Electrical Measurements

LECTURE 2: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
DEFINITION: We define measurements as an experimental process during which the value of an unknown quantity is found and expressed, with certain limits of accuracy, in multiples of a standard unit.
Illustrative example:
You visit your local butchery and ask for a piece of meat to be weighed. The butcher places the meat on a weighing pan and reads out the result of the weighing. Note that his actions constitute an experiment. The weighing device the butcher is using is a STANDARD for Mass or Weight (depending on whether a balancing lever or weighing spring is used). A typical result of the measurement will look as shown:
Measured Weight =
1 KG
Or put it simply, the butcher discovered the meat weighed 6 KG.Now measured weight that was observed.
KG is a
standard unit for mass. And it is 6 times of the unit KG that will express the
If the butcher has enough information about the accuracy of the measurements, then limits can be added to the measurement so that the complete result appears as shown below.
Measured Weight =
6 0.2
1 KG
FORMS OF MEASUREMENT: There are three established forms of measurements. 1) Direct form of measurement-where a measuring device is designed to directly indicate the result immediately after it has been introduced to the measurand (the thing to be measured, such as Mass,Voltage, Distance etc). Such is the case when one puts a voltmeter across two points in a circuit then it reads the voltage and immediately displays it on the screen. Indirect form of measurement-where it is known that a relationship exists between the measurand and other quantities. Those quantities are first found by direct measurement then the measurand is estimated using the results. When one measures resistance of an element, but first gets the voltage across it with a voltmeter then proceeds to measure the current in it using an ammeter and finally divides the Voltage reading by the Current reading, then the resistance has been found by indirect measurement. Measurement by comparison-Where the value of the measurand is established after seeing that another known standard produces the same effect or creates a balance with the measurand.
2)
3)
The following diagram illustrates the forms of measurement.
R A
A
M
V
R= V / A
A)Direct measurement of Voltage and current.
B)Indirect measurement of resistance R.
C)Measurement of mass M by comparison with a standard S.
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS.
ERRORS ACCORDING TO ORIGIN: Every measurement must contain an error because of the following three sources: 1) 2) 3) Method. Instrument. Person.
METHOD ERROR: Is caused by either insufficient knowledge of the physical laws that govern the quantity to be measured (called the Measurand) or by simplification or inappropriate use of the measurement procedure.
Example. A method error can occur (due to inappropriate use) when one takes a moving coil D.C voltmeter to measure the R.M.S. value of an A.C. voltage wave using the rectified form of the voltage wave. Since a moving coil D.C. meter is designed to measure average values then it will indicate the average rather than the R.M.S value. The desired R.M.S. value can be found by scaling the reading with a coefficient called form factor. If we do not do so then we directly encounter this error in addition to our insufficient knowledge of the laws governing the measurand.
INSTRUMENT ERROR: Is the result of the instrument being affected by other conditions other than the changes in the measurand.
Illustration. When one uses an instrument in measurement and there are variations in temperature, humidity, seismic movements, pressure, electromagnetic field, friction in moving parts etc..etc, then some of these variations affect the accuracy of the reading resulting in the instrumental errors.
PERSONAL FACTOR ERROR: Is created when the human being (each acting in his own different way) affects the result of the measurement.
Illustration. Typically the human being is inconsistent in his measurement actions. Every human being acts in a unique way in the course of measurements. When one is participating in an experiment for long hours where his\her attention is continuously required errors caused by fatigue and biological inactivity patterns can to be considerable.
ERRORS ACCORDING TO MANIFESTATION: It is not possible to isolate the various components of error described above and trace them down to stating how much each factor contributed to creating the resultant error. So if we establish that an error in measuring 1 kilogram of meat equalled 10 grams, we cannot say, for instance, that 30% of that error was due to method, 40% was due to instrument while the rest was personal factor. The problem is further compounded by the fact that each of the above sources of error contains a random element and a bias ( or constant offset) about which the random element varies. Therefore the experimenter will see only two things causing error in the final result of measurement: 1) 2) A systematic error (A constant bias or an offset). A random varying error.
SYSTEMATIC ERROR: This is an error, which appears to be constant in each repeat measurement of the same quantity.
RANDOM ERROR: This is an error, which appears to assume a new value in each repeat measurement of the same quantity. It cannot be described to exactness except by characterising using a random law that best fits the distribution of the errors.
The following chart summarises the points about the errors discussed above.
ERRORS ACCORDING TO SOURCE
METHOD RAND.
INSTRUMENT SYST. RAND.
PERSON SYST. RAND.
SYST.
ERRORS ACCORDING TO MANIFESTATION
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
RANDOM
ERRORS
TOTAL ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF ERRORS: EVALUATING SYSTEMATIC ERRORS: The systematic error is in fact the quantity called AVERAGE or MATHEMATICAL EXPECTATION in statistics. If we rely on an instrument to perform a measurement, then a more accurate instrument can help give an estimate of the average error of the first instrument. This can be done in two ways: By comparing the readings of the instruments at different points along the scale taking all readings under same conditions. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU : 5
Making repeated measurements of the same quantity under varying conditions but within the permitted limits, which are defined by the manufacturer.
Example 1.
(with data adopted from ELC 231 Exam Ac yr 2005\2006)
1. Determine the systematic error of the instrument that is being tested. 2. What action would you take if you were to perform a measurement and you can estimate the systematic error in the measurement? TEST FREQUENCY(HZ) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 10.0 100.0 200.0 500.0 1000.0 INDICATED FREQUENCY(HZ) 8.0 108.0 190.0 510.0 998.0
Solutions. 1. We assume the test frequency is close to the true value. Therefore the errors are found by subtracting the ideal from the measured:
INDICATED 8.0 108.0 190.0 510.0 998.0
TEST 10.0 100.0 200.0 500.0 1000.0
ERROR -2.0 8.0 -10.0 10.0 -2.0
SYSTEMATIC ERROR (AVERAGE) = 2.
0.8
As already mentioned this means every measurement has a systematic error of 0.8. Every result must be offset backwards by subtracting 0.8 so that we can partly compensate for the systematic error.
Example 2. The mass of a known mass of ONE KILOGRAM was repeatedly measured using an instrument working within the manufacturers conditions. Find the systematic error of the instrument.
No. 1 2 3 4 5
MEASURES OF A 1 KG MASS. 0.96 0.98 1.03 1.01 1.00 SYSTEMATIC ERROR EQUALS -0.004
ERRORS -0.04 -0.02 0.03 0.01 0.00
NOTE: It is very common to find that the accurate instrument for comparison with the one that the experimenter is frequently working with is not immediately available. In such cases if there is sufficient confidence that the day-to-day working instrument is in proper calibration and has negligible offsets, then the true value of the measurements is considered to be the average of the varying results. Further analysis is reduced to finding only the random component of the errors (more on this later).
Example 3. The mass of an unknown weight was repeatedly measured using an instrument working within the manufacturers conditions. Assuming no bias, find an estimate for the reading closest to the true value. No. 1 2 3 4 5 MEASURES OF A MASS OF 1 KG. 0.96 0.98 1.03 1.01 1.00 Closest to true value is Average 0.996
Solution 3. Hence following our confidence and belief, that the readings are evenly distributed about the true value we necessarily conclude that the true value is nearest to 0.996 KG and on rounding to 3 significant figures we achieve an estimate of 1.00 Kg. (This is the way most experimenters think argue and behave in measurements. However the potential repercussions of offsets can lead one to pick on an assumed true value that is far from the realistic one. ALWAYS ELIMINATE BIASES BY COMPARATIVE TESTING WITH MORE SUPERIOR STANDARDS.
Some modern instruments such as oscilloscopes and computer-based devices incorporate facilities for calibrating and reducing offsets)
EVALUATING RANDOM ERRORS: To get a measure of the random error, the experimenter first needs to know what kind of probability distribution function best describes the set of random values at hand. In most cases in nature the random variables tend to obey the Gaussian distribution. The probability density function of the Gaussian distribution is described by:
Dp( x) =
( x xo) 2 exp 2 2 2 1
Here Dp (x) is the probability density function of the random error x
-is the standard deviation of the disttribution,

