The greatest of heathen Philosophers, born at Stagira, a Grecian colony in the Thracian peninsula Chalcidice, 384 B.C.

; died at Chalcis, in Euboea, 322 B.C. His father, Nicomachus, was court physician to King Amyntas of Macedonia. This position, we have reason to believe, was held under various predecessors of Amyntas by Aristotle's ancestors, so that the profession of medicine was in a sense hereditary in the family. Whatever early training Aristotle received was probably influenced by this circumstance; when, therefore at the age of eighteen he went to Athens his mind was already determined in the direction which it afterwards took, the investigation of natural phenomena. From his eighteenth to his thirty-seventh year he remained at Athens as pupil of Plato and was, we are told, distinguished among those who gathered for instruction in the Grove of Academus, adjoining Plato's house. The relations between the renowned teacher and his illustrious pupil have formed the subject of various legends, many of which represent Aristotle in an unfavourable light. No doubt there were divergencies of opinion between the master, who took his stand on sublime, idealistic principles, and the scholar, who, even at that time, showed a preference for the investigation of the facts and laws of the physical world. It is probable that Plato did, indeed, declare that Aristotle needed the curb rather than the spur; but we have no reason to believe that there was an open breach of friendship. In fact, Aristotle's conduct after the death of Plato, his continued association with Xenocrates and other Platonists, and his allusions in his writings to Plato's doctrines, prove that while there were differences of opinion between teacher and pupil, there was no lack of cordial appreciation, or of that mutual forbearance which one would expect from men of lofty character. Besides this, the legends, so far as they reflect unfavourably on Aristotle, are traceable to the Epicureans who were known to antiquity as calumnators by profession; and if such legends were given wide circulation by patristic writers, such as Justin Martyr and Gregory Nazianzen, the reason is to be sought not in any wellgrounded historical tradition, but in the exaggerated esteem in which Aristotle was held by the heretics of the early Christian period. After the death of Plato (347 B.C.), Aristotle went, in company with Xenocrates, to the court of Hermias ruler of Atarneus in Asia Minor, whose niece and adopted daughter, Pythias, he married. In 344 Hermias having been murdered in a rebellion of his subjects, Aristotle went with his family to Mytilene and thence, one or two years later, he was summoned to his native Stagira by King Philip of Macedon, to become the tutor of Alexander, who was then in his thirteenth year. Whether or not we believe Plutarch when he tells us that Aristotle not only imparted to the future world-conqueror a knowledge of ethics and politics, but also initiated him into the most profound secrets of philosophy, we have positive proof, on the one hand, that the royal pupil profited by contact with the philosopher, and, on the other hand, that the teacher made prudent and beneficial use of his influence over the mind of the young prince During the thirteen years (335-322) which he spent as teacher at the Lyceum, Aristotle composed the greater number of his writings. Imitating the example of his master, he placed in the hands of his pupils "Dialogues" in which his doctrines were expounded in somewhat popular language. Besides he composed the several treatises (of which mention will be made below) on physics, metaphysics, and so forth, in which the exposition is more didactic and the language more technical than in the "Dialogues". These writings show to what good use he put the means placed

at his disposal by AleAristotle defines philosophy in terms of essence, saying that philosophy is "the science of the universal essence of that which is actual". Plato had defined it as the "science of the idea", meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of phenomena. Both pupil and master regard philosophy as concerned with the universal; the former however, finds the universal in particular things, and calls it the essence of things, while the latter finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal ideas to a contemplation of particular imitations of those ideas. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive. In other words, for Plato's tendency to idealize the world of reality in the light of intuition of a higher world, Aristotle substituted the scientific tendency to examine first the phenomena of the real world around us and thence to reason to a knowledge of the essences and laws which no intuition can reveal, but which science can prove to exist. In fact, Aristotle's notion of philosophy corresponds, generally speaking, to what was later understood to be science, as distinct from philosophy. In the larger sense of the word, he makes philosophy coextensive with science, or reasoning: "All science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical." By practical science he understands ethics and politics; by poetical, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; while by theoretical philosophy he means physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The last, philosophy in the stricter sense, he defines as "the knowledge of immaterial being," and calls it "first philosophy", "the theologic science" or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." If logic, or, as Aristotle calls it, Analytic, be regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, we have as divisions of Aristotelean philosophy (1) Logic; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics, Mathematics, (3) Practical Philosophy; and (4) Poetical Philosophy. The question may be raised whether the Epic or Tragic mode of imitation is the higher. If the more refined art is the higher, and the more refined in every case is that which appeals to the better sort of audience, the art which imitates anything and everything is manifestly most unrefined. The audience is supposed to be too dull to comprehend unless something of their own is thrown in by the performers, who therefore indulge in restless movements. Bad flute-players twist and twirl, if they have to represent 'the quoit-throw,' or hustle the coryphaeus when they perform the 'Scylla.' Tragedy, it is said, has this same defect. We may compare the opinion that the older actors entertained of their successors. Mynniscus used to call Callippides 'ape' on account of the extravagance of his action, and the same view was held of Pindarus. Tragic art, then, as a whole, stands to Epic in the same relation as the younger to the elder actors. So we are told that Epic poetry is addressed to a cultivated audience, who do not need gesture; Tragedy, to an inferior public. Being then unrefined, it is evidently the lower of the two. Now, in the first place, this censure attaches not to the poetic but to the histrionic art; for gesticulation may be equally overdone in epic recitation, as by Sosi-stratus, or in lyrical competition, as by Mnasitheus the Opuntian. Next, all action is not to be condemned any more than all dancing--but only that of bad performers. Such was the fault found in Callippides, as also in others of our own day, who are censured for representing degraded women. Again, Tragedy like Epic poetry produces its effect even without action; it reveals its power by mere reading. If, then, in all other respects it is superior, this fault, we say, is not inherent in it.

