesian equation of line d1
# point of intersection of the two lines
>A:=solve({d1_,d2},{x,y}); # A= point of intersection of line d1 and d2
>x0:=rhs(A[1]); y0:=rhs(A[2]); # (x0, y0)= coordinates of point A
# plots
>fig1:=implicitplot({d2},x=-10..10,y=-10..10): # plot of line d2
>fig2:=plot([rhs(d1[1]),rhs(d1[2]),t=-10..10]): # plot of line d1
>l:=point([x0,y0],color=green):
>plots[display](l); # plot point A
>plots[display](fig1,fig2,l); # simultaneously plot lines d1,d2 and point A
178 ALGA-GDED
# curves (in parametric form and in Cartesian form)
>c1:={x=3*cos(s),y=2*sin(s)}; c2:=9*x^2-y^2=1; c3:=y^2-2*x; # c1, c2 and c3
# plot curves
>fig3:=plot([rhs(c1[1]),rhs(c1[2]),s=-10..10],color=red):
>fig4:=implicitplot({c2},x=-10..10,y=-10..10,color=green,numpoints=5000):
>fig5:=implicitplot({c3},x=-10..10,y=-10..10,color=blue,numpoints=3000):
>plots[display](fig3,fig4,fig5); # simultaneously plot curves c1,c2,c3
9. Analytic Geometry: geometric transforms and representations of conics
# 9a.
# Input: equations of ellipse and hyperbola;
# Output: plots of ellipse, hyperbola, translation, rotation,
# reflection (symmetry relative to a line), homothety;
> restart: with(plottools): with(plots):
# equation of ellipse
> eq:= (x-x0)^2/a^2 + (y-y0)^2/b^2 = 1; a:= 3: b:= 2: x0:= 0; y0:=0;
# plot the ellipse
> elli:= ellipse([x0,y0], a, b, filled=true, color=gold): # ellipse
> plots[display](elli, scaling=constrained,title=Ellipse,
titlefont=[TIMES,BOLD,18]);
# equation of hyperbola
> eq:= (x-x0)^2/a^2 - (y-y0)^2/b^2 = 1; a:= 3: b:= 2: x0:= 0: y0:= 0:
> h:= hyperbola([x0,y0], a, b, -2..2): # hyperbola
# plot the hyperbola
> display(h,title=Hyperbola,titlefont=[TIMES,BOLD,18]);