and xo is the systematic error that was earlier calculated.
In most cases we are interested in the probable error, which is defined by the 50% confidence limit. Within these limits 50% of all the random variables are expected to lie inside. For Gaussian distributions these limits are at 0.6745 , as illustrated in the diagram below.
Systematic error value, Xo
50 % of the random errors will lie within these limits.
lower limit Upper limit
0.6745
Xo
+ 0.6745
Depending on the desired confidence, other limits may also be encountered. For the perfect Gaussian distribution 68.3 % of the random errors will lie within about xo, 95% within 2 around xo and 99.7 % will fall within 3 about xo.
To evaluate the probable error resulting from a distribution one needs to find the standard deviation. If the sample is small then one calculates the small sample standard deviation. The following example illustrates.
Example 4. Find the probable error in the distribution of frequency (Hz) from the given data.
MEASURES OF FREQUENCY
INDICATED 8.0 108.0 190.0 510.0 998.0 TEST 10.0 100.0 200.0 500.0 1000.0 ERROR -2.0 8.0 -10.0 10.0 -2.0
SYSTEMATIC ERROR (AVERAGE) =
0.8
Solution 4. INDICATED 8.0 108.0 190.0 510.0 998.0 TEST 10.0 100.0 200.0 500.0 1000.0 Error, X -2.0 8.0 -10.0 10.0 -2.0 (X-Xo)2 7.84 51.84 116.64 84.64 7.84 268.8
SYSTEMATIC ERROR, xo =
0.8
(X-Xo)
Hence the small sample standard deviation equals
( n1) =
( X Xo)
(5 1)
268.8 4
= 8.20
And the probable error (Random error at 50 % confidence limit) equals 0.6745 x 8.20 = 5.5 Hz. For a different value of confidence limit the random error will be a different value.
EVALUATING TOTAL ERROR: This is the sum of the SYSTEMATIC ERROR and the PROBABABLE ERROR. Using the results of Example 4, the total error in the measurement equals: Total error =0.8 + 5.5 =6.3 Hz.
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS OF MEASUREMENT: This means that for every result of measurement we obtain using the instrument that we tested, we should put the limits of error 6.3 Hz in absolute or relative form.
Example (from example 4). Presenting errors in absolute form.
8.0
6.3 Hz
108.0 6.3 Hz 190.0 6.3 Hz 510.0 6.3 Hz 998.0 6.3 Hz
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Example (from example 4). Presenting errors in relative form.
8.0
6.3
8.0 108
Hz Hz Hz Hz Hz
(*Note the numbers used in dividing)
108.0 6.3 190.0 6.3 510.0 6.3 998.0 6.3
190 510 998
It can be clearly seen that towards the upper side of the scale the relative errors are lower. It is encouraged as good practise in measurements that you use the upper half of the scale for such instruments by selecting the appropriate scale range. (*Note: Here the readings have been assumed to be the true values because after calibration the true value falls within the given limits. Otherwise relative error is the ratio of the absolute error to the true value)
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LECTURE 4:
CLASS OF INSTRUMENT: The manufacturer will normally provide data on the accuracy of the instrument that is delivered for sale. One standard procedure is to take the total error of the instrument divided by the range of the instrument and expressed in percentage form. CLASS= (TOTAL ERROR RANGE) x 100 % The following example illustrates.
Example 5 The instrument described in Example 4 has a scale with a range from 0 to 1000 Hz. Calculate the class.
INDICATED 8.0 108.0 190.0 510.0 998.0
TEST 10.0 100.0 200.0 500.0 1000.0
Error, X -2.0 8.0 -10.0 10.0 -2.0
(X-Xo)squared 7.84 51.84 116.64 84.64 7.84 268.8
SYSTEMATIC ERROR, xo = PROBABLE ERROR = TOTAL ERROR = RANGE =
0.8 5.5 6.3 0 TO 1000 HZ
Solution 5 Therefore class equals:
6 .3 x100 = 0.63 1000
This figure will normally be indicated on the face panels of instruments or in the data sheets accompanying the instruments, typically like in the figure shown below.
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This is a class 0.63 instrument at any point along scale.
0 0.63 HZ
1000
USING CLASS TO DETERMINE THE LIMITS OF ERROR OF AN INSTRUMENT:
If you know the class of an instrument, then it is easy to calculate the expected limits of error. Error limits =
Class x Range 100
Example 6
On the face panel of an instrument the range is from 0 to 30 volts. The class of the instrument is indicated as 1.5. 1) 2) Calculate the limits of error when the reading is 20 Volts. Estimate the relative error in the measurement.
Solution 6
1)
Error limits are
1 .5 x
30 = 0.45 Volts. 100
2)
Relative error is
0.45 = 0.0225 or 2.25 %. 20
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Example 7. SOLVE THE FOLLOWING PAST PAPER QUESTION FROM ELC 231 YR 2005/ 2006.
Question Seven
A) A frequency meter has a class 0.5% rating indicated on the 0-1 kHz display. A verification test is performed and the test results are shown in table Q7A. (i) Calculate the class of the instrument, stating all assumptions. (8 marks) (ii) Determine whether the instrument is fit for use. (1 marks)
TEST FREQUENCY(HZ) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 10.0 100.0 200.0 500.0 1000.0
INDICATED FREQUENCY(HZ) 8.0 108.0 190.0 510.0 998.0
Table Q7A
FINDING LIMITS OF ERROR FOR INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS:
In indirect measurements more than one instrument may be involved. The error in measurement depends on the errors of the different instruments used in the measurement. If it is assumed that the errors of the instruments are not correlated, then the maximum limits of error may be determined using a method based on the Taylor series approximation. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU : 14
First the function, which relates the measurand to the other quantities, is determined. Then the limits of error are determined taking into consideration, that the errors can generally be random, using a method derived from partial derivatives in mathematics. This is illustrated using the following example.
Example 7. FROM PAST PAPER QUESTION OF ELC 231 YR 2005/ 2006.
Q7.. B) The circuit fig. Q7B can be used for indirect measurement of power factor in an A.C. circuit.
Fig. Q7B
In this scheme the power factor, pf, is defined by the relationship: (P.T.O)
pf=W/(VxI)
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Where W-is the measured power, V and I are the rms voltage and current in the circuit. Given the wattmeter is 10% accurate while the voltmeter and ammeter are 8% and 5% accurate respectively, find the limits of error in measures of pf using this circuit scheme. (5 marks)
Solution 7: The function for power factor, pf was given in the problem. It is:
pf =
W VxI
We need to appreciate some facts from mathematics, which we will be using. The relative error in the measure of power factor is given by the ratio absolute error in measuring the power factor
pf . Here pf is the pf
pf . However, from mathematics, the relative error can pf be found by first evaluating the partial derivative and then substituting incremental values from pf
the resulting partial derivatives. This expression can be easily found if we use the natural logarithms approach.
Continuing with the solution 7: Given
pf =
W VxI
ln(V ) ln( I )
Then taking natural logarithms of the expression:
ln( pf ) = ln(W )
Taking derivatives of the ln functions we get:
d pf dW = pf W
dV V
dI I
If the wattmeter, the voltmeter and the ammeter have uncorrelated errors, then the limits of the relative error in measuring the power factor, pf, are given by:
dpf = pf
dw dv dI + + W V I
we further note, that
dW dV dI , and are the relative errors of the various instruments being used W V I
in the measurement of the power factor pf.
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Hence after substitution in the last formula we find that the relative error in measuring the power factor is
10 2 + 8 2 + 5 2
= 14 % error. This translates to saying there was a relative error of 0.14 for
the reading of the power factor.
Similar error analysis can be made for any other relation after evaluating the appropriate formula for natural logarithm.
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LECTURE 5: PERFORMANCE OF INSTRUMENTS

