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THE BEAM

global and local axes


- centroidal axis
- cross section
- small displacements [equilibrium is enforced in the undeformed configuration]
- linear elasticity
principal axes of inertia
Bar: beam subjected only to axial load.
For the moment we refer to plane beams: that is beams with a longitudinal plane of symmetry,
the applied loads should act in this plane. As a consequence, the beams deflects in this plane
and the problem reduces to a plane problem.
Indeed, this means that the cross section is symmetric about y-axis, y-axis is principal, the
shear center belongs to the y-axis -> there is no torsion and the bending is symmetric (flessione
retta).
KINEMATICS
Euler-Bernoulli
plane sections remain plane
and normal to the longitudinal axis of the beam
u
(
=
(

(
(
=
(
(

( , )
( , )
( , )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
x
y
d x y
x y
d x y
u x
x v x
x
d
u
u =

( , ) ( ) ( )
( , ) ( )
x
y
d x y u x y x
d x y v x
u ' = v
d
deformed cross section
deformed beam axis
Fundamental assumption:
undeformed beam
This theory considers flexural deformations only.
pointwise displacements
beam (generalized)
displacements
small displacements
section rotation
slope of the beam axis
KINEMATICS
Timoshenko
v u ' =
plane sections remain plane
but not necessarily perpendicular to the beam axis
Fundamental assumption:
This theory considers both flexural and shear deformations.
v
I

v
I

u
u
x
deformed beam axis
direction of undeformed section
deformed section
KINEMATICS
Compatibility
( )
( , )
1 1
( , )
2 2
xy
x
xx
y
x
d
x y u y
x
d
d
x y v
x y
c
c u
u = =
c

' ' = =

c
| | c

' +
|

c c
\ .
( )
( )
( )
x
x u
x v
_ u
c
u
'
=
' =

' =

_
(
(
=
(
(

e
1
2
xy
xx
y
c
c c _
=
=

( )
( )
0
x
x u
_ u
c

'
=
' =

=
c
_
(
=
(

e
0
xy
xx
y
c
c c _
=
=

d
0 0
d
d
0 1
d
d
0 0
d
x
x
x
(
(
(
(
= =
(
(
(
(

e Du D
2
2
d
0
d
d
0
d
x
x
(
(
(
= =
(
(

e Du D
Timoshenko
Eulero-Bernoulli
dx c
dx _
dx
dx dx dx
pointwise strains
section deformations
[generalized strains]
xx
o
xy
t
STATICS

0 0
xx xy
o t = =
d
d
d
xx
A
xy
A
xx
A
N A
T A
M y A
o
t
o

}
}
}
All the other stress components are assumed to be zero.
normal stresses shear stresses
imaginary cutting plane
axial force
shear force
bending moment
internal forces
[section forces]
[stress resultants]
[generalized stresses]
STATICS
Equilibrium
p
q
c
(
(
=
(
(

f
d
d
p
c
q
x
(
(
=
(


f
d
0 0
d
d
0 0
d
d
0 1
d
x
x
x
- -
(

(
(
(
= =
(
(
(

(

D s f D
2
2
d
0
d
d
0
d
x
x
- -
(

(
(
= =
(
(

D s f D
Timoshenko
Eulero-Bernoulli
N
T
M
(
(
=
(
(

s
N
M
(
=
(

s
0
0
0
N p
M T c
T q
' + =

' + + =

' + =

0
'' 0
N p
dc
M q
dx
' + =

+ =

To maintain a correct paring with kinematics (we have just 2 components of deformations)
we can take the first derivative of the moment equilibrium equation and then substitute into
the shear equilibrium equation.
CONSTITUTIVE LAW
Linear isotropic elasticity

( )
2
xx xx xx
xy xy xy
E y E
G G
o c _ o c
t c t
= =


= =


d
d
d
xx
A
xy
A
xx
A
N A
N EA N EA
T A M EI M EI
T GA T GA
M y A
o
c
k
c
t _ _

o

= =

= = =


= =

=

}
}
}
2
d
(5/ 6 for rectangular cross sections)
A
I y A
k
=
}
0 0
0 0
0 0
EA
GA
EI
k
(
(
= =
(
(

s Ce C
Timoshenko
Euler-Bernoulli
0
0
EA
EI
(
= =
(

s Ce C
Youngs modulus
shear modulus
De Saint Venant theory
shear correction factor
- Why this discrepancy?
- How to compute the shear correction factor?
- The procedure is general and applicable to more complex material behaviors?
- Stress distributions are consistent with De Saint Venant results?
NOTATION
u
v
u
(
(
=
(
(

u
0 0
0 0
0 0
EA
GA
EI
k
(
(
=
(
(

C
p
q
c
(
(
=
(
(

f
d
0 0
d
d
0 0
d
d
0 1
d
x
x
x
-
(

(
(
(
=
(
(
(

(

D
N
T
M
(
(
=
(
(

s
c

_
(
(
=
(
(

e
d
0 0
d
d
0 1
d
d
0 0
d
x
x
x
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(

D
T
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
(
(
=
(
(

N | |
1 = n
Timoshenko Euler-Bernoulli
d
d
p
c
q
x
(
(
=
(


f
2
2
d
0
d
d
0
d
x
x
-
(

(
(
=
(
(

D
N
M
(
=
(

s
c
_
(
=
(

e
2
2
d
0
d
d
0
d
x
x
(
(
(
=
(
(

D
u
v
(
=
(

u
0
0
EA
EI
(
=
(

C
in the boundary conditions there is
the first derivative
( )
xx
xy
t
N M N M
E y E y y
EA EI A I
T T
A A
o c _
t
k
| |
= = =
|
\ .
= =
Using the previous equations we get:
1
H
2
H
1
V
2
V
1
C
2
C
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NODAL FORCES AND NODAL DISPLACEMENTS
Prismatic beam, linear elastic, homogeneous and isotropic material

