Plasma Arc Cutting

AWS C5.
2:2001 An American National Standard
Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging
COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc. Licensed by Information Handling Services
Key Words Plasma arc cutting, gouging,

constricted arc, ionizing gas, nozzle, safety
AWS C5.2:2001 An American National Standard Approved by American National Standards Institute May 4, 2001

Supersedes AWS C5.2-83
Prepared by AWS C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Cutting Under the Direction of AWS Technical Activities Committee Approved by AWS Board of Directors
Abstract
This revised recommended practice provides information regarding current practices for plasma arc cutting and gouging. The document explains the basic principles of operation, methods of operation, system components and their installation, optimization of cut quality, and cost considerations. Safety aspects associated with the process are also discussed.
550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, Florida 33126
Statement on Use of AWS American National Standards

All standards (codes, specifications, recommended practices, methods, classifications, and guides) of the American Welding Society are voluntary consensus standards that have been developed in accordance with the rules of the American National Standards Institute. When AWS standards are either incorporated in, or made part of, documents that are included in federal or state laws and regulations, or the regulations of other governmental bodies, their provisions carry the full legal authority of the statute. In such cases, any changes in those AWS standards must be approved by the governmental body having statutory jurisdiction before they can become a part of those laws and regulations. In all cases, these standards carry the full legal authority of the contract or other document that invokes the AWS standards. Where this contractual relationship exists, changes in or deviations from requirements of an AWS standard must be by agreement between the contracting parties. International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-648-8 American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126 2001 by American Welding Society. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America AWS American National Standards are developed through a consensus standards development process that brings together volunteers representing varied viewpoints and interests to achieve consensus. While AWS administers the process and establishes rules to promote fairness in the development of consensus, it does not independently test, evaluate, or verify the accuracy of any information or the soundness of any judgments contained in its standards. AWS disclaims liability for any injury to persons or to property, or other damages of any nature whatsoever, whether special, indirect, consequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication, use of, or reliance on this standard. 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Official interpretations of any of the technical requirements of this standard may be obtained by sending a request, in writing, to the Managing Director Technical Services, American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126 (see Annex A). With regard to technical inquiries made concerning AWS standards, oral opinions on AWS standards may be rendered. However, such opinions represent only the personal opinions of the particular individuals giving them. These individuals do not speak on behalf of AWS, nor do these oral opinions constitute official or unofficial opinions or interpretations of AWS. In addition, oral opinions are informal and should not be used as a substitute for an official interpretation. This standard is subject to revision at any time by the AWS C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Cutting. It must be reviewed every five years and if not revised, it must be either reapproved or withdrawn. Comments (recommendations, additions, or deletions) and any pertinent data that may be of use in improving this standard are required and should be addressed to AWS Headquarters. Such comments will receive careful consideration by the AWS C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Cutting and the author of the comments will be informed of the Committees response to the comments. Guests are invited to attend all meetings of the AWS C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Cutting to express their comments verbally. Procedures for appeal of an adverse decision concerning all such comments are provided in the Rules of Operation of the Technical Activities Committee. A copy of these Rules can be obtained from the American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126. 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Personnel
AWS C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Cutting J. R. Hannahs, Chair N. A. Sanders, 1st Vice Chair D. B. Holliday, 2nd Vice Chair M. O. Kulp, Secretary *E. R. Bohnart H. A. Chambers C. Connelly J. DeVito R. M. Dull D. A. Fink I. D. Harris *R. T. Hemzacek G. K. Hicken R. P. Munz S. R. Potter *B. L. Shultz R. L. Strohl E. G. Yevick A. P. Yost Consultant Hypertherm Northrop Grumman Corp. American Welding Society Welding Education & Consultant TRW Nelson Stud Welding Division Poly-Weld ESAB Welding & Cutting Products Edison Welding Institute The Lincoln Electric Co. Edison Welding Institute Consultant Sandia National Laboratory The Lincoln Electric Co. SSP Consulting Services The Taylor Winfield Corp. Tweco-Arcair Weld-Met International Group The Lincoln Electric Co.
AWS C5J Subcommittee on Plasma Arc Cutting N. A. Sanders, Chair A. Oseitutu, Secretary J. D. Colt *J. R. Hannahs I. D. Harris S. D. Hidden C. Landry J. Lu M. Manohar A. F. Manz V. Nemchinsky
*Advisor
Hypertherm American Welding Society Mechanized Product Manager Process Equipment Co. Edison Welding Institute Miller Electric Mfg. Co. Centricut LLC W. A. Whitney Co. Bethlehem Steel Corp. A. F. Manz Associates ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
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Foreword
(This Foreword is not a part of AWS C5.2:2001, Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging, but is included for information purposes only.) These recommended practices were first prepared by the AWS C5J Subcommittee on Plasma Arc Cutting of the AWS Committee on Arc Welding and Cutting in 1973. The document was revised and substantially expanded in 1983. This current revision provides additional updated information on the process principles, methods, equipment, and safety and health aspects. Comments and suggestions for the improvement of this standard are welcome. They should be sent to the Secretary, AWS C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Cutting, American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126. Official interpretations of any of the technical requirements of this standard may be obtained by sending a request, in writing, to the Managing Director, Technical Services Division, American Welding Society (see Annex A). A formal reply will be issued after it has been reviewed by the appropriate personnel following established procedures.
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Table of Contents
Page No. Personnel .................................................................................................................................................................... iii Foreword .......................................................................................................................................................................v List of Tables................................................................................................................................................................ix List of Figures..............................................................................................................................................................ix 1. General ..................................................................................................................................................................1 1.1 Scope.............................................................................................................................................................1 1.2 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................1 1.3 General Process Description .........................................................................................................................1 1.4 Principles of Operation .................................................................................................................................3 1.5 Individual Process Descriptions....................................................................................................................3 1.6 Commonly Processed Base Metals...............................................................................................................6 1.7 Safety and Health..........................................................................................................................................7 Applicable Documents ..........................................................................................................................................7 Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging Methods...........................................................................................................7 3.1 Manual Plasma Arc Cutting..........................................................................................................................7 3.2 Mechanized Plasma Arc Cutting ..................................................................................................................8 3.3 Deep Underwater Plasma Arc Cutting..........................................................................................................8 3.4 Plasma Arc Gouging .....................................................................................................................................9 Equipment, Consumables, and Gases ...................................................................................................................9 4.1 Torches ..........................................................................................................................................................9 4.2 Arc Initiation Methods................................................................................................................................11 4.3 Power Sources.............................................................................................................................................11 4.4 Controls.......................................................................................................................................................12 4.5 Electrodes and Nozzles (Consumable Hardware).......................................................................................13 4.6 Cutting Machines ........................................................................................................................................13 4.7 Pollution and Hazard Control .....................................................................................................................18 4.8 Plasma Gas Selection..................................................................................................................................20 Installation Considerations..................................................................................................................................22 5.1 Site Selection and Planning ........................................................................................................................22 5.2 Electrical Power and Safety Grounding......................................................................................................22 5.3 Gas Supply ..................................................................................................................................................22 5.4 Water Supply...............................................................................................................................................22 Optimizing Plasma Arc Cut Quality ...................................................................................................................23 6.1 Cut Angle ....................................................................................................................................................23 6.2 Dross ...........................................................................................................................................................24 6.3 Metallurgical Effects...................................................................................................................................25 6.4 Kerf Width ..................................................................................................................................................26 6.5 Quality Improvement Suggestions..............................................................................................................26 Economics ...........................................................................................................................................................27 7.1 Plasma Arc Cutting Equipment ..................................................................................................................27 7.2 Accessory Equipment Costs 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Page No. 7.3 Operational Costs........................................................................................................................................27 7.4 Process Comparisons ..................................................................................................................................27 8. Safety and Health Hazards ..................................................................................................................................29 8.1 Electrical Shock ..........................................................................................................................................29 8.2 Explosion ....................................................................................................................................................29 8.3 Fumes and Gases ........................................................................................................................................30 8.4 Noise ...........................................................................................................................................................30 8.5 Radiated Light.............................................................................................................................................31 8.6 Radiated Heat/Spatter and Sparks...............................................................................................................31 8.7 Chlorinated Solvents...................................................................................................................................31
AnnexesNonmandatory Information Annex AGuidelines for Preparation of Technical Inquiries for AWS Technical Committees..................................33 Annex BTerms and Definitions ................................................................................................................................35 Annex CSelected Reading List ................................................................................................................................39 AWS List of Documents on Arc Welding and Cutting .................................................................................................41
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List of Tables
Table 1 2 3 Page No. Recommended Plasma/Shield Gas Combinations .......................................................................................10 Conventional Plasma Arc Kerf Widths for Mild Steel Plate........................................................................26 Recommended Shade Densities for Plasma Arc Cutting Filter Lenses .......................................................31
List of Figures
Figure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Page No. Plasma: The Fourth State of Matter ...............................................................................................................2 Temperature Differences Typical GTAW vs. Typical PAC ............................................................................2 Plasma Arc Torch Circuitry ...........................................................................................................................3 Single-Gas Plasma Arc Cutting .....................................................................................................................4 Dual-Flow Plasma Arc Cutting ......................................................................................................................4 Water Injection Plasma Arc Cutting ..............................................................................................................5 Manual Plasma Arc Cutting ...........................................................................................................................8 Different Methods to Achieve High-Current Density..................................................................................11 Gantry Crane Cutting Machine ....................................................................................................................14 Punch/Plasma Press......................................................................................................................................15 Plasma Cutting RobotClassic Six-Axis Design .......................................................................................15 Cantilever Cutting Machine with Optical Tracing Head..............................................................................16 Sample Part Program....................................................................................................................................17 Water Muffler ...............................................................................................................................................18 Underwater Plasma Cutting .........................................................................................................................19 Collection Cup SystemWet Type .............................................................................................................20 General Features of Plasma Arc Cut............................................................................................................23 Direction of Cut with Clockwise Swirl........................................................................................................24 Typical Dross-Free Window for 200 Amp Oxygen Plasma Cutting Process on Mild Steel........................25 Typical High- and Low-Speed Dross and Drag Lines .................................................................................26 Typical Cutting Cost Breakdown200 Amp O2 Plasma Cutting Operation ..............................................28 Comparison of Cost200 Amp Plasma Arc Cutting vs. Oxyfuel Cutting .................................................28
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1. General
1.1 Scope. This document describes the recommended practices of plasma arc cutting and gouging. It provides a brief history of its application process development and provides a general description of components used for the process, controls, power supplies, and process consumables. The types of cutting machines and the related control systems are described, along with associated pollution and hazard control methods. Methods of optimizing cut quality and economics associated with the process are discussed. Safety and health aspects associated with the plasma arc cutting and gouging process are discussed. These recommended practices, prepared by the AWS C5J Subcommittee on Plasma Arc Cutting of the AWS Committee on Arc Welding and Cutting, are intended to guide plasma arc operators and supervisors in the use of plasma arc cutting and gouging equipment. These recommended practices are not intended to take the place of sound engineering principles and should be supplemented with the equipment manufacturers operation and safety instructions. This standard makes use of the U.S. Customary Units. Approximate mathematical equivalents in the International System of Units (SI) are provided for comparison in parentheses ( ) or in appropriate columns in tables and figures. 1.2 Introduction. A nontechnical description of plasma is the fourth state of matter, the three familiar states being solid, liquid, and gas. For a common substance such as water, these three states are ice, water, and steam. When energy in the form of heat is added to ice, the ice melts and forms water, as shown in Figure 1. When more energy is added, the water vaporizes into steam. By adding more energy to steam the water vapor will disassociate into hydrogen and oxygen. Additional energy will cause the hydrogen and oxygen to become ionized. These ionized gases are electronically conductive. The resulting high-temperature conductive gas is known as plasma.
1.3 General Process Description. Plasma arc cutting (PAC) is a process that severs metal by using the heat of a nozzle-constricted plasma arc to melt a localized area. The molten metal is removed by a high-velocity stream of high-temperature, ionized gas. Plasma arc gouging uses the same process to remove material from the surface of a plate without fully penetrating the workpiece. Welding research scientists discovered in the early 1950s that the characteristics of the open arc used in gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) could be altered to perform cutting operations instead of welding. The arc was constricted by directing it through an orifice in a watercooled copper nozzle located between the electrode and the workpiece, which greatly increased the arcs power density. They discovered that constricting the arc into a well-focused column raised the arcs voltage significantly, making it more concentrated than the open arc used for welding. Figure 2 shows arcs operating at the same current. The plasma jet on the right is only moderately constricted by the nozzle, but it operates at about twice the voltage and it acts considerably hotter than the open arc (GTAW) on the left. Even higher energy intensity can be achieved by constricting the arc with a boundary layer of nonionized gas inside the nozzle bore. The effectiveness of this boundary layer can be increased by swirling the plasma gas and raising the flow rate, which forces the cool, non-ionized gas outward radially into a thicker boundary layer. This protects the nozzle orifice allowing it to operate at higher energy levels and prolonging its life. The characteristics of the plasma jet vary according to the gas flow rate, nozzle orifice size and arc current, as well as the type of gas used (gases are discussed in 4.8). A low flow rate, for example, reduces the jets momentum and forms a highly concentrated heat source ideal for welding, but inadequate for cutting or gouging. Conversely, if the gas flow is increased sufficiently, the momentum of the plasma jet will be high enough to expel the metal melted by the heat of the plasma arc, resulting in gouging or cutting.
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Figure 1Plasma: The Fourth State of Matter
Figure 2Temperature Differences Typical GTAW vs. Typical PAC
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1.4 Principles of Operation. The circuitry of the basic plasma arc system is shown in Figure 3. The operating cycle begins by causing the plasma gas to flow around the electrode and out through the orifice in the nozzle. A DC open circuit potential of 250 V400 V (negative polarity) is applied to the electrode, with the workpiece being at ground potential. After an ionized path is created between the electrode and the nozzle (see Arc Initiation Methods in 4.2), a main plasma arc (transferred arc) is then generated between the electrode and the workpiece. The cutting or gouging process can then proceed. 1.5 Individual Process Descriptions 1.5.1 Conventional Plasma Arc Cutting. The first plasma arc cutting process, developed during the 1950s, could cut any metal at relatively high cutting speeds. Disadvantages of early conventional plasma arc cuts included rough, angled cut surfaces and short electrode and nozzle life. Originally limited to mechanized cutting, conventional plasma arc cutting system designs have been significantly refined. Conventional plasma arc cutting systems are now available for both mechanized and hand-held cutting systems that employ single-gas, multiplegas, and other process variations. There are now a number
of different types of plasma arc cutting systems. Descriptions of the different systems follow, listed in their order of chronological development. 1.5.2 Single-Gas Plasma Arc Cutting. A schematic of the basic single-gas torch is shown in Figure 4. After the plasma gas flows through the nozzle plenum which surrounds the electrode, and exits the nozzles orifice, the electrode receives a DC voltage. An ionized path is created between the electrode and the nozzle by a pilot arc or some other means. A main plasma arc is then generated between the electrode and the workpiece, after which the cutting or gouging process can proceed. 1.5.3 Dual-Flow (Shielded) Plasma Cutting. The dual-flow technique, developed in the early 1960s, added a second, outer nozzle (shield cup) to provide a passageway for a concentric flow of a shielding gas around the plasma gas. This is illustrated in Figure 5. Nitrogen, air, carbon dioxide, argon, oxygen and argon-hydrogen mixtures can be used as a shielding gas. The selection of the shielding medium is based on the type of metal to be cut or gouged, the metallurgical properties desired for the finished edge, and the physical properties of the edge, such as dross, squareness (bevel), smoothness, and flatness.
Notes: R = Resistance S = Switch HFI = High-Frequency Ignition Source
Figure 3Plasma Arc Torch Circuitry
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Figure 4Single-Gas Plasma Arc Cutting
Figure 5Dual-Flow Plasma Arc Cutting
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The main advantages were reduced double-arcing, improved consumables life, faster cutting speeds on mild steel and improved cut surfaces by countering different metals chemical reactive tendencies by a variety of gases available for shielding. Cut quality was not significantly improved, however, and cutting speeds on stainless steel and aluminum were essentially the same as that achieved by conventional, single-gas plasma arc cutting. Modern dual-flow systems are available for either mechanized or manual cutting. 1.5.4 Air Plasma Arc Cutting. Researchers in the early 1960s discovered that the oxygen content of air could increase mild steel cutting speeds by 25%, which would reduce operating costs. But there were disadvantages with oxidizing plasma gases: electrode life was very short, and oxidized cut surfaces were a disadvantage in some cases. Air plasma arc cutting systems did not gain wide use until the 1980s, when electrode improvements and cutting at lower currents helped overcome these problems. 1.5.5 Water Shield Plasma Arc Cutting (Mechanized only). This mid-1960s variation on dual-flow mechanized plasma arc cutting substituted water for the
shield gas. The cooling effect of the water improved nozzle life and the appearance of the cut surfaces (mainly on stainless steels), but squareness, speed and the tendency to form dross along the kerf were not measurably improved. 1.5.6 Water Injection Plasma Arc Cutting (Mechanized only). In the late 1960s, a process was developed that used water to constrict the arc as well as to shield it. The water strikes the arc as a high-velocity spray, either radially or in a tangential (swirling) manner, as illustrated in Figure 6. Greater arc constriction can be achieved through water injection than by the nozzle alone. This advance increased cut speeds and squareness, and eliminated dross on mild steel. Nitrogen became the preferred gas for water-injection plasma arc cutting of all metals, offering good parts life, eliminating double-arcing, and improving squareness and cutting performance. Air or oxygen may also be used as the plasma gas. The cooling provided by the injection water permits the use of a ceramic material in the lower portion of the nozzle. This feature extends nozzle life, improves piercing capability of the torch, and acts as a barrier against double-arcing between the nozzle and the workpiece.
Figure 6Water Injection Plasma Arc Cutting
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1.5.7 Low-Current Air Plasma Arc Cutting. The main disadvantage of short consumable parts life for air plasma arc cutting was overcome in the early 1980s with the introduction of lower current air plasma systems. These plasma systems were typically 100 amps or less and gas cooled. Many companies introduced smaller, easier-to-operate, less expensive systemsincluding hand-held cutting systemsand helped plasma arc cutting become the process of choice for the first time in many industries. 1.5.8 Oxygen Plasma Arc Cutting (Mechanized only). Oxygen plasma arc cuttings major disadvantage unacceptably short parts lifewas overcome in the early 1980s, with the introduction of the water-injected oxygen plasma arc cutting process for cutting mild steel. Cutting speeds were significantly increased and lower cutting current levels produced smooth, square cuts that could be easily welded without rework. The use of hafnium and zirconium electrodes allowed the use of oxygen for cutting mild steel. The virtual elimination of dross, high-cut speeds, and cut surface quality outweighed the shorter than desired consumable parts life. 1.5.8.1 Extending Consumables Life for Oxygen Plasma Arc Cutting Techniques. Plasma arc cutting systems manufacturers R&D efforts concentrated on making longer-lasting consumable parts for air and oxygen plasma arc cutting during the late 1980s. Because mild steel cutting dominates the industry, and oxygenbased plasma arc cutting provides the fastest method for cutting mild steel, interest in air and oxygen plasma arc cutting has always been high. Plasma system manufacturers achieved extended electrode and nozzle life with techniques that control the cutting current and gases far more precisely than previous processes. Plasma arc cutting operators using systems that incorporate these new techniques can greatly increase their productivity and reduce the cost of cutting: they use fewer parts and reduce downtime by changing parts less frequently. 1.5.9 High-Current-Density Plasma Arc Cutting (Mechanized only). The plasma arc cutting industrys response to laser cutting came in the early 1990s with the introduction of a new generation of dual-flow plasma arc cutting that offered cleaner, squarer, more precise cutting than conventional, shielded, or injected plasma arc cutting processes. These precision systems have some capabilities and characteristics in common. Each involves super-constriction to increase the arcs current density and reduce the kerf width, as well as precise control by the system over the gas flow and current to extend consumable parts life. These dual-gas systems can cut all metals well, using oxygen, air or nitrogen as the plasma gas, and oxygen, air, nitrogen, methane, propane, carbon dioxide and com-
binations as shield gases. Key characteristics of torch assemblies, particularly alignment of the consumable parts, are designed with tighter tolerances than other types of plasma systems. The advantages of high-current-density plasma arc cutting include narrow kerfs, square, drossfree cuts, long consumable parts life and a choice of shield gases to produce uncontaminated cuts. While not comparable to all laser cutting, high-currentdensity plasma arc cutting fills an important middle ground between plasma arc and laser cutting. In metals up to 1/2 in. (13 mm) thick, high-density plasma arc cutting significantly outperforms conventional plasma arc cutting in terms of cut edge quality. The cut edge quality is comparable to that of laser cutting. High-current density plasma arc cutting systems represent lower purchase and maintenance costs than laser cutting systems, and require less operator training than laser cutting systems. 1.6 Commonly Processed Base Metals. Although most conductive metals can be cut, mild steel, stainless steel, and aluminum alloys represent the majority of materials processed in the worldwide welding and cutting industries. The rapid increase in plasma arc cutting that started in the 1980s has been due to its ability to cut most mild steelthe single dominant metalfaster and more economically than oxyfuel gas cutting, and its ability to cut stainless steel or aluminum alloys, which oxyfuel gas cutting cannot cut. 1.6.1 Mild Steel. Prior to the 1980s, most mild steel plate was cut using oxyfuel processes, for two main reasons: the first was that, even though conventional plasma arc cutting offered higher cutting speeds, it also required a sacrifice in cut quality. The second reasonperhaps more significantwas that many of the shape tracing machines could not operate reliably at the higher speeds at which the plasma arc cutting process was capable of cutting. Since then, the quality of plasma arc cuts has been greatly improved, and the introduction of numerically controlled shape cutting machines has made high-speed plasma arc cutting routine. As a result, the most rapid plasma arc cutting growth has been in mechanized cutting of steel using air or oxygen as the plasma gas. The high-cutting speeds and cut quality achievable with air and oxygen plasma arc cutting, plus the capabilities of computer numeric control (CNC) cutting machines, contribute to increased productivity at high quality levels. The cost of cutting with plasma, oxyfuel, and laser systems is discussed in Section 7, Economics. 1.6.2 Stainless Steel, Nickel and Cobalt Base and Aluminum Alloys. Another reason for the rapid growth of plasma arc cutting is the increased use of stainless steel, nickel and cobalt base and aluminum alloys in
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manufacturing industries. The plasma arc process cuts stainless and aluminum alloys faster and more economically than other methodsand oxyfuel gas cutting methods cannot cut these important metals without special techniques. For example, oxyfuel gas cutting can cut stainless steel, by a process of adding metal powder to the gas in the torch, a method that is seldom used. 1.7 Safety and Health. Plasma arc cutting and gouging systems involve high-voltage electrical current and compressed gases that pose significant safety risks, if improperly handled. The potential hazards specifically associated with plasma arc cutting and gouging include electrical shock, fumes and gases, noise, and ultraviolet radiation, as well as such obvious hazards as fires and burns from the heat of the plasma arc. Other, less obvious, potential hazards exist, such as high-pressure gas and water supplies that can cause personal injury or damage to nearby objects if leaks or other unexpected conditions arise. Follow established guidelines for the safe handling of process gas mixtures containing hydrogen and oxygen, which can present explosion and fire hazards. Proper instruction and training for system operators is essential for safety in the workplace. Plasma arc cutting and gouging operators should always read and understand the manufacturers safety and operating instructions before operating the equipment. See Section 8 for detailed safety information on plasma arc cutting and gouging.
Available Through: National Fire Protection Association One Batterymarch Park P.O. Box 9101 Quincy, MA 02269-9101 (3) OSHA Safety and Health Standards, 29CFR Part 1910 Available Through: Occupational Safety and Health Administration 200 Constitution Avenue NW Washington, DC 20210
3. Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging Methods