The performance characteristics of some instruments can be defined through some of the given standard definitions (I have adopted the definitions from Electrical Measurements, by Martin U. Reissland).
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DIGITAL AND ANALOG SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT

ANALOG SYSTEMS: These are systems, which operate using continuous variables. DIGITAL SYSTEMS: They use discrete or coded numbers in their operation. Most digital systems employ computers or microprocessors.
EXAMPLES: Examples of analog processing are in analog displaying and recording techniques.
10
20
Analogue display
Pen moves along shown direction as paper moves.
Moving Paper
Strip chart recorder ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU : 19
Examples of a digital display and recorder are shown below.
Digital display read-out.
Monitor
Key pad for control of data logger and style of display.
Connecting power cable and data lines.
Digital data logger
To process being monitored
Digital recorder
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COMPARISONS BETWEEN ANALOG AND DIGITAL SYTEMS
ANALOG Advantages Humans can quickly read displays and estimate the value Humans can easily monitor the changes taking place using the recorded curves Disadvantages There are uncertainties in the estimations. Parallax errors can occur The processing and recording of analog information is limited in accuracy
DIGITAL Advantages No parallax errors. Disadvantages Humans are slower at reading numerical displays.
The processing results in better accuracy. Besides they can be easily reprogrammed to improve performance. Can record on cheap media such as hard disks, diskettes, compact disk, USB memory etc and transfer coded information without degrading the accuracy Though slower, modern digital speeds are good enough for most types of measurements.
It is difficult for a human being to follow a process by remembering recorded numbers and codes. The discontinuous operation means that some information is lost between successful samples of reading and processing data. For extremely fast operations they may be inappropriate.
Continuous operation or continuous recording.
Can be expensive for chart recorders as special paper and ink are always required. Transfer of data degrades accuracy
Faster processing than an equivalent digital device.
The speed is achieved but accuracy can be poorer
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LECTURE 6 TECHNIQUES OF CIRCUIT ANALYSIS FOR MEASUREMENTS

INTRODUCTION: Analysis of electric and magnetic circuits is introduced here at very elementary level as an aid to understanding future topics in this course. A detailed treatment is found in the courses ELC 211 and ELC 261.
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS: These are circuits containing one or more sources of energy and passive elements such as resistors, capacitors and inductors. Circuit analysis involves finding unknowns such as voltages and currents in elements. Electric circuit elements obey Ohms law and Kirchhoffs laws at the same time.
OHMS LAW: The voltage, V, dropped across a resistance element, R, is proportional to the current, I, in that element.
I R
V, Volts
OHMS LAW
V =RI
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KIRCHHOFFS FIRST LAW (KCL): The algebraic sum of all currents entering or leaving a node is ZERO. In other words the sum of currents entering a node equals the sum of currents leaving that node. This is also called Kirchhoffs current Law (KCL).
6 Amps 4 Amps 1) 6 Amps- 4 Amps - 2 Amps = 0 (i.e. if we assume entering is a positive action and leaving is a negative action all entries plus departures add up to ZERO) 1) 6 Amps = 4 Amps + 2 Amps (i.e we assume 6 Amps entered and therefore 2 Amps and 4 Amps leaving must equal 6 Amps.)
2 Amps
KIRCHHOFFS SECOND LAW (KVL):
THE THEORY: In any closed loop of a circuit the algebraic sum of the voltage drops equals ZERO.
CIRCUIT V1 A (Reference) R1= 3 Ohms I VOLTAGE DROP VECTORS
A(Reference) V1 Vs V2
Vs
E= 24 Volts
V2
R2= 4 Ohms
V3 R3= 5 Ohms current I B V3 Fig A B Fig B
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This law is also called Kirchhoffs voltage law. For one to be able to apply Kirchoff second law correctly one must make some initial assumptions depending on how the circuit currents are flowing or assumed to flow and how the polarities of the EMFs have been marked:
1)
Assumption 1: If a current flows in an element, which is not a source of energy, then the point at which the current enters is initially assumed to be at higher potential compared to the point where the current leaves the element. The voltage drop arrow starts at the point of higher potential and ends at the point of lower potential.
2)
Assumption 2: For an EMF, the point marked + is initially assumed to be at a higher potential than the one marked -. Therefore the arrow of its voltage drop starts at the point + and ends at the point -.
3)
Assumption 3: A reference point for the circuit must be chosen. The potential at this point may be assumed zero (the point is taken arbitrarily at any point of the circuit). In this example I just decided on point A. You can pick on any other point and make it the reference or datum point.
According to the circuit the current I equals 24Volts /12 Ohms = 2 Amps. The Voltage drops across each of the elements can be found by applying Ohms law on each element. Hence V1= 6 Volts, V2= 8 Volts and V3= 10 Volts. Using the assumptions a closed circuit of vectors representing the voltage drops is constructed. For this particular situation this will resemble Fig. B shown above. It can now be clearly seen, that V1+V2+V3 Vs = 0 Or V1+V2+V3= Vs
Noting, that the magnitude of Vs= E, Then So that IR1+IR2+IR3=E I (R1+R2+R3)=E
APPLING KVL IN PRACTICE: In practice we set equations with the law using simpler rules of the thumb. These are explained here and I highly recommended them to you for your convenience. We use the circuit Fig. A to illustrate (reproduced below and modified for convenience). ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU : 24
CIRCUIT
Walking round the circuit !
A (Reference)
V1 R1= 3 Ohms E= 24 Volts Rotate! V2 R2= 4 Ohms
R3= 5 Ohms current I B V3 Fig A
Imagine yourself taking a walk round the circuit in the direction of rotation shown! You started your journey at point A. Now you will probably encounter resistors and energy sources along your excursion before you again reach A to end your journey. Rule 1: Start with the elements that are not Energy sources (Leave out EMFs encountered)
In this example you first will encounter the resistor R1. Ask yourself only one question, IS THE CURRENT IN THE RESISTOR FLOWING ALONG THE DIRECTION I AM GOING? There are only two possibilities. YES-if the current is along your path or NO-if the current is against your path. If your answer is YES then declare the voltage drop in that resistor positive and it is given by, +IxR1, where I is the current and R1 is the value of resistance. Your answer is NO if the current is flowing opposite to your direction of walk on the resistance element. When you encounter this situation the voltage drop in the element is negative and is entered as I xR. Repeat the same question for all other resistors, encountered along the way, and update your summation until you reach A from the other side. In our simple example it was YES s all through and after the cycle you should get the expression like:
+ IR1 + IR2 + IR3
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Rule 2: Now start the journey again from point A to A, same style! However this time you are on the look out for EMF sources and are disregarding the resistors you see. For our example you will encounter one EMF source. The test question to ask is, IS THE EMF POINTING TOWARDS THE DIRECTION I AM GOING? If YES then take its value and consider it a positive entry. If NO then take the value and consider it a negative entry. The resulting expression for our circuit will look like:
+E
Rule 3: Now you are ready to balance the voltage drops and the EMFs. This is the easiest part of the rules. Take what you got from applying Rule 1 and equate it to what you found after applying Rule 2.
The result is:

+ IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = + E
RESISTANCES IN SERIES: Resistances are said to be in series if there is a common unbranched current through all of them.
R1
R2
R3
I Amperes
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RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL:
A I1 I2 I3
R1
R2
R3
27
Resistors are considered to be in parallel if there is a common point on either side such that the voltage drop across any of them is the same.
USING THE KIRCHOFFS LAWS TO SOLVE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS: Finding voltages and currents in circuits containing one loop is a simple exercise. However, when the circuit is complex (many unknown currents to find or has many loops and branches) then a systematic approach to the solution is required. The most critical part in developing the solution is to get the equations right because Garbage In Goes Out As Garbage!. Again some simple rules of the thumb have been created to make the exercise easy. These will be illustrated with an example. Consider the following circuit.
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RULE 1: LABELLING. If there are no labelled currents in the circuit, then create your currents in each branch and then label those currents. The directions of currents are chosen arbitrarily. If the currents have already been given, then use them. After selecting (my) currents the circuit appears as shown in the following diagram.
RULE 2: Count the number of Nodes in the circuit and call this N. You need to set (N 1) equations using Kirchhoffs current law. In our case we have N=2 nodes, therefore we set only one equation using any one node. By KCL: i) I1-I2-I3=0
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RULE 3: Count the number of branches with unknown currents. Call this B. Your system of equations should finally have the same dimension as B, the number of unknowns (Solution of simultaneous equations in mathematics).
In our example we have B=3 branches with unknown currents implying that three equations are required. But since one equation has already been found using KCL, then we need only TWO equations using KVL. We can pick on any two different loops (the solution will end up being the same regardless of the loops chosen).
After selecting (my) loops the circuit appears as shown in the figure below. These loops give the equations shown.
CIRCUIT WITH LOOPS SELECTED.
Circuit equations:
ii) iii)
+25 I1 = -25 + 50 +25 I3 = 25
Now we can find the solution using any mathematical tools for solving simultaneous equations.
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The set of equations we set are: i) ii) iii) I1-I2-I3=0 +25 I1 = -25 + 50 +25 I3 = 25
Solving the equations (for complicated problems, use Crammers rule, or Gaussian reduction techniques. For simple problems use substitution method)
Therefore:
I3= 1Amp. I1= 1 Amp. I2= 0 amp.
It should be noted that in measurements other techniques of circuit analysis such as the PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION, NODE VOLTAGE, THE MESH CURRENT METHOD and THEVENINS THEOREM, STAR-DELTA AND DELTA-STAR TRANSFORM are very useful but space and time will not allow their detailed review in this course this time. However they will be needed since we will analyse electrical measurement devices and circuits for both D.C. and A.C. measurements and even include 3-phase power measurements. The student is referred to the relevant course ELC 211 on this.
SYMBOLS USED FOR ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS:
The components of a circuit can be either sources or passive elements. The sources can be either D.C or A.C. And each source may be a voltage or current source. The passive elements can be either Resistors or Inductors or Capacitors. The following symbols denote these elements. Other forms of expressing the same exist, be cautious.
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SOURCES AC VOLTAGE SOURCES E
VOLTAGE SOURCE
+ _
+ E
E=120 V / 0o
CURRENT SOURCES
CURRENT SOURCES
+ J
J=1 A / 0o
PASSIVE ELEMENTS
R RESISTOR OR R
CAPACITOR
Zc =
C
j C
OR
Zc
INDUCTOR
Z L = j L
zL OR L
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BEHAVIOUR OF CIRCUITS UNDER DC AND AC ENERGY SOURCES: In an electric circuit with linear passive elements, the distribution of currents and voltages to a great extent will depend on not only the elements themselves but also on how the source Sees those elements. Before going to AC analysis let us appreciate how inductors and capacitors in D.C. circuits are seen. Consider the following circuit made up of passive components and a D.C. source of energy.
A Direct Current source has a constant supply and there are no frequent variations in the supply over the period of interest. Therefore the frequency of changes in the supply is ZERO in other words for a D.C. circuit the frequency =0.
Now if we place an inductor in the D.C. circuit, it will offer some resistance-like behaviour, which is officially called REACTANCE. And it depends on the frequency and the value of the inductance L. This reactance (crudely a resistance) has a magnitude of L. Our inductor in this circuit will offer a reactance of 0x 2=0 Ohms. By similar reasoning, the capacitor in our circuit will offer a reactance of 1/ (0x4) = So the source of D.C. energy will see the inductor as a short (a wire link with zero resistance across it) and see the capacitance as an open (a place where there is no wire link and so current can not flow or the resistance is too high to permit current flow).
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The resulting equivalent circuit is the following diagram.
Hence. The current in the inductor will be just like the current in the connecting wires or 2 Amps. This will be the same current in the 5 Ohm resistance. The capacitor will have no current and since the inductor has shorted its electrodes it will also have no charge because the voltage drop across it is ZERO. Generally in DC circuits the charge held by a capacitor equals CxVc, where C is the value of the capacitor and Vc is the voltage across the capacitor, found using the methods described earlier on in this lecture module.
Now consider the same circuit, but now the source of energy is a voltage, which varies according to the sinusoidal law (see the figure below): V=10 Sin (5 t + 0o) Volts. In general such a voltage has the form V= Vm Sin (t+), where Vm is the amplitude of the supply voltage, is the supply frequency in Radians per second, is the initial phase angle of the supply voltage wave and t is the time we are interested in. In reaction to such a supply voltage all currents and voltage drops will also be sine waves. In addition each current in an element and each voltage drop will have its own amplitude and initial phase but the frequency will be retained constant. Further the reactive elements will generally be offering finite non-zero resistance. Analysis is therefore complicated. However using simple techniques derived from theories of complex numbers the calculations are simplified to the extent that we use the Ohm and Kirchhoff laws just like before but we end up getting all information about the current and voltage waves in circuit using PHASORS ON A COMPLEX PLANE (more about them later).
34
COMPLEX PHASORS AND WHY WE NEED THEM: A phasor (see figure below) is a rotating vector that expresses the behaviour of a sine wave at any point in time. The vector OA is rotating about point O anticlockwise starting from point A where it initially had an angle AoX = 45 o . This vector passes through points B, C, D, E, F, G and so on back to A. If you observe the locus of the arrowhead at point A of the vector then you get the graph shown on the right hand part (see the figure). Now the y-component of this graph is in fact a sine wave and in this case our wave has an initial phase angle of 45o. In general this initial phase angle of the wave depends on the initial orientation of the vector shown on the left part of the figure. Now we can describe a sine wave using a rotating vector.
35
A FIGURE OF A ROTATING VECTOR AND ITS CORRESPONDING SINE WAVE (Above).
Now in analysis of A.C. circuits the voltages and currents in the form of sine waves. This means we require to be able to add, subtract, multiply, divide and raise to power voltage and current waves of the type V= Vm Sin (t+v) and I= Im Sin (t+I)!!! Clearly this can be difficult. Such calculations become easy if we let the rotating vector be on the complex plane. We call the vector in the complex plane complex phasor. The y axis of the complex plane is the imaginary axis. All the values along the imaginary axis will now represent the sine wave, which will resemble the figure just described above.
Complex phasors make such calculations a simple matter using common algebra of complex numbers. At the heart of the method using complex phasors is the fact that a vector on a complex plane can easily be expressed as a complex number and that this complex number can be expressed in exponential form. The following illustrates the basics and mathematical operations with complex numbers (Adopted from Modern Control Systems, by Richard C. Dorf. I quote the Author: A COMPLEX NUMBER: We are all familiar with the solution of the algebraic equation, Eq 1, X2-1=0 Eq.1 Which is X= 1. However, we often encounter the equation X2+1=0 Eq.2
36
A number that satisfies equation Eq.2 is not a real number. We note that Eq.2 may be written as X2= -1 Eq.3 And we denote the solution of equation Eq.3 by use of an imaginary number j1 so that j2= -1 Eq.4 And j= 1 Eq.5 An imaginary number is defined as the product of the imaginary unit j with a real number. Thus we may, for example, write an imaginary number as j b. A complex number is the sum of a real number and an imaginary number, so that c=a+j b Eq.6 Where a and b are real numbers. We designate a as the real part and b as the imaginary part and use the notation Re (c )= a And Im (c )= b.
RECTANGULAR, EXPONENTIAL AND POLAR FORMS: The complex a+b j may be represented on a rectangular coordinate place called a complex plane. The complex plane has a real axis and an imaginary axis, as shown In the fig 1. The complex number c is the directed line identified as c with coordinates (a,b). The rectangular form is expressed in equation Eq.6 and pictured in fig 1.
37
An alternative way to express the complex number c is to use the distance from the origin and the angle , as shown in fig 1. This exponential form is written as c= r e j . Where r= And
(a 2 + b 2 )
= tan 1 (b/a)
Note that a = r cos and b = r sin . The number r is called the magnitude of c, denoted as | c |. The angle can also be defined by the form . Thus we may represent the complex number in polar form as . c= |c| = r Example Ex.1 Exponential and polar forms.
Express c= 4 + j 3 in exponential form.
Solution: First sketch the complex plane diagram as shown fig 1. Then find r as . r=
(4 2 + 3 2 ) = 5
38
= tan-1(3/4)= 36.9o.
The exponential form is then

c = 5e 36.9
o
The polar form is

c = 5 36.9 o
MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS: The conjugate of the complex number c= a + j b is called c* and is defined as . c* = a jb In polar form we have .c*= r To add or subtract two complex numbers, we add (or subtract ) their real parts and their imaginary parts [separately]. Therefore if c= a + j b and d = f + j g, then c+d=(a+jb)+(f+jg)=(a+f)+j(b+g). The multiplication of two complex numbers is obtained as follows (note j2=-1): . cd =(a+jb) (f+jg) =af+jag+jbf+j2bg =(af-bg)+j(ag+bf). Alternatively we use the polar form to ontain .cd= (r1 1 )( r2 2 ) = r1r2 (1 + 2 ) where c= r1 1 and d= r 2 2
Division of one complex number by another complex number is easily obtained using the polar form as follows:
c r11 r1 = = = (1 2 ) d r 2 2 r 2
It is easiest to add and subtract complex numbers in rectangular form and to multiply and divide them in polar form. A few useful relations for complex numbers are summarised in the following table
39
USEFUL RELATIONS FOR COMPLEX NUMBERS (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1/j = -j (-j)(j) = 1 j2= -1 1 ( ) = j 2 ck = r k k
[the following example illustrates]
END OF QUOTE
40
HOW TO SOLVE IN AN AC ELECTRIC CIRCUIT:
Let us start with Ohms Law in AC circuits. It will look as shown.
V Z= I Z
For example, if Then
V= 50 sin (300 t + 75o) while I= 10 Sin (300t+30o)

Z=
5075 o = 545 o o 1030
Z = 3.53+3.53 j
Interpreting the solution Z: This means that the resistance has a value of Z = 3.53+3.53 j The standard term for the resistance appearing as a complex number is IMPEDANCE. From the mathematical angle this impedance has been found by dividing two sine waves.
ILLUSTRATING USE OF KCL IN AC CIRCUITS:
Example: A sine wave current of I1=3 sin (50t+0o) enters a node where another current I2=4 sin (50t+90o) is also entering. Find the resulting out-flowing current I3. Solution: ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU : 41
Complex phasor notations for the given currents will appear as shown in the following figure.
I1 = 30o Amps
I2 = 490o Amps
Find I3
I3
By
KCL :
o
I 3 = I1 + I 2
I 3 = 30 + 490 o I3 = 3 + 0 j + 4 j or I 3 = 3 + 4 j = 553.1o
Interpreting the solution: The meaning of the solution follows from the given argument. The out-flowing current I3 is also a sine wave. It has amplitude of 5 Amps and an initial phase of 53.1o. Or in other words I3=5 sin (50t + 53.1o) and from the mathematical point of view we have added two sine waves to get a third sine wave. ILLUSTRATING KVL, PHASOR DIAGRAMS and POWER CALCULATIONS IN AC CIRCUITS: Example: A) (i) Find the current flowing in the circuit and (ii)the voltage drop across the capacitor, C, if the supply voltage is E=240 Sin (10t + 0o) Volts. B) (i)Construct a phasor diagram of the voltage and current, with the voltage as the reference phasor and Calculate the power delivered by the source and that used by each passive component.
42
CIRCUIT
Walking round the circuit !
A (Reference)
R= 30 Ohms
V1
E= 240/0o Volts
Rotate!
V2
L=4 H
C= 1/500 Farads current I B V3 C
Solution: A) (i) We first find the impedances offered by each element. Given E then we know that the supply frequency is 10 Radians per second. 1) circuits Now the impedance of resistors does not change even in AC
Therefore impedance of the given resistor R is ZR= 30 Ohms. 2) The reactance of inductors in AC circuits (was mentioned earlier) is [Reactance]= [Radian frequency] x [Value of inductance]
And the impedance of an inductor equals [ j ] x [ Reactance ]. Hence impedance of the inductor equals ZL = jx10 Radians per Sec. x 4 Henry
ZL = 40 j Ohms.
3)
By similar reasoning, the impedance of the capacitor equals
ZC=[ -j ] / [ Reactance ] ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU : 43
ZC = -j / ( 10 Radian per Sec x 1 / 500 Farads)
ZC= - 50 j Ohms. The circuit then appears as shown in the following diagram.
CIRCUIT Walking round the circuit !
A (Reference)
ZR= 30 Ohms
V1
E= 240/0o Volts
Rotate!
V2
ZL=40j Ohms
ZC=-50j Ohms current I B V3 C
Since all these impedances are connected in series, then the effective impedance Ze in the circuit equals
Ze = Z R + Z L + Z C = 30 10 j Ohms
Current equals, I =
E 2400 o 2400 o = = = 7.59 + 18.4 o Ze 30 10 j 31.6 18.4 o
(ii) For the second part we can use the method of potentials or we can balance the EMFs to the voltage drops as we did before by applying our rule of the thumb. Lets again use that rule.
Walking round the circuit we will see the voltage drops V1, V2 and V3. Balancing these voltage drops with the EMFs gives: ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU : 44
+V1+V2+V3= +E Since we are interested in the voltage drop, V3, across the capacitor, we make it the subject. Meanwhile substituting in the rest of the elements we get: +IxZR + IxZL + V3 = +E
Or V3= E Ix( ZR + ZL ) You may check the correctness of the expression using other methods that you know well enough. You should be able to see that we are calculating the potential of point C above that of point B (see the circuit) as the last equation suggests.
Hence, V3= 240 / 0o 7.59 / 18.4o x ( 30 + 40 j ) Volts V3= 240 / 0o 379.5 / 71.5o Volts V3= V3= 240+0j (120.4+359.9j) Volts V3= V3= 119.6 359.9j Volts Therefore V3= 379.3 / -71.6o
B) i)The phasor diagram of current and voltage is just another way to say show the emf E and the current I as vectors on a common plane. In addition, by saying the reference vector is E, we mean that we want to show the orientation of the other vectors while E is taking the reference direction (normally the reference vector is aligned to either the X or Y axis then the others are reoriented according to the angles resulting from calculations). Our solution will appear as shown in the figure below.
45
PROBLEMS: i) ii) Find the currents in the elements of the given circuit. Show the currents on a phasor diagram with reference to the EMF phasor.
46
LECTURE 7 INTRODUCTION TO TRANSDUCERS

DEFINITION:
Transducers are devices, which convert the energy form of the measured information into another energy form. The simplest transducers are based on Resistance, Capacitance and Inductance.
Transducers are called active if no source of electrical energy is required for their correct operation. Transducers are called passive if electrical energy is required for their correct operation.
RESISTANCE TRANSDUCERS:
These are devices, which change their resistance in accordance with changes in the measurand. Some examples are shown in the following figures.
POTENTIOMETER According to Ohms Law, V=IR. The same current I flows in both parts of the resistor. R2 So Vo= I R2 and V1= I (R1+ R2). Hence Vo = V 1 R1 + R 2
47
Fig. 1
This transducer Fig. 1 can be used to measure linear displacement. The transducer Fig. 2 can be used to measure angular displacement.
Fig. 2
48
METAL RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
Fig.3 Metal resistance wires , Fig. 3, change their resistances with temperature according to the formula RT = Ro(1 + [T To]) , where Ro is the resistance at a reference temperature To, is the temperature coefficient of resistance and T is the present temperature.
THERMOCOUPLE
Fig. 4 If two wires of different materials are used to form a junction, a potential difference is developed due to a phenomenon called Peltier Effect. The potential difference created at the tip is proportional to the temperature of that tip. This device is called Thermocouple and it can be used to measure temperature T as a function of the voltage Vo, such that Vo=kT, and T is the absolute temperature. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU : 49
THERMISTOR
Fig. 5
THERMISTOR STATIC CHARACTERISTIC
Fig. 6 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU : 50
The thermistor, Fig. 5, is a special type of resistance temperature transducer based on semiconductors. When the thermistor body is heated the resistance temperature reduces exponentially.
The sensitivity is high at lower temperatures but lowers as temperature is raised (see Fig. 6). Here RT is the resistance at temperature T, Ro is the thermistor resistance at reference temperature To and is called the material constant.
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS:
These are devices with capacitance, which alters in accordance with the changes in the measurand. Some examples are shown in the following figures.
DISPLACEMENT SENSOR
Let the plate 1 (Fig. 7) be d meters above plate 2. The plate 1 overlaps plate 2 with a common area, A=LxW Metres2. Then the capacitance between the two plates is A LxW , where o, r 1 are the dielectric permittivity pf free equals C = or = or d d space and relative permittivity respectively. If the measurand is variable displacement L, then CL is given by:
w C L = or L Farads. d
The expression in square brackets becomes the sensitivity, which will be a constant for this particular characteristic (see Fig. 8).
52
Fig. 8
LIQUID LEVEL SENSOR
Fig. 9
The liquid level sensor, Fig. 9, can be used to measure the height, x, of liquid. The two plates in the liquid can be seen as two capacitors connected in parallel such that one capacitor, Co, has air dielectric with permittivity o and another, Cr, with liquid having relative dielectric permittivity r . From the Fig. 10, below, the value of the capacitance is given by Cx. This has also been derived below.
53
Fig. 10
Derivation.
Co = o( H x) Cr = or
w d
w x d Let Cx = Co + Cr w w + o [r 1]x d d
Then Cx = oH
w w and o [r 1] are constants then the static characteristic of this d d w transducer will be a straight line with gradient G= o [r 1] and a Y-intercept of d w C= oH . This is shown in Fig.11 d
Noting that oH
54
Fig. 11
PURITY CHECKER
The capacitor, Fig.12, can be used to measure the purity of a dielectric. In a particular application this capacitive transducer is used to measure the moisture content of materials such as cereals. Since water has a high relative permittivity, r =80, a small amount of water causes a drastic change in the capacitance.
INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
Here the measurand changes the inductance or mutual inductance of an element so that it is functionally related to the measurand.
Fig. 13
Consider the magnetic circuit shown in Fig.13, above. Let the coil be of N- turns and the armature is displaced by the measurand, x, by an amount x. If, A, is the crosssection area then from basics of magnetic circuit analysis:
56
mmF where mmF is the magneto-motive force and mR is the reluctance and mR N where N is the is the flux in the magnetic circuit. We define inductance as L = I number of coil turns and the current in the coil is I.
Derivation.
mmF = NI Let
AmpereTurns 1 l in the core ro A
mR = mR1 + mR 2
where mR1 = and mR 2 = 1 2x o A
in air.
Then total reluctance, mR, equals

1 2x 1 l + . ro A o A
mR =
Therefore the inductance is
L=
N 2 orA (l + 2 rx)
For inductive transducers with this construction as the gap increases the inductance decreases in a non-linear fashion as shown in Fig. 14, below.
57
Fig. 14 LVDT
Fig. 15
58
The LVDT, Fig. 15, is a transducer, which works somewhat like a transformer because it has a primary coil and two secondary coils. The armature, A, is moved by the measurand. When the armature is at the center, symmetrically located with respect to the secondary coils, each secondary coil receives an equal EMF. The secondary coils are connected in a way (see the conductor link between points B and C in the above figure) such that the resultant EMF in each secondary opposes that of the other secondary coil. Hence the output will be ZERO.
When the armature is displaced as shown in the figure above, the EMF in the secondary coil 1 will be much bigger than EMF in the secondary coil 2. Therefore the net voltage Vo=E1-E2 will now be non-ZERO. This EMF varies linearly with displacement, x.
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS As mentioned earlier, transducers can be passive or active depending on whether energy is required or not. This is shown in the following diagram, Fig. 16. We need to power the potentiometer ,A,so that it can work. Therefore the potentiometer is a passive transducer. And the thermocouple,B, is an active transducer because energy is not required for it to generate a voltage (it draws its energy from the measurand).
LECTURE 8: THE BASIC METER MOVEMENT.

DEFINITION:
The basic meter movement is a mechanism, which allows one to measure forces and moments. Mechanical and electrical devices use this mechanism in their designs to make various instruments. In construction the basic meter movement consists of 1) a scale 2) a pointer 3) a drum rotating on a spindle 4) a restoring spring and 5) a damper (fig. 1).
Fig.1
OPERATION: When a moment is suddenly applied at the drum the drum will tend to rotate with acceleration in accordance with Newtons laws of circular motion according to the equation:
d 2 = Mt dt 2
Where J is the moment of inertia of the rotating parts, is the angle of deflection and Mt is the applied moment. As the drum starts rotating an opposing moment due to viscous friction is developed. This opposing moment is proportional to the velocity d . Besides the moment due to viscous friction there is an opposing moment due to dt the restoring spring. This last moment is proportional to the angular displacement . So the equation finally has the form:
d 2 d +B + C = Mt 2 dt dt
where B and C are the viscous and restoring spring constants. Depending on the value of B we can have either of three possible motions called UNDERDAMPED, CRITICALLY DAMPED or OVERDAMPED. In order to tell the type of motion at the analysis stage the equation above is first rewritten to have a standard form. This is illustrated below.
60
d 2 B d C Mt + + = 2 J dt J J dt
this last equation can be compared with a standard second order equation of the form
d 2 d Mt + 2 + 2 = 2 dt J dt
In the last equation the term is the natural frequency (not in radians per second but repititions per second) with which the pointer would have oscillated if there were no damping and is called damping ratio. Now when the damping ratio =0, the motion is called undamped and the pointer will continue to oscillate without stopping for infinite time. However this situation is not desirable for pointer instruments. When >1 then the motion will be overdamped. In the overdamped case the pointer will slowly move towardsa the final position without any oscillation.When 0< <1 the motion of the pointer is called underdamped. In underdamped motion the pointer will rise and overshoot the final position then oscillate about the final position but the oscillations will die down slowly. When =1 the motion of the pointer is called critically damped. For most instruments the critically damped situation is the most preferable. In critically damped response the pointer neither oscillates nor dedelays. Therefore it takes minimum time for the pointer to achieve the final value. If the last two equations are compared then it is seen that:
C J B 2 CJ
Curves of responses are shown for different values of damping ratio .
Fig. 2
61
SOLUTION OF A METER MOVEMENT PROBLEM:
There are three possible solutions that describe the way the pointer of a meter movement will behave. The differences in the solutions are governed by the damping ratio . Mathematically the solutions can be seen as the three standard solutions of a non-homogenious second order differential equation with constant coefficients.
Example 1. OVERDAMPED CASE (when >1): Consider the given differential equation, at t=0 and
d2y dy + 5 + 6 y = 1 with initial conditions y=0 2 dt dt
dy = 0 at t=0. (i) Let us verify that >1 and (ii) proceed to find the solution dt to this equation.
Solution 1. i) Comparing this equation with a standard second order equation we find that the natural frequency of oscillation is 6 = 2.45 Hertz. Hence = 5 =1.02. Since 1.02>1 then this is indeed a case of overdamped 2 x 2.45 motion.
ii)
Now to solve the equation we first find the auxiliary equation. If we let d K then the auxiliary equation becomes K 2 d + 5 K + 6 = 0 . From here dt the solution of a quadratic equation for unknown K gives K1=-2 and K2=-3. The free state solution, FOR OVERDAMPED CASE, associated with these roots has the form:
y free = Ae K1t + Be K 2t where, y free is the free state solution, A and B are unknown
constants to be determined through the initial conditions. Hence y free = Ae =2t + Be =3t
The particular solution to the given differential equation is derived from the d2y dy equation + 5 + 6 y = 1 after making all the differential terms equal to ZERO. 2 dt dt 62 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :
The resulting equation is 6y=1. Since y is now called the particular solution we write 6yparticular=1. Hence yparticular=1/6.
The complete solution is y=yfree+yparticular. Or y= Ae-2t+Be-3t+1/6.
To find the constants A and B we will need a system of two simultaneous equations and initial conditions. One equation can be readily found by letting t=0 in the last equation above while the second equation can be evaluated after we first differentiate the last equation and then let t=0. First equation:
y (t = 0) = Ae 0 + Be 0 + 1 / 6 or 0 = A + B + 1/ 6
Second equation:
dy = 2 Ae 2t 3Be 3t dt At t = 0 dy (t = 0) = 2 A 3B = 0 dt or 2 A + 3B = 0
We therefore need to solve the simultaneous equation: (i ) A + B = 1 / 6 (ii )2 A + 3B = 0 Hence, A= -1/2 And B= 1/3. The total solution is then y=(-1/2)e-2t+(1/3)e-3t+1/6.
63
Example 2. CRITICALLY DAMPED CASE (when =1): Consider the given differential equation, at t=0 and equation.
dy = 1 at t=0. (i) Verify that =1 and (ii) proceed to find the solution to this dt
Solution 2. i) Natural frequency is
4 = 2 oscillations per second. Damping ratio =
4 =1 2 x2
ii) Setting the auxiliary equation we get K2+4K+4=0. From these K1= -2, K2= -2, both roots are real valued and equal.
The free state solution, for CRITICALLY DAMPED CASE, associated with these roots has the form:
y free = Ae K1t + (t ) Be K 2t where, y free is the free state solution, A and B are
unknown constants to be determined through the initial conditions. This means that y free = Ae = 2t + Bte = 2t . The procedure for the rest of the solution is as in the previous case, where we proceed to find the particular solution, add the free-state and particular solutions together, express the total solution and finally obtain the constants A and B from initial conditions. For this example we finally get y= (1/2)e-2t +(-1/4)e-2t +(1/4).
Example 3. UNDERDAMPED CASE (when <1): Consider the given differential equation, at t=0 and equation. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU : 64
dy = 0 at t=0. (i) Verify that <1 and (ii) proceed to find the solution to this dt
Solution 3. i) Natural frequency is
4 = 2 oscillations per second.