# plots after applying geometric transforms: translation, rotation,
# mirroring (symmetry relative to a line), homothety (isotropic scaling),
# scaling (anisotropic scaling)
> display([elli,translate(elli,-2,-3)]); # translation
> display([h,translate(h,-2,-3)]); # translation
> display(rotate(elli, Pi/6)); # rotation
> display(rotate(h, Pi/6)); # rotation
> display(reflect(elli,[[-1,2],[2,1]])); # mirroring
> display(reflect(h,[[-1,2],[2,1]])); # mirroring
> display(plottools[homothety](elli,1/2)); # homothety
> display(plottools[homothety](h,1/2)); # homothety
> display(scale(elli,3,1/2,[0,0])); # scaling
> display(scale(h,3,1/2,[0,0])); # scaling
# 9b.
# Input: equations for torus and saddle;
# Output: plots: torus, saddle and their transforms
# (translation, rotation, scaling, homothety);
> restart: with(plots): with(plottools):
> c:=torus([0,0,0],2,3): # c (torus)
> plots[display](c,scaling=constrained,
title=Torus,titlefont=[TIMES,BOLD,18]); # plot torus c
> plot3d(x*y,x=-1..1,y=-1..1); # plot saddle
> e1:=4*cos(u)*sin(v);e2:=2*sin(u)*sin(v);e3:=3*cos(v); # par.eq.of saddle
> plot3d([e1,e2,e3],u=-Pi..Pi,v=-Pi..Pi,scaling=constrained, # plot the saddle
title=Shea,titlefont=[TIMES,BOLD,18]);
Addenda - MAPLE

Programs 179
> display([c,translate(c,-,1,3)],scaling=constrained,title=Translate
titlefont=[TIMES,BOLD,18]); # translation
> plots[display](rotate(c,Pi/4,[[1,1,2],[-2,3,1]]),scaling=constrained,
title=Rotate,titlefont=[TIMES,BOLD,18]); # rotation
> q1:=reflect(c,[1,1,2],[-2,3,1]):
> # torus symmetrized relative to a line
> plots[display]([c,q1],scaling=constrained,title=Reflect,
titlefont=[TIMES,BOLD,18]); # mirroring
> o:= plottools[homothety](c,1/2):
> plots[display]([c,o],scaling=constrained,title=Homothety,
titlefont=[TIMES,BOLD,18]); # homothety
> M:=scale(c,2,3,1/3):
> plots[display]([c,M],scaling=constrained,title=Scaling,
titlefont=[TIMES,BOLD,18]); # scaling
10. Differential Geometry: plot an animate pencil of surfaces
# Input: four surfaces (r1,r2,r3,r4) in parametric form;
# Output: plot the pencil determined by r1,r2 and the one det. by r3,r4
> restart: with(plots):
> r1:=[cos(u)*cosh(v),sin(u)*cosh(v),sinh(v)]; # r1
> r2:=[cos(u)*sinh(v),sin(u)*sinh(v),cosh(v)]; # r2
> r3:=[u*cos(v),u*sin(v),u^2]; r4:=[u,v,u*v]; # r3,r4
> f1:=evalm(t*r1+(1-t)*r2); # f1; pencils of surfaces
> f2:=evalm(s*r3+(1-s)*r4); # f2; animated plot of the two pencils
> animate3d(f1,u=-0..2*Pi,v=-2..2,t=0..1);
> animate3d(f2,u=-2..2,v=0..2*Pi,s=0..1,frames=20);
11. Differential Geometry: parametrized surfaces - curvatures and graphic plot
# Input: surface r;
# Output: first and the second fundamental form,
# total (Gauss) curvature and mean curvature;
> restart: with(plots): with(geom3d): with(linalg):
> r:=[u,v,u^2-v^2]; # surface r, partial derivatives
> r_u:=diff(r,u); r_v:=diff(r,v); # first fundamental form
> E:=innerprod(r_u,r_u); # E = <r_u, r_u>
> F:=innerprod(r_u,r_v); # F = <r_u, r_v>
> G:=innerprod(r_v,r_v); # G = <r_v, r_v>
> i:=matrix(2,2,[E,F,F,G]); # i = matrix of first fundamental form
> r_uu:=diff(r_u,u); # partial derivatives of second order
> r_uv:=diff(r_u,v); r_vv:=diff(r_v,v);
> n:=evalm((crossprod(r_u,r_v))/norm((crossprod(r_u,r_v),2)));
> # n= vector normal to surface r
> L:=innerprod(r_uu,n); # the second fundamental form; L= <r_uu, n>
> M:=innerprod(r_uv,n); # M= <r_uv, n>
> N:=innerprod(r_vv,n); # N= <r_vv, n>
> ii:=matrix(2,2,[L,M,M,N]); # II= matrix of second fundamental form
> k:=det(ii)/det(i); H:=(1/2)*((E*N+G*L-2*F*M)/det(i)); # Gauss curvature = k
> imag1:=plot3d(r,u=-2..2,v=-2..2,color=red): # mean curvature = H
> imag2:=plot3d([u,v,k],u=-2..2,v=-2..2,color=blue): # plots
> imag3:=plot3d([u,v,H],u=-2..2,v=-2..2,color=green):
> display(imag1,imag2,imag3); # simultaneously plot: surface, k, and H
180 ALGA-GDED
12. Differential Geometry: animated rotation
# Input: curve in parametric form and matrix of rotation;
# Output: plot of the rotated curve (variable angle);
> restart: with(plots): x:=2*cos(s); y:=sin(s); # param.eqs. of a curve
> v:=array(1..2,[x,y]); d:=0..2*Pi; # R=matrix of rotation
> R:=matrix(2,2,[[cos(theta),-sin(theta)],[sin(theta),cos(theta)]]);
> W:=evalm(R&*v); # W=R*v
> animate([W[1],W[2],s=d],theta=0..8*Pi,frames=80); # animated plot
13. Differential Equations: ODE (ordinary differential equations)
# Input: ordinary differential equation (ex. 128)
# Output: general solution, particular solution, plot general solution
> restart: ode1:= diff(y(x),x)*x+2*y(x)-3*x=0; # ODE
> sol:=dsolve(ode1); # general solution
# a particular solution - for initial condition y(1)=1
> sol1:=dsolve( {ode1, y(1)=1}, y(x)); with(DEtools): # plot gen.solution
> DEplot(ode1, y(x), x=-10..10, y=10..10, linecolour=blue, stepsize=0.5);
14. Differential Equations: SODE (systems of ordinary differential equations)
# Input: system of ordinary differential equations (ex. 143);
# Output: general solution, a particular solution, plots;
> restart: sys1:= {diff(x(t),t) = y(t), diff(y(t),t) = x(t)+2}; # SODE
> sol:=dsolve(sys1); # general solution
# a particular solution - with initial conditions x(0)=0,y(0)=2
> sol1:=dsolve(sys1 union {x(0)=0,y(0)=2},{x(t),y(t)});
> with(DEtools): with(plots): # plots
> DEplot(sys1,[x(t),y(t)],t=-2..2,x=-1..2,y=-1..2,title=plot SODE,
color=blue,stepsize=0.5); # plot of general solution
# plot of general solution in 3D
> DEplot3d(sys1,{x(t),y(t)},t=-1..1, [[x(0)=0,y(0)=2]],x=0..2,y=0..4,
scene=[t,x(t),y(t)],linecolour=COLOR(HUE,.5));
# plot of particular solution
> p:= dsolve(sys1 union {x(0)=0,y(0)=2},{x(t),y(t)}, type=numeric);
> odeplot(p, [[t,x(t)],[t,y(t)]],-4..4); # x and y plot.fnc.of t
> odeplot(p, [x(t),y(t)],-4..4); # phase space: x(t)&y(t)
> odeplot(p, [t,x(t),y(t)],-4..4, color=blue, axes=boxed); # plot sol.3D
15. Differential Equations: field lines
# Input: vector field;
# Output: plot the field lines of the vector field;
> restart: with(plots):
> fieldplot3d([x,y,x+y],x=-1..1,y=-1..1,z=-1..1,grid=[5,5,5], axes=boxed);
16. Differential Equations: PDE (differential equations with partial derivatives)
# Input: homogeneous PDE linear equation (ex. 150);
# Output: plot solution of the PDE for some ini.conditions
> restart: # homogeneous linear equation with partial derivatives
> pde:= x*diff(u(x,y,z),x)+y*diff(u(x,y,z),y)+(x+y)*diff(u(x,y,z),z) = 0;
> ics:=[cos(t)*sin(s),cos(s)*cos(t),cos(t),sin(t)],[t=0..Pi, s=0..Pi]; # ini.cond.
> with(PDEtools): PDEplot(pde, ics, numsteps=[-5,6], stepsize=.1, axes=boxed, #plot
> style=PATCHNOGRID,numchar=[16,16], orientation=[148,66], lightmodel=light2);
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NOTE. At the end of citations the reader can nd the standard unique library
reference numbers of the cited works, for the libraries:
P - The central Library of University Politehnica of Bucharest,
Address: University Politehnica of Bucharest, Polizu Buildings, 132 Calea Griv-
itei, bldg. I, oor 2, room 210,
Tel: 021.402.39.82, 021.312.70.44, 021.650.31.32;
e-mail: Cristina Albu <c albu@library.pub.ro>,
http://www.library.pub.ro
U - The Library of Faculty of Mathematics - Informatics - University of Bucharest,
Address: Fac. of Mathematics, 14 Academiei Str., Floor 1, Room A102 & A125.