3.1 Manual Plasma Arc Cutting. Manual plasma arc cutting systems are designed to handle all position cutting jobs unsuited to mechanized cutting systems. The portability of manual plasma arc cutting systems is obviously an advantage for cutting jobs at construction sites or for repair and maintenance assignments. Some plasma arc cutting systems are designed specifically for manual operation (see Figure 7). Maximum arc current is typically 200 A or less, since higher arc currents usually radiate too much heat for the operator. Plasma arc cutting systems with hand-held torches have made significant gains over oxyfuel gas cutting as users have learned about the advantages of plasma arc cutting. The widespread use of compressed air as the plasma gas has expanded manual plasma arc cutting by making the process more economical and convenient. For mild steel application, hand-held plasma arc cutting provides an attractive alternative to manual oxyfuel gas cutting. Additionally, the plasma arc cutting process can cut stainless steel, aluminum alloys and other nonferrous metals, which gives the process an important advantage over oxyfuel gas cutting. Hand-held plasma arc cutting torches differ from mechanized plasma arc cutting torches only in size and shape; the basic technology is the same in manual and mechanized systems. Manual plasma arc cutting is not difficult to learn, and in many ways is easier to use than oxyfuel gas cutting. For instance, although standoff, (also known as torch-to-work distance) is required for most brands of plasma arc cutting and for all oxyfuel gas cuttingsome manufacturers designs allow the operator to contact and actually drag the torch on the workpiece without destroying the torch front-end parts. In addition, plasma arc cuttings higher cutting speeds help increase operator efficiency and performance.
2. Applicable Documents
The following standards have either been cited in this standard or deemed to contain information that would be useful in meeting the requirements of this standard. The following AWS publications are available through: Global Engineering Documents 15 Inverness Way East Englewood, CO 80112-5776 (1) AWS A5.32/5.32M, Specification for Welding Shielding Gases (2) AWS C5.10, Recommended Practices for Shielding Gases for Welding and Plasma Arc Cutting (3) AWS F2.2, Lens Shade Selector Chart (4) AWS Safety and Health Fact Sheets (5) ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes Other Standards: (1) NFPA 70, National Electrical Code (2) NFPA Standard 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work
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For the best combination of cut speed and quality, size the system or set the current according to the thickness of the metal to be cut. For example: up to 1/2 in. (13 mm) can be cut manually at 20 A to 70 A greater than 1/2 in. (13 mm) can be cut above 70 A These are the approximate thicknesses that manual plasma arc cutting systems can cut when set at maximum output current. See Figure 19 for typical speeds vs. material thickness for a 200 A cutting process. It should be noted that a manual system can pierce metal approximately twice as thick as a mechanized system of similar output, since a manual torch can be easily tilted for piercing. Edge starts, which eliminate piercing, allow either method to cut thicker workpieces. Each manufacturer provides safety instructions concerning power source operation and safe plasma arc cutting practice. The manufacturer should be contacted if there is any question about equipment operation. Safety issues associated with plasma arc cutting are also discussed in Section 8 of this document. 3.2 Mechanized Plasma Arc Cutting. Mechanized Plasma systems are designed for automated cutting of metals and can be used for a variety of cutting jobs from low to very high-volume production. Mechanized plasma systems can be mounted on a variety of equipment, including X-Y cutting machines, industrial robots, pipe cutting machines, and specialized production fixtures. Section 4 describes components, equipment and requirements for mechanized plasma cutting.
Figure 7Manual Plasma Arc Cutting
All manufacturers of plasma arc cutting equipment provide procedure guidelines for manual plasma cutting with their equipment, including the type and thickness of material that can be cut, appropriate power source output settings, torch travel speeds, and standoff distances if required. In mild steel less than 2 in. (51 mm) thick, manual plasma arc cutting is faster than oxyfuel gas cutting, and oxyfuel gas cutting cannot cut aluminum at all, or stainless steel without using a special powder addition. The quality of the cut, however, is influenced as much by the skill of the operator as by the system capabilities. A variety of aids are available for operators, such as circlecutting attachments, angle-cutting guides, torch guides to stabilize standoff, and templates. A hand-held torch can also be used in conjunction with motorized cutting attachments for speed and standoff control, as discussed in 4.3.
3.3 Deep Underwater Plasma Arc Cutting. Specially modified plasma cutting systems have been used in deep underwater cutting operations. The primary application to date has been the repair and/or dismantling of radioactive components of nuclear reactors. Water is used in the nuclear industry as a shield which protects the environment from radioactive emissions. In order to work on radioactive materials it is sometimes necessary to submerge equipment into this protective water shield. Manual plasma systems have been used by professional divers in the disassembly and maintenance of radioactive components of nuclear reactors in Europe, Japan and the United States. The primary modification made to the manual plasma systems has been to increase the electrical isolation of the hand torch and the leads from the power supply to the torch. Divers typically wear Dry type diving suits and typically work in depths of less than 50 ft.1 General safety concerns for divers using high-voltage
1. J. Lawton, Underwater Diver Operated Plasma Cutting in the Decommissioning Nuclear Power Plants, Underwater Construction Corp., Essex, CT, 1998.
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electrical devices in water have limited the number of applications outside of the nuclear area. Mechanized plasma systems have been used in nuclear dismantling operations to sever and cut into pieces of thick (3 in.4 in.) radioactive stainless steel components of nuclear reactors at depths up to 30 ft. The primary modification to the mechanized plasma systems has again been to increase the electrical isolation of the torch and leads. In addition, companies have developed specially angled torches and torch remote manipulation devices for specific cutting tasks.2, 3, 4, 5 For more information about the use of plasma cutting systems in deep underwater applications contact plasma cutting system manufacturers. 3.4 Plasma Arc Gouging. Plasma arc gouging is a variation of plasma arc cutting that removes metal from the surface of the plate without full penetration. Gouging is used in fabrication, manufacturing, repair, maintenance, and many other industrial applications, but compared to cutting, gouging is a relatively minor plasma arc application. The torch is tilted for gouging so the heat of the plasma arc melts a zone on top of the workpiece, ahead of the torch. The gas flowing through the nozzle blows the molten metal forward and creates a groove, or gouge, in the workpiece. Conversion from cutting to gouging is usually simple. A special gouging nozzle is required and other torch front end parts may have to be changed, which produces less orifice constriction and current density, producing a softer arc, which lowers the quantity of fumes produced and improves the quality of the gouged surface. The plasma and shielding gas flows require adjustment, and the torch must be tilted, typically about 35 degrees from the surface of the workpiece. The same gases used for plasma arc cutting may be used for gouging, with the same criteria for selection (type of metal, surface quality desired, etc.). For gouging carbon steel, the low cost, effectiveness, and universal availability of compressed air make it the primary plasma gas choice. Although various gases can be used for plasma arc gouging,
2. C. L. Child, M. S. McGough, Segmentation of the Yankee Reactor Internals, Nuclear Plant Journal, SeptOct 1995. 3. M. S. McGough, W. E. Austin, G. J. Knetl, Performance of the Automated Cutting Equipment System During the Plasma Cutting of the Three Mile Island Unit 2 Lower Core Support Assembly, Nuclear Technology, Vol. 87, Nov 1989. 4. M. S. McGough, W. E. Austin, H. Kwech, T. J. Litka, Robotic Delivery System for Plasma Cutting of the TMI-2 Lower Core Support Assembly, ANS Annual Meeting, Los Angeles, CA, Nov 1988. 5. Editors K. Pflugrad et al., Decommissioning of Nuclear Installations, ISBN 1-85166-523-4, Elsevier Applied Sciences, 1989.
the most common plasma gas for stainless steel and nonferrous materials is H35 (a 65% argon, 35% hydrogen mixture, AWS A5.32/5.32M designation SG-AH-35), which works well for gouging most alloys. With dual-gas systems, the shield gas can stabilize the plasma gouging arc, shield the groove and molten metal from the atmosphere, and aid in blowing metal from the groove. Argon, nitrogen and air are commonly used for shielding. More information regarding shielding gases can be found in AWS A5.32/5.32M, Specification for Welding Shielding Gases, and AWS C5.10, Recommended Practices for Shielding Gases for Welding and Plasma Arc Cutting. See Section 2 for information on where to obtain these documents and 4.8 of this document for gas selection. Plasma arc gouging has several advantages over air carbon arc gouging, its nearest process competitor. Although plasma systems generally cost more than carbonarc systems, (1) the plasma arc process works equally well with carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and most other metals; (2) inert process gases produce bright, clean surfaces that have no carbon contamination and require little rework; (3) the quantity of fumes produced by the plasma process is less. (4) noise levels generated by plasma arc gouging, although fairly high, are considerably lower than for air carbon arc gouging.
4. Equipment, Consumables, and Gases

