Prokaryotes are necessary to cause decay and recycle nutrients like carbon and nitrogen Prokaryotes cause nitrogen

fixation: takes element (N2) and converts it into a form that organisms can use (NH3) Rhizobiums are part of the nitrogen cycle Lactobacillus acidophilus is part of our intestines and are good for digestion (probiotics) VIRUSES Viruses arent cellular; viruses are like chunks of genome that got free (typically very small) and are more closely related to cells that they affect No monophyletic group at all. Group based on structure: negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus (swine flu) complement to mRNA. Enter host cell. RNA genome is used to make mRNA and then produce proteins and express the virus. Causes measles, mumps, rabies, influenza etc Positive-sense single-stranded RNA: enter host cell which directly translates into proteins. Most diverse group: mosaic virus that infects plants, polio, hepatitis, common cold, coronavirus RNA retrovirus: (HIV) primates and other animals have immunodeficiency viruses. Single stranded RNA invades host cell and makes reverse transcriptase, which makes DNA from that RNA, which is then incorporated into the host cells genome, which is then replicated and transcribed as part of it. RNA retroviruses only affect vertebrates; some HIV associated with cancers Double-Stranded RNA viruses: more than 100 HPV types Common warts- about 60 groups- common warts on skin like hands and feet Mucosal or genetic- about 40 types Low risk types such as 6 and 11- low grade cervical cancer changes; genital warts; respiratory papillomas; throat cancers High risk types such as 16 and 18- low grade cervical cancer; high grade cervical changes, pre-cancers; anogenital cancers; throat cancers [more throat cancer cases are caused by HPV than by smoking!] Over 80% of the human population carry HPV Double Stranded DNA virus have a really large genome; include bacteriophages: small pox and herpes (chicken pox and shingles)

QUESTION: You discovered a prokaryote growing in leftovers in the kitchen. Analyze structure and discover cell wall is thick and has a mesh-like structure. What kind of prokaryote is it? QUESTION: Archaea should be in a domain of its own, separate from Bacteria and Eukarya. What claim will not help your defense? B. Peptidoglycan is found in the cell wall of Archaea. It is not! QUESTION: You have a friend who wants a cow. Wants to treat with massive amount of antibiotics to kill all the bacteria in its body good idea? NO! Cows have bacteria to help digestion in their bodies at all times. Independent Study: How do denitrifying, nitfriying, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria participate in the nitrogen cycle while making nitrogen available to other organisms? Terms to be familiar with: _____________________________

CHAPTER 20 Protists are the only unicellular eukaryotes, easy to study their evolution bc so small Not a monophyletic group What do protists tell us? Eukaryotes are monophyletic and more closely related to eukaryotes than bacteria. Cell wall is lost, no peptidoglycan in them; cytoskeleton formed, plausible given structure of flagella; nuclear envelope formed through envagination of plasma membrane; vacuoles appeared; mitochondria and chloroplasts were engulfed Endosymbiotic theory: mitochondria and chloroplasts were their own separate cyanobacteria, and were engulfed as if it were food by the eukaryote, but was never digested (primary endosymbiosis) TWO membranes: plants, green algae, red algae Secondary endosymbiosis: engulfed a whole cell; some chloroplasts have three membranes Number of chloroplasts membranes is used to delineate the evolution of plants. Evidence and support of Endosymbiotic Theory: 1. Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA and more similar to prokaryotes

2. Transcribed and translated with their own ribosomes, still more similar to prokaryotes 3. Reproduction of mitochondria and chloroplasts involves DNA replication that looks a lot like binary fission of prokaryotes. 4. Observations provide evidence to this day totally plausible! Fossil diatoms: really cool!!! Primary producers, so have their own pigmentation. Worlds most important producers; produce more oxygen for us to breathe than all of the worlds rainforest. They die, sink to bottom of ocean, sedimentation, fossilization, compression, OIL! Also create diatomaceous earth, used in insulation, construction, polishing, and insect killer non chemically! (dust that is essentially shards of glass bc cell walls are made of silicone, so when using it people wear face masks) Radially or bilaterally symmetrical. Cell walls are in two parts, so one sits inside of the other Another group of protists are ampicomlexan- parasitic Ex) malaria; worlds most deadly disease, but really easy to cure and prevent! DINOFLAGELLATES: Many of these are also producers, not as productive as diatoms, but still important primary producer in marine environments Endosymbionts inside coral, provide energy through photosynthesis, mutualism Cause red tide when coral randomly expels them, then both die because dont have supported. Two flagella and rest in grooves Not all are photosynthetic though- bioluminescence! Foraminiferan- brown algae; multicellular protists