Tel: 021.314.35.08 / int. 2213, 2206,
e-mail: Ramona Moldoveanu <ramona@univ.bcub.ro>,
http://fmi.unibuc.ro/ro/biblioteca/biblioteca anunturi
Index of notions
addition of vectors, 6, 32
additivity of a mapping, 79, 80
adjoint matrix, 27
algebraic multiplicity, 12, 67, 70, 71, 170
angle, 8, 16, 19, 21, 22, 99, 109, 111, 112, 120,
123, 138, 165
arc-length of a curve, 19, 146
Archimedes spiral, 20, 133
area
of a parallelogram, 15, 95
of a surface, 22, 146
of a triangle, 5, 15, 94
associativity, 33
asymptotes of a hyperbola, 6, 32, 106, 107
asymptotic behavior of a curve, 19, 124, 129,
130
basis, 7, 8, 38, 50, 80, 81, 8396, 110, 112,
115, 117, 118, 138, 142
canonical, 38
diagonalizing , 11, 85, 86, 8890, 93
dual, 7
Jordan , 12, 6773
of a vector subspace, 41
of the Frenet frame, 126
orthogonal , 8, 9, 49, 50, 8688, 90, 91,
93, 94
orthonormal diagonalizing , 74, 75
orthonormal , 9, 50, 51, 60, 86, 87, 90,
91, 9396, 110, 112, 115, 117, 118
positive oriented , 15, 95
Beltrami-Enneper formula, 22, 142
Bernstein polynomials, 7
Bessel inequality, 9, 51
bilinear form, 13, 82
degenerate, 83
kernel of a , 82, 83
matrix associated to a , 13
non-degenerate , 82
rank of a , 82, 83
skew-symmetric , 13, 81
symmetric , 13, 7982
boundary problem, 24, 161
canonical equation of a conic, 18, 110, 112,
113
Cartesian
coordinates, 17, 131
of a point, 103, 104
equations of a curve, 21, 135, 136, 138,
147
Cauchy problem, 24, 153, 154, 164, 169, 170
Cayley-Hamilton theorem, 12, 75, 76, 78
change of coordinates, 84, 86, 8892
characteristic
determinant, 29
equation, 11, 12, 6469, 73, 74, 112, 113,
142, 161, 163, 167
system, 6367, 74, 85, 87, 142, 171
characteristic polynomial
of a matrix, 11, 12, 6366, 69, 71, 75, 76,
78, 91, 142, 161, 162, 167, 169, 170
of an endomorphism, 11, 12, 6366, 69,
71, 75, 76, 78, 91, 142, 161, 162, 167,
169, 170
circle, 30
Cartesian equation of a , 6, 30, 149
center of a , 30
normal equation of a , 6
parametric equations of a , 6, 30
radius of a , 30
reduced equation of a , 6
cissoid of Diocles, 20
collinear points, 30
common perpendicular, 16, 101103
commutativity, 33
complex structure, 10
complexication
of a linear mapping, 64
of an endomorphism, 64
components of a vector, 7, 8, 42, 9496, 123,
143
conic, 17, 105112, 171
canonical equation of a , 18, 105, 106,
110, 112
conical surface, 19, 22
conjugate diameter, 18
183
184 LAAG-DGDE
coordinates
Cartesian , 17, 131
Cartesian of a point, 103, 104
cylindrical , 17
polar , 17, 131
spherical , 17
coordinates of a point, 100, 101
coplanar vectors, 15, 95
cross product, 15
curvature
normal , 144
of a plane curve, 20, 126, 127, 133
of a space curve, 134, 135, 144
curve
arc-length of a , 19, 146
asymptotic behavior of a , 19, 124,
129, 130
Cartesian equations of a , 21, 135, 136,
138, 147
length of a , 22, 124
normal parameter of a , 19, 125
cycloid, 19
cylinder
circular , 22
cylindrical
coordinates, 17
surface, 18, 21
degenerate
bilinear form, 82, 83
quadratic form, 14
determinant, 5, 26, 105, 147
characteristic , 29
Vandermonde , 37
diagonal matrix, 11, 8591, 93, 94
diagonalizable
endomorphism, 11, 6366, 74
matrix, 11, 6366, 74
diagonalization, 12, 64
diagonalizing
basis, 11, 85, 86, 8890, 93
matrix, 65, 76
dieomorphism, 19, 122, 123
dierential equation, 22, 147, 148, 150154,
158, 161, 165, 167
Bernoulli , 23, 155, 167
Clairaut , 23, 159
exact , 23, 157159
Lagrange , 23, 160
linear homogeneous , 23, 162, 166
linear , 23, 153156, 160, 162, 166, 169
non-homogenous , 24
reducible to equations with separable vari-
ables, 23
Riccati , 23, 156, 157
which admits an integrating factor, 23,
158, 159
with constraints , 24
with separable variables, 23, 151, 153,
154, 167
dierential system, 24, 167169, 172, 173
stable , 24, 170
unstable , 24, 170
dimension
of a vector space, 38, 42, 49, 50, 59, 84
of a vector subspace, 10, 14, 42, 54, 58,
60, 61, 82, 83
theorem, 10, 14, 60, 82, 83
direct sum of vector subspaces, 8, 42
director vector, 15, 96, 98103, 120, 137
distance, 16, 17, 30
between two straight lines, 102
from point to plane, 99
from point to straight line, 5
double cross product, 15, 95
dual basis, 7
edges of the Frenet frame, 21, 135
eigenspace, 11, 12, 6367, 70, 71, 73, 74, 76,
115
eigenvalue, 11, 12, 63, 65, 68, 69, 71, 73, 74,
7678, 87, 110, 113, 115, 116, 118,
142, 146, 167
eigenvector, 12, 66, 68, 74, 8591, 93, 94, 110,
112, 113, 115, 116, 118, 142, 146
elements of the Frenet frame, 126, 134
ellipse, 6, 17, 31, 145
axes of an , 18
center of an , 17, 108, 113
equation of an , 31
foci of an , 6, 31
semiaxes of an , 6
tangent line to an , 6
vertices of an , 18, 31, 108
endomorphism, 11, 57
complexication of an , 64
diagonalizable , 11, 6366, 74
Hermitian , 61
Jordanizable , 12, 6369, 71
nilpotent , 62
orthogonal , 62
skew-Hermitian , 62
skew-symmetric , 62
symmetric , 62
Index of notions 185
unitary , 62
envelope of a family of
curves, 20, 128
surfaces, 21, 139
equality
Parseval , 9, 51
exponential spiral, 20, 133
extended matrix, 29
faces of the Frenet frame, 21, 135
eld
lines, 25, 170, 171
surface, 25
folium of Descartes, 20
formula
Beltrami-Enneper , 22, 142
Fourier coecients, 50
free vectors, 15, 94, 95, 101, 106
Frenet
elements of a plane curve, 20, 126
elements of a space curve, 21, 134, 135
equations of a space curve, 21
unit vectors of a plane curve, 20, 126
Frenet frame
basis of the , 126
edges of the , 21, 135
elements of the , 126, 134
faces of the , 21, 135
function
bijective , 19, 122, 123
even , 6
injective , 19
Jacobian matrix of a , 19, 122, 123,
137
odd , 6
surjective , 19, 122, 123
function of matrix, 12
fundamental forms, 144, 146
Gauss
curvature of a surface, 22, 142
frame of a surface, 21, 22, 142
method, 14, 86, 8893
Gauss-Jordan
method, 5, 28, 29
generating system of vectors, 38
geometric multiplicity, 12, 70, 71
Gram-Schmidt process (method), 9, 5053,
60, 74, 87, 89
Grassmann theorem, 8, 42, 58, 59, 84
halvings, 31, 87
helicoid, 21, 140
helix, 21, 22, 135, 144
Hermiticity, 44
homogeneity of a mapping, 79, 80
hyperbola, 6, 17, 32, 105, 106, 109111
asymptotes of a , 6, 32, 106, 107
axes of a , 106
aymptotes of a , 17
canonic equation of a , 6, 105, 110
center of a , 17, 106, 111
equation of a , 32
foci of a , 6, 32
semi-axes of a , 32
semiaxes of a , 6
vertices of a , 17, 32
immersion, 19, 122, 123, 137
inequality
Bessel , 9, 51
inner (scalar) product, 8, 11, 43, 46, 63
canonical , 8, 46, 47, 52
intercept equation of a plane, 16
intersection of straight lines, 152
invariant vector subspace, 12, 72, 73
inverse
of a linear mapping, 10
of a matrix, 12
isogonal trajectories, 24, 165
isometry, 11, 63
isotropic vectors, 13, 80, 82, 83
Jacobi method, 14, 85, 87, 8994
Jacobian matrix of a function, 19, 122, 123,
137
joint (mixed) product, 15, 95
Jordan
basis, 12, 6773
cell, 66, 6873
matrix, 12, 6773
Jordanizable
endomorphism, 12, 6369, 71
matrix, 12, 6369, 71
Jordanizing matrix, 12, 6773
length of a curve, 22, 124
linear combination, 95
linear dependence, 36
relation of , 37
linear homogeneous dierential equations, 25
linear independence, 36
linear mapping, 9, 11, 54
analytic expression of a , 10, 61
186 LAAG-DGDE
bijective , 9, 56, 61
complexication of a , 64
domain of a , 9
Hermitian , 10, 61
image of a , 9, 54, 57, 60, 61
injective , 9, 56, 59, 61
inverse of a , 10
kernel of a , 9, 54, 57, 60, 61
matrix of a , 10, 11, 54, 58
nilpotent , 11, 62
nullity of a , 9
orthogonal , 10, 11, 62
range of a , 9
rank of a , 9, 56
skew-Hermitian , 10, 62
skew-symmetric , 10, 11, 62
surjective , 9, 56, 59, 61
symmetric , 10, 11, 62
unitary , 10, 62
linear system
compatible , 29
incompatible , 29
of linear equations, 26, 28
linearity, 62
linearly independent
eigenvectors, 87
vectors, 7, 50, 83, 84, 87, 95
matrix, 5, 26, 83, 85, 86
adjoint , 27
diagonal , 11, 8591, 93, 94
diagonalizable , 11, 6366, 74
diagonalizing , 65, 76
extended , 5, 29
function of , 12
inverse of a , 5, 12, 26
Jordan , 12, 6773
Jordanizable , 12, 6369, 71
Jordanizing , 12, 6773
of a linear mapping, 10, 11, 54, 58
of change of basis, 7, 38
orthogonal , 62
rank of a , 82
symmetric , 12, 74, 87, 88, 91
Wronski , 168
matrix associated to
a bilinear form, 13
a polar form, 85, 87
a quadratic form, 80, 8588, 90, 9294
mean curvature of a surface, 142
method
Gauss , 14, 86, 8893
Gauss-Jordan , 5, 28, 29
Gram-Schmidt , 9, 5053, 60, 74, 87,
89
Jacobi , 14, 85, 87, 8994
of eigenvalues, 14, 18, 8789, 91, 93, 94,
110, 112, 113, 116, 119
of roto-translation, 18
of sequence of kernels, 12, 71
pivot , 5, 28
mixed (joint) product, 15, 95
multiplication of a vector with a scalar, 6, 33
multiplicities of eigenvalues, 11, 12, 67, 70,
71, 170
multiplicity
algebraic , 12, 67, 70, 71, 170
geometric , 12, 70, 71
non-coplanar vectors, 95
norm of a vector, 8, 11, 134
normal
direction to a plane, 15, 96, 98
hyperplane, 19, 123, 124
parameter of a curve, 19, 125
norming, 50, 53
orthogonal
basis, 8, 9, 49, 50, 8688, 90, 91, 93, 94
complement of a vector subspace, 9, 49
component of a vector, 50
family of vectors, 8, 49