2 =0.5. 2 x2
The damping ratio
ii)
After finding the roots of the auxiliary equation we obtain: K1= -1+ j 3 and K2= -1- j 3 .
When the case is under-damped, the roots are complex conjugates such that one root has the form K1=a+bj while the other has the form K2=a-bj, as is the situation in this example.
The free-state solution in under-damped case has the general format: Yfreestate= AeatSin (bt+ ) . Where a and b are the coefficients from the complex roots and A and are unknown constants to be determined from initial conditions. Using the roots that were calculated above yfreestate=Ae-tSin ( 3 t + ).
The rest of the solution is as before. However, due to the special nature of the trigonometric function, this solution will be illustrated.
The particular solution equals yparticular=1/4. The total solution equals y=yfreestate + yparticular = Ae-tSin ( 3 t + ) + .
Recall the initial conditions, y=0 and Then at t=0:
dy = 0 at t=0. dt
y= A Sin ( ) +1/4 = 0 Therefore Also A Sin ( ) +1/4= 0..Eq(1).

dy = A{ [e-t] [ 3 Cos ( 3 t + ) ] + [-e-t] [Sin ( 3 t+ )} dt
65
Therefore
3 Cos Sin =0Eq(2).
After solving the simultaneous equations Eq(1) and Eq(2) we get,
=60o and A= -0. 289.

Hence the solution becomes: y= [-0.289] e-t Sin ( 3 t +60o) +
66
67

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LECTURE 2: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.

The following diagram illustrates the forms of measurement.

A)Direct measurement of Voltage and current.

B)Indirect measurement of resistance R.

C)Measurement of mass M by comparison with a standard S.

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

ERRORS ACCORDING TO SOURCE

INSTRUMENT SYST. RAND.

PERSON SYST. RAND.

ERRORS ACCORDING TO MANIFESTATION

TOTAL ERROR IN MEASUREMENT

(with data adopted from ELC 231 Exam Ac yr 2005\2006)

INDICATED 8.0 108.0 190.0 510.0 998.0

TEST 10.0 100.0 200.0 500.0 1000.0

ERROR -2.0 8.0 -10.0 10.0 -2.0

SYSTEMATIC ERROR (AVERAGE) = 2.

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

ERRORS -0.04 -0.02 0.03 0.01 0.00

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

Here Dp (x) is the probability density function of the random error x

-is the standard deviation of the disttribution,

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

Systematic error value, Xo

50 % of the random errors will lie within these limits.

lower limit Upper limit

SYSTEMATIC ERROR (AVERAGE) =

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

Hence the small sample standard deviation equals

108.0 6.3 Hz 190.0 6.3 Hz 510.0 6.3 Hz 998.0 6.3 Hz

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

Example (from example 4). Presenting errors in relative form.

108.0 6.3 190.0 6.3 510.0 6.3 998.0 6.3

190 510 998

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

INDICATED 8.0 108.0 190.0 510.0 998.0

TEST 10.0 100.0 200.0 500.0 1000.0

Error, X -2.0 8.0 -10.0 10.0 -2.0

(X-Xo)squared 7.84 51.84 116.64 84.64 7.84 268.8

SYSTEMATIC ERROR, xo = PROBABLE ERROR = TOTAL ERROR = RANGE =

0.8 5.5 6.3 0 TO 1000 HZ

Solution 5 Therefore class equals:

6 .3 x100 = 0.63 1000

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

This is a class 0.63 instrument at any point along scale.

USING CLASS TO DETERMINE THE LIMITS OF ERROR OF AN INSTRUMENT:

Error limits are

30 = 0.45 Volts. 100

0.45 = 0.0225 or 2.25 %. 20

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

TEST FREQUENCY(HZ) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 10.0 100.0 200.0 500.0 1000.0

INDICATED FREQUENCY(HZ) 8.0 108.0 190.0 510.0 998.0

FINDING LIMITS OF ERROR FOR INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS:

Example 7. FROM PAST PAPER QUESTION OF ELC 231 YR 2005/ 2006.

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

Continuing with the solution 7: Given

Then taking natural logarithms of the expression:

Taking derivatives of the ln functions we get:

we further note, that

in the measurement of the power factor pf.

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :

the reading of the power factor.

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LECTURES BY SEVERINUS KIFALU :