4.1 Torches. There are four basic types of plasma arc cutting torches, each distinguished by variations in the method of constricting the arc: (1) Single-gas (conventional plasma arc cutting) torches (2) Dual-flow (shielded plasma arc cutting) torches (3) Water-injected torches (4) High-current density plasma arc cutting torches 4.1.1 Single-Gas Torches. In a single-gas plasma torchalso known as conventional plasma, the electrodes arc ionizes the plasma gas that surrounds it to form a plasma jet (see Figure 4). When the jet is constricted by passing through the nozzle orifice, its temperature and arc current density increase and the arc is elongated in a straight stream. The electrode generally consists of a hafnium or thoriated tungsten insert (emitter) embedded in a copper body. Hafnium electrodes are used with air or oxygen cutting gases; thoriated tungsten electrodes are used with non-oxidizing cutting gases (used with non-oxidizing
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cutting gases such as nitrogen and H35). Electrodes and nozzles must be kept cool, either by gas or water cooling. Single-gas plasma arc cutting or gouging is suitable for manual and mechanized systems. 4.1.2 Dual-Flow (Dual-Gas and Water Shield) Torches. This design incorporates the same features as conventional or single gas plasma arc cutting, except that a shielding gas (secondary gas) flows around the nozzle through a shield cup or cap, as shown in Figure 5. The shield gas covers the cut zone to improve performance and cools the nozzle and shield cap. The major advantage of dual-gas cutting is that a different gas from the plasma gas can shield the plasma and the cutting zone, which can reduce or eliminate cut-surface contaminations. See Table 1 for recommended plasma and shield gases combinations and cut quality information for various materials. Another advantage of the dual-flow process is that the nozzle can be recessed within an outer cap, preventing the nozzle from contacting the workpiece and reducing double arcing. Double arcing usually occurs when an unprotected nozzle is destroyed by connecting the nozzle to ground potential via the molten spatter produced by piercing, having the workpiece tip up, or other unexpected events. Water shield plasma arc cutting is a variation of the mechanized dual-flow plasma arc cutting process in which water is substituted for the shield gas. Water shielding does not provide additional arc constriction, but does improve cut appearance of stainless steels and increases nozzle life due to the cooling action of the water.
4.1.3 Water Injection. In the water injection plasma arc cutting process, water is injected around the arc, either as a high-velocity radial spray, or tangentially, to impart a swirling action (see Figure 6). The impingement of the water around the arc provides a higher arc constriction than the conventional process, improving cut squareness, increasing cutting speeds, and minimizing dross formation. The cooling action of the injected water permits the use of a ceramic section, which nearly eliminates double arcing between the nozzle and workpiece and facilitates piercing operations. This process is used only with mechanized cutting applications, and generally from 250 A to 750 A. 4.1.4 High-Current Density Plasma Arc Cutting Torches. These plasma arc cutting torches produce an extremely high-current density. They cut with narrower kerf widths, using a much tighter arc constriction than is possible with other plasma arc processes. This class of plasma arc torches employs a variety of techniques to achieve a super-constricted arc and excellent performance. Established techniques are high-flow vortex nozzles, highvelocity mixing chambers, and the use of a magnet for stabilizing the arc (see Figure 8). High-current density plasma arc cutting systems can actually produce laser-like cut quality in the proper application. High-current density plasma arc cutting is generally a dual-flow process, using oxygen or air plasma gases and a variety of shield gases for cutting almost any metal up to 1/2 in. (13 mm) with excellent cut-edge qualities. Current levels range from 15 A100 A or more.
Table 1 Recommended Plasma/Shield Gas Combinations

Material Mild Steel Air/Air Most Economical Good Cut Quality Good Speed Good Gouging Good Weldability Most Economical Good Speed Some Dross O2 /Air Best Cut Quality Maximum Cut Speed Best Weldability N2 /CO2 Some Dross Long Electrode Life N2 /Air Not Recommended H35/N2 Best Gouging Long Electrode Life Some Dross
Stainless Steel
Not Recommended
Good Cut Quality Good Gouging Minimal Dross Long Electrode Life Good Cut Quality Good Gouging Minimal Dross Long Electrode Life
Long Electrode Life Lowest Shield Gas Cost
Best Cut Quality Best Gouging Minimal Dross Long Electrode Life Cuts Thicker Material Best Cut Quality Best Gouging Minimal Dross Long Electrode Life Cuts Thicker Material
Aluminum
Most Economical Good Speed Some Dross
Not Recommended
Not Recommended
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Figure 8Different Methods to Achieve High-Current Density
High-current density plasma arc cutting systems can be utilized to their full cut quality potential only on highperformance mechanized cutting machines. They are not intended for gouging applications. 4.2 Arc Initiation Methods. Various methods are used to produce the ionized path that must be created before the main plasma arc can be generated. These methods include contact starting, discharge starting without pilot arc, and discharge starting with pilot arc. 4.2.1 Contact Starting. Contact starting is a simple method used on some types of manual torches, in which a voltage is applied between the electrode and the nozzle. The electrode and the nozzle are brought into momentary electrical contact by pushing the torch tip against the work. A low-current pilot arc is generated between the electrode and nozzle after a spring in the torch forces the electrode and nozzle apart. In a different type of contact starting torch, the electrode and nozzle are forced together by spring pressure. The power supply is turned on and current flows through the electrode and nozzle in a short circuit condition. Then a solenoid valve opens to let the plasma gas pressure force the electrode and nozzle apart, which generates a low-current pilot arc. In both cases, the low-current pilot arc heats the plasma gas significantly, making the plasma gas more conductive. The highly-ionized gas flows out through the nozzle orifice, and the main arc is generated (transferred) when the workpiece is close enough to the torch for current to flow from the electrode to the workpiece. Cutting or gouging can begin when the pilot arc turns off automatically and the main arc current is increased.
4.2.2 Discharge Starting Directly to the Workpiece. Discharge starting, another method to start a manual plasma arc cutting system, requires that the nozzle be first brought into contact with the workpiece, after which a spark or high-frequency discharge between the electrode and the nozzle is used to ionize the plasma gas. The main arc is generated directly between the workpiece and the electrode and cutting or gouging can begin. 4.2.3 Discharge Starting with a Pilot Arc. Discharge starting with a pilot arc is the most common method of starting all types of plasma arc cutting torches. The plasma arc power source generates a high voltage with a high-frequency oscillation. This high frequency is discharged between the electrode and the nozzle, ionizing the plasma gas. A pilot arc is then established between the electrode and the nozzle and is maintained for short period of time necessary for the arc to transfer to the workpiece. Once this main arc is established, the pilot arc is turned off and the cutting or gouging operation can begin. 4.3 Power Sources. Most plasma arc power sources contain the power components and control circuitry necessary to provide power, gas flow, and coolant to the torch in the proper sequence. Some power sources can also monitor the consumables condition and automatically change current, gas or other operating parameter settings based on signals from the cutting machines CNC. Power sources have a constant current DC output and usually exhibit a drooping volt-amp curve, with open circuit voltage between 250 V and 400 V. Stable output current requires high arc, or cutting, voltagein the 100 V250 V range.
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Most power supplies fall into four basic categories: transformer-rectifier, silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), chopper, and inverter. The SCR unit has been popular since the 1980s, but the chopper and inverter types show some strong advantages over SCR types. Chopper and inverter models have high-speed semiconductor switching techniques that provide a more constant current volt-amp curve, low levels of DC ripple, and have very fast response times, which yield superior performance. Inverter units have the additional advantage of significantly reduced size and weight. 4.3.1 Power Source Configurations. Plasma arc power sources take many different forms, from suitcasesized portable inverter units to large mechanized systems, which can include multiple power sources and several consoles, such as remote control, high-frequency control, and gas control units. 4.3.2 Cutting Capacity. Power source units are available in various output current capacities, ranging from 20 A600 A. Some large power sources may be used in parallel to increase their cutting capacity, up to 1000 A. Plate thickness, plasma gas type, and desired cut quality are used to determine the required current capacity. Cutcapacity claims vary, but a 50 A system will generally sever metals up to 3/4 in. (19 mm) thick, 200 A systems will sever up to 2 in. or 3 in. (51 mm or 76 mm), and 400 A to 500 A systems will sever up to 5 in. (127 mm). It is important to note that cut capacity may refer to the thickest metal the system can cut (a severance cut, when maximum thickness is more important than the quality of the cut), or to the maximum thickness that can be cut with repeatable high quality (a production cut). A severance cut may be as much as twice the thickness of a production cut. 4.3.4 Duty Cycle. Many power sources rated to supply a certain current at a 100% duty cycle may supply a greater current at a lower duty cycle. For example, some power supplies rated at 600 A with a 100% duty cycle and 750 A with a 60% duty cycle can be operated at 600 A continuously or at 750 A for a total of 6 minutes during a 10 minute period. 4.3.5 Power Source Control. Manual plasma arc cutting systems include controls for setting current level and gas pressure or flow. Mechanized systems require additional controls, such as arc voltage control, gas type selection, and travel speed. The feed rate, or torch travel speed, is specified as part of the shape-cutting program in the CNC software. Additionally, motion start delay and torch height control are necessary in piercing operations, as the arc must penetrate the workpiece before the torch motion begins. In the most programmable systems, all operating
parameters can be set and monitored by the CNC system leaving the operator free to concentrate on material handling and periodic consumable parts inspection and replacement. 4.4 Controls 4.4.1 Torch Initial Height Sensing. Initial height (IH) refers to the distance between the torch and workpiece prior to starting the cutting arc. Standoff control refers to a means of maintaining the distance between torch and workpiece during the cutting process. While these functions are often available within the same device they typically work independently. The optimum initial height (IH) is one that allows the greatest distance between the torch and workpiece while still allowing consistent arc transfer (usually 1-1/2 2 times the height used during the cutting process). Such an IH minimizes damage to the front end of the plasma torch and its consumables from the molten metal blowback that occurs during piercing. At the same time this optimum IH avoids misfires which lead to unnecessary pilot arc time which can shorten consumable life. IH can be set manually with a simple rack and pinion mounting arrangement that holds the plasma torch. It can also be set using an up/down switch connected to a torch lifter motor. Automatic initial height sensing (IHS) is available through a variety of technologies including lifter motor stall and retract, inductive sensing probes, and electrical contact sense and retract. A standoff control system maintains the desired gap between the torch and workpiece (see Figure 4). This provides consistent cut quality (bevel angle, top edge rounding, dross, kerf width) regardless of variations in the surface of the cutting table and waviness of the workpiece. Optimum torch standoff settings for different applications are found in the cut charts of most plasma system instruction manuals. Since torch standoff is a crucial parameter in mechanized plasma arc cutting it must be maintained with some precision to achieve high-cut quality. Torch standoff in conventional plasma arc cutting is usually maintained within 0.020 in. (0.50 mm). In high-current density plasma arc cutting the standoff must be held within 0.005 in. (0.13 mm). The most basic standoff control is a mechanical follower device that suspends the torch inside a housing that is in contact with the workpiece through ball casters. These are usually found on sheet metal cutting systems that travel at speeds in excess of 300 inches per minute. A limitation of mechanical followers results from the fact that they ride along the surface of the workpiece during the cut. Standoff variations and vibrations are transmitted to the torch when moving over adjacent cutouts and can result in poor cut quality. Surface marking of the
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workpiece due to the physical contact may also be undesirable in certain applications. The most common type of standoff control is the arc voltage control device. This system monitors the cutting arc and signals a lifter motor to raise or lower the torch to maintain a preset voltage. Since plasma arc cutting is an electric arc process the arc voltage is directly related to the distance between the torch and workpiece (a higher standoff means a higher arc voltage). The desired standoff, or arc voltage, is usually loaded into the control though an adjustable dial or an automatic sampling circuit. Most systems allow standoff adjustment while the cut is in process giving the operator the chance to fine tune his conditions. (Note: Other factors that impact arc voltage in the plasma arc cutting process include cutting speed, plate thickness, gas flow, and electrode wear. Any change to these conditions during the cut may require a corresponding change to the arc voltage setting to maintain the desired standoff.) 4.4.2 Advanced Control Features. Some systems can monitor and predict when consumable parts should be changed. This capability, in conjunction with the development of quick-change torch heads, further reduces operator involvement in mechanized applications. It is possible to change torch heads robotically, thereby installing new consumables, to achieve uninterrupted processing. 4.5 Electrodes and Nozzles (Consumable Hardware). Parts at the cutting end of a plasma arc torch, including the electrode, nozzle, swirl ring, and retaining or shield caps, are known as consumable parts. They are considered replaceable consumables because they wear out from use, these parts are critical to success in plasma arc cutting and gouging. Each consumable part plays an important role: the electrode strikes the arc and is the point from which the electric arc travels to the workpiece. Electrodes are generally made of two metals: the copper body and a small center insert, from which the arc is emitted. Depending on the type of metal to be cut and the gases used, the electrode may have a hafnium or thoriated tungsten insert. The nozzle shapes the stream of plasma gas into a column, focusing it in the same way that a nozzle on a hose can focus a large stream of water into a smaller stream with greater velocity. The swirl ring organizes the flow of gas into a clockwise (or counterclockwise, in a special case) direction, which helps concentrate the arc into a narrow stream as it exits the nozzle, and protect the nozzle from the heat of the plasma arc. The retaining cap usually screws onto the front end of the torch and serves to protect the other consumable parts. In some torch designs, the retaining cap also serves as a safety device, preventing the torch from firing until all the parts are securely in place. A shield cap is available for some torch
systems, which helps prolong nozzle life by protecting it from physical hazards such as double arcing during cutting or gouging operations, and splashing of hot metal onto the nozzle. Each consumable part must be designed for the particular torch and power supply with which it will be used. In addition, each part must be compatible with the metal being cut, as well as the output current and the gas or gases being used. Plasma arc cutting requires a stable arc with high-current density. All systems employ a copper nozzle to physically constrict the plasma arc after it is emitted from the electrode and as it exits the nozzle. Plasmas high temperatures, gas velocities and flying particles of melted metal all contribute to the consumption of the parts at the cutting end of the torch. Electrodes and nozzles are know as consumables because they are particularly vulnerable to wear and require timely replacement in order to provide the best possible cut quality. Other torch parts, such as swirl rings, shields, insulators, and O-rings, also need inspection and periodic replacement. Some cutting torches can also be used for gouging. Conversion from cutting to gouging involves installing special gouging electrodes, nozzles, swirl rings and caps designed for this process. Gouging nozzles, for instance, have a larger orifice designed to produce a wider, less focused plasma stream with less density. 4.6 Cutting Machines. The quality of mechanized plasma arc cutting depends on the quality of the plasma arc cutting system and the machine on which the cutting system is mounted. End users must select the best machine configuration for their application. Plasma arc systems can be mounted on many different types of cutting machines. Brief discussions of some of the common types of cutting machines follow. A fundamental element of machine configuration is whether the torch moves, or whether the workpiece moves under a stationary torch. Positioning and moving only the torch results in notable cost and performance advantages, since it represents only a small mass. However, when the torch is used in conjunction with another tool, which cannot be easily positioned, such as a punching head or turret, it is more practical to position the workpiece. Efficient material utilization and well-designed material handling systems can make any cutting machine more productive. Load and unload operations will increase overall cycle time unless multiple cutting tables are used. Some machine configurations allow the use of multiple cutting torches on a single machine for even more productivity. The best method to increase the productivity of mechanical cutting systems is to perform load/unload operations while the torches continue cutting on another table. This avoids the torches being idle while the plate is loaded or parts/skeleton (scrap) is removed from a single table.
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4.6.1 Gantry (Bridge). This type of cutting machine is designed to process flat materials. The workpiece is placed on a stationary table and the torch is mounted on a traveling bridge (see Figure 9). Gantry machines accommodate either oxyfuel gas or plasma arc cutting systems. Because plasma arc torches are heavier and cut at higher speeds, plasma arc cutting systems require heavier-duty machines with stronger motion drive systems to operate accurately and effectively at plasma arc cutting speeds. A highly responsive torch lifter (Z-axis) is necessary to maintain the desired torch height and to produce good cut quality. Heavy-construction gantries, with accurate motion and process control capabilities, are used widely for all types of applications of plate and sheet metal plasma arc cutting. The thickness ranges from very thin gauge sheet (28 gauge; 0.4 mm) to very heavy plate (6 in.; 152 mm) stainless steel. Plasma arc cutting systems applied to this type of cutting machine include air plasma (20 A 200 A), nitrogen plasma (40 A750 A), oxygen plasma (15 A400 A) and argon/hydrogen (200 A1000 A). The plasma arc cutting system is normally sized for a particular application, and the current level and type of plasma gas will be selected accordingly. Mechanisms capable of extremely accurate torch positioning for bevel cutting and gouging are available in a wide range of sizes, and are often produced to customer
specifications. Structure and drive configurations also vary widely. For example, a machine may have one motor driving one side of the longitudinal axis (single-side drive), one motor connected to a shaft driving both sides, or one motor electronically synchronized with a second motor driving the other side (dual-side drive). The most common design, though generally not optimal for highspeed contouring, is the single-side drive design where one motor drives the long axis via rack and pinion and the other side, connected by a rigid beam, follows on a rail assembly. For highest quality cuts, a very rigid machine construction is necessary or feed rates may be limited to avoid overshoot or whipping of the undriven side. In addition, ballscrew or rack and pinion drives are preferred, unless ruled out due to cost or length considerations. Gantry machines combine well with water tables or down-draft tables for containment of the polluting byproducts of plasma arc cutting, as described later in this section. 4.6.2 X-Y Table. An X-Y table processes flat material by positioning it under a stationary torch head. The X-Y table is commonly used only on machines such as punch/plasma arc units where the torch is installed adjacent to another tool that is stationary such as a turret or single-station punching head. A punch press with plasma arc cutting (see Figure 10) is a two-function machine: one operation punches out
Figure 9Gantry Crane Cutting Machine
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Figure 10Punch/Plasma Press
precision holes while the plasma arc cutting system is used to cut out the parts shapes and large holes. Punched pilot holes increase productivity, since the life of unshielded nozzles is extended by eliminating molten metal splashback when piercing at the start of the cut. The workpiece is held by two or more work clamps, which slide in the X-axis direction over ball transfers embedded in the table. The entire worktable, with the clamp assembly, is generally driven in the Y-axis direction. Z-axis torch height control is available, but is often replaced by a plate follower arrangement where the torch rides across the surface of the workpiece while cutting. Due to the additional weight of the workpiece and table assembly, a rigid machine design and a highperformance drive system are required to produce good quality cuts at high-plasma cutting speeds. The ability to punch or nibble small holes and intricate patterns, and to plasma cut larger contours, in one setup, makes punch/plasma arc cutting machines an attractive option. High-performance servo systems are also needed to overcome wide variations in frictional load and weight of workpieces. High overall performance requires rapid acceleration, high-torch travel speed capabilities, little vibration as the material traverses the worktable, and no overshoot when changing velocity and direction. These capabilities can add significantly to the cost of the machine tool, but make excellent plasma cuts possible in terms of edge smoothness and contour definition. 4.6.3 Robotics. Six-axis articulated tool manipulators, almost universally known as robots, can use plasma arc to cut or gouge non-flat stock material in any location or position within the machines range of motion (see Figure 11).
Figure 11Plasma Cutting Robot Classic Six-Axis Design
Proper torch standoff is generally maintained through six-axis articulation based on arc voltage feedback. More advanced dynamic height sensors, based on look ahead techniques, are also available, which allow better torch height control while traversing shape changes. 4.6.4 Cantilever. Designed for cutting shapes in flat materials by tracing shapes or following CNC programs,
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a cantilever machine generally features a torch mounted on an unsupported beam extending over a cutting table (see Figure 12). Cantilevers are primarily intended for oxyfuel gas cutting and do not perform well in high-speed cutting applications due to the vibration generated on the cantilevered bridge and speed limitations imposed by optical tracing systems. Machines equipped with high-speed tracers and coordinate drive systems can operate successfully at speeds up to 150 in./min (64 mm/sec), which is adequate for many plasma arc cutting applications. Though most cantilevers are of lightweight construction, some are sufficiently heavy-duty to handle the size and weight of plasma arc cutting torches and leads. 4.6.5 Other Cutting Machines 4.6.5.1 Magnetic Template Tracer (Traction Drive Tracer). This first generation of shape-cutting machines was configured so that the torch was held by a pantograph arm assembly and its motion was guided by a series of arms to a tracing stylus that followed a precut pattern. Either manual or automatic controls could be used. These units were generally portable. 4.6.5.2 Cutting Tractor (Track Machine; Portable Carriage). Capable of moving a torch in a straight or curved path on a track, these units are used primarily for cut off and trimming operations, and for manual cutting of large layout work. The plasma system is usually operated independently of the tractor and the machine aids in maintaining constant speed and stand-off. A variation of this type of unit allows hand-guided cutting. 4.6.5.3 Pipe Cutting Units. These devices are portable units that are used for cut off or beveling operations
on large-diameter pipes. Once tightly attached to the pipe, drive rollers propel the unit around the circumference of the pipe, while the plasma arc torch performs a cutting or beveling operation. 4.6.6 Cutting Machine Control Systems. Developments in high-speed plasma arc cutting have been paralleled by improvements in cutting machines and controllers, which now make extensive use of computer technology. 4.6.6.1 Optical Tracing Systems. Photo optical tracing systems, evolved from the traction drive system, and are still used on some gantry and cantilever machines. The system uses an electronic eye to follow a part outline, generally on paper, and it is possible to trace silhouette and line drawings. For gantries, tracing is generally done off-line, and production of very large parts requires ratio tracing. For high-speed plasma arc cutting, a CNC may replace or supplement a tracer. A CNC used with a tracing unit may include a trace-record feature to develop parts programs from traces for subsequent production. As with any complex equipment, errors and breakdowns can occur. As a result, todays CNCs offer more and more diagnostic and fault recovery features. For example, a diagnostic message may direct the operator to replace a certain sensor, or a lost-cut-recovery feature may direct the plasma arc system to restart in the middle of a cut in order to avoid scrapping a part. 4.6.6.2 Numerical Control (NC). Numeric Control systems, which preceded CNCs, were characterized by lack of memory, punched paper tapes for program storage, and the use of hardware rather than software to implement control functions. In addition, NC systems were bulky, generated excessive amounts of heat, and
Figure 12Cantilever Cutting Machine with Optical Tracing Head
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had reliability problems. Commercial development of microprocessors and semiconductor memory led to the development of the CNC. 4.6.6.3 Computer Numerical Control (CNC). Almost all cutting machine direction commands are now generated by computers. CNCs offer reliability, expanded capacity, and the ease and efficiency of connecting several units to a central computer in a direct numeric control (DNC) system. The parallel evolution of plasma arc cutting techniques and machine motion control systems has allowed plasma arc cutting to develop into a high-speed production process capable of cutting any metal. The CNC is the brain of todays machine tools and the motion control of cutting machines. Nearly all direction and speed commands are software-derived from part programs that are stored in computer memory. CNC technology can now provide positioning information with such speed and precision that part program processing delays are no longer a factor to limit cutting machine performance, even with complex, high-speed motion. In addition to controlling motion and other machine functions, the CNC can provide many features to simplify operation and maintenance. CNC programs can provide motion and guidance codes for full automation of the cutting operation, or allow the operator to input commands several levels beyond start/stop. Manual data input by the operator, calling up shape programs from data storage libraries, and such functions
as part transformation, rotation, scaling and mirror imaging are often accessible through pull-down menus, which increase the operators programming power. Programming can also be done away from the machine on an off-line part programming system. These systems can post-process part programs to make a general program work with specific machines and can run nesting software to maximize efficient use of materials (see Figure 13). Part programs generated in the office can be transferred to the cutting machine through a direct numerical control (DNC) remote communications link. Loading part programs via punched paper tape or floppy disk is also possible. Once in the CNC, graphics packages allow the operator to view the part program as it will be processed on the machine, and to monitor progress in real time as the machine is cutting. Compensation features are also increasingly common, such as kerf width compensation (kerf width offset). This feature automatically cuts parts slightly larger to compensate for kerf width. Fixture offsets (work zero offsets) are used on machines with multiple tools to allow operation of a secondary tool in a different location without altering dimensions in the part program. For maximum part accuracy, many machine tool builders use positioning compensation. When differences between actual and programmed positions are found during calibration, the errors are recorded in an errorcorrection table in CNC memory. This table is used to compensate for hardware inaccuracy in real time during positioning operations.
Figure 13Sample Part Program
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4.6.7 Drives. A highly capable CNC requires an effective way to translate motion commands into movement. A typical drive system consists of several parts: a servo amplifier to convert CNC commands into the high power levels necessary to run the drive motors; the drive motors themselves, also known as servo motors; a feedback device, such as a resolver or encoder, to supply position information to the CNC; and a system of mechanical components such as ballscrews, gear boxes, rack and pinions, etc., to provide linear motion. A basic system uses a permanent magnet DC servo motor and a PWM (pulse width modulated) servo amplifier with analog control. Digital servo amplifiers achieve the highest performance that CNCs can provide, including such features as on-the-fly gain changing and backlash compensation. The power and flexibility of digital servo systems lets machine builders extract high performance from a mechanical system while maintaining stability over a wide range of operating conditions. 4.7 Pollution and Hazard Control. Plasma arc cutting and gouging systems produce fumes, gases, noise, and ultraviolet light, which can cause harm to the operator and others nearby if not suitably mitigated. Many pollution control systems are available for mechanized systems, several of which involve water table techniques.
Introduced in the 1970s, water tables can be used with two mechanized cutting methods: cutting with a water muffler (water shroud) or underwater cutting. Primary water table design requirements include adequate workpiece support, sufficient scrap capacity, and water level controls. For underwater cutting, the operator must be able to raise and lower the water level rapidly to maintain good productivity. 4.7.1 Water Muffler. In this method, the cutting table maintains a bed of water that contacts the bottom surface of the workpiece. An annular-shaped water muffler nozzle mounted on the torch body generates a thick shroud of water around the arc, as shown in Figure 14. Water pumped from the cutting table through the water muffler nozzle surrounds the arc, removing the fumes and airborne particulates by capturing them in the water. The water muffler also functions as a sound barrier, reducing noise by approximately 20 dBA. The water shroud can also act as a light-absorbing shield when dye is used in the water table, although it is still necessary to provide operator eye protection in case the water flow is interrupted. Water injection and water shielding must not be confused with water muffling, as neither water injection nor water shielding uses a sufficient flow of water for noise reduction.
Figure 14Water Muffler
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4.7.2 Underwater Cutting. This system uses a water bed in which the workpiece is submerged 2 in.3 in. (51 mm76 mm) below the surface of the water, as illustrated in Figure 15. Underwater plasma arc cutting provides greater noise reduction than the water muffler because the arc and the entire working end of the torch operate below the surface of the water. The water depth also reduces ultraviolet radiation; therefore, the addition of dye is usually not required. Underwater plasma cutting may require a water shroud nozzle even though it is operating underwater, creating an air bubble to eliminate all water in the cut zone. Such an underwater air-assisted water muffler is called for when oxygen is used as the plasma gas for cutting steel plate. The efficiency of underwater cutting requires a water table designed to raise and lower the water level rapidly for unloading cut parts and reloading new material for cutting. Since the operator cannot gauge torch height visually when cutting underwater, quick and accurate torch positioning can be achieved with inductive probes or other means that locate the torch at the correct height for piercing or cutting underwater. Automatic torch height control is recommended for use with CNC systems.
4.7.3 Down Draft Table. This method is well suited for controlling fume and particulate matter when using dry plasma arc systems. The fumes are exhausted from the bottom of the cut area to a bag house or other filter to clean the air. Very large volumes of air must be moved in order to make this technique effective. Manufacturers specifications for the correct type of exhaust system will include the volume of air removal required for the plasma arc type, current output, and number of torches in use. 4.7.4 Collection Cup for X-Y Tables. For cutting table systems that move the workpiece instead of the torch, a collection cup system as illustrated in Figure 16 is required instead of a water table or down-draft exhaust. Cup systems generally consist of a water-cooled collector positioned to envelop the tail of the arc beneath the workpiece during cutting. The collector may be a wet or dry type, and can be fixed or may move up vertically to a position nearly touching the workpiece during cutting. Dry collectors allow cutting slag to drop into a slag tray and sparks and airborne particulates to settle into a spark trap as the air from the collector travels to the filter. Wet collectors use a curtain of water along the inside surface that prevents slag from adhering to the collector and washes it into a slag tank. Fumes are carried by an air
Figure 15Underwater Plasma Cutting
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Figure 16Collection Cup SystemWet Type
flow from the collector and tank to a filter. Water in the slag tank may be circulated through a heat exchanger before again flowing through the collector. Large slag particles and slugs are often removed from the tank by a conveyer system. Particulates suspended in the water can be removed by filtration. As with water tables, the water must be replenished and conditioned to maintain water level, proper pH, etc., and the tank water, slag, sludge, and filter dust must be disposed of in accordance with applicable regulations. 4.8 Plasma Gas Selection. Four plasma gases are in common use in plasma arc cutting and gouging: air, oxygen, nitrogen, and mixtures of argon and hydrogen. Selection of the plasma gas starts with considering the type of material to be cut, but may also be influenced by equipment selection, desired cut quality, and operating cost considerations. 4.8.1 Air Plasma Gas. Compressed air is widely used as a plasma gas for a variety of reasons. The main advantages are convenience, lower operating costs, and elimination of expensive and potentially hazardous compressed gases. It is used primarily for cutting carbon steel, but is also acceptable for some aluminum alloys and stainless steel applications. Air plasma gas is used for manual and mechanized cutting in the 10 A300 A current range. The use of air or oxygen as the plasma gas requires special efforts to obtain satisfactory electrode and nozzle life. 4.8.2 Oxygen Plasma Gas. Oxygen as a plasma gas is very useful for cutting of steels, which is the most widely used metal in many industries. Oxygens primary advan-
tages are its high-speed cutting capabilities and its ability to cut all grades of steel over a wide speed range. In addition, less dross is produced when cutting with oxygen, cut quality can be excellent, and the level of nitrides in the cut edges is very low. This last feature means that the cut edge can be welded with less porosity in the weld metal. As with air, electrode life is shortened when using oxygen as the plasma gas. Various methods are used to increase the life of the hafnium electrode with oxygen plasma gas, including arc starting and stopping techniques to preserve the oxide layer on the hafnium, and special electrodes designed to control erosion of the hafnium insert. Pure oxygen combines chemically with the iron in steel in a reaction that liberates a great deal of heat. In plasma arc cutting, this allows high-speed, high-quality cutting that must be mechanized to take full advantage of the speeds possible with an oxygen plasma gas process. The cutting machine should be numerically or computer controlled, and capable of at least 250 in./min (635 cm/ min). Both wet (water injected) and dry oxygen plasma arc cutting systems are available for cutting at current levels up to 400 A. 4.8.3 Nitrogen Plasma Gas. Nitrogen plasma gas cuts a wide variety of metals, including good quality cuts on carbon steel, aluminum alloys, and stainless steel. Cutting speeds, though not as high as with oxygen plasma, are still quite high. The inert nature of nitrogen allows tungsten to be used as the electrode material, producing relatively long electrode and nozzle life.
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Nitrogen plasma cutting has these advantages over oxygen plasma arc cutting: (1) the cost per foot of cut is less (because of longer consumable parts life) (2) nitrogen produces better cut-edge quality on nonferrous metals. Nitrogen plasma gas is most commonly used with water-injection cutting, but it can also be used in dry (non-water injection) processes. There are two disadvantages of using nitrogen. Theses are the much lower tolerance range of cutting speeds to produce dross-free cut edges, and the tendency for nitride formation resulting in porosity when the edge is welded. 4.8.4 Argon-Hydrogen Plasma Gas. Argon-hydrogen as a plasma gas (most commonly 65% argon, 35% hydrogen, which is also called H35), is best known for its ability to produce excellent cut-edge quality in stainless steel and aluminum alloys. The presence of hydrogen in the plasma gas raises arc temperature. The reducing nature of the argon-hydrogen mixture produces clean, bright cut edges and long electrode and nozzle life. Tungsten electrodes can carry high currents with this type of plasma gas. Applications include high-current cutting (up to 1000 A) of 3 in.6 in. (76 mm152 mm) thick plate, and cutting and gouging various nonferrous metals. The chief disadvantages of argon-hydrogen mixtures are the high gas cost and a tendency to produce dross when cutting steels. 4.8.5 Plasma Gas/Shield Gas Combinations. The process capabilities are heavily influenced by the plasma gas and shield gas selected for cutting with dual-flow systems. The selection process is more complicated than for single-gas systems, but the larger number of possible combinations allows a wider choice among the variables of speed, consumables life, cut-edge quality, dross, weldability, and economy. 4.8.5.1 Dual-Plasma Gas Combinations for Mild Steel (1) Air Plasma/Air Shield. This gas combination gives good cut speed, low dross levels, and is most economical. Current range: 20 A200 A. Thickness range: 1/8 in.2 in. (3 mm51 mm). (2) N2 Plasma/CO2 Shield. This gas combination is used when cut-edge quality and surface nitriding are less important. Cutting or gouging with nitrogen extends electrode life. Current range: 100 A600 A. Thickness range: 3/16 in.3 in. (5 mm76 mm). (3) N2 Plasma/Water Injection Shield. When cut edge and surface roughness are less important, this plasma gas combination gives excellent electrode and nozzle life. Current range: 400 A750 A. Thickness range: 3/16 in. 2 in. (5 mm51 mm).
(4) O2 Plasma/Water Injection Shield. This combination gives very good cut speed, no surface nitriding, minimum amount of dross, and very good weldability, along with good electrode and nozzle life. The current range is from 240 A340 A. Thickness range from 1/4 in. 1-1/2 in. (6 mm38 mm). (5) O2 Plasma/Air Shield. This combination gives superior cut speed, minimum dross, minimum amount of surface nitriding, and very good weldability. Current range is from 15 A260 A. Thickness range from very thin gauge to 1 in. (25 mm). (6) Argon Hydrogen (H35) Plasma/N2 Shield. This plasma/shield combination reduces dross, extends electrode life, and gives the best gouging results. Current Range: 100 A1000 A. Thickness Range: 1/8 in.4 in. (3 mm102 mm). 4.8.5.2 Dual-Plasma Gas Combinations for Stainless Steels (1) Air Plasma/Air Shield. The air/air combination gives good cut speed, low dross levels, and is most economical. Some surface nitriding and surface oxidation of alloy elements can occur. Current range: 20 A200 A. Thickness range: light gauge to 1-1/2 in. (38 mm). (2) N2 Plasma/CO2 Shield. These gases are used when surface nitriding and surface oxidation of alloying elements are less important. Extended electrode life, reduced dross. Current range: 100 A600 A. Thickness range: 3/16 in.4 in. (5 mm102 mm). (3) N2 Plasma/Water Injection Shield. This combination is used when cut edge, angle, and surface roughness are less important. There is minimal surface nitriding and oxidation of alloying elements. Nitrogen water-injection cutting gives excellent electrode and nozzle life. Current range: 400 A750A. Thickness range: 3/16 in.5 in. (5 mm127 mm). (4) Argon-Hydrogen (H35) Plasma/Water Shield. This combination gives maximum thickness capability, reduced dross levels, minimal surface contamination, excellent weldability, excellent cut-edge quality, and extended electrode life. Current range: 750 A1000 A. Thickness range: 2 in.6 in. (51 mm152 mm). (5) Argon-Hydrogen (H35) Plasma/N2 Shield. This gas combination gives reduced dross, minimal surface contamination, excellent weldability, excellent cut-edge quality, and extended electrode life. Current Range: 100 A 1000 A. Thickness Range: 1/8 in.4 in. (3 mm102 mm). 4.8.5.3 Dual-Plasma Gas Combinations for Aluminum Alloys (1) Air Plasma/Air Shield. This gas combination gives good cut speed, low dross levels, and is most economical. Some surface nitriding and surface oxidation of alloy
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elements can occur. Current range: 20 A200 A. Thickness range: light gauge to 1-1/2 in. (38 mm). (2) N2 Plasma/CO2 Shield. These gases are used when surface nitriding and surface oxidation of alloying elements is less important. Electrode life is extended when using this gas combination. Current range: 100 A 600 A. Thickness range: 3/16 in.4 in. (5 mm102 mm). (3) Argon-Hydrogen (H35) Plasma/Water Shield. This combination gives maximum thickness capability, reduced dross levels, minimal surface contamination, excellent weldability and cut edge quality, and extended electrode life. Current range: 750 A1000 A. Thickness capability: 2 in.6 in. (51 mm152 mm). (4) Argon Hydrogen (H35) Plasma/N2 Shield. This gas combination gives reduced dross, minimum amount of surface contamination, excellent weldability, excellent cut-edge quality, and extended electrode life. Current range: 100 A750 A. Thickness capability: 1/8 in.4 in. (3 mm102 mm).
switch or a circuit breaker at the cutting location. Adequate electric service and proper cable size for the units power is required. High-frequency circuitry is required for starting the arc in many plasma arc systems, and without proper equipment grounding, high-frequency electromagnetic (EM) radiation may be emitted. High-frequency (EM) emissions can interfere with nearby electronic equipment, or produce radio and TV interference. Consult the equipment manufacturers installation instructions and all applicable local and national codes for installing suitable protective earth grounds. Compliance with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) limits should be confirmed. 5.3 Gas Supply. One or more gases are required for the plasma arc cutting system, with delivery pressure and flow rates dependent on the type of equipment used. Always consult the system manufacturers gas supply recommendations and specifications. Consult your gas supplier to determine the best method of supply and distribution. The gas may be supplied from a single highpressure cylinder, a multiple-cylinder manifold system, or liquid containers (bulk or portable). Gases should be obtained from a reputable supplier to ensure gas purity and acceptable moisture content. When liquid container gas supplies are used, particular attention should be paid to the evaporation rate of the system: be sure that pressure and flow rate can be maintained at required levels for extended operating periods. Compressed air used as the plasma gas or the secondary gas must be clean, dry, and free of oil for optimum performance. Compressed air containing moisture, oil, or other contaminants will contribute to poor torch parts life, reduced cut quality, and reduced ability to cut thicker metal. The air filter and regulator supplied with most air plasma arc systems are not designed for conditioning large volumes of air, therefore when on-site compressors supply the air, additional filtration and drying are often necessary to provide acceptable air quality and quantity. Loss of sufficient gas flow in a plasma arc cutting system can cause serious damage to the torch. Delivery pressure must be maintained at the manufacturers specifications. Some plasma arc equipment will automatically shut down the system if the pressure drops too low, but these safety circuits are not available with all systems, and are never completely fail-safe. Consult AWS C5.10, Shielding Gases for Welding and Plasma Arc Cutting, for further information. 5.4 Water Supply. Most mechanized plasma arc cutting systems employ water for torch cooling, noise or pollution control, or as a component of the cutting itself, as in the case of water injection plasma arc cutting. Some
5. Installation Considerations
Installation of a plasma arc cutting system is similar to that of other major equipment installations. However, attention should be paid to the high voltages, compressed gases, sparks, noise, arc radiation, and fumes and gases which are generated or used by the equipment. Consult equipment manufacturers instruction manuals for details. 5.1 Site Selection and Planning. Efficiency and safety are very important factors in site selection and planning for any plasma arc cutting installation. For best results, both should be considered early in the planning process. It is important to note that all the potential hazards associated with plasma arc cutting and gouging can be handled safely. Each of these topics is covered in Section 8. In general, plasma arc equipment should be situated in a clean, dry location with adequate space provided around all system components to provide access for maintenance and proper air flow for cooling. It is important to consider the availability and location of three utilities vital to plasma arc cutting and gouging: electric power, gas supplies, and water. Efficient material handling should also be carefully considered, since the equipment involved is an important element in the total cost of cutting operations. 5.2 Electric Power and Safety Grounding. The plasma arc equipment manufacturers specifications should be consulted for specific recommendations on primary wire size and fuse requirements. Proper safety grounding of the plasma arc cutting operation is essential, to provide operator safety and protection of the equipment. Most plasma arc units use three-phase input power. This source of power should have either a fuse disconnect
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water systems circulate and reuse the water from a water table or reservoir, which reduces water use and allows easier control of the water purity and supply. Water purity levels vary with equipment and intended use of the water. Water injection and torch cooling systems have higher purity requirements than a pollution control system. This is due to the increase in water conductivity and the potential for electrolysis as impurity or ion levels increase. Deionized water or special water filtration is often required for water delivered to the torch, especially for water injection systems. The equipment manufacturers recommendations and specifications should be followed in each case.
6. Optimizing Plasma Arc Cut Quality

There are four factors to consider in evaluating the quality of cuts obtained by any cutting process: cut angle, dross, metallurgical effects, and kerf width (see Figure 17). 6.1 Cut Angle. The heat of the plasma arc removes slightly more metal from the surface of the plate closest to the source of the arc, creating a beveled cut. The degree of bevel is known as the cut angle. Cut angle will be minimized by swirling the plasma gas before it exits the nozzle, and by achieving the best combination of the cutting parameters for the metal type and thickness being cut. These include cutting current, torch travel speed and
height control, and selecting the appropriate gas or gases for each metal. Plasma arc torches with clockwise orifice gas swirl (see Figure 18), viewed from the torch toward the work, produce cuts with the right side of the kerf (in the direction of travel) square, and the left side slightly beveled. The swirling plasma gas is less disturbed at the right, where the swirl offsets the forward travel; at the left side, drag is encountered. These factors contribute to more uniform arc energy being delivered to the right side of the kerf. For axial-flow plasma arc torches, the cut angle (as shown in Figure 17) on both edges is typically 4 to 8; in the case of tangential-swirl plasma torches, cut angle on one side (good side) is 1 to 3, and 3 to 8 on the other (scrap side). With optimized parameters in conventional plasma arc cutting, cuts with one side showing an angle of 1 to 3 are considered square if this slight angle is within the tolerance of the processing steps that follow the cutting stage. In plasma arc torches that cut without swirling the gas, cut direction does not affect cut angle: both sides of the cut are beveled. In shape-cutting applications, this means the direction of cut can be selected to produce a square cut on the production part. On the annular-shaped production piece shown in Figure 18, the outside cut is made in a clockwise direction to place the saved piece on the right side of the kerf. Similarly, the inside cut must be made in a counter-clockwise direction to maintain a square inside
Figure 17General Features of Plasma Arc Cut
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Figure 18Direction of Cut with Clockwise Swirl
edge. In most applications, the beveled side of the cut is disregarded when evaluating squareness as this edge is on the scrap side of the cut. Swirl rings that produce counterclockwise orifice gas swirl are available for applications such as mirror-image cutting where the highquality side must be on the left for one of the parts. It is important to keep the torch perpendicular to produce square cuts. The torch can be perpendicular to the cutting bed, but not be perpendicular to the workpiece, which degrades squareness. The table must be maintained in good repair, and slag and scrap pieces must be removed from the cutting table. Hoses and cables that pull tight when the cutting machine carriages extends to their travel limits may also cause off-square torches. Process variables which affect cut squareness are cutting speed and arc voltage/standoff. Cutting at too fast a speed or too high a voltage will result in a positive cut angle (a beveled part), while too slow a speed or too low a voltage will result in a negative cut angle (undercut). Of the two, speed control is the most important, and it is critical for uniformity of cut angle around the part perimeter. Developments in high-current-density plasma arcs have improved the control of the cut angle substantially. Higher current densities emerging through the nozzle orifice are achievable, which maintain melt rate uniformity through the thickness of the material. High-currentdensity plasma arcs can produce cut angles that are nearly perpendicular, not only on one side, but both sides of the cut, in metals up to 3/8 in. (10 mm) thick. With increased current densities, current levels are lower and speeds are considerably slower, allowing much more intricate and highly defined cuts. The end result is cuts that are similar to cuts produced by a CO2 laser operating in the 1.5 kW to 2 kW range.
6.2 Dross. Dross is resolidified, oxidized metal that adheres to the edge of the cuteither at the top or bottom. Bottom-edge dross is one of the most common problems faced by fabricators and for a given type of gas, is influenced mainly by cutting speed, current and arc voltage. Other factors influencing bottom-edge dross include the condition of consumables, grounding, surface conditions of the plate, nozzle diameter and standoff. There are two kinds of bottom-edge dross: low-speed dross and high-speed dross. Low-speed dross, richer in oxides, is easy to remove. High-speed dross, however, contains a significant proportion of resolidified molten metal that requires grinding or other rework to remove, which reduces productivity. Optimum cut quality results from cutting in the dross-free window shown in Figure 19. Although the dross free cutting window widens as the current increases, the wear rate of the consumables generally sets the upper limit for current. In cases where the window is very narrow or nonexistent, it is preferable to stay in the low-speed range, since low-speed dross is easier to remove. Steels are the most difficult metals to cut without dross, especially when cutting with nitrogen plasma, because of the steels chemical composition especially its silicon content. Recent developments in cutting equipment and consumables have considerably widened the dross-free window for steels. Stainless steel is tolerant in terms of dross formation and has a relatively wide dross-free window. Nickel and copper alloys, by contrast, tend to form dross more easily. Top-edge dross generally indicates excessive standoff and can be easily eliminated by reducing standoff to the manufacturers recommended settings. Top dross is sometimes evident when cutting steel with air or nitrogen, depending on chemical composition and surface fin-
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Figure 19Typical Dross-Free Window for 200 Amp Oxygen Plasma Cutting Process on Mild Steel
ish. Although top dross is difficult to avoid or reduce in certain types of material, it is seldom a problem with oxygen-plasma arc cutting. Drag lines on a plasma arc cut edge, illustrated in Figure 20, are useful in fine-tuning the cutting speed to ensure cutting is well within the dross-free window, and to balance required quality with maximized productivity. Although generalizations are difficult because the characteristics of drag lines depend on what cutting process is being used, a trained eye can use drag lines and their angle to diagnose cutting problems. Too high a drag angle, for example, indicates excessive travel speed for the current used. 6.3 Metallurgical Effects. The heat-affected zone (HAZ) of plasma arc cuts is much narrower than in oxyfuel gas cutting because plasma arc cuts at higher torch travel speeds. This can be a significant factor in subsequent welding or finishing operations. The thickness of the heat-affected zone is typically 0.010 in. (0.25 mm) for austenitic stainless steel and 0.020 in. (0.51 mm) for cold-rolled or low-carbon steel. Carbon steels generally exhibit heat-affected zones from 0.015 in.0.030 in.
(0.4 mm0.8 mm) thick. Aluminum alloys cuts exhibit HAZ in the range of 0.040 in.0.100 in. (1 mm2.5 mm) thick. When cutting austenitic stainless steel, the high cutting speed and the quenching effect of the base plate cause the cut face to pass rapidly through the critical metallurgical temperature of about 1200F1500F (600C800C) minimizing metallurgical effects. This represents the visible HAZ but significant hardening is limited to a much narrower zone. The degree of hardening can be reduced by preheating the workpiece before cutting, which reduces the quench effect of the metal mass immediately behind the cut face. Contact the steel manufacturer for recommended preheating procedures. For oxygen plasma arc cut edges, the degree of hardening is much less because of the following factors: first, the arc current is generally lower, thus less energy is put into the material. Secondly, the oxygen gas does not form detrimental, hard compounds with the steel, like those formed when using air or nitrogen. Typical hardness levels are about 20 Rockwell C points lower for A 36 steel cut with oxygen than those cut with nitrogen or air.
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6.5 Quality Improvement Suggestions. It is essential that the equipment manufacturers recommendations for installation, operation and maintenance be strictly followed, in order to produce and maintain the highest possible cut quality that a system can provide. A list of suggestions for troubleshooting is offered below as a general guideline, but note that all the following suggestions may not be applicable for all plasma systems, or for all cutting situations. 6.5.1 Gas-Related Items (1) Monitor gas flow rate and pressure closely and consistently. If using compressor air and the pressure drops during the cut, check compressor capacity. (2) Check for leaks or blockages in the system. (3) Check purity of gases used; consider higher purity gases, if all else has been checked. 6.5.2 Torch-Related Items (1) Measure and maintain torch standoff accurately do not use visual estimation (eyeballing). (2) Maintain consistent travel speed, for a particular material type and thickness. (3) Reducing standoff distance may reduce dross, but consumables life may be reduced and lower current may have to be used. (4) Dross is more commonly found in shape cutting involving curved edges; straight cuts made on the same plate using the same parameters often produce less dross. 6.5.3 Consumables-Related Items (1) Use appropriate consumable parts for the cutting gas. (2) Check all consumables for wear or damage. (3) Check electrodes and nozzles for heavy or uneven wear. (4) Follow manufacturers guidelines on replacement of consumables. 6.5.4 Workpiece-Related Items (1) Use automatic voltage/standoff control; if unavailable, try to ensure the plate is flat. (2) Check for differences in grounding, total weight of the plate, etc. Try to position all the plate at the same location on the table for each cut, rather than at random. Ensure that the plate is not supported by dross from previous cutting. (3) Invert a bad cutting plate and see if there is any difference when cutting it with the bottom side up. (4) Some plates may be magnetized, a condition that can affect arc stability. (5) Try cutting with the plate surface slightly below water level to reduce heat warping. (6) Check for distortion of plate as cutting proceeds; even a small amount of distortion affects torch standoff. This could be a factor during cutting of hot strip products
Figure 20Typical High- and Low-Speed Dross and Drag Lines
6.4 Kerf Width. As with all cutting methods, a kerf allowance must be applied to the templates or programs generating the desired shape. Some cutting machines compensate for kerf width automatically with a preset kerf allowance of one-half the kerf width. The width of a conventional plasma arc cut is greater than cuts made with oxyfuel gas processes, by one-half to as much as four times, depending on cutting power and plate thickness, but kerfs are significantly narrower with high-current density plasma arc cutting. The allowance required is difficult to quantify in general terms, because every variable in a plasma arc cutting system has some effect on kerf width, and each installation is unique. One variable that is true for all situations, however, is that kerf width increases with plate thickness, as shown in Table 2. Actual kerf widths will vary.
Table 2 Conventional Plasma Arc Kerf Widths of Mild Steel Plate

Plate Thickness in. 1/8 to <1 1 to <2 2 to 5< mm 3 to 25 25 to 51 51 to 127 in. 3/32 3/16 5/16 Kerf Width mm 2.4 4.8 8.0
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(coil memory) that is related to residual stresses in the strip; there may be no practical solution. Consult equipment manufacturer. (7) If feasible, try substituting similar material from a different vendor for the problem plates. 6.5.5 Power-Related Items (1) Check that the line input power for the power source does not fluctuate beyond the limits recommended by the cutting systems manufacturer. (2) Check output current level. (3) With water-cooled torches, check the conductivity of the deionized coolant water. Conductivity higher than normal will decrease the power available for cutting. 6.5.6 Cutting Procedure-Related Items (1) Run cutting trials to find the best power/cutting speed combination for each type and thickness combination of material being cutthis needs to be consistent with the required edge quality (while generally needing to maximize productivity). (2) Dont try to use the same cutting speed/power for too wide a range of plate thickness. (3) Consider the cost of removing dross in the overall cutting costs. This can often justify the use of oxygen plasma arc cutting rather than nitrogen PAC despite higher consumable costs.
oxyfuel gas cutting systems are the least expensive and precision plasma arc cutting is medium priced. Laser systems cost typically more than any plasma arc cutting systems. 7.2 Accessory Equipment Costs. Accessory equipment costs are dictated by the type of cutting setup required. Cutting tables with CNCs and ventilation equipment often account for the largest portion of the expense of a complete cutting system when full automation is required. Other costs such as material handling systems, water chilling equipment, and gas and water supply lines may also be required. 7.3 Operational Costs. Operational costs consist of torch parts, gas, electric power, operator labor, and overhead associated with operating and maintaining the plasma arc cutting system. Operational costs vary according to the type and size of system and the material being cut. Some materials, for instance, can be cut well using air as the plasma and shield gases, while some materials require significantly more expensive gas for high-quality cutting. Labor and overhead is the largest component in the operational costs categoryas much as 85% of the total operating cost, as shown in Figure 21. Higher cutting speeds reduce the per-foot cutting cost, and the ability to produce square, clean cut edges reduce the overall cost of parts for manufacturing. The cost of labor for any secondary operations such as dross removal also needs to be considered for systems with narrow windows of dross-free operating conditions. 7.4 Process Comparisons. Conventional plasma arc, precision plasma arc, oxyfuel gas and laser cutting systems each excel at some aspect of cutting, such as type or thickness of metal, or cut-edge characteristics. In the areas where there is not a clear choice of which type of cutting system is best, the two major considerations are cut quality and the cost per foot of cutting with each system. 7.4.1 Plasma Arc Cutting vs. Oxyfuel Cutting. Plasma arc cutting systems provide cost-per-foot savings for all thicknesses up to 1.5 in. (38 mm). Oxygen plasma arc cutting produces better quality cuts than air plasma arc cutting, so it is often preferred for cutting mild steel below 2 in. (50 mm) even though oxygen is a more expensive plasma gas. The comparative cost of air plasma arc, oxygen plasma arc, and oxyfuel gas cutting for cutting mild steel up to 2 in. (50 mm) thick are shown in Figure 22. This cost comparison graph generalize the costs of typical applications of plasma arc cutting. Every actual application includes so many variable factors that specific cost information should be obtained from operators actual costs or from equipment manufacturers estimates for more exact comparisons of cost for a particular installation.
7. Economics
Plasma arc cutting has become a top choice in manufacturing and metal industries because it provides highquality cutting at a low cost per foot. Cutting mild steel less than 2 in. (50 mm) thick is the most common industrial practice. Industrial users now prefer plasma arc cutting over oxyfuel gas cutting because of its faster cutting and its ability to cut stainless steels and aluminum alloys. Cutting costs also favor plasma arc cutting: oxyfuel gas cutting is typically 25 times more expensive than plasma arc cutting for cutting mild steel up to 1 in. (25 mm) thick, and laser systems are significantly more expensive to install. Operating costs associated with metal cutting fall into three categories: (1) Buying the plasma arc cutting system, (2) The cost of work tables, ventilation and other accessory equipment, and (3) The costs associated with operating the system. 7.1 Plasma Arc Cutting Equipment. Currently plasma arc cutting systems typically cost from $1,500 for a small hand-held air plasma arc cutting system to $40,000 for a precision (high-current-density) plasma arc cutting system. The purchase price is higher for systems that can produce higher quality cuts, or cut faster by providing higher power outputs. In general, conventional plasma arc and
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Figure 21Typical Cutting Cost Breakdown200 Amp O2 Plasma Cutting Operating
Figure 22Comparison of Cost200 Amp Plasma Arc Cutting vs. Oxyfuel Cutting
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7.4.2 Precision Plasma Arc Cutting vs. Laser Cutting. The cost of precision plasma arc cutting (another name for high-current-density plasma arc cutting) can be compared with laser cutting since precision plasma arc cutting now competes with laser in quality of cut produced. Precision plasma arc cutting systems provide advantages in both equipment and operational costs. A typical precision plasma arc cutting setup costs approximately half the cost of a laser cutting system. Although the cost of the cutting table, control system and ventilation equipment is similar, the higher capital cost of the laser accounts for the difference. 7.4.3 Plasma Arc Gouging vs. Air Carbon Arc Gouging. Plasma arc gouging and carbon arc gouging are comparable processes when removing welds, preparing plates for welding, or other gouging tasks. Plasma arc gouging, however, is the less expensive gouging method. In addition, it is cleaner and more versatile, being able to gouge aluminum alloys and stainless steel as well as mild steel.
8. Safety and Health Hazards