And superior it is, because it has all the epic elements--it may even use the epic metre--with the music and spectacular effects as important accessories; and these produce the most vivid of pleasures. Further, it has vividness of impression in reading as well as in representation. Moreover, the art attains its end within narrower limits; for the concentrated effect is more pleasurable than one which is spread over a long time and so diluted. What, for example, would be the effect of the Oedipus of Sophocles, if it were cast into a form as long as the Iliad? Once more, the Epic imitation has less unity; as is shown by this, that any Epic poem will furnish subjects for several tragedies. Thus if the story adopted by the poet has a strict unity, it must either be concisely told and appear truncated; or, if it conform to the Epic canon of length, it must seem weak and watery. if, I mean, the poem is constructed out of several actions, like the Iliad and the Odyssey, which have many such parts, each with a certain magnitude of its own. Yet these poems are as perfect as possible in structure; each is, in the highest degree attainable, an imitation of a single action. If, then, Tragedy is superior to Epic poetry in all these respects, and, moreover, fulfils its specific function better as an art for each art ought to produce, not any chance pleasure, but the pleasure proper to it, as already stated it plainly follows that Tragedy is the higher art, as attaining its end more perfectly. Thus much may suffice concerning Tragic and Epic poetry in general; their several kinds and parts, with the number of each and their differences; the causes that make a poem good or bad; the objections of the critics and the answers to these objections. xanAristotle (Ancient Greek: , Aristotls) (384 BC 322 BC)[1] was
a Greekphilosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music,logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethi cs, biology, and zoology. Together withPlato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality, aesthetics, logic, science,politics, [4] and metaphysics.deAristotle, whose name means "the best purpose," was born in Stagira, Chalcidice, [5] in 384 BC, about 55 km (34 mi) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Although there is little information on Aristotle' childhood, he probably did spend some time then in the Macedonian palace, making his first connections [6] with the Macedonian monarchy. At about the age of eighteen, he went to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. Aristotle remained at the academy for nearly twenty years before quitting Athens in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure reports that he was disappointed with the direction the academy took after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus upon his death, although it [7] is possible that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments and left before Plato had died. He then traveled with Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. While in Asia, Aristotle traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Hermias's adoptive daughter (or niece) Pythias. She bore him a daughter, whom they named Pythias. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of [8 Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC. r. It is during this period in Athens from 335 to 323 BC when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.
[8]

Aristotle wrote many

dialogues, only fragments of which survived. The works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication, as they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) andPoetics. Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology

Aristotle's scientific method

Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail ofThe School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms.

For more details on this topic, see AristAristotle's

scientific method

Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail ofThe School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms.

For more details on this topic, see Aristotle's theory of universals.

"Aristotle" by Francesco Hayez (17911882)

Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle, however, finds the universal in particular things, which he calls the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their prototype orexemplar. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of

universal Forms (or ideas) to a contemplation of particular imitations of these. For Aristotle, "form" still refers to the unconditional basis ofphenomena but is "instantiated" in a particular substance (see Universals and particulars, below). In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is [20] both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive from a priori principles. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. In modern times, the scope of philosophy has become limited to more generic or abstract inquiries, such as ethics and metaphysics, in which logic plays a major role. Today's philosophy tends to exclude empirical study of the natural world by means of the scientific method. In contrast, Aristotle's philosophical endeavors encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. otle's theory of universals.

"Aristotle" by Francesco Hayez (17911882)

Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle, however, finds the universal in particular things, which he calls the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their prototype orexemplar. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) to a contemplation of particular imitations of these. For Aristotle, "form" still refers to the unconditional basis ofphenomena but is "instantiated" in a particular substance (see Universals and particulars, below). In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is [20] both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive from a priori principles. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. In modern times, the scope of philosophy has become limited to more generic or abstract inquiries, such as ethics and metaphysics, in which logic plays a major role. Today's philosophy tends to

exclude empirical study of the natural world by means of the scientific method. In contrast, Aristotle's philosophical endeavors encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry.