3 2 3 2
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
3 2
0 0 0 0
12 6 12 6
0
(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (1 )
(4 ) 6 (2 )
0
(1 ) (1 )
(1 )
0 0
12 6
(1 ) (1 )
(4 )
(1 )
EA EA
L L
EI EI EI EI
H L L L L
V EI EI EI
L L C
L
H
EA
V L
EI EI
C
L L
EI
L


(
(
(

(
+ + + + (
(
(
+
(
(

(
+ + (
+
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(


(
+ +
(
+ (
(
+

2
1
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
0 0
0 0 2
1
12
0
0 0
2 1
(1 )
6
0 0
12 2(1 ) (1 )
0 0
0 0
2
12
0 0
1
(1 )
0
2 1
6
0
(1 )
0
12 2(1 )
L
EA
L
EI
u
L
v
L L EI
p EI
L
q
u L EA
c
v EI
L
L
EI
EI
L L L

u
u

(

(
(

(
+
( +
(
(
(
(
(
(
( + +
(
(
+ +
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+

(
+
(

(
+

(
+

c
_

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(

2
12EI
L GA

k
=
2
12
0
EI
L GA

k
=
shear deformation not permitted
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NODAL FORCES AND NODAL DISPLACEMENTS
Prismatic beam, linear elastic, homogeneous and isotropic material

3 2 3 2
1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1
2 2
2 2
2 2
3 2
2
0 0 0 0 0 0
2
12 6 12 6
0 1 0
2
4 6 2
0
0 0
12
0 0
0 0
2
12 6
0 1
2
4
0
12
L EA EA
L L
L EI EI EI EI
H u
L L L L
V v
EI EI EI
L
C
L L
L
H u L
EA
V v L
L
EI EI
C
L L
EI L
L
u
u
(

(
(
(

( (
(
( (
(
( (
(

( (
(
= +
( (
(
( (
(

( (
(
( (
(

(
(
(
(

2
2
0 0
12
0 0
6
0
0 0
12
0 0
6
0
0
EA
EI
L
EI
p
EI
L
q
EA
c
EI
L
EI
EI
L
c
_

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
( (
(
(
( (
(
+
(
( (
(

(
( (
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(

(

1
H
2
H
1
V
2
V
1
C
2
C
1
1
3
12EI
L
3
12EI
L
2
6EI
L
2
6EI
L
2
6EI
L
2
6EI
L
4EI
L
2EI
L
e
( ) = s C e e
-
= D s f
( ) = C
-
= L b
T
= N s t
= Ld
= e Du
= u u
s
t
u
u
b

d
kinematical hypothesis
[plane section]
They are generally
not satisfied
beam link: black
solid link: red
inter link: blue
T
A
=
}
C E E C
COMPOSITE BEAMS
A beam of two or more materials having different moduli of elasticity. Typical examples are reinforced
concrete beams and multilayered beams made by bonding together several sheets of different materials.
z
y
1
2
E
1

E
2

d
x
y
x
y
0, 0 c _ = =
z
y
1
2
E
1

E
2

d
x
y
x
y
0, 0 c _ = =
z
y
1
2
E
1

E
2

d
x
y
x
y
0, 0 c _ = =
A
B
xx
y c c _ =
1
2
( )
( )
xx
E y
E y
c _
o
c _

=

xx
c
xx
c
xx
o
xx
o
xx
o
xx
c
Notice that: 0, 0 N M = = Notice that: 0, 0 N M = =
bending about z-axis
COMPOSITE BEAMS
Computing the constitutive equations:
1 2
1 2
1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
z z
A A
N E y E y E A E A E s E s c _ c _ c _ = + = + +
} }
1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
z z z z
A A
M yE y y E y E s E s EI E I c _ c _ c _ = = + + +
} }
1
2
1
2
d
d
z
A
z
A
s y A
s y A
=
=
}
}
1
2
1 2
2 2
d
d
z
A
z
A
I y A
I y A
=
=
}
}
In a compact notation:
N NM
NM M
N C C
M C C
c _
c _
=
= +
coupled
COMPOSITE BEAMS
Shear
1 2
1 2 1 1 2 2
( )
A A
T G G GA G A = + = +
} }
z
y
1
2
E
1

E
2

d
x
y
x
y
0 =

xy
t
equilibrium
violation
shear correction
factor k
x
y
2
t
1
t
1
t
2
t
Equilibrium on the
intermaterial surface:
1 2
t t =
As in the case of homogeneous beams we need to recover shear stresses from 3D theory and
introduce the shear correction factor.
1
t
2
t
COMPOSITE BEAMS
Transformed section method
The transformed section represents the cross section of a member made of a homogeneous
material with a modulus of elasticity E
1
.
The centroid and the moments of inertia of the new section should be computed.
1
2
1
1
=
dA ndA
n = E
1
/E
2
COMPOSITE BEAMS
Transformed section method
1
1
y
y y
xx
My
I
o =
moment of inertia of the
transformed section
to obtain the true stress we must
multiply by n
Using the previous equations:
0 0
NM
N NM
N
C
N C C
C
_
c _ c = = =
0, 0 M N = =
1
2
0
NM
N
NM
xx xx
N
NM
N
C
E y
C
C
y
C
C
E y
C
_
o o
_

| |

|
\ .
= = =

| |

\ .

centroid neutral axis


z
COMPOSITE BEAMS
Transformed section method
y
1
2
d
y
1
2
coupled
equations
uncoupled
equations
1 2
1 2
NM z z
N
C s s
d
C A nA
+
= =
+
centroid position of
the transformed section

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