matrix, 62
projection, 9
trajectories, 24, 165
vectors, 8, 46, 47, 8688, 90, 91, 94, 95,
102, 138
orthogonalization, 9, 5053, 60, 74, 87, 89
orthonormal
basis, 9, 10, 50, 51, 60, 86, 87, 90, 91,
9396, 110, 112, 115, 117, 118
diagonalizing basis, 74, 75
family of vectors, 51, 52
orthonorming, 9
osculating circle, 127
parabola, 6, 17, 32, 107, 111, 112, 127, 128,
138
focal distance of a , 6, 32
symmetry axes of a , 107, 128
symmetry axis of a , 17
tangent to a , 6, 32
vertex of a , 17, 107, 112, 128
parametric equations
Index of notions 187
of a plane, 16, 97
of a straight line, 15, 96, 98, 101, 102
parametrization, 137
parametrization of a curve, 20, 125127, 130
132, 136
parametrized surface, 22, 148
Parseval equality, 9, 51
pivot method, 5, 28
plane
intercept equation of a , 16
parametric equations of a , 16, 97
plane curve, 125128, 131, 133, 135
Cartesian equation of a , 20, 126, 127,
131
curvature of a , 20, 126, 127, 133
evolute of a , 20, 127
Frenet elements of a , 20, 126
Frenet unit vectors of a , 20, 126
normal line of a , 20, 125, 126, 128,
129, 133
osculating circle of a , 20, 127
parametrization of a , 20, 126, 127,
130132
polar equation of a , 20, 131133
subnormal of a , 20
subtangent line of a , 125
subtangent of a , 20
tangent line of a , 20, 125, 126, 128,
129, 133
polar
coordinates, 17, 131
form, 13, 14, 80, 83, 85, 87, 88, 91
line, 18, 31
to a circle, 31
positive oriented basis, 15, 95
principal
minor, 29
vector, 12, 66, 67, 69, 70
product
cross , 15
double cross , 15, 95
inner , 8
joint , 15, 95
mixed , 15, 95
projection, 8, 11, 16, 62, 100, 103, 125
of a geometric object, 16
onto a vector subspace, 51
Pythagorean theorem, 9, 50, 114
quadratic form, 13, 83, 8894, 110, 112114,
116
analytic expression of a , 84, 89, 90,
92, 93
canonic expression of a , 8486, 88
degenerate, 14
degenerate , 15
isotropic vectors of a , 80
matrix associated to , 80, 86
negative denite , 15
negative semidenite , 15
non-degenerate , 15
positive denite , 15
positive semidenite , 15
signature of a , 14, 85, 86, 8894
quadric, 18, 114121, 138
canonical equation of a , 18, 115
invariants of a , 18, 114, 116, 117
symmetry center of a , 18, 114116,
118, 119
regular curve, 19, 126, 129, 130, 134
relation of linear dependence, 7, 37
Rodriguez theorem, 142
roto-translation method, 18
Rouche theorem, 5, 29, 41
rule
Sarrus , 5, 26
Sarrus rule, 5, 26
scalar (inner) product, 8, 11, 43, 46, 63
scalar product
induced , 146
sequence of kernels method, 12, 71
signature of a quadratic form, 14, 85, 86, 88
94
skew-symmetric bilinear form, 13, 81
space curve
binormal vector eld of a , 21, 134136
curvature of a , 134, 135
Frenet elements of a , 21, 134, 135
Frenet equations of a , 21
normal plane of a , 21, 136
osculating plane of a , 21, 134, 135
parametrization of a , 21, 136
tangent line of a , 21
torsion of a , 21, 134, 135
spectrum, 11, 68, 69, 74, 85, 8789, 91, 93,
94
sphere, 18, 114, 121
center of a , 18, 114
radius of a , 18, 114
spherical coordinates, 17
spiral
188 LAAG-DGDE
Archimedes , 20, 133
exponential , 20, 133
stable dierential system, 24, 170
straight line, 5, 15, 29, 96102, 107, 114, 119,
130, 135, 137, 140, 147
Cartesian equations of a , 96, 99, 101,
107, 135, 147
director vector of , 98100, 103, 137
general equations of a , 105, 106
parametric equations of a , 15, 96, 98,
101
projection of a point onto a , 100
symmetric of the point relative to a ,
100
strophoide, 20
submersion, 19, 122, 123
supplementary vector subspaces, 7, 8, 10, 42,
58, 59
surface, 21, 120, 121, 136143, 147149, 172,
173
area of a , 22, 146
asymptotic curves of a , 22, 148
Cartesian equation of a , 21, 138, 140,
143
conical , 22
coordinate curves of a , 21, 138
curvature lines of a , 22, 147
cylindrical , 18, 21
elliptic point of a , 22
fundamental forms of a , 22, 140142
Gauss curvature of a , 22, 142
Gauss frame of a , 21, 22, 142
geodesics of a , 22, 148150
hyperbolic point of a , 22
mean curvature of a , 142
normal curvature of a , 22, 143
normal line of a , 21, 139, 147
of revolution, 19
parabolic point of a , 22
parametrized , 22, 148
partial velocities of a , 21, 136, 137
principal curvatures of a , 143
principal curves of a , 22, 147, 148
principal directions of a , 22, 142, 143
quadratic approximation of a , 22
tangent plane to a , 21, 120
total curvature of a , 22, 142
unfolding , 22
Weingarten operator of a , 22, 142
symmetric
bilinear form, 13, 79
element, 33
endomorphism, 62
linear mapping, 10, 11, 62
matrix, 12, 74, 87, 88, 91
symmetric of a geometric object, 16
system
of dierential equations, 24, 167170
of homogeneous linear dierential equa-
tions, 24
of linear dierential equations, 24
tangent line, 19
to a circle, 6, 30
to a conic, 18
to a hyperbola, 32
to a parabola, 32
to an ellipse, 31
tangent plane to a quadric, 18, 119, 120
tangent straight line, 109, 123125
theorem
Cayley-Hamilton , 12, 75, 76, 78
dimension , 10, 14, 60, 82, 83
Euler , 22, 146
Grassmann , 8, 42, 58, 59, 84
Meusnier , 22, 143
of implicit functions, 123
of the inverse function, 123
Pythagorean , 9, 50, 114
Rodriguez , 142
Rouche , 5, 29, 41
torsion of a space curve, 21, 134, 135
total curvature of a surface, 22, 142
translation, 11, 62
unique decomposition, 50
unit vectors, 126
unstable dierential system, 24, 170
Vandermonde determinant, 37
vector eld, 25
vector space, 6, 34, 138
dimension of a , 38, 42, 49, 50, 59, 84
vector subspace, 68, 34
dimension of a , 10, 14, 42, 54, 58, 60,
61, 82, 83
generators of a , 95
invariant , 12, 72, 73
orthogonal complement of a , 49
orthogonal complement of , 9
projection onto a , 51
vector subspaces
direct sum of , 8, 42
supplementary , 7, 8, 10, 42, 58, 59
Index of notions 189
vectors, 82
coplanar , 95
linearly independent , 7, 50, 83, 84,
87, 95
non-coplanar , 95
orthogonal , 8, 46, 47, 8688, 90, 91,
94, 95, 102, 138
volume
of a parallelepiped, 15, 95
of a tetrahedron, 15, 95
of a triangular prism, 15, 95
Weingarten operator, 146
Wronski matrix, 168
zero element, 33