As discussed in the Introduction and other sections of this booklet, plasma arc cutting and gouging systems involve components and aspects that pose safety risks, including electrical shock, flammable gases, fumes and gases, noise, radiated heat, fire and burns. Proper instruction and training for system operators is essential for safety in the workplace. Plasma arc cutting and gouging operators should always read and understand the manufacturers safety and operating instructions before operating the equipment. This technical document does not address all welding and health hazards. However pertinent information can be found in the following documents: (1) NFPA 70, National Electrical Code (2) ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes (3) OSHA Safety and Health Standards, 29CFR Part 1910 (4) American National Red Cross First Aid and Safety Handbook (5) NFPA Standard 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work (6) AWS Safety and Health Fact Sheets Information regarding the publisher of these documents can be found in Section 2 for the standards and Appendix C for other references. The following paragraphs discuss in greater detail hazards associated with plasma arc cutting and gouging systems.
8.1 Electrical Shock. Voltages present in plasma arc cutting and gouging equipment may be as high as 400 V DC output, which represents a potentially lethal shock hazard. The equipment must be properly grounded as recommended by the manufacturer and applicable electrical codes, and safe work practices must be followed. Emergency first aid should always be available, since prompt and appropriate emergency response may reduce the extent of injury caused by an accidental electrical shock. Untrained, unskilled personnel should not be permitted to operate or maintain the equipment. Additional safety reminders for reducing the shock hazard and chance of equipment damage are listed below: (1) Keep all electrical circuits dry, since moisture may provide an unexpected path of current flow. Equipment cabinets that contain water and gas lines, as well as electrical circuits, should be checked periodically for leaks. (2) All electrical connections should be clean, dry, and tight. Poor electrical connections can generate heat, and may represent a fire risk. (3) Consult the manufacturers specifications for proper cable and wire sizes, to prevent cable damage and reduce the chance of equipment failure. The cable should be rated at no less than 600 V DC. Keep cables and wires in good repair to reduce the possibility of electrical shock or equipment damage. (4) Do not touch live circuits, keep equipment access doors closed, and never bypass or disable safety interlock systems. (5) The risk of electrical shock is present when inspecting or replacing electrodes, nozzles, and other torch parts. Operators must always disconnect the primary power and the power to the control circuitry before inspecting or replacing torch parts, to prevent electrical shock. (6) Wear dry, hole-free clothing and gloves. Be insulated from the work and ground. (7) Operators and maintenance personnel should be aware that plasma arc equipment presents a greater hazard than typical welding equipment, due to the higher voltages involved. Only properly trained personnel should operate or service the equipment. (8) Plasma arc power sources often contain large capacitors that store hazardous levels of electrical energy. Capacitors should be allowed five minutes to discharge energy to safe levels and should never be discharged with a screwdriver or other implement. 8.2 Explosion. Plasma arc cutting systems use compressed gases, some of which may be flammable. Proper precautions must be observed when handling and using compressed gases and pressurized systems. Equipment manufacturers should furnish complete instructions for operating plasma arc equipment safely.
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AWS C5.2:2001
Operators must be properly trained in safe operating practices and follow ANSI, OSHA and other local and national safety codes for safe handling of flammable or potentially explosive gases such as oxygen, hydrogen and methane, and gas mixtures. Other important safety reminders are these: (1) Oxygennow widely used in plasma arc cuttingaccelerates combustion dramatically and must be handled with care. An oxygen hose should never be used for any other gas. (2) Do not operate a plasma arc cutting system in any atmosphere that may contain explosive vapors or dust. (3) Do not cut pressurized or closed containers. They may explode. (4) Make sure all regulators are operating properly. (5) Keep flames away from hoses and containers carrying flammable gases. Explosion may result. (6) Inspect all hoses regularly and replace immediately any hose that appears damaged. Leaks may cause explosion or asphyxiation. 8.2.1 Explosion Hazards when Cutting Aluminum Alloys. When cutting aluminum alloys underwater, or with the water touching the underside of the aluminum alloys, free hydrogen gas may collect under the workpiece, due to hydrogen released by the interaction of molten aluminum alloys with the oxygen component of the water molecules. The hydrogen can accumulate in pockets under the workpiece and ignite when the plasma arc passes near or over a pocket of hydrogen gas. Hydrogen gas accumulation can be minimized by aerating or agitating the water in the water table. Contact the equipment manufacturer for recommended practices for aluminum alloys cutting. 8.3 Fumes and Gases. Plasma arc cutting and gouging produce by-product fumes and gases which can cause harm to operators or persons nearby. The composition and rate of generation of the fumes and gases depend on many factors, including arc current, cutting speed, plate material, orifice gas and others. The fume and gas byproducts will usually consist of the oxides of the elements in the metal being cut, as well as ozone and oxides of nitrogen. These fumes must be eliminated at the source or removed from the work area through an exhaust system. Local codes may require that the exhaust be cleaned before being vented into the atmosphere. Different types of fume removal systems are available for mechanized cutting systems, including air vacuum/filter systems, collecting the fumes in water, or both. See 4.6 for more complete descriptions of these pollution control systems and Annex C for reference information.6
6. See Annex C, References 15 and 17.
(1) Water Table and Water Muffler. This system encapsulates the plasma cutting arc completely and captures fumes in the water, which requires periodic cleaning or conditioning. (2) Underwater Cutting. This system submerges the workpiece 2 in. to 3 in. (51 mm to 76 mm) below the water surface and offers the best pollution containment. (3) Down-Draft Exhaust Table. This dry method collects the fumes and particulates from the area of the cutting arc using powerful exhaust fans. It is particularly effective at controlling fumes when using plasma arc cutting systems that do not employ water injection or water shield. (4) Collector Cup and Torch Housing. This system can be used for fume containment on cutting machines where a water table or down-draft table is not practical, such as an X-Y table on which the workpiece is in motion. 8.4 Noise. The amount of noise generated by a plasma arc cutting or gouging system varies according to the current being used. For example, one torch operating at 400 A generates approximately 100 dBA, measured at a distance of 6 ft. At 1000 A, the noise level is about 135 dBA at the same distance. Much of the noise is in the frequency range of 5000 Hz to 20 000 Hz, which can damage hearing unless hearing protection is worn where the noise level exceeds specified limits. The maximum acceptable noise level, according to 1995 U.S. Occupational Safety and Hazards Act (OSHA) regulations, is 90 dBA for 8 hours continuous exposure, 95 dBA for 4 hours, and 100 dBA for 2 hours. The water muffler system, described in 4.6.1, reduces noise effectively in mechanized cutting applications. The shroud of water acts as a sound-deadening enclosure around the torch nozzle, and the water below the plate keeps noise from escaping through the kerf opening. Noise reduction is typically 20 dBA, sufficient for operators in many situations without requiring additional hearing protection. The noise-reducing capabilities of water mufflers should not be confused with water injection and water shielding. Neither of these processes uses a sufficient flow of water for noise reduction. Underwater plasma arc cutting, however, provides greater noise reduction than a water muffler because the arc and the entire working end of the torch are submerged. Noise levels for 400 A to 600 A underwater plasma arc cutting operating are typically 85 dBA, which is the quietest possible plasma arc cutting process. With greater than 3 in. (75 mm) thick materials, however, underwater or water table/water muffler techniques cannot be used. Starting at this thickness level, water must be eliminated from the cut zone, which also removes effective control of fume, smoke, and radiation. Operators and other personnel in the general area of the cutting operation must wear ap-
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AWS C5.2:2001
propriate safety equipment. The collector cup/vacuum hood system provides some noise reduction, due to the physical containment of the cut zone, but water muffler techniques are usually more effective. 8.5 Radiated Light. Besides heat, a plasma arc radiates intense visible and invisible light. In addition to the potential harm to the eyes and skin, the radiation may produce ozone and oxides of nitrogen. Eyes and skin must be protected against arc radiation hazards. Operators and others nearby must wear eye protection designed to guard against ultraviolet and infrared radiation, as shown in Table 3. Mechanical barriers such as walls or welding curtains will reduce radiation exposure in the vicinity of cutting or
gouging operations. A water muffler can function as a light-absorbing shield when dye is added to the water table, but operators should wear eye protection even when using water dyes in case of accidental interruption of water flow through the water muffler. In addition, water dyes do not filter ultraviolet radiation effectively. Underwater plasma arc cutting reduces the amount of radiation because of the depth of the water in which the arc is operating, but operators and observers should wear eye protection as shown in Table 3. The torch housing also serves as a radiation shield, since it encloses the arc. However, eye protection is still required since sparks and light may escape the housing under a variety of conditions. 8.6 Radiated Heat/Spatter and Sparks. Plasma arc cutting and gouging produce significant by-product heat, as well as metal sparks and hot spatter, which create a fire hazard in the surrounding area. Personnel should wear fire-retardant clothing and cover exposed skin to prevent burns from heat or particles, and fire extinguishers should be placed near the cutting station. In addition to the fire hazard, there may be an explosion hazard when certain gases are used, such as hydrogen mixtures. Refer to the National Fire Protection Association Standard 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work, concerning these hazards. 8.7 Chlorinated Solvents. Some chlorinated solvents, e.g., trichloroethylene, methylene chloride, and ethyl chloride can decompose into phosgene gasa poison gaswhen exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Keep cutting areas ventilated, and keep chlorinated solvents away from the cutting area. Operators should be sure to read and understand the Material Safety Data Sheet of any solvent in use.
Table 3 Recommended Shade Densities for Plasma Arc Cutting Filter Lenses(1)
Current Range (A) Less than 300 300 to 400 >400 Minimum Shade 8 9 10 Comfortable Shade(2) 9 12 14
Notes: (1) Adapted from ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting and Allied Processes. See Section 2 for information in obtaining this document. Also see AWS F2.2, Lens Shade Selector Chart. (2) As a rule of thumb start with the shade that is too dark to see the cutting zone. Then go to a lighter shade which gives a sufficient view of the cutting zone without going below the minimum.
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AWS C5.2:2001
Annex A Guidelines for Preparation of Technical Inquiries for AWS Technical Committees
(This Annex is not a part of AWS C5.2-2001, Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging, but is included for information purposes only.)
A1. Introduction
The AWS Board of Directors has adopted a policy whereby all official interpretations of AWS standards will be handled in a formal manner. Under that policy, all interpretations are made by the committee that is responsible for the standard. Official communication concerning an interpretation is through the AWS staff member who works with that committee. The policy requires that all requests for an interpretation be submitted in writing. Such requests will be handled as expeditiously as possible but due to the complexity of the work and the procedures that must be followed, some interpretations may require considerable time.
the edition of the standard that contains the provisions or that the Inquirer is addressing. A2.2 Purpose of the Inquiry. The purpose of the inquiry must be stated in this portion of the inquiry. The purpose can be either to obtain an interpretation of a standard requirement, or to request the revision of a particular provision in the standard. A2.3 Content of the Inquiry. The inquiry should be concise, yet complete, to enable the committee to quickly and fully understand the point of the inquiry. Sketches should be used when appropriate and all paragraphs, figures, and tables (or the Annex), which bear on the inquiry must be cited. If the point of the inquiry is to obtain a revision of the standard, the inquiry must provide technical justification for that revision. A2.4 Proposed Reply. The inquirer should, as a proposed reply, state an interpretation of the provision that is the point of the inquiry, or the wording for a proposed revision, if that is what inquirer seeks.
A2. Procedure
All inquiries must be directed to: Managing Director, Technical Services American Welding Society 550 N.W. LeJeune Road Miami, FL 33126 All inquiries must contain the name, address, and affiliation of the inquirer, and they must provide enough information for the committee to fully understand the point of concern in the inquiry. Where that point is not clearly defined, the inquiry will be returned for clarification. For efficient handling, all inquiries should be typewritten and should also be in the format used here. A2.1 Scope. Each inquiry must address one single provision of the standard, unless the point of the inquiry involves two or more interrelated provisions. That provision must be identified in the Scope of the inquiry, along with
A3. Interpretation of Provisions of the Standard

Interpretations of provisions of the standard are made by the relevant AWS Technical Committee. The secretary of the committee refers all inquiries to the chairman of the particular subcommittee that has jurisdiction over the portion of the standard addressed by the inquiry. The subcommittee reviews the inquiry and the proposed reply to determine what the response to the inquiry should be. Following the subcommittees development of the response, the inquiry and the response are presented to the entire committee for review and approval. Upon approval
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AWS C5.2:2001
by the committee, the interpretation will be an official interpretation of the Society, and the secretary will transmit the response to the inquirer and to the Welding Journal for publication.
only through a written request. The Headquarters staff cannot provide consulting services. The staff can, however, refer a caller to any of those consultants whose names are on file at AWS Headquarters.
A4. Publication of Interpretations

All official interpretations will appear in the Welding Journal.
A6. The AWS Technical Committee

The activities of AWS Technical Committees in regard to interpretations, are limited strictly to the interpretation of provisions of standards prepared by the committee or to consideration of revisions to existing provisions on the basis of new data or technology. Neither the committee nor the staff is in a position to offer interpretive or consulting services on: (1) specific engineering problems; or (2) requirements of standards applied to fabrications outside the scope of the document or points not specifically covered by the standard. In such cases, the inquirer should seek assistance from a competent engineer experienced in the particular field of interest.
A5. Telephone Inquiries

Telephone inquiries to AWS Headquarters concerning AWS standards should be limited to questions of a general nature or to matters directly related to the use of the standard. The Board of Directors policy requires that all AWS staff members respond to a telephone request for an official interpretation of any AWS standard with the information that such an interpretation can be obtained
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AWS C5.2:2001
Annex B Terms and Definitions

(This Annex is not a part of AWS C5.2-2001, Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging, but is included for information purposes only.)
Both the plasma arc cutting process and the gas tungsten arc welding process, from which it derived, share some terminology. However, due to the greater complexity and recent developments in plasma arc cutting new terms have come into common usage. Familiarity with these terms will provide a common language for operators, service personnel, and management, and will also help readers make useful comparisons between the systems available. Refer to AWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, for a complete list of terms used in this document. A term preceded by an asterisk is not currently defined in AWS A3.0 or is a variation of the A3.0 definition. *arc length, plasma arc cutting. The distance from the electrode to the attachment point on the workpiece. *backlash. A mechanical situation where a reversal of driving motion does not result in the immediate reversal of the driven assembly. Excessive backlash is generally caused by damaged, worn or poorly manufactured parts. *ball transfer. A ball bearing assembly used to reduce the friction experienced by an object that must slide over or under another object. Ball transfers are commonly used in work tables. *ballscrew. A mechanical drive system component resembling a threaded rod which is used to convert rotary motion to straight line motion. *bevel cutting. A plasma arc cutting technique that uses a tilted torch to produce an angle on the edge of parts being cut. *chopper. A high-performance plasma arc power source design using power semiconductor switching techniques.
*computer numeric control (CNC). Microprocessorbased electronic machine control used to coordinate and manage the cutting machine functions. *consumables, plasma arc cutting. Torch parts that are eroded or otherwise worn during normal cutting or gouging operations, such as electrodes, nozzles, shields, caps and swirl rings. *coordinate drive. Machine motion system where movements are electronically controlled. Axis motion can be executed independently as with point to point positioning or can be synchronized as with contour cutting. *current density, plasma arc cutting. A measure of the degree of arc constriction achieved with a plasma arc torch. Units are Amperes/in.2 or mm2. *cut angle/bevel angle, plasma arc cutting. The angle formed between the cut surface and a theoretical plane perpendicular to the plate surface. Plasma arc cutting tends to remove more metal from the top than from the bottom, producing a cut angle. *cycle time. The total amount of time needed to process a part, including the time needed for material handling and other noncutting activities. *diagnostics. Messages issued by a control which indicate faults and aid in troubleshooting. *direct numeric control (DNC). The practice of creating and maintaining part programs in one location and downloading them to the cutting machine location when needed. double arcing. A condition in which the welding or cutting arc of a plasma arc torch does not pass through the constricting orifice but transfers to the inside surface of the nozzle. A secondary arc is simultaneously
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AWS C5.2:2001
established between the outside surface of the nozzle and the workpiece. *drag, plasma arc cutting. The offset distance between the entrance and exit points of the gas stream on the plate being cut, measured on the cut edge. *drag angle, plasma arc cutting. The angle between the impinging jet stream centerline and a direction perpendicular to the plate surface. *drive. A term used to describe any system of components used to produce machine motion, including such components as motors, ballscrews, servo amplifiers, etc. *dross, plasma arc cutting. Resolidified molten metal and oxides adhering to the top or bottom edge during thermal cutting. *duty cycle, plasma arc cutting. A power source specification describing the percentage of time a system can be operated at a given current level. Based on a ten minute cycle. *electrode, plasma arc cutting. The plasma arc torch part from which arc current is emitted. *feedback. A signal used by a controller to monitor the events being controlled and modify output commands. *fumes. Airborne solid particulate matter generated by the welding process. Fume particles are usually submicron in size, and thus tend to remain airborne and drift with the air currents. *hafnium. The metal used most commonly for the electrode emitter for air or oxygen plasma gases. *heat-affected zone, plasma arc cutting. The region on the edge of the plasma cut where the heat of the arc has changed the properties of the material. Generally a hardening of the material is the primary concern. *high-frequency discharge. High-voltage power supplied to the plasma torch, which breaks down the air gap between the nozzle and electrode in order to initiate the plasma stream. *inverter power source. A high-performance plasma power source design which takes advantage of advanced power semiconductor circuitry to reduce the size and weight of the transformer and, hence, the overall size of the power source. *kerf, plasma arc cutting. The void left by the linear removal of material by any kind of cutting process (saw, plasma arc, oxyfuel gas, etc.)
*manual data input (MDI). A CNC operating mode in which the operator may enter part program information or short commands. *nesting. The creation of an array of parts on a plate, generally arranged to minimize the amount of scrap after cutting. *nibbling. A method of producing parts using a punch press to rapidly punch the outline of the desired shape. *nontransferred arc. An arc established between the electrode and the constricting nozzle of the plasma arc torch. The workpiece is not in the electrical circuit. *nozzle, plasma arc cutting. A consumable torch part containing a hole, or orifice, through which the arc passes. *nozzle diameter, orifice diameter. The diameter of the nozzle through which the plasma arc passes. *off-line. Not under machine control. Operations such as guidance programming are developed before production time. *open circuit voltage, plasma arc cutting. The voltage present at the electrode in the brief internal before the torch ignites and whenever the arc is extinguished with the power source still active. *overshoot. A condition where a controlled variable such as standoff or workpiece position will briefly exceed or hunt around its commanded value. oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC). A group of oxygen cutting processes that uses heat from an oxyfuel gas flame. *pantograph. A mechanism which follows a template to reproduce the shape of the template to scale. *photo optical tracing. A shape-cutting technique in which the cutting machine takes its motion control information from a photoelectric sensor that scans a drawing of the desired shape during the cutting process. *piercing. A method of starting a plasma arc cut in which the arc plunges into and through the workpiece before cutting begins. pilot arc. A low current arc between the electrode and the constricting nozzle of the plasma arc torch to ionize the gas and facilitate the start of the welding arc. *pilot hole. On a punch/plasma press, a punched hole at the edge of which the plasma arc cut is started. *plasma, arc plasma in AWS A3.0. A gas that has been heated by an arc to at least a partially ionized condition, enabling it to conduct an electric current.
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AWS C5.2:2001
*plasma arc cutting (PAC). An arc cutting process that uses a constricted arc and removes the molten metal in a high-velocity jet of ionized gas issuing from the constricting orifice. Plasma arc cutting is a direct current electrode negative (DCEN) process. *plasma gas/cutting gas/orifice gas. A gas directed into the torch to surround the electrode, which becomes ionized by the arc to form a plasma, and issues from the torch nozzle as the plasma jet. *plenum chamber. The space between the electrode and the inside wall of the constricting nozzle of the plasma arc torch. *proximity probe. Electronic inductive proximity sensors capable of detecting the location of the workpiece, often used for initial height sensing. *punched tape. A method of storing and transporting part programs in which characters are recorded on the paper or Mylar tape using standardized patterns of punched holes. Programs generated off-line are loaded into the machine controller using a tape reader. Punched tape for data storage is being phased out in favor of disks and DNC. *rack & pinion. A mechanical drive system used to convert rotary motion to straight line motion. These units consist of a relatively small round pinion gear which engages a length of toothed rectangular bar. *SCR power source. A type of power source that uses a semiconductor device known as the silicon-controlled rectifier in the main power circuit. *secondary gas/shielding gas, plasma arc cutting. Unlike the plasma gas, the secondary gas does not
pass through the orifice of the nozzle. It passes around the nozzle and forms a shield around the arc. *servo system. Electronic machine tool positioning system. *shape library. A CNC feature that provides a collection of commonly used shapes for part programs, which can be scaled, rotated and translated as necessary to create the desired cut-part shapes. *standoff/torch-to-work distance, plasma arc cutting. The distance between the outer most portion of the torch and the work surface. *thoriated tungsten. A metal used as the plasma cutting electrode emitter for a non-oxidizing plasma gas, such as nitrogen. transferred arc. A plasma arc established between the electrode of the plasma arc torch and the workpiece. *turret. An assembly which holds punching tools on a punch press. The turret rotates to select different tools. *ultraviolet light. Short wavelength light emitted during arc cutting and welding processes that is harmful to the eyes and skin. *vortex. An intense swirling gas similar to a tornado. Most plasma arc cutting systems develop a vortex of some extent in the nozzle during cutting. *workclamp. An assembly used to hold the workpiece, generally using hydraulic pressure for clamping force. *workpiece, plasma arc cutting. The piece of material to be cut or gouged. *zirconium. An element used in some electrodes as a plasma arc cutting electrode emitter. Although similar to hafnium, zirconium provides a shorter service life.
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AWS C5.2:2001
Annex C Selected Reading List

(This Annex is not a part of AWS C5.2:2001, Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging, but is included for information purposes only.)
(1) R. Finch, Welders Handbook: A Complete Guide to Mig, Tig, Arc & Oxyacetylene Welding, February, 1997. (2) American Machinist, Technology Trends, July 1993, p. 22. (3) ASM Handbook, Vol. 6, 1993, pp. 11661171. (4) AWS Welding Handbook, Vol. 2, 8th Edition, 1994, pp. 482489. (5) Colt, J. D., Longlife Oxygen Plasma Arc Cutting, Hypertherm Inc., Hanover, NH, 1994. (6) DIN 2310 Teil 4 (German) Thermal Cutting; Plasma Arc Cutting, Principles of Process, Terms, Quality, Dimensional Tolerances, September 1987. (7) Engblom, G. and Falck K., Welding in the World, Vol. 28, No. 11/12, pp. 204215, 1990. (8) Fernicola, R. C., Welding Journal, New Oxygen Plasma Arc Process Rivals Laser Cutting, June 1994, pp. 6569. (9) Handal M. D., Kathleen, The American Red Cross First Aid and Safety Handbook, Little Brown & Co. ISBN: 0316736465 (10) Harris, Ian, Plasma Arc Cutting of Bridge Steels, Edison Welding Institute, 1997. (11) Houlcroft, P., John, R., Welding and Cutting, A Guide to Fusion Welding and Associated Cutting Processes, Woodhead-Faulkner Ltd., 1988.
(12) Lindberg, B., Welding & Metal Fabrication, April 1990, p. 166. (13) Linde Publication: Plasma Cutting Fundamentals, reprinted in Australian Welding Journal, Winter 1987, pp. 58. (14) Manohar, M., Snyder, J. P. II, Dross Formation During Plasma Arc Cutting of Steel, Welding Journal, November 1994. (15) G. Pilot et al, Measurements of Secondary Emissions from Plasma Arc and Laser Cutting in Standard Experiments, Decommissioning of Nuclear Installations, ISBN:1-85166-523-4, Elsevier Applied Sciences, 1989. (16) Plasma-Arc Cutting and Welding, PAC and PAW, Welding Design and Fabrication, 65(6), pp. 2356, June 1992. (17) Trainor, R. S., Fume Emissions Testing for Plasma Arc Cutting, Hypertherm Inc., Etna Road, Hanover NH, 1998. (18) Wu, Y., Hackett, C., Eickhoff, S., The Effects of Plasma Arc Cutting on Mild Steel, Hypertherm Inc. 1997. (19) Physik und Technologie des Plasmastrahls in der Schweiss-, Schneid und Spritztechnik: Vortrage d. 3. Kolloquiums Physik u. Technologie d. Plasmastrahls in d. Schweiss-, Schneid u. Spritztechnik in Aachen am 20. u. 21. Marz 1975.
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AWS C5.2:2001
AWS List of Documents on Arc Welding and Cutting

AWS Designation C5.1 C5.2 C5.3 C5.4 C5.5 C5.6 C5.7 C5.10 Title Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Welding Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging Recommended Practices for Air Carbon Arc Gouging and Cutting Recommended Practices for Stud Welding Recommended Practices for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Recommended Practices for Gas Metal Arc Welding Recommended Practices for Electrogas Welding Recommended Practices for Shielding Gases for Welding and Plasma Arc Cutting
For ordering information, contact Global Engineering Documents, An Information Handling Services Group Company, 15 Inverness Way East, Englewood, Colorado 80112-5776. Telephones: (800) 854-7179, (303) 397-7956; FAX (303) 397-2740; Internet: www.global.ihs.com.
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AWS C5.

2:2001 An American National Standard

Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc. Licensed by Information Handling Services

Key Words Plasma arc cutting, gouging,

Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging

550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, Florida 33126

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc. Licensed by Information Handling Services

Statement on Use of AWS American National Standards

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc. Licensed by Information Handling Services

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc. Licensed by Information Handling Services

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc. Licensed by Information Handling Services

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc. Licensed by Information Handling Services

Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging

Figure 1Plasma: The Fourth State of Matter

Figure 2Temperature Differences Typical GTAW vs. Typical PAC

Notes: R = Resistance S = Switch HFI = High-Frequency Ignition Source

Figure 3Plasma Arc Torch Circuitry

Figure 4Single-Gas Plasma Arc Cutting

Figure 5Dual-Flow Plasma Arc Cutting

Figure 6Water Injection Plasma Arc Cutting

3. Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging Methods

Figure 7Manual Plasma Arc Cutting

4. Equipment, Consumables, and Gases

Table 1 Recommended Plasma/Shield Gas Combinations

Long Electrode Life Lowest Shield Gas Cost

Most Economical Good Speed Some Dross

Figure 8Different Methods to Achieve High-Current Density

Figure 9Gantry Crane Cutting Machine

Figure 10Punch/Plasma Press

Figure 11Plasma Cutting Robot Classic Six-Axis Design

Figure 12Cantilever Cutting Machine with Optical Tracing Head

Figure 13Sample Part Program

Figure 14Water Muffler

Figure 15Underwater Plasma Cutting

Figure 16Collection Cup SystemWet Type

6. Optimizing Plasma Arc Cut Quality

Figure 17General Features of Plasma Arc Cut

Figure 18Direction of Cut with Clockwise Swirl

Figure 20Typical High- and Low-Speed Dross and Drag Lines

Table 2 Conventional Plasma Arc Kerf Widths of Mild Steel Plate

Figure 21Typical Cutting Cost Breakdown200 Amp O2 Plasma Cutting Operating

8. Safety and Health Hazards

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc. Licensed by Information Handling Services

A3. Interpretation of Provisions of the Standard

A4. Publication of Interpretations

A6. The AWS Technical Committee

A5. Telephone Inquiries

Annex B Terms and Definitions

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc. Licensed by Information Handling Services

Annex C Selected Reading List

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AWS List of Documents on Arc Welding and Cutting

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