Metaphysics

Statue of Aristotle (1915) by Cipri Adolf Bermann at the University of Freiburg im Breisgau

Main article: Metaphysics (Aristotle) Aristotle defines metaphysics as "the knowledge of immaterial being," or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." He refers to metaphysics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science." 1. Stylistics & Practical Criticism Objectives: *To understand the differences between stylistics and practical criticism *To be able to use stylistics and practical criticism to develop our understanding of the PreRelease texts. 2. Literary Approaches: Practical Criticism The analysis of the literary devices used in a text. The literary text is seen as a self-sufficient work of art. Rhyme Scheme Figurative Language (similes / metaphors / imagery / alliteration / personification) Enjambment Pathetic Fallacy Etc 3. Linguistic Approach: Stylistics The analysis of the language used in a text to help the reader arrive at an objective view. Sentence structure

(clauses / verbs / noun phrases etc ..) Connotations / Denotations Active / Passive grammatical structures phonology Etc 4. Why is stylistics a useful approach? Stylistics allows you to make detailed comparisons about ALL the texts both literary and non-literary. As you are stating what is used (linguistically) it allows you to be more objective (unbiased). BE CAREFUL stylistic analysis will not give you all the answers. 5. Why is practical criticism a useful approach? Practical Criticism allows you to make detailed comparisons about literary texts it identifies how a text conforms or deviates from the typical features of that genre. The careful study of form and style and an analysis of techniques enables the reader to reveal the fine moral perceptions embedded in a text. BE CAREFUL practical criticism is limited it only considers the words on the page. 6. Stylistic or Practical? Look at the list of words on the next two slides. Divide them into two categories (S) for Stylistic and (PC) for Practical Criticism. Two have been done for you! Do you know what they mean? Colour code your list: Red = No Idea Amber = I think I have some idea Green = I know what this means. 7. Glossary Adjective (S) Adverb Archaic Colloquial Conjunctions Connotations Convergence Consonant Denotation Determiner Diachronic variation Discourse markers Divergence Ellipsis External narration Figurative language Foregrounding Formal Generic Geographical dialect Metaphor (PC) Monologue Morphology Narrator Neologism 8. Glossary Non-finite verbs Noun Noun phrase Parenthesis Phonology Polysyllabic Preposition Pronoun Semantic field Semantics Sentence structure Synonym Tense Verb Vowel 9. Task Read Activity 10. *How do they differ? *Where do they overlap?

10. Semantic Fields Objectives: *To develop our understanding of semantic fields *To be able to use semantic fields when analysing texts.

11. Look at these words: attrition sudden death barbed-wire entanglements defence threat What topic does the text that these words come from address?

12. Were you correct? ENGLAND v SPAIN An early goal will open up any game but the longer this Wembly quarter-final today remains scoreless, the more it will become a contest of attrition , with the winners likely to be decided by sudden-death overtime or a penalty shoot-out. England are better equipped for an exchange of goals, with Shearer at least producing his prolific league form at international level. Spain have yet to find a consistent striker but the depth of their strength is formidable. They will hope to draw England on to the barbed-wire entanglements of their defence and then use Sergi to catch the opposition on the break. Hierro, Amor and Caminero will pose a threat to Adams coming from the deep. Terry Venables could have done with Ince against Nadal.

allegory - device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning alliteration - the repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (eg "she sells sea shells") allusion - a direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art ambiguity - the multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage analogy - a similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them antecedent - the word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun aphorism - a terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general turht or moral principle apostrophe - a figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love atmosphere - the emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described clause - a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb colloquial - the use of slang or informalities in speech or writing conceit - a fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects connotation - the nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning denotation - the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color diction - refereing to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness

didactic - from the Greek, literally means "teaching" euphemism - from the Greek for "good speech," a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept extended metaphor - a metaphor developed at great length, ocurring frequently in or throughout a work figurative language - writing or speech that is not intended to carry litera meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid figure of speech - a device used to produce figurative language generic convntions - refers to traditions for each genre genre - the major category into which a literary work fits (eg prose, poetry, and drama) homily - literally "sermon", or any serious talk, speech, or lecture providing moral or spiritual advice hyperbole - a figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement imagery - the sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions infer (inference) - to draw a reasonable conclusion from the informaion presented invective - an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language irony - the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant verbal irony - words literally state the opposite of speaker's true meaning situational irony - events turn out the opposite of what was expected dramatic irony - facts or events are unknown to a character but known to the reader or audience or other characters in work loose sentence - a type of sentence in which the main idea comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units metaphor - a figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity metonomy - from the Greek "changed label", the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it (eg "the White House" for the President) mood - grammatically, the verbal units and a speaker's attitude (indicative, subjunctive, imperative); literarily, the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a word narrative - the telling of a story or an account of an event or sereis of events onomatopoeia - natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words (eg buzz, hiss) oxymoron - from the Greek for "pointedly foolish," author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox paradox - a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity parallelism - from the Greek for "beside one another," the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity parody - a work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the speific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule pedantic - an adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish periodic sentences - a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end personification - a figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animasl, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions point of view - the perspective from which a story is told (first person, third person omniscient, or third person limited omniscient) predicate adjective - one type of subject complement, an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective cluase that follows a linking verb predicate nominative - another type of subject complement, a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject prose - genre including fiction, nonfiction, written in ordinary language repetition - the duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language rhetoric - from the Greek for "orator," the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively