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TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING NOTES FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS UNIT ONE: Technical Report Writing A report is an organized presentation of factual information, often aimed at multiple audiences that may present the results of an investigation, a trip, or a research project. They are a way of informing and persuading people as well as initiating change. In Engineering, one of the major forms of communication is the technical report. This is the conventional format for reporting the results of your research, investigations, and design projects.
1.1 Technical Report defined?

The term "technical" refers to knowledge that is not widespread, that is more the territory of experts and specialists. Technical Report is a document that records the procedures adopted and results obtained from a scientific or technical activity or investigation. A technical report (also: scientific report) is a document that describes the process, progress, or results of technical or scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research problem. It might also include recommendations and conclusions of the research. Technical reports are the primary written work products of engineers. As such, they present facts and conclusions about designs, experiments, and other projects. They include research about technical concepts and often include visual depictions of designs and data.
1.2 Technical Report Purpose

The primary purposes of technical report are to disseminate the results of scientific and technical research and to recommend action. Technical report is useful to report plans, progress, and problems of an organisation or activity.

At university, reports are read by lecturers and tutors in order to assess your mastery of the subjects and your ability to apply your knowledge to a practical task.

In the workplace, they will be read by managers, clients, and the construction engineers responsible for building from your designs. Also, as an employee in a company, you will be asked to prepare or contribute to annual, project or progress reports. The ability to produce a clear, concise, and professionally presented report is ,therefore, a skill you will need to develop in order to succeed both at university and in your future career
1.3 Technical Report Features: Difference Between Technical Report and other

Writings General writings can be subjective in nature. They reflect the writers personality. Reports have a highly structured format. The reader/audience is the most important person in report. The audience for technical writing documentation is very small and specific.

The style is quantitativeit includes details, and uses facts, data, measurements, and statistics.
1.4 Technical Writing Audiences: characteristics and level of expertise

A. What is audience? Audience refers to the real and the imagined readers (users) who use texts (products) to do something in their own environment. Other real or imagined audiences include fellow students, engineering colleagues, or customers seeking engineering services or product. Audience is the real, flesh-and-blood people that we can interview in their workplace and observe doing their jobs. Audience is also the imagined interpreters of our products whose questions we attempt to anticipate when designing/writing report. It must, therefore, be identified as a possible area of difficulty before the writing starts. B. Identifying Audience Characteristics Before you begin writing, identify and consider such important audience characteristics as: Educational and professional background, Knowledge and experience levels, English-language ability, Reading context (the physical and psychological conditions under which the audience reads the document).
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The identity of the reader will determine not only the approach but also the technical level and the style of the writing. In the engineering workplace, readers of technical reports include supervisors assessing progress on specific projects or corporate officers evaluating professional recommendations and proposals to invest in new technologies. Usually, readers will have a technical or engineering background, but it is your responsibility as the report writer to explain the specifics of the subject of your experiment, process, or project. C. What is the value of information about audience? Considering the needs of your audience is crucial to achieving your purpose. This is because: Without exposure to audience, we cannot design effective, user-centered products observations of audience can lead to improvements in a specific product design (paper), and also in future designs Technical communicators need access to usability information to build and test their own theories of audience In the workplace, your readers are usually less familiar with the subject than you are. You have to be careful, therefore, when writing on a topic that is unique to your area of specialization. Be sensitive to the needs of those whose training or experience lies in other areas; provide definitions of nonstandard terms and explanations of principles that you, as a specialist, take for granted.
1.5 Technical Report Writing Steps

A technical reports purpose is for an engineer to communicate information gained through a process of technical or experimental work. Therefore, the writing follows a strict sequential process. That is, sometimes product driven, and which can be replicated exactly. The following stages are involved in writing the report: 1. Planning and preparation/clarifying your terms of a reference Terms of a reference of a report is a guiding statement used to define the scope of your investigation.

Before you write a single word you must: Set your objective. You must first be absolutely sure of the purpose of your report. An objective is not what you intend to write, it is what you intend to achieve. Assess your readership. If you know who will be reading your report, you can match the detailed content, style and structure to their level of knowledge and expertise. But if you do not know your readers, try to find out answers to these five questions: Are the readers alike or mixed? Are they used to reading and understanding reports? How much time will they spend on this report? What do they already know? What else will they need to know?

Prepare your skeletal framework. There are three stages involved in the preparation of a skeletal frame work: writing a working title, considering the overall structure of the report and considering how information will be presented within the main body. Decide what information you will need. For some reports, you will need to collect very little information, while for others you will require a great deal. 2. Collecting and handling information 3. writing the first draft 4. Checking and re-drafting and completing the document. 1.6 Technical Report Styles Good style is the best way to get your message across each time you write. Like most scientific or technical writing, technical report should convey information in an objective, fact-based manner. This is partly because the goal of technical writing is to enable readers to use a technology or understand a process or concept. The writing style should be direct and utilitarian, emphasizing exactness and clarity rather than elegance or allusiveness. 1) Readability/Clarity Technical writing is oftenbut not alwaysaimed at readers who are not experts in the subject, such as consumers or employees learning to operate unfamiliar equipment. Because such audiences are inexperienced and the procedures described may involve hazardous
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material or equipment, clarity becomes an ethical as well as a stylistic concern. Besides, a good report style must ensure that the persons for whom the report is intended: Read it without unnecessary delay. Understand everything in it without undue effort. Accept the facts, findings, conclusions and recommendations. Decide to take the action recommended. Experts nowadays agree that the factors that most affect readability are: an attractive appearance non-technical subject matter a clear and direct style short and familiar words and sentences

Say What You Mean Do not expect readers or translators to understand what you meant instead of what you wrote. This report compares the salaries of different departments for employees who have the same education level. This sentence is illogical because departments do not earn salariesemployees do. What the author meant was: This report compares the salaries of employees who have the same education level, grouped by department. Certainly material which goes outside the writers own company must always conform to a high standard of stylistic propriety. 2) Selectivity/choice of words: Careful choice of words can enable you to convey many subtleties of meaning. Prefer plain words: Do not be afraid of plain English. Write to express, not to impress. Prefer words your readers are likely to understand. not The ready availability of computer-based tutorials associated with applications software has become prevalent since the development of Microsoft Windows. but Computer-based tutorials associated with applications soft ware have become readily available since the development of Microsoft Windows. Avoid overwriting and padding: Weed out any meaningless, excess words.
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Not

Accounts Receivable is not concerned with the follow-up of any of the items with the exception of delinquent accounts.

but Accounts Receivable follows up delinquent accounts only. Avoid redundant words: Repetition of a word can keep the reader aware of the topic. However, saying the same thing twice over in different words for no good reason is tautology. not But Past history suggests that our future prospects are bright. History suggests that our prospects are bright.

Prefer the positive: Try to use positive statements wherever possible. not But We do not believe the backup files are adequate. We believe the backup files are inadequate.

Prefer English words to Latin/Greek origin words and phrases: Using uncommon foreign-language terms like inter alia, per se, and sine die may look like showing off. Avoid them unless there are no good English equivalents and unless you are sure that your audience will understand them. 3) Accuracy: Check that everything you write is factually accurate. document is the responsibility of its writer. Some guidelines are given below a) Spelling: When the engineer has completed a section of the report, it should be checked for spelling and typing errors. The accuracy of a

b) Technical words: Engineers sometimes avoid the spell-check because it highlights too many technical words
which are not in the computers dictionary. Such words should be added if they are likely to be used frequently, and a second person should check what is added. C) Sentences: Good style involves variety in sentence length. But many technical writers are led into grammatical confusion because their sentences are so long that by the end both writer and reader have lost sight of the beginning. Short sentences produce a clear, easily-read style for factual material. There are two main ways to shorten a sentence: to replace wordy constructions with simpler ones; second, to break complex

and compound sentences into two or more sentences:

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Before: We make no specific guarantees with respect to future rate of return on these investment instruments. After: We guarantee no specific return on these funds. d) Paragraphs: A good style in report writing involves constructing sentences and paragraphs in such a way that the message you wish to convey is conveyed accurately and quickly to the reader. Paragraphs have a psychological effect on the reader. Several paragraphs on a page, with the resulting spaces, encourage reading, but a page which is filled by only one paragraph even if it is logically cohesive, its length may discourage and frustrate the reader. To avoid this, use the three ways below: Break Apart Long Paragraphs: The following paragraph (also justified to make it less inviting) is arbitrarily split. Notice the effect. Before: Remember that nearly all readers subvocalize, saying words mentally to themselves silently. So, words that are hard to pronounce will as they read slow the reader. This advice is particularly germane in naming products, systems, or companies. Nearly every E2 and E3 has trouble with the th sound (especially unvoiced) and many Asian languages struggle with l and r. When General Instrument of Horsham, Pennsylvania, changed their image in 996, they also adopted the more high-tech sounding name of NextLevel. In 1998, they will restore the original name, mainly because most of their they Asian customers for cable-TV converter boxes have trouble with saying NextLevel. Similarly, the spokes clown for McDonalds restaurants in Japan is called Donald McDonald not Ronald.) After: Remember that nearly all readers subvocalize, saying words mentally to themselves as they read silently. So, words that are hard to pronounce will slow the reader. This advice is particularly germane in naming products, systems, or companies. Nearly every E2 and E3 has trouble with the th sound (especially unvoiced) and many Asian languages struggle with l and r. When General Instrument Corporation of Horsham, Pennsylvania, changed their image in 1996, they also adopted the more high-tech sounding name of NextLevel. In 1998, they will restore the original name, mainly because most of their Asian customers for cable-TV converter boxes have trouble with
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saying NextLevel. (Similarly, the spokes clown for McDonalds restaurants in Japan is called Donald McDonald not Ronald.) o Convert Some Paragraphs into Lists: Proposals or reports that contain items or steps in a process are far more understandable in list form. Instead of: In evaluating alternative offerors, please consider that our company has 15 years experience in the construction of oil and gas pipelines. We hold the patents on the most advanced pumping technology. Further, we maintain business offices in all the major Middle Eastern capitals. Write: In evaluating alternative offerors, please consider that our company: Has 15 years experience in the construction of oil and gas pipelines Holds the patents on the most advanced pumping technology Maintains business offices in all the major Middle Eastern capitals. o Convert Some Paragraphs into Tables: In most cultures, a simple table will be far easier to follow. Instead of: New users should open the Maintenance Menu and select Setup. Also, old users may select Setup from the Maintenance Menu if they want to change their Preferences. Old users who dont want to change their setup in any way should go to the File menu and select either New or Open (for existing file). Prefer User New User User wanting to change preferences Other users file New ( new file ) or open ( existing file) Menu Select . . .

maintenance Set up maintenance Set up

4) Use of language Formality: Reports are formal. Therefore, the language used has to be formal, but not grandiose (or in a boastful or pretentious way). Formal writing simply means writing in full (it is, not its), avoiding slang or colloquialisms, and using words correctly. Avoid sexist language: The tone of your writing should not reflect a gender biasor any other bias, such as race, religion, age or disability.

not A good manager will gain the respect of his staff. but A good manager will gain the respect of staff.
Simplicity: Most written reports should avoid using overly complicated language. If a report is to persuade, brief or justify, its message must be clear. Avoid using unnecessary jargon. This confuses even the most informed reader. Objectivity (voice and tone): Because the subject matter is more important than the writers voice, technical writing style uses an objective, not a subjective, tone. A report should not reflect personal emotions and opinions. Stay objective. Eliminate opinions and (I think or I feel) from your writing so that the emphasis remains on the technical and scientific processes and facts. You must look at all sides of a problem with an open mind before stating your conclusions. The role is similar to that of a sports referee or a High Court judge. In these situations, decisions are based on the results, the evidence, or an interpretation of the evidence not on personal opinions and feelings.

Remain mostly in the third person, passive voice because technical report is usually written impersonally. i. e. passive sentences are used quite frequently and personal pronouns like I, we, my, our, you, etc. are avoided. Why? Doing so keeps your writing looking/sounding objective and helps you to put emphasis on processes and things, rather than on yourself as a technician or scientist. (Writing tip: do a search for I, me, and my in your report. If you find those words, see if you can rework the sentences so that the emphasis is not on you, but rather on the science and technology
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under discussion.) However, in a summary or critical appreciation it is OK, to speak of we or our, if the own working group or department is meant. Most technicians got used to the impersonal way of writing during their education and professional practice. The customers will probably prefer impersonal writing as well, because they are used to it, too. You have to decide carefully for your Technical Report, whether, how much and where you want to use active sentences instead of the usual passive. You are on the safe side, if you avoid personal pronouns and use the passive voice instead. Here an example of formulating the same fact once in active and once in passive voice: Active: ... we have evaluated the following alternatives ... Passive: ... the following alternatives have been evaluated ... Vii. Tense: Use past tense and present tense appropriately. The frequently used tense in technical report is present tense. Use present tense to indicate those things that are still occurring. Past tense is only used, if a previously used part, measuring procedure or similar is described. Future tense is rarely used in technical reports, because reports focus mainly on work that has been completed or that is in progress. Conciseness: Veni, Vidi, Vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). That is how Julius Caesar reported his visit to our shores. While none of your reports will be as short as this, you should aim to keep them concise. In doing this, do not mistake brevity for conciseness. A concise report is short but still contains all the essential details. To ensure this, you should not ask: Can this information be included? Rather, you should ask: Is it necessary for this information to be included? 5) Mechanical Details of the Report: Presentation/Layout The following suggestions will help you to produce an easily read report:

Final report should be neat and businesslike form Leave wide margins for binding and feedback comments for your instructor. At least 2.5cm margin on all sides Bound with heavy cover Information on the title page is also shown on the cover
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Printed on good grade of paper One side printing on double space All pages should be numbered in sequence starting at executive summary Separate equations are centered on the page on separate line and numbered All standard units, measurements and technical terminology should be listed in a glossary of terms at the back of your report. Explain symbols immediately after the equation Headings should be clear-highlighted in bold or underlined. All diagrams and illustrations should be labeled and numbered.

Unit Two: Technical Report Types and applications Reports can be designated as formal and informal. Formal reports are often encountered as research, development, or design reports. They present the results in considerable detail, and the writer is allowed much flexibility in choosing the type of presentation. Informal reports include memorandums, letters, progress notes, survey-type results, minutes, and similar items in which the major purpose is to present a result without including detailed information. 2.1 Informal reports 2.1.1 Memorandum Purpose A memo (short for memorandum) is a very short document, usually up to a page long. In effect, it's an adaptation of a business letter, and is less formal than a letter. Memo Format: How to write it Memo format can be used not only for routine correspondence but also for short reports, proposals, and other internal documents.

The memo heading: it is quite different from those of a letter. A memo is headed by the word
MEMORANDUM and followed by the side headings: To: Cc: From: Date: Subject:
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MEMORANDUM To: (Name and title of the person to whom you are writing) C: (Names and titles of other people to be sent copies of your memo (if required)) From: (Your name) Date: (In the style 8 October 2001, not 8/10/01) Subject: A clear, informative title, containing the main message of your memo. It is often sideheading in short memo short memo (about half a page) or a centered title in a longer memo. In separate paragraphs (body of the memo) write: purpose of the memo your conclusion(s) or main point & facts/data to support the conclusion(s). Note that the supporting data are placed after the conclusion(s) or main point. Don't lead up to them and place them at the end. Recommendation (if necessary) Note. NO salutation or closing, i.e, don't use Yours sincerely/faithfully. All headings justified to the left-hand margin. Your signature An example of a very short memo (half page long) MEMORANDUM To: Dr Peter Brown, Department of Mechanical Engineering C: Prof. Jennifer Green, Head of Department, Mechanical Engineering From: Pat Black Date: 8 October 2001 Subject: My visit to Composites Construction Ltd This is to let you know that from 14 to 17 November I shall be visiting the research labs at Composites Construction Ltd in Middletown. As we previously discussed, my main activity will be to discuss the progress of our joint research program, our proposals for future development and the next round of funding. I look forward to discussing the visit with you on my return. Agendas for Meetings
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An agenda is a list of items to be discussed during a meeting. It must be drawn up in advance. An agenda may take various forms, according to the requirements and, in some cases, the kind of meeting to which it refers. Be sure you know precisely what is expected of you. Here are two common forms of committee agenda: the standard agenda the discursive agenda. The standard agenda simply lists the subjects to be discussed, and the order in which they will be taken. The discursive agenda is designed to stimulate thought before and comment at the meeting. It is often used for one-off meetings. In deciding what to include on an agenda, bear these points in mind: Talk to the chairperson and other committee members who may have business to include. Refer to the minutes of previous meetings for any business or discussions which were then deferred, and for reminders of routine annual, half-yearly, quarterly or monthly recurring items. Keep a special file of documents which are likely to be required at the next meeting. Sort and arrange them before drafting the agenda. What would be a suitable format? Standard agenda A suitable format for a standard agenda would be as follows: 1. Heading (including where and when the meeting will take place) 2. Apologies for Absence 3. Minutes of the Previous Meeting 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Any Other Business (leftovers, not items that should have been discussed within section 47) 9. Date of Next Meeting (also give the time and location) 10. Papers required for the Meeting (in the order that they will be needed).
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Items requiring the attention of the committee

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Items 13 and 810 are standard. Between them come all other items requiring the attention of the committee. Discursive agenda A discursive agenda could be structured as follows: 1. Heading (including where and when the meeting will take place) 2. Introduction (what will be discussed, and why keep it fairly general) 3. Scope (what are the boundaries of the discussion?) 4. Discussion points (list the items to be discussed and the reasons for discussing them) 5. Possible action (what options are open to the committee?) 6. Summary (the reason for the meeting; what it hopes to achieve and why members should attend and contribute) 7. Papers required for the meeting (in the order that they will be needed). 2.1. 2 Minute Writing Organizations and committees that keep official records of their meetings refer to such records as minutes. More precisely, minutes are a record of the proceedings of a meeting (e.g. about who attended and did not, discussion that took place, action to be taken, time the meeting closed.) Because minutes are often used to settle disputes, they must be accurate, complete, and clear. When approved, minutes of meetings are official and can be used as evidence in legal proceedings. Why do we write Meeting Minutes? To capture the essential information of a meeting decisions and assigned actions. To save and use them for reference or background material for future meetings relating to the same topic. How to write effective minutes: The way the minutes are recorded may differ depending on the type of meeting it is. By this I mean, you may need to record all the discussion as well as the resolutions or you may only need to record the resolution and not worry about the discussion leading up to the resolution. Before the Meeting: If you are recording the minutes, make sure you arent a major participant in the meeting. You cant perform both tasks well. Make sure you leave some blank space to record your notes. Include the following information:
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Date, time and place of the meeting The purpose of the meeting The meeting lead or chairs name Assigned action items Decisions made During the Meeting: As people enter the room, check off their names on your attendee list. Ask the meeting lead to introduce you to meeting attendees you arent familiar with. This will be helpful later when you are recording assigned tasks or decisions. When youre writing out your notes, use some of the following tips from the International Association of Administrative Professionals (IAAP).

Number the pages as you go so you arent confused later . Focus on action items, not
discussion.

Be objective. Write in the same tense throughout and usually avoid using peoples names
except for motions or seconds. This is a business document, not about who said what.

Avoid inflammatory or personal observations. The fewer adjectives or adverbs you use, the better. Dull writing is the key to appropriate minutes. If you need to refer to other documents attach them in an appendix or indicate where they may be found. Dont rewrite their intent or try to summarize them.
After the Meeting: Review the notes and add additional comments, or clarify what you didnt understand right after the meeting. Who will take the Minutes? : Minutes are usually taken by the Secretary or Minute Clerk. If you are the person nominated to take the minutes, ensure you receive a copy of the agenda when it is distributed so that you are familiar with the matters to be discussed. Sample minute TEACHING COLLEGE MINUTES Minutes of the Health and Safety Committee Meeting held in room G104 at 4pm on 9th July 20XX. PRESENT Erin Smith, Health & Safety Officer (Chairperson) (ES) Ian Jones, Administration Officer (IJ) Aarlif Hussain, Staff Welfare Co-ordinator (AH) Bradley Pitt, Department Representative (BP) George Coney, Estates Manager (GC)
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etc Jo Smith (Secretary) (JS) ACTION 1. APOLOGIES FOR ABSENCE Apologies were received from Brian Jones and Angela Green 2. MINUTES OF PREVIOUS MEETING The minutes of the previous meeting were taken as read, agreed as a true and correct record and signed by the Chairperson 3. MATTERS ARISING George Coney reported that the recent fire drills had been successful and all the issues raised last time had been resolved. 4. NEW BUILDING REGULATIONS These were effective from 1 October 20XX. Members agreed that all staff must be informed of the implications. A copy of the surveyors letter was circulated and will be discussed in a meeting to be arranged for next week. 5. PLANNED IT UPDATES It was proposed that these would be undertaken by Ace Technology during October and November to minimize disruption to operations. George Coney will meet with Ace next week to discuss plans 6. ANY OTHER BUSINESS Aarlif Hussain raised the issue of bank holidays and has asked members to give him their thoughts at the next meeting 7. DATE AND TIME OF NEXT MEETING/Adjournment It was agreed that the next meeting should be held at 4pm on 10 October 20XX Signed .... (Chairperson) 2.2 Formal Technical Report 2.2 .1 Formal Technical Report Structure General Format Technical reports have an organized format because a majority of your audience may not read the entire report in one reading. This specific format allows readers to quickly locate the information they need. Most technical reports include the parts listed below. However, you may be required to include or exclude specific sections. Be sure to check with your instructor before Date---------------------

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using the format outlined here. Further, many organizations have a preferred style for formal reports and furnish guidelines for report writers to follow. Cover letter( optional) Title Page Transmittal Letter/Letter of submittal (optional) Acknowledgments Table of Contents List of Illustrations/List of Figures & List of Tables Abstract Executive Summary Report Body References Glossary of terms (optional) Appendices Transmittal Letter and covering letter: They are business letters. A covering letter is any letter that is sent together with any document. Purpose (a) To provide the recipient with a specific context within which to place the document. (b) To give the sender a permanent record of having sent the material. (c) To show willingness to provide further information. Transmittal Letter Purpose 1. To adequately describe the contents of your document in the fewest possible words. 2 To give the reader immediate access to the main subject matter. Cover letter is not bound within the letter, but it is inserted within package, or within front cover. The letter is used when the report is addressed to a person outside of the writers organization. Transmittal letters often inform readers of a report's context. Typically, the letter includes

information not found in the report. For example, the letter contains information about the
particular project in which the technical report writer: announce the topic and explain who authorized it and the date of authorization. briefly describe the project and preview the conclusions if the reader is supportive.
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close expressing appreciation for assignment, suggesting follow-up actions, acknowledging the help of others, and offering to answer questions.

A Transmittal Letter is a business letter and should be formatted accordingly; that is, you should include the recipient's address, your address, a salutation and closing. Depending on the project, you may also need to include contact information. Letter of submittal immediately follows Title Page. Always check with your instructor to determine whether or not you should attach a transmittal letter to your report. Look at the sample Transmittal Letter below. December 12, 1996 Dr. Tom Siller Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO 80524 Dear Mr. Siller: We are submitting to you the report, due December 13, 1996, that you requested. The report is entitled CSU Performing Arts Center. The purpose of the report is to inform you of our design decisions for the center. The content of this report concentrates on the structural and acoustical aspects of the CSU Performing Arts Center. This report also discusses cable-stayed technology. If you should have any questions concerning our project and paper please feel free to contact Mike Bridge at 491-5048. Sincerely, Mike Bridge Lead Engineer Title Page The title should tell the reader what the report is about. A technical report should always include a title clearly identifying the report. A title should be descriptive and accurate, but not wordy, verbose or too terse. Here is a Sample title page:

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Abstract Abstracts are formal summaries writers prepare of their completed work. Purpose: to allow a reader to get a quick picture of the report's content and make a judgment. That is, to enable readers to decide what to read, whether to read the work in full or to decide what to pass over. Generally, Abstracts define the report's purpose and content. This section should give a true, brief description of the report's content. The content may present the: scope of the report major points, including a summary of your research methodology highlights of the conclusions and recommendations Since an Abstract is a brief summary of your report, its length corresponds with the report's length. So, for example, if your report is eight pages long, you shouldn't use more than 150 words in the Abstract. Generally, keep your abstract concise (preferably one page).

Types of Abstracts: Informative Vs. Descriptive Depending on the kind of information they contain, abstracts are often classified as descriptive or informative. A descriptive abstract summarizes the purpose, scope, and methods used to arrive at the reported findings. It is a slightly expanded table of contents in sentence and paragraph form. A descriptive abstract need not be longer than several sentences. An informative abstract is an expanded version of the descriptive abstract. In addition to information about the purpose, scope, and research methods used, the informative abstract summarizes any results, conclusions, and recommendations. The informative abstract retains the tone and essential scope of the original work, omitting its details. The first four sentences of the abstract shown in Figure A1 alone would be descriptive; with the addition of the sentences that detail the conclusions of the report, the abstract becomes informative. Informative abstracts work best for wide audiences that need to know conclusions such as proceedings and progress reports that do not contain conclusions or recommendations. ABSTRACT The Effects of Long-Distance Running on Male and Female Runners Aged 50 to 72 Years by Sandra Young The long-term effects of long-distance running on the bones, joints, and general health of runners aged 50 to 72 can help determine whether physicians should recommend long-distance running for their older patients. Recent studies conducted at Stanford University and the University of Florida tested and compared male and female long-distance runners aged 50 to 72 with a control group of runners and non runners. The groups were matched by sex, race, education, and occupation. The Florida study used only male runners who had run at least 20 miles a week for five years and compared them with a group of runners and non runners. Both studies
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based findings on medical histories and on physical and X-ray examinations. Both studies conclude that long-distance running is not associated with increased degenerative joint disease. Control groups were more prone to spur formation, sclerosis, and joint-space narrowing and showed more joint degeneration than runners. Female long-distance runners exhibited somewhat more sclerosis in knee joints and the lumbar spine area than matched control subjects. Both studies support the role of exercise in retarding bone loss with aging. The investigation concludes that the health risk factors are fewer for long-distance runners than for those less active aged 50 to 72. The investigation recommends that physicians recognize that an exercise program that includes long-distance running can be beneficial to their aging patients health. Figure A1: Informative Abstract (for an Article) Writing Strategies Write the abstract after finishing the report or document. The abstract, although it heads the article, is often written last, together with the title. This is partly because, writers know what they have achieved, and partly because it is not easy to write an abstract. Or, the abstract may not accurately reflect the longer work. Decide what material is relevant to your abstract-distinguish primary ideas from secondary ones. Write with clarity and conciseness, eliminating unnecessary words and ideas. Do not, however, become so terse that you omit articles (a, an, the) and important transitional words and phrases (however, therefore, but, next). Write complete sentences, but avoid stringing together a group of short sentences end to end; instead, combine ideas by using subordination and parallel structure. Spell out all but the most common abbreviations. In a report, an abstract follows the title page and is numbered page iii. Types of Abstracts: Structured & unstructured Structured Abstracts are typically written using five sub-headings background, aim, method, results and conclusions. Sometimes the wording of these sub-headings varies a little objectives for aim, for example, but the meaning is much the same. Background. In 1997 four journals published by the British Psychological Society began publishing structured abstracts. Aims. The aim of the studies reported here was to assess the effects of these structured abstracts by comparing them with original versions written in a traditional, unstructured format. Method. The authors of the articles accepted for publication in the four journals were asked
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to supply copies of their traditional abstracts (written when the paper was submitted for publication) together with copies of their structured abstracts requested by the editor when their paper was accepted. Forty-eight such requests were made, and thirty pairs of abstracts were obtained. The abstracts were then compared on a number of measures. Results. Analysis showed that the structured abstracts were significantly more readable, significantly longer and significantly more informative than the traditional ones. Judges assessed the contents of the structured abstracts more quickly and with significantly less difficulty than they did the traditional ones. Almost every respondent expressed positive attitudes to structured abstracts. Conclusions. The structured abstracts fared significantly better than the traditional ones on every measure used in this enquiry. We recommend, therefore, that editors of other journals in the social sciences consider adopting structured abstracts. Figure 2: An original abstract in structured form. The same can be written in unstructured form below: In 1997 four journals published by the British Psychological Society began publishing structured abstracts. The aim of the studies reported here was to assess the effects of these structured abstracts by comparing them with original versions written in a traditional, unstructured format. The authors of the articles accepted for publication in the four journals were asked to supply copies of their traditional abstracts (written when the paper was submitted for publication) together with copies of their structured abstracts requested by the editor when their paper was accepted. Forty-eight such requests were made and thirty pairs of abstracts were obtained. The abstracts were then compared on a number of measures. Analysis showed that the structured abstracts were significantly more readable, significantly longer and significantly more informative than the traditional ones. Judges assessed the contents of the structured abstracts more quickly and with significantly less difficulty than they did the traditional ones. Almost every respondent expressed positive attitudes to structured abstracts. In short, the structured abstracts fared significantly better than the traditional ones on every measure used in this enquiry. We recommend, therefore, that editors of other journals in the social sciences consider adopting structured abstracts. What are keywords? These are the most important words in your paper that are specifically related to your topic. Your editor may want you to identify these so that they can be printed at the end of the abstract (or sometimes after the title in the journals contents list). Key words typically:
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a. allow readers to judge whether or not an article contains material relevant to their interests; b. provide readers with suitable terms to use in web-based searches to locate other materials on the same or similar topics; c. help indexers/editors group together related materials in, say, the end of-year issues of a particular journal or a set of conference proceedings; d. allow editors/researchers to document changes in a subject discipline (over time); and e. link the specific issues of concern to issues at a higher level of abstraction.

Example abstracts Key words Abstract An Overview of Rotating Stall and Surge Control for Axial Flow Compressors Modeling and control for axial flow compression systems have received great attention in recent years. The objectives are to suppress rotating stall and surge, to extend the stable operating range of the compressor system, and to enlarge domains of attraction of stable equilibria using feedback control methods. The success of this research field will significantly improve compressor performance and thus future aeroengine performance. This paper surveys the research literature and summarizes the major developments in this active research field, focusing on the modeling and control perspectives to rotating stall and surge for axial flow compressors.

Keywords: axial flow compressor, rotating stall, surge Acknowledgments: Briefly thank (e.g., people) who assisted you in compiling and writing up the information in the report. This may be from librarians, technicians or computer centre staff, for example. Here are Sample Acknowledgments: MASK Engineering would like to thank Dr. Michael Schaff of the CSU Music Department and Ms. Annie Cleveland from the CSU Theater Department for their expertise and input for the CSU Performing Arts Center. We would also like to thank Dr. Tom Siller for his aid in our research and use of his research materials.

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Executive Summary The body of the report begins with the executive summary, which provides a more complete overview of the report than an abstract does. An executive summary consolidates the principal points of a report or proposal. Purpose: written for readers who, - do not have time to read the entire technical report. -do not want to read the report -do not have specialist knowledge of the report The length is usually no longer than 10% of the report. It can be anywhere from 1-10 pages long, depending on the report's length. It should summarize the key points and conclusions from your report. You might include an executive summary with your report, or the summary can be a separate document. Some reports only include an abstract while others include an executive summary. Always check with your instructor to determine which to include or if you should include both. Sample Executive Summary Introduction Our main goal was to design a Performing Arts Center for the CSU campus that would blend well with the rest of the campus. To achieve this goal, our group split into two smaller groups; Alice in one and Simon, Mike, and Karen in the other. Alice concentrated on acoustical aspects of the complex. Simon, Mike, and Karen concentrated on the structural plans. Location In this section, we specify the exact location of the structure and why we believe it is a prime location. Cable-stayed Technology Here, we present our rationale for using cable-stayed technology. We base this technology on several other existing structures. Main Hall Acoustics One of the key characteristics of a concert hall that greatly influences sound quality, is its reverberation time (the time before the decay of the reflected sound). In the construction of the main hall for the CSU Performing Arts Center a balance will be determined that will create a reverberation time of two seconds, as independent of audience size as possible. Materials
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In this section, we discuss the materials to be used. Retractable banners will be built into the ceiling, and can be lowered to create this effect. Cloth seats will be used as they best assimilate an occupied audience area (Beranek 1962 ). This allows sound within the hall to be independent of audience size. The low sound absorbency of plaster also makes it ideal for the creation of the desired reverberation time of two seconds. Design Considerations The intensity of the direct sound should not be too weak, but at the same time, it must not become uncomfortably loud. This problem will be dealt with by limiting the length of the room, and by designing the surfaces above and around the stage to project the sound evenly throughout the concert hall. Another problem arises with the seats placed under a balcony. To prevent a muddiness within the sound, the depth under the balcony should not exceed the height of the opening beneath the balcony. Floor Plans The Colorado State University Performing Arts Center consists of three levels. The total area of the complex is 56,500 square feet. The basement and ground floors consist of 20,500 square feet apiece. The second floor has a square footage of 15,500. Conclusion During the duration of the project, we accomplished our goal of designing a Performing Arts Center for the CSU campus that would blend well with the rest of the campus. A cable-stayed support system for the roof will allow for a compact facility and an unobstructed view for patrons. In order to achieve the best acoustical results in the main performance hall, we have designed a rectangular hall made of plaster. We have also designed the hall so that the depth under the balcony does not exceed the height of the opening beneath the balcony. The total area of the complex will be 56,500 square feet split into three levels. The main hall will have a seating capacity of 1,200. Table of Contents Table of Contents is a list of the main sections/headings of the report and the page number on which they first appear. It goes on its own page. pages: e.g., the following entry is wrong: 5.1 Experiment set-up ........................................................................................... 35-36 (wrong) 5.1 Experiment set-up................................................................................... 35 (correct)
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placed at the end of the report in their own section (not the same as an Appendix) Sample Table of Contents List of Figures and List of Tables

List of Figures & List of Tables Like the Table of Contents, you need to present both of these in an organized, appealing format. If you use tables or figures in your report, you must list them in the preliminary pages of your report, immediately after your Table of Contents page. (See page 22 for details) Each list identifies its components by number, title, and page number. Do not list any tables or figures that appear in the appendices. Typically, you can shorten a figure or table's title when you create these lists. Example List of Figures Example List of Tables

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Example List of Figures

Example List of Figures

Report Body In a technical report, the body typically presents an Introduction, context for the report, detail methods and procedures used to generate the report, demonstrate how results were obtained, describes the results, draws conclusions, and, if appropriate, makes recommendations. Throughout the body, you should include text (both your own and research from other sources), graphics, and lists. Whenever you cite information or use graphics from another source, you must credit these sources within your text. Check with your instructor to know which reference style to use. Introduction This section provides a context for the work discussed in the report. Therefore, it: Defines the experiment/work performed. Defines the scientific purpose or objective for the experiment.
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Includes a description of the problem and reasons for the work being done. Gives sufficient background information to the report. Must answer the questions: Why was this study performed? What is the specific purpose of the study? Methods/Procedures Most method sections are usually subdivided (with subheadings) into three sections, as follows: participants, measures (or materials used in the study) and procedures. Experimental procedures, for example, describe the experimental methods, including the materials used and specific procedures followed, and statistical methods used to analyze the precision or experimental errors. The description of the experimental procedure should allow the reader to evaluate and reproduce the experiment. Results Results are tabulations of facts. The outcomes of the experiments are reported in this section. The results should be arranged in a logical sequence appropriate to the experiment and should include pertinent figures and tabulated data. The order of presentation need not always correspond to the chronological order of the tasks. Discussion The section on results describes what happened, and the discussion section explains why it happened. The discussion section of a report is where you explain the results to the reader and present closing arguments for your thesis. You describe the reasons why you think the results happened as they did. In other words, the results are analyzed and interpreted. They should be discussed in context with the prior work reported in the introduction. Sometimes results and discussion are combined into a single section, but this practice can lead to ambiguity. It should be made clear what is new and what is from previous work. Summary/Conclusions A conclusion is a judgment based on results of a body of work. It is the final outcome of, for example, the investigation, the results obtained in the investigation, the analysis of results, and the comparison of the results with the work of others. A summary or statement of conclusions should always be included at the end of the report to provide closure. Often a busy reader will

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turn to this section before deciding whether to read the paper. This section should briefly summarize the significant results of the experiment. The conclusion: Must answer any questions raised in the introduction regarding what was shown, discovered, verified, proved, or disproved. Must explain why the experiment is significant. Must explain the implications for your particular field of study. Should not include discussion of new information not already mentioned in the report. It is important to not present a result as a conclusion. If a survey conducted on preference between the colors red and gray yields a result that 75 out of 100 prefer red and 25 out of 100 prefer gray, this is the result of the study, and it is put in the results section. The analysis and discussion section explains why you think the color red had the higher percentage in the preference survey. A conclusion from the survey simply could be that most people prefer red over gray. The conclusion section usually needs no transition. It can be introduced with a statement as simple as: Simple Lead-In Based on the laboratory tests and the corroborating field trials, the following conclusions are made: Recommendations A recommendation is a statement suggesting a particular course of action. Recommendations come at the end of reports, and they often are the final product of a study in formal reports. Studies or investigations are done because there may be insufficient information available on which to base a decision. You, the technical person, proposed a study (with a proposal report); you received funding, did the work, and now are writing the report. The report should close with a statement to the funding organization on a course of action. It is the logical closure for reports with the purpose of analyzing a process, business, material, and so forth. Management people want the technical people to tell them what to do. Recommendations are normally written in the imperative mode: Recommendation Reduce production rate 50 percent.
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Body: Sample Report Introduction The purpose of designing a performing arts center on the CSU campus is to provide adequate capacity and higher quality of sound and aesthetics as compared to the existing structures in the region. Factors that MASK Engineering considered included accessibility, cost effectiveness, location, and an efficient use of space. Our intent was to preserve the open space of the CSU campus and to design the complex in such a manner that it will blend well with its surrounding environment. We at MASK Engineering believe that this project will greatly benefit both the CSU campus and the surrounding Fort Collins community. Such a facility will lead to the improvement of the performing arts programs on campus. It will directly affect the students and professors in the music, theater. and dance programs at the university, eventually increasing enrollment in these disciplines. There are approximately 230 students in the performing arts programs at CSU right now. The amount of space that is available to these students is inadequate for their performances. The construction of this complex will not only provide them with the space they need, but will also continue the growth of these programs, making CSU a leader in the education of the performing arts. These changes at the university will result in a heightened cultural awareness in the community. Currently, community events are held at the Lincoln Center, while CSU sponsored events are held at the Lory Student Center theater. A new facility will bring community and university events together and will allow a greater variety of outside events to be brought to Fort Collins. The location of this complex on campus will bring a greater number of students to these events due to the elimination of transportation problems. MASK Engineering has focused on the structural and acoustical aspects of the CSU Performing Arts Center, while hiring other firms to handle the parking, mechanical and electrical operation, and utilities. A cable-stayed support system has been chosen, and a floor plan has been drawn up that will produce the best acoustical results. A. L. handled the acoustical aspects of the complex, while S.C., K.N., and M.B. concentrated on the structural plans. We are planning for the construction of this complex to begin within the next few years. Figure 2.1: Map of campus circled area represents site where Green Hall currently stands

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Location The site chosen for the Colorado State University Performing Arts Center is the plot of land upon which Green Hall now stands (Figure 1). This area was chosen primarily for its location on the CSU campus and its proximity to the downtown area. Green Hall is a condemned building and is not currently used for anything beyond university storage. Some office space has been granted to the branch of the CSUPD dealing with parking violations, but this department could easily move back to its old location at Aylesworth Hall. Our firm believes that this space would be better used as a home for the performing arts than as the site of a crumbling warehouse. We have considered possible disturbances that the construction of the performing arts center on this plot might cause. Due to the close proximity of Green Hall to Allison Hall and Parmelee Hall, we have decided to begin construction early in the summer, after classes have ended. Green Hall will be torn down first, and construction of the performing arts center will begin immediately. This will allow us a good start on the project while students are not living in the nearby residence halls. According to the front desk at Braiden Hall,, which is located near the Morgan Library construction site, residents do not have a problem with noise and there have been no complaints of disturbances. MASK Engineering believes that this will be the case for the residents in Allison and Parmelee when they return in the fall as the performing arts center is finished.

Cable-stayed Technology A cable-stayed support system was chosen for the design of the CSU Performing Arts Center. One reason for choosing this system was to allow for a more compact facility because the space available on campus was limited. Another reason was to give patrons an unobstructed view of events by eliminating the need for columns. The original use of cable-stayed technology was seen in bridges. German engineers established the design of cable-stayed bridges in the 1950's and 1960's. This technology was eventually adapted to buildings, using cables to support the roof. Each tower is buttressed by two sets of
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cables, transferring the load into the ground. Without a roof load to support, columns are not needed in the complex and the space can be used in more ways. The concept behind cable-stayed technology is to have the supporting reactions to the load directed in only vertical directions as opposed to vertical and horizontal. It also eliminates any tension and/or compression force (Figures 3.1 and 3.2). For a building, the load of the roof is directed through the cables, to the towers, and down to the ground. The walls do not support the roof as they normally would; only the cables are used to hold up the roof. An example of a cablestayed building is the Alamodome, a multipurpose stadium in San Antonio, Texas (Figure 3.3). Our model is based on this design.

Figure 3.3 Main Hall Acoustics Background One of the key characteristics of a concert hall that greatly influences sound quality, is its reverberation time (the time before the decay of the reflected sound). For orchestral or band music, the ideal reverberation time is approximately two seconds. Any times approaching 1.6 seconds will lead toward a dry, dead sound ( Beranek 1962 ). The other extreme is a time that is too long. This causes the music to lose its clarity, an excessive loudness, and the blending of incompatible chords ( Beranek 1962 ). A hall's reverberation time can be affected by such things as the volume of the room or the number of people in the audience. In the construction of the main hall for the CSU Performing Arts Center a balance will be determined that will create a reverberation time of two seconds, as independent of audience size as possible. Sound quality is also greatly determined by the warmth of the sound. Warmth is determined by the fullness of the bass tones. If the middle frequencies of a sound have longer reverberation times than the low tones, then the sound will become brittle (Beranek 1962 1). Materials Table 4.1 gives the absorption coefficients of different frequencies for common surfaces. It shows that materials such as heavy curtains or thick carpet absorb are the ideal choice for decreasing the intensity of higher frequencies. This leads to the production of a more full, warm sound. Retractable banners will be built into the ceiling, and can be lowered to create this effect. Cloth
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seats will be used as they best assimilate an occupied audience area ( Beranek 1962 ). This allows sound within the hall to be independent of audience size. The low sound absorbance of plaster also makes it ideal for the creation of the desired reverberation time of two seconds. Design considerations The intensity of the direct sound should not be too weak, but at the same time, it must not become uncomfortably loud. This problem will be dealt with by limiting the length of the room, and by designing the surfaces above and around the stage to project the sound evenly throughout the concert hall. Another problem arises with the seats placed under a balcony. To prevent a muddiness within the sound, the depth under the balcony should not exceed the height of the opening beneath the balcony. Floor Plans The Colorado State University Performing Arts Center consists of three levels. The total area of the complex is 56,500 square feet. The basement and ground floors consist of 20,500 square feet apiece. The second floor has a square footage of 15,500. The basement level of this center (Figure 5.1 ) includes two main dressing rooms with shower facilities as well as four private dressing rooms with individual restrooms for guest performers. The mechanical room for the building will be in the basement, housing such devices as the heating, ventilating, and air conditioning equipment as well as the mechanics for the elevator. A spacious performers' lounge has also been added in to the basement to provide a relaxing environment for the center's performers. The building's main floor (Figure 5.2 ) includes the main performance hall as well as a small rehearsal hall. The main hall is 5,000 square feet and has a seating capacity of 1,200. A coffee shop and art lounge have been included in this plan for the enjoyment and convenience of the patrons. A large classroom is provided for dance classes as well as rehearsals. Sufficient office space is included adjacent to the center's box office. The top floor of the CSU Performing Arts Center (Figure 5.3 ) includes a walk- around balcony overlooking the main lobby as well as a balcony for the main performance hall. An elevator is provided for travel between the first and second floors. A recording studio is also located on this floor as an added bonus. References: Whenever you cite information (this includes graphics) from another source, you must credit the source in your References. Always check with your instructor to determine which reference style to use. (For more information, see page 59-) Appendices: Appendices include information that is too large to fit within your report, yet information necessary to your report. For example, large graphics, computer print-outs, maps, or sample codes are best placed in Appendices. When making decisions about what to place in
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an Appendix, consider whether or not the material interrupts the reading flow. For instance, six pages of calculations would obviously cause readers to lose their train of thought. Appendices always appear at the end of a report. List of Illustrations/Diagrams Diagrams are an essential part of many technical reports, in some circumstances giving a great deal of information more easily than continuous prose could do. The term illustrations include tables and figures (graphs, line drawings, photographs, maps, or any other non-verbal illustrative material, etc). Purpose: To list - separate from the Table of Contents - the numbers, titles and corresponding page numbers of all your tables and figures. How to write it Use the title List of Illustrations if your document contains both tables and figures. If it contains only tables, call it List of Tables; if only figures, List of Figures. If you are using List of Illustrations, list all the figures first, and then list all the tables. List the number, title and page of each illustration. Place the List of Illustrations immediately after the Table of Contents. If both of them are brief, put them on the same page with the Table of Contents first. Diagram references: Diagrams of all types must be numbered and clearly referenced in the text. Probably the most useful method of numbering is to use first the number of the report section in which the diagram appears, and then, after a decimal point, the sequential number. Positioning: Diagrams/illustrations must be presented when and where the user needs them. Tables: These are the most common form of diagram in technical reports. Tables can give a great deal of accurate information if they are effectively presented. It is, as always, the need of the reader which is all-important. A table organizes data, such as statistics, into parallel rows and columns that allow readers to make precise comparisons. Overall trends, however, are more easily conveyed in graphs and other visuals. Graphs/Graphics: Graphs are used either to show trends or to give accurate technical information. All graphs must be clearly labelled, and scales identified. They also provide
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illustrated information to readers. In general, graphics are designed to make it easier for readers to understand your report. Often, graphics are useful when concepts, designs, or processes are too complex or cumbersome to describe in written or oral form. Space: Sometimes diagrams outgrow their pages, and this is dangerous. Margins must be sufficient on all sides to allow for clarity, and to carry as appropriate the page number, figure number and title, and to allow for the binding of the document. Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations (or List of Symbols, when dealing with only mathematical symbols)

Purpose: To define the specialist terms, symbols and abbreviations (including acronyms) that
you use in the main text of the document. How to write it

Decide the terms that need definition. Remember that a term self-evident to you may not be as generally well known as you think. Even when you are writing a specialist document that will be read only by experts such as a thesis - your referees will appreciate a list of clearly defined terms. Make sure, though, that you don't include terms that are generally very well known; to define them would look silly. Terms that need to be dealt with include: - specific technical terms - Greek or other symbols - abbreviations (usually called acronyms). These are often in the form of the initial letters in capitals of a series of words, e.g. PCR: polymerase chain reaction; PLC: programmable logic controller. Before you list the terms and abbreviations, it may be appropriate to state: S.I. (Systeme International d'Unit~s) abbreviations for units and standard notations for chemical elements, formulae and chemical abbreviations are used in this work. Other abbreviations are listed below. Where to put it The Glossary of Terms can be placed either at the beginning of the document immediately after the Table of Contents or the List of Illustrations (this is the optimal position for the reader), or at the end, immediately before the Appendices.
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If the glossary is large and you feel that it needs to be at the end of the document, readers would appreciate a note placed immediately before the Introduction, referring them to the page number of the glossary. Suggested wording: Explanations of terms and abbreviations used in this document are given of Terms and Abbreviations, page x. 2.3 Literature reviews/Survey of Related Literature The literature review involves reading and appraising what other people have written about your subject area. It can be both descriptive and analytical. It is descriptive in that it describes the work of previous writers and it is analytical in that it critically analyses the contribution of others with the view of identifying similarities and contradictions made by previous writers. There are five main activities involved in undertaking a literature review: 1 Knowing the sources of information. 2 Understanding how the library works. 3 Collecting existing knowledge on the subject, reading and note-taking. 4 Systematically organising the literature.
3

Appraising and writing up the literature review.

2.3 .1 Rationale for undertaking a literature review In order to be able to make an original contribution to knowledge in your research area, the literature review should demonstrate that you have a comprehensive grasp of existing knowledge. The literature review serves two purposes. First, it seeks systematic reading of previously published and unpublished information relating to your area of investigation. The gathered information will develop issues and themes and should drive you to the next important stage, namely, research design. Second, the literature review will help you to improve your research. Whether it be a thesis or a paper, it is normal practice to begin with a literature review. The aims of these reviews can vary, however, and how they are tackled depends upon their purpose. Literature reviews can: show the history of a field; review the work done in a specific time period for example The annual review of . . .; plot the development of a line of reasoning; integrate and synthesize work from different research areas;
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evaluate the current state of evidence for a particular viewpoint; reveal inadequacies in the literature and point to where further research needs to be done. When you review, evaluate the major works/findings, and connect them to your own work, to show how you will draw upon or depart from the literature in your research. These different purposes define and control how and where writers search for the relevant information to review. Typically, researchers start by following up the references provided in several key papers and then proceed to the Internet. The accumulating information (it never ceases) can be filed electronically or in paper-based folders. If it is appropriate, it is also helpful at this stage to email or write to the authors of original papers to obtain copies of the materials used in experimental studies for, in my experience, the brief descriptions of such materials in journal articles do not do them justice. 2.3 .2 Sources of Information for Review Literature. As you conduct research, numerous sources of information are available to you, including the following: Your own knowledge and that of your colleagues The knowledge of people outside your workplace, gathered through interviewing for information Internet sources, including Web sites, directories, archives, and discussion groups Library resources, including databases and indexes of articles as well as books and reference works Printed and electronic sources in the workplace, such as various correspondence, reports, and Web intranet documents 2.3 .3 Evaluating Sources The easiest way to ensure that information is valid is to obtain it from a reputable source. For Internet sources, be especially concerned about the validity of the information provided. Because anyone can publish on the Web, it is sometimes difficult to determine authorship of a document, and frequently a persons qualifications for speaking on a topic are absent or questionable. The Internet versions of established, reputable journals in medicine, management, engineering, computer software, and the like merit the same level of trust as the printed versions.

2.4

Referencing
2.4.1 Honesty & Plagiarism

Plagiarism is using the work of others and, bailing to reference it, passing it off as your work.
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Dont plagiarize under ANY circumstances. (no copying from other sources) Plagiarism could END your academic or professional career in some circumstances. As ENGINEERS, you must maintain the highest moral and ethical standards breach of this trust may place public lives in jeopardy, hence there is NO LENIANCY To avoid plagiarism you must comply with the following: 1. If you copy material exactly, enclose it in quotation marks or indent it and reference it in your text. 2. If you summarize or paraphrase material you must still reference the source in your text. The names and details of the author(s) work you have used MUST be included in your writing AND in your references section. Your supervisor or lecturer will be familiar with publications relating to specific areas of engineering and will be likely to recognize any plagiarized writing. Furthermore, there are some extremely good plagiarism checkers available on the internet, which are able to check, in seconds, if your work is original or not. Copying the work of other students is also plagiarism although this is often referred to as collusion. 2.4.2 Honesty: Acknowledging Source In-text Citations: Any information you derive from an external source of information-quotes, paraphrases, data, statistics, images, etc.- should be cited within the text of your paper, not just on your List of References (Works Cited) page. These are called in-text citations, or parenthetical references. WHEN TO USE AN IN TEXT CITATION: Most of your introduction, and much of your discussion, involve building upon the research of others, placing your research project in the context of previous findings in the field. It is always best to over cite, and avoid accusations of plagiarism, but there are a few times that citation is not necessary. Common knowledge in the field is generally fine, too, although you should err on the side of caution. General knowledge, such as Crick and Watson discovered the structure of DNA, will not need referencing. Common knowledge does not need to be referenced, and you can assume that any reader is fairly knowledgeable about the field. For example, a psychologist will be aware of Pavlovian conditioning, so you do not need to reference that if it from your own head. A biochemist will be aware of how ethanol is made.
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If you use class notes, some lecturers are not too worried about citations, although it is usually good practice to find a source saying the same information, from a textbook or journal. MLA STYLE IN-TEXT CITATIONS: In this version, the authors surnames (with or without the dates) appear in the text. The MLA style in text citation has two variations, the author/page number, although the modern trend is for author/year/page number, such as: (Sargeant 2008, 17) If there are more than two authors listed, then the usual standard is to mention both (Sargeant & McEvoy, 2008). For multiple authors, it is usual to mention them all the first time, but to use et al. afterwards. For example: abbreviation straightaway. The following examples adhere to MLA standards: (1) the author's name incorporated into the text with the page number in parenthesis at the end of the statement, or (2) at the end of the sentence or paragraph. If you incorporate the author's name into your text, give only the page number in parentheses. For example: According to Krushke, an assault weapon can be defined as "any weapon used in an assault on another individual" (375). (Sargeant et al.) If there are six or more authors, you can use the

If the context does not identify the author, include the author's last name before the page number: An assault weapon can be defined as "any weapon used in an assault on another individual" (Krushke 375).

Citing multi-volume works: citing a single volume of a multi-volume work, separate the volume number from the page number by a colon and a space. For example, (Moulton 4: 27)."

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Citing works listed by title: When there is no author, use the title or a shortened version of the title in your parenthetical reference. For example, "(Gun Control 68)."

Citing works by a corporate author: If the author is a company, an organization, or other group, it is called a corporate author. You can cite corporate authors in parentheses along with the page numbers; for example, "(Center to Prevent Handgun Violence 46)." Citing indirect sources: If at all possible, you should cite material from the original source. However, sometimes the only available source is an indirect one, such as an author's reference to an unpublished document or a statement made in an interview. If you cannot obtain this source, then you need to use a two-stage referencing system. For example, (Sorgheloos, 1967, as cited in Sargeant, 2008) or put the abbreviation "qtd. in" (quoted in) before your citation. For example, "David Hemenway, director of the Harvard School of Public Health, believes that keeping a gun loaded and unlocked at home is a 'potentially dangerous practice' (qtd. in Jacobs 105)." HOW TO FORMAT AN IN TEXT CITATION There are a number of ways in which you can reference the source. Check with your supervisor which exact technique you should be using, and be consistent. If you use one style all of the way through, there should be no problem, but mixing the styles makes things unclear to the reader and may well be punished by your supervisor. APA STYLE IN TEXT CITATIONS This system is also known as the Harvard or, more colloquially, as the name (date) system . This is because an authors surname in the text is followed by the date of the publication in brackets. It is used in most social and psychological papers, and variations of the author/date style are used by many scientific disciplines. For this style, after every paraphrase, you include the surname of the author and the date of writing. This will allow any readers to find your work in the reference list and check the original source for themselves. For example,

-Technology has the potential to produce a transformational impact on human life that will enable the human brain to reach beyond its current limitations (Kurzweil, 2006).
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-According to Kurzweil (2006), we will witness a pace of technological change that will be so rapid, its impact so deep, that human life will be irreversibly transformed (p. 7).

-When APA parenthetical citations are needed midsentence, place them after the closing quotation marks and continue with the rest of the sentence. In short, the Singularity (Kurzweil, 2006, p. 9) is a blending of human biology and technology that will help us develop beyond our human limitations. -If the APA parenthetical citation follows a block quotation, place it after the final punctuation mark. . . . a close collaboration with the nursing staff and the hospital bed safety committee is essential. (Jackson, 2008) -When a work has two authors, cite both names joined by an ampersand: (Hinduja & Nguyen, 2008). For the first citation of a work with three to six authors, include all names. For subsequent citations and for works with more than six authors, include only the last name of the first author followed by et al. (not italicized and with a period after al.). When two or more works by different authors are cited in the same parentheses, list the citations alphabetically and use semicolons to separate them: (Hinduja & Nguyen, 2008; Townsend, 2007). -If the author has written more than one paper in the same year, then you can use an alphabetical appendix: (Sargeant, 2008a)

Some departments prefer it if you also use page numbers, if possible. For example, (Sargeant 2008, 17) When there is no author mentioned, and the source was written by an organization. In this case, you use the name of the organization or a recognized abbreviation. For example, NHS, for the National Health Service, or WHO, for the World Health Organization. The Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers (IEEE) in-text citation The IEEE Style is a number style with two key components: In-text citations, which appear within the text (a citation number in a square bracket), and a reference list at the end of the text (which provides full details of all references cited in-text).
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The citations in the reference list are numbered and appear in the same order that they appear in the text. When referring to a reference in the text of the document, put the number of the reference in square brackets, e.g.: [1]. The IEEE citation style has 3 main features: 1. The author name is first name (or initial) and last. This differs from other styles where author's last name is first. 2. The title of an article (or chapter, conference paper, patent, etc.) is in quotation marks. 3. The title of the book or journal is in italics. Citation within the text Please note the following when you refer to references within the text: A number enclosed in square brackets, eg. [1] or [26], placed in the text of the essay, indicates the relevant reference. Citations are numbered in the order in which they appear in the text and each citation corresponds to a numbered reference containing publication information about the source cited in the reference list at the end of the publication, essay or assignment. Once a source has been cited, the same number is used in all subsequent references. No distinction is made between print and electronic references when citing within the text. Each reference number should be enclosed in square brackets on the same line as the text, before any punctuation, with a space before the bracket. Here are some examples of this kind of referencing: "...end of the line for my research [13]." "The theory was first put forward in 1987 [1]." "Several recent studies [3, 4, 15, 16] have suggested that..." "For an example, see [7]."

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The Vancouver style: The in-text citation Here, as with the ISCME (International Steering Committee of Medical Editors) system, the authors are numbered in the text in order of their appearance, and the numbers are enclosed in square brackets. A superscript number is inserted in your text at the point where you refer to (cite) your source of information. A consecutive number is allocated to each source as it is referred to for the first time. Look at this example: An unhealthy diet, obesity and physical inactivity play a role in the onset of Type 2 diabetes,1but it has been shown that increased physical activity substantially reduces the risk, and participation in regular physical activity is one of the major recommendation of the evidence based guidelines for the primary prevention of diseases.1 According to the 2004-05 National Health Survey, more than half a million Australians (3.5% of the population) have diabetes mellitus which had been medically diagnosed and most of these people have the Type 2 condition. Gestational diabetes is also on the increase, rising steadily between 2000-01 and 2005-06.4 Reference/Bibliographic Citations Many different styles of referencing have developed over the years. Currently there are four main styles of referencing as follows: 1 The APA style. Entries in the reference list are listed alphabetically, starting with the name and the initials of the author(s) followed by the date of publication for each entry. For example: PRINTED BOOKS Single Author Taleb, N. N. (2007). The black swan: The impact of the highly improbable. New York, NY: Random House. Multiple Authors Jones, E., Haenfler, R., & Johnson, B. (2007). Better world handbook: Small changes that make a big difference. Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada: New Society.
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Corporate Author Microsoft Corporation. (2007).Windows Vista: The new experience. Redmond, A: Microsoft Press. Edition Other Than First Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007). The leadership challenge (4th ed.). New York, NY:Wiley. Journal Article Valentine, S., & Fleischman, G. (2008). Ethics programs, perceived corporate social responsibility and job satisfaction. Journal of Business Ethics, 77, 159172. ELECTRONIC SOURCES: Entire Web Site The APA recommends that, at minimum, a reference to a Web site should provide an author (whenever possible), the date of publication or update (use (n.d.) if no date is available), the title, and an address (URL) that links directly to the document or section. If the content could change or be deleted, such as on a Web site, include the retrieval date also. (The retrieval date is not necessary for content with a fixed publication date, such as a journal article.) Online Book-Use this form for books made available online or for e-books. Sowell, T. (2007). Basic economics: A common sense guide to the economy (3rd ed.). Retrieved from http://books.google.com/

Short Work from a Web Site, with an Author DuVander, A. (2006, June 29). Cookies make the Web go round. Retrieved from http://www.webmonkey.com/webmonkey/06/26/index3a.html Short Work from a Web Site, with an Unknown Author Timeline: Alaska pipeline chronology. (2006, April 4). Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/pipeline/timeline/index The Modern Languages Association (MLA) style. The first authors surname comes first in the reference list. This is followed by his or her first name, but first names then come first for any additional authors. Dates of the publications are given after journal titles, or at the end of the references for books, etc. The list is ordered alphabetically. For example: Sharples, Michael (Ed.). Computer Supported Collaborative Writing. London: Springer-Verlag, 1993.

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Speck, Bruce W., Teresa R. Johnson, Catherine Dice, and Leon B. Heaton. Collaborative Writing:An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999. Tang, Catherine. Effects of collaborative learning on the quality of assignments.

Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Eds. Barry Dart and Gillian Boulton-Lewis.
Pp. 10323. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research, 1998. Zammuner, Victoria L. Individual and co-operative computer writing and revising: Who gets the best results? Learning and Instruction 5 (1995) 10124. 3 IEEE Reference List style- The reference list is then numbered sequentially. Names are presented with the initial(s) first, followed by surnames. Dates of the publications are given after journal titles, or at the end of the references for book, etc. Journal titles are sometimes abbreviated. For example: [1] M. Sharples, Ed., Computer Supported Collaborative Writing. London: Verlag, 1993. [2] V. L. Zammuner, Individual and co-operative computer writing and revising: Who gets the best results? Learning and Instruction, vol. 5, no.2, pp. 10124, 1995. [3] C. Tang, Effects of collaborative learning on the quality of assignments, in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, B. Dart and G. Boulton-Lewis, Eds. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research, 1998, pp. 10223. [4] B. W. M. Speck, T. R. Johnson, C. P. Dice and L. B. Heaton, Collaborative Writing: An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999. An alternative version is to list (and number) the authors alphabetically in the reference list, and to assign these numbers to the authors in the text as appropriate. The Vancouver style. The reference list is numbered sequentially, but the authors are listed surnames first, followed by their initials. Again the dates of publications are given after journal titles, or at the ends of the references for books etc. The key feature of the Vancouver style is its spare typography and punctuation, and the use of abbreviated journal titles. For example: 1 Sharples M, editor. Computer supported collaborative writing. London: Springer-Verlag, 1993.
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Zammuner VL. Individual and co-operative computer writing and revising: Who gets the best results? Learn Instruction 1995; 5 (Pt 2): 10124. 4 Speck BWM, Johnson TR, Dice CP, Heaton LB. Collaborative writing: an annotated bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999.

2.2.2 Formal Reports types

Formal reports are usually written accounts of major projects that require substantial research, and they often involve more than one writer. Most formal reports are divided into three primary partsfront matter, body, and back mattereach of which contains a number of elements. The number and arrangement of the elements may vary depending on the subject, the length of the report, and the kinds of material covered. Further, many organizations have a preferred style for formal reports and furnish guidelines for report writers to follow. If you are not required to follow a specific style, use the format recommended in this entry. The following list includes most of the elements a formal report might contain, in the order they typically appear. I. Feasibility Reports When organizations consider a new projectdeveloping a new product or service, expanding a customer base, purchasing equipment, or moving operationsthey first try to determine the projects chances for success. A feasibility report presents evidence about the practicality of a proposed project based on specific criteria. It answers such questions as the following: Is new construction or development necessary? Is sufficient staff available? What are the costs? Is funding available? What are the legal ramifications?

Based on the findings of this analysis, the report offers logical conclusions and recommends whether the project should be carried out. When feasibility reports stress specific steps that should be taken as a result of a study of a problem or an issue, they are often referred to as recommendation reports. In the condensed feasibility report shown in Figure F1, a consultant conducts a study to determine how to upgrade a companys computer system and Internet capability.

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Before beginning to write a feasibility report, analyze the needs of the audience as well as the context and purpose of the study. Then write a purpose statement, such as The purpose of this study is to determine the feasibility of expanding our Pacific Rim operations, to guide you or a collaborative team Sample Feasibility Report Introduction The purpose of this report is to determine which of two proposed options would best enable Darnell Business Forms Corporation to upgrade its file servers and its Internet capacity to meet its increasing data and communication needs. . . .

Background. In October 2008, the Information Development Group put the MACRON System into operation.
Since then, the volume of processing transactions has increased fivefold (from 1,000 to 5,000 updates per day). This increase has severely impaired system response time; in fact, average response time has increased from 10 seconds to 120 seconds. . . .

Scope. We have investigated two alternative solutions to provide increased processing capacity: (1) purchase of
an additional Aurora processor to supplement the one in operation, and (2) purchase of an Icardo 60 with expandable peripherals to replace the Aurora processor currently in operation. . . . Additional Aurora Processor Purchasing a second Aurora processor would require increased annual maintenance costs, salary for a second computer specialist, increased energy costs, and a one-time construction cost for necessary remodeling and installing Internet connections. Annual maintenance costs $35,000 Construction cost (one-time) 50,000 Total first-year costs $167,500 . Total annual operating costs $117,500 . Annual increased energy costs 7,500 . Annual costs for computer specialist 75,000

The installation and operation of another Aurora processor are expected to produce savings in system reliability and readiness.

System Reliability. An additional Aurora would reduce current downtime periods from four to two per week.
Downtime recovery averages 30 minutes and affects 40 users. . . . [The feasibility report would also discuss the

second option purchase of the Icardo 60 and its long-term savings.]

Conclusion A comparison of costs for both systems indicates that the Icardo 60 would cost $2,200 more in first-year costs.
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Aurora Icardo 60 Net additional operating costs $56,300 $84,000 One-time construction costs 50,000 24,500 First-year total $106,300 $108,500 Installation of an additional Aurora processor would permit the present information-processing systems to operate relatively smoothly and efficiently. ----Recommendation The Icardo 60 processor should be purchased because of the long-term savings and because its additional capacity and flexibility will allow for greater expansion in the future. Feasibility Report Sections Every feasibility report should contain an introduction, a body, a conclusion, and a recommendation.

Introduction. The introduction states the purpose of the report, describes the circumstances that led to the
report, and includes any pertinent background information. It may also discuss the scope of the report, any procedures or methods used in the analysis of alternatives, and any limitations of the study.

Body. The body of the report presents a detailed review of the alternatives for achieving the goals of the
project. Examine each option according to specific criteria, such as cost and financing, availability of staff, and other relevant requirements, identifying the subsections with headings to guide readers.

Conclusion. The conclusion interprets the available options and leads to one option as the best or most
feasible.

Recommendation. The recommendation section clearly presents the writers (or teams) opinion on which
alternative best meets the criteria as summarized in the conclusion. II. Recommendation Report Recommendation report is report submitted to management as the basis for decisions or actions. It makes recommendations on such subjects as whether to fund a research program, lunch a project, develop a new product, buy a piece of capital equipment, or acquire a company or technology.

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Purpose: To make a recommendation or a series of recommendations, supported by a reasoned argument, together with appropriate background material, facts and data. How to write it A recommendation report is focused towards the future: it should show the ability to objectively assess a set of conditions, and to recommend actions to be taken. Recommendations are your subjective opinions about the required course of action. But this doesn't mean you can go into wild flights of fancy. No recommendation should come out of the blue: your report should contain adequate supporting information for each recommendation. Possible structure of a recommendation report

Title Page

Executive Summary or Summary or Abstract: Summarize the background material and your investigation. Recommendations: List your recommendations. Or instead, uses section called Conclusions and
Recommendations and place it at the end of the report (see below).

Table of Contents List of Illustrations (if needed)

The following four sections may be effective in a RECOMMENDATION REPORT, either before the Introduction/Background or as sections of it: Purpose Statement Scope (or Scoping) Statement Procedure statement Problem statement Introduction or Background Subheadings appropriate to the topic, and covering the methods and results. Conclusions: You may be required to write a section called Conclusions and Recommendations. In this case, place it here at the end of the report and omit the Recommendations section after the Abstract. List of References Appendices III. Progress report A progress report provides information to decision-makers about the status of a projectwhether it is on schedule and within budget. They are used mainly for projects that involve many steps
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over a period of time and are issued at regular intervals to describe what has been done and what remains to be done. All progress reports for a particular project should have the same format. The introduction to the first progress report should identify the project, methods used, necessary materials, expenditures, and completion date. Subsequent reports summarize the progress achieved since the preceding report and list the steps that remain to be taken. The body of the progress report should describe the projects status, including details such as schedules and costs, a statement of the work completed, and perhaps an estimate of future progress. The report ends with conclusions and recommendations about changes in the schedule, materials, techniques, and other information important to the project.

Hobard Construction Company 9032 Salem Avenue www.hobardcc.com Lubbock, TX 79409 5327 August 14, 2012 Walter M. Wazuski County Administrator 109 Grand Avenue Manchester, NH 03103 Dear Mr. Wazuski: Subject: Progress Report 8 for July 1July 29, 2012 The renovation of the County Courthouse is progressing on schedule and within budget. Although the cost of certain materials is higher than our original bid indicated, we expect to complete the project without exceeding the estimated costs because the speed with which the project is being completed will reduce overall labor expenses. Costs Materials used to date have cost $78,600, and labor costs have been $193,000 (including some subcontracted plumbing). Our estimate for the remainder of the materials is $59,000; remaining labor costs should not exceed $64,000.
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(808) 769-0832 Fax: (808) 769-

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Work Completed As of July 29, we had finished the installation of the circuit-breaker panels and meters, the level-one service outlets, and all the subfloor wiring. The upgrading of the courtroom, the upgrading of the records-storage room, and the replacement of the air-conditioning units are in the preliminary stages. Work Scheduled We have scheduled the upgrading of the courtroom to take place from August 31 to October 7, the upgrading of the records-storage room from October 12 to November 18, and the replacement of the air-conditioning units from November 23 to December 16. We see no difficulty in having the job finished by the scheduled date of December 23. Sincerely yours, Tran Nugulen Tran Nugulen ntran@hobardcc.com

A project team's progress reports Purpose: To report at intervals on the progress of a management project undertaken by several individuals. Possible structures for a series of progress reports

1. Initial report at the start of the activity

This is likely to be similar to a project proposal, in which you describe how you will approach the task. As with any plan, it will involve intelligent and informed guesswork. Use the principles given in 1. Executive Summary 2 Objectives 3 Initial analysis of the problem 4 A preliminary literature survey 5 A clear statement of how you propose to tackle the first stages of the project, together with a brief description of the methods you will use. 6 If needed, Schedule of Tasks. 7 Allocation of responsibilities individuals in the team
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2 Intermediate reports
For intermediate progress reports, use the principles given in this section for 'A progress report to the funding body or organization', page 10-11.

3 The final report

Again, use the principles given above for A progress report to the funding body or organization, page 10/11, and also take the following into consideration: This report will probably need to be longer than the preceding reports. It will need to tie up the whole body of work into a logical story. It should concentrate on the results, conclusions and recommendations. If required, a description and possibly a peer review of the tasks undertaken by the various individuals. If appropriate, a description of how the work you have done could be further developed in the future. IV. A Laboratory Report A laboratory report communicates information acquired from laboratory testing or a major investigation. It should begin by stating the reason that a laboratory investigation was conducted; it should also list the equipment and methods used during the test, the problems encountered, the results and conclusions reached, and any recommendations. A laboratory report emphasizes the equipment and procedures used in the investigation because those two factors can be critical in determining the accuracy of the data and even replicating the procedure if necessary. Although this emphasis often requires the use of the passive voice, you should present the results of the laboratory investigation clearly and precisely. If your report requires graphs or tables, integrate them into your report as described in the entry visuals. V. Engineering Design Report Purpose: design reports are used to communicate your solution of a design problem, usually to your boss or a colleague. Readership: The report should be written for another person of equal or greater competence than yourself. General characteristics of design documentation 1 The report should be self-contained, except for references to other specific documents {contracts, drawings, textbooks, standards etc.).
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3 Your report must contain all the information needed for someone to check how you arrived at your recommended solution. While carrying out your design you will have used analysis to demonstrate that your design will actually solve the problem. This needs to be clearly set out in your documentation. Suggested structure of design documentation 1 Summary. 2 Development of a Model. 4 Design Calculations. The Summary: Purpose of this section: The Summary should state precisely what the report is about, and answer the following questions. To make sure you don't solve the wrong problem, write up the first two before you start the design. 1 What problem does the report address? If the problem was defined in writing (assignment, tender or contract document), just refer to this briefly and accurately rather than restate the whole problem. Your reader will already know what you were supposed to be doing. 2. What criteria were set for deciding on an adequate solution? You can only make a sensible design recommendation if you understand the criteria that are to be used in judging the success of your design, and obviously you must know this before you start designing. Again, if these were defined in writing just refer to the original document. Sometimes there are other constraints such as national standards that must be met. These should also be stated. If the criteria were incomplete or contradictory, for example between the cost and durability of a new product, you need to decide the relative importance of the criteria to be used in making your decision. You need to explain this in a subsequent section. 3. How did you model the problem? Outline very briefly the factors influencing how you went about your design: The analysis that was needed. How many different options were considered? The main factors influencing the design. Note If you are designing something that is routine, this section would be very short. 4 What did you conclude? Refer to drawings or other details of your recommended solution. If you considered various options, summarize why you chose your particular solution.
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2. Development of a Model: Purpose of this section The first step in an engineering design is to be able to conceptualize the problem in a way that allows standard methods of analysis to be used. This section should explain how you went about this. Design calcula53tions: Purpose of this section This is the part which proves that your design will work as it should, and will consist mostly of small sketches and steps in solving equations. Form of this section Use subheadings to make it clear what each section is about, and underline the important results. Include details of all components (material and dimensions of parts, electrical components etc.) plus all the physical properties you have used (strengths, elastic modulus, density, specific heats etc.). Your design report should contain only your final recommended solution. VI. Proposals A proposal is a document written to persuade readers that what is proposed will benefit them by solving a problem or fulfilling a need. Therefore, when you write a proposal, you must convince readers that they need what you are proposing, that it is practical and appropriate, and that you are the right person or organization to provide the proposed product or service.

Proposal Forms Proposals are written within a specific context. Understanding the context will help you determine the most appropriate writing strategy as well as the proposals length, formality, and structure. Informal Proposal Structure. Informal proposals are relatively short (about five pages or fewer) and typically consist of an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. INTRODUCTION. The introduction should define the purpose and scope of your proposal as well as the problem you propose to address or solve. You may also include any relevant background or context that will help readers appreciate the benefits of what you will propose in the body. BODY. The body should offer the details of your plan to address or solve the problem and explain (1) what service or product you are offering;

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(2) how you will perform the work and what special materials you may use; (3) the schedule you plan to follow that designates when each phase of the project will be completed; and (4) if appropriate, a breakdown of project costs. CONCLUSION. The conclusion should persuasively resell your proposal by emphasizing the benefits of your plan, solution, product, or service over any competing ideas or projects. You may also need to include details about the time period during which the proposal is valid. Effective conclusions show confidence in your proposal, your appreciation for the opportunity to submit the proposal, and your willingness to provide further information, as well as encouraging your reader to act on your proposal. Formal Proposal Structure. Proposals longer than five pages are often called formal proposals and typically include front matter and back matter. The number of sections in a proposal depends on the audience, the purpose, and the scope of the proposal. FRONT MATTER of Formal Proposal Cover Letter or Letter of Transmittal. In the cover letter, express appreciation for the opportunity to submit your proposal, any help from the customer (or decision-maker), and any prior positive associations with the customer. Then summarize the proposals recommendations and express confidence that they will satisfy the customers or decision-makers needs. Title Page. Include the title of the proposal, the date, the name and logo of the organization to which it is being submitted, and your company name and logo. Table of Contents. Include a table of contents in longer proposals to guide readers to important sections, which should be listed according to beginning page numbers. List of Figures. If your proposal has six or more figures, include a list of figures with captions as well as figure and page numbers BODY Executive Summary. Briefly summarize the proposals highlights in persuasive, nontechnical language for decision-makers. Introduction. Body. (See the sections Grant and Research Proposals) Conclusion. ((See the sections Grant and Research Proposals)
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BACK MATTER Appendixes. Provide rsums of key personnel or material of interest to some readers, such as statistical analyses, organizational charts, and workflow diagrams. Bibliography. List sources of primary references consulted in preparing the proposal, such as research studies, specifications, and standards. Glossary. If your proposal contains terms that will be unfamiliar to your intended audience, list and define them in the glossary. Proposal Types: Based on Purposes Grant and Research Proposals. Grant proposals request funds or material goods to support a specific project or cause. Grants are not loans and usually do not have to be repaid. For example, the president of Habitat for Humanity may write a grant proposal to a lumber company asking for a donation of lumber to help construct new housing for disadvantaged families. Research proposals request approval to conduct research to investigate a problem or possible improvements to a product or an operation. Because their purpose is to gain approval to conduct research, they do not focus on particular solutions or ultimate results. For example, an engineer may submit a research proposal to a manager for permission to research a new method that improves cement strength for bridges. Similarly, students often submit research proposals to request approval of their research plans for term projects, such as formal reports, or thesis projects. Grant and research proposals are persuasive when they clearly define your research goals, your plan for achieving those goals, and your qualifications to perform the research. Grant and Research Proposals Structure -The proposal typically includes the following key components: Title page. This should be short and explanatory. Background. This section should contain a rationale for your research. Why are you undertaking the project? Why is the research needed? This rationale should be placed within the context of existing research or within your own experience and/or observation. Describe the problem your research will address so that readers are confident that you understand the problem completely. Illustrate how both your primary audience and others will benefit from the results of your proposed research. Introduction. Explain the reasons for and the benefits of the proposal. What can readers expect as a result of the proposed research, and what is the value of your potential findings?

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Aim-The aim of a research project is a statement of what the research will attempt to do often in the form of what is to be investigated, which is more appropriate for qualitative research, or what impact the main independent variables are believed to have on the dependent variable, an approach which is more suitable for quantitative studies. Example To investigate the maintenance path for local authority school buildings in UK through establishing maintenance needs and work execution mechanisms, and provide maintenance information to designers in an environment of resource constraints. Objectives-The objectives are statements within the strategic statement of aim; they are statements at the actual/operational level. Objectives take the aim of the research and translate the aim into coherent, operational statements. These are statements which relate to each other logically but which are, each selfsufficient. They describe what the research hopes to achieve or discover through the study. For most research projects, especially smaller ones, it is good discipline to restrict the project to a single aim and the objectives to about three. Such restriction promotes rigor in considering what the research is about and what can be achieved realistically. Keep the statements simple, especially for objectives, working with one independent variable in each which impacts on the dependent variable of the study, and ensuring that those variables can be identified. Example (1) To investigate any linkages between construction types and maintenance requirements. (2) To examine any relationship between age of buildings and their maintenance needs. (3) To determine the factors which impact on maintenance work execution for UK local authority school buildings. (4) To develop and test a model for maintenance of UK local authority school buildings Hypotheses- a hypothesis is simply an educatedand testableguess about the answer to your research question. A hypothesis is often described as an attempt by the researcher to explain the phenomenon of interest. Hypotheses can take various forms, depending on the question being asked and the type of study being conducted. It suggests a relationship between an independent and a dependent variable and the nature of that relationship. The statement concerns direction in the relationship, known as causality.

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A key feature of all hypotheses is that each must make a prediction. Researchers attempt to explain the phenomenon being studied should involve a prediction about the variables being studied. These predictions are then tested by gathering and analyzing data, and the hypotheses can either be supported or refuted (falsified) on the basis of the data. In their simplest forms, hypotheses are typically phrased as if-then statements. For example, a researcher may hypothesize that if people exercise for 30 minutes per day at least three days per week, then their cholesterol levels will be reduced. This hypothesis makes a prediction about the effects of exercising on levels of cholesterol, and the prediction can be tested by gathering and analyzing data. Consider the following hypothesis: The method of programming construction projects employed by contractors influences project performance, and hence participants satisfaction with those projects. This statement contains two dependent variables project performance and participants satisfaction. This raises issues of what may be said about support for the hypothesis if, after testing, one part is supported and the other is not. Clearly, it would be preferable to split the hypothesis into two, or even three: programmingperformance performancesatisfaction programmingsatisfaction. The performancesatisfaction relationship is implied in the hypothesis. To retain this in the study, it could be determined from theory and previous work but, for rigor and completeness, it should form an element of the research. Methodology/methods. Methodology is the philosophy or the general principle which will guide your research. It is the overall approach to studying your topic and includes issues you need to think about such as the constraints, dilemmas and ethical choices within your research. Your research methodology is different to your research methods these are the tools you use to gather data, such as questionnaires or interviews. For research at postgraduate level you may need to split the methodology and methods section into two. However, for most projects they can be combined. Describe your proposed research methodology and methods and justify their use. Why have you decided upon your methodology? Why have you decided to use those particular methods? Why are other methods not appropriate? This section needs to include details about samples, numbers of people to be contacted, method of data collection, methods of data analysis and ethical considerations. Discuss in detail your plan for
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conducting the research. First, focus on your research objectiveswhat specifically you plan to investigate. Then, focus on your research methodshow you plan to achieve your objectives (through interviewing? on the Web? through other sources?). Work Schedule/Timetable. Outline realistic deadlines for specific research tasks that will help you achieve your objectives and meet the final deadline. Table 1: Survey Timetable Date January 5 February 6 February 7 March 8 March 9 April 10 April 21 April 21 April 1 May 1 May 1 July 2 July 3 August Action Literature search Primary research (talk to relevant people) Develop and pilot questionnaire Continue literature search Analyze pilot work and revise questionnaire Ask relevant people for comments Send out questionnaire. Categorize returned questionnaires Send out reminder letter for no responses. Continue to categorize returned questionnaires. Data input. Data analysis Write report Prepare oral presentation

Qualifications. Summarize the expertise of those who will conduct the research. You might also include their rsums in an appendix. Budget. If youre applying to a funding body you need to think about what you will need for your research and how much this is likely to cost. Provide a list of projected costs for your research project, as appropriate, including costs of all resources needed to carry out your research plan. You need to do this so that you apply for the right amount of money and are not left out of pocket if you have under-budgeted. Funding bodies also need to know that you have not over-budgeted and expect more money than youre going to use. If you are a student you may not have to include this section in your proposal, although some tutors will want to know that you have thought carefully about what resources are needed and from where you expect to obtain these. Table 2: Research Budget Resource 1Good quality personal recorder with battery indicator light, self turning mechanism and headphones 10 90-minute audio cassette tapes 20 long-life batteries 40 second class postage stamps COST Unit price (in Birr) Unit price (in cents) 500 0.99 6 50 70
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Stationery paper, envelopes, paper clips, ring binder, 120 scissors Travel expenses petrol, overnight stay at five Petrol to be notified locations at usual college allowance Total accommodation=8000 Advert in local paper 500 1000 Leaflets 3000 Total Expenditure 11746

00 0.95

00 0.50 5.08+ petrol (to be notified)

Conclusion. Remind the reader of the benefits from your research and any specific products that will result, such as a formal report. Close with a request for approval by a specific date and offer to answer any of the readers questions. PROJECT PROPOSAL The contents of project proposal can be structured as follows: a) Title page. b) An abstract of the documentary output or a list of KEYWORDS reflecting the principal subject fields of the project. c) An introduction providing information on: 1) Project activity or sub-activity related to the project proposal. 2) Project staff responsible for the production. 3) Specific purposes the project is intended to serve. 4) Different means and methods which could be utilized to achieve the goals of the project. 5) Future expected results on implementation of the included study. d) A summary of findings and recommendations. e) Substantive sections or chapters. f) Annexes as appropriate.

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CHECKLIST FOR THE TECHNICAL REPORT Use the following questions to ensure that your technical report is structured properly according to common expectations: Do you include all the required components in the required order, for example, transmittal letter, followed by title page, followed by figure list, and so on? (See the chapter on report format for details.) Do you address your report to a real or realistic audience that has a genuine need for your report? (See this chapter and the chapter on audience for details.) Do you identify in the introduction what background the audience needs to read and understand your report? Does your report contain specific, factual detail focused on the purpose of the report and the needs of the audience and aimed at their level of understanding? Does your report accomplish its purpose? Is that purpose clearly stated in the introduction? Does your report use information sources and do you properly document them? (See the chapter on finding information and the chapter on documenting borrowed information for details.) Does your report use the format for headings that is standard for this course? (See the chapter on headings for details.) Does your report use the format for lists that is standard for this course? (See the chapter on lists for details.) Does your report use graphics and tables? Does your report use the format for graphics and tables that is standard for this course? Specifically, are your figure titles (captions) to our class specifications? (See the chapter on graphics and tables for details.) Is page 1 of your introduction designed according to the standard for this course? (See the chapter on report format for details.) Does every new section (which starts with a first-level heading) start on a new page? Have you check for widowed headings (headings that start at the very bottom of a page)? stacked headings (two or more consecutive headings without intervening text)? lone headings (a single heading within a section)? parallelism in the phrasing of headings? (See the chapter on headings for details.) Does the title page of your report include a descriptive abstract, and is it written according to the specifications in the chapter on abstracts? Do you include an informative abstract in your report; is it positioned properly in relation to the other report components; and is it written according to the specifications in the chapter on abstracts? Specifically, does your informative abstract summarize the key facts and conclusions of your report rather than act as just another introduction or descriptive abstract?

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Does the introduction of your report include the elements necessary in good introductions, such as audience, overview, purpose? Do you avoid the problem of having too much background in the introduction, or having an introduction that is all background? (See the chapter on introductions for details.) Unit three: Research methods 3.1 The concept of Research Different meanings are given for the term research. Broadly, some scholars define it as a search for knowledge or the search for new knowledge. Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (2006), however, say, Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem. Fellows and Liu (2008:8) believe that most problems requiring research for their solution are likely to be open-ended. According to Fellows and Liu (2008), open ended problems: tend to be complex existence may be difficult to identify, situation is likely to be dynamic and so, the variables are difficult to isolate. finding a solution is hard and may require novel ideas (e.g. through brainstorming). Or many alternative solutions are likely to be possible. For Woody (2011: online), research means,"--- defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and carefully--testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. Here, there seems to be no uniform consensus among writers in defining research but the definitions appear to suggest that research should be systematic, use logical and scientific procedures to answer a ( an open-ended problems) question. 3.2 Classifications of research 3.2.1 Applied vs. Pure Research can be applied research or pure (or basic or fundamental) research on basis of the application of the research study. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization. Examples include copy research or marketing research. But pure research is mainly concerned with generalizations and the formulation of a theory. Fundamental (pure) research focuses on: gathering knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself developing a sampling technique or an instrument that can be applied to a particular situation
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the discovery of theories, laws of nature, etc generalizations about human behavior Often, the difference between applied and pure research concerns the questions to be addressed rather than the approaches adopted. Pure research is undertaken to develop knowledge, to contribute to the body of theory which exists to aid the search for the truth. However, applied research seeks to address issues of applications: to help solve a practical problem (the addition to knowledge is more incidental than being the main purpose). Hence, mainly pure research develops scientific knowledge and so asks is it true? whilst applied research uses scientific knowledge and so asks does it work? Most research in social sciences is applied. Therefore, most practitioners/industrialists tend to pursue development work and applications while academics are encouraged to undertake pure research. Of course, particularly in contexts like construction, the vast majority of research is a combination of pure and applied researchof theory and applications. This is because, development and applications cannot exist without the basic, pure research while pure research is unlikely to be of great benefit to society without development and applications. 3.2.2 Quantitative Research vs. Qualitative Research Broadly, based on the research methods (e.g., how the variables are measured, and how the information is analyzed) and the type of information needed through the research activity, research is classified in to qualitative or quantitative. Quantitative research tends to involve relatively large-scale and representative sets of data. It provides information in-breadth and allows you to sample large numbers of the population, but the contact with those people is much quicker than it is in qualitative research. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with collecting and analyzing information in as many forms, chiefly non-numeric, as possible. It tends to focus on exploring, in as much detail as possible, smaller numbers of instances or examples which are seen as being interesting or illuminating, and aims to achieve depth rather than breadth.

Quantitative research involves studies that make use of statistical analyses to obtain their findings. Key features include formal and systematic measurement and the use of statistics. Quantitative research generates statistics through the use of large-scale survey research, using methods such as questionnaires or structured interviews.

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Qualitative research involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their results through statistical summary or analysis. Qualitative studies typically involve interviews and observations without formal measurement. A case study, which is an in-depth examination of one person, is a form of qualitative research. Qualitative research is often used as a source of hypotheses for later testing in quantitative research. Qualitative research explores attitudes, behavior and experiences through such methods as interviews or focus groups. It attempts to get an in-depth opinion from participants. Because it focuses on attitudes, behavior and experiences, fewer people take part in the research, but the contact with these people tends to last a lot longer. Qualitative research one can analyze the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. Since quantitative research is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity, (e.g., how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude?) , it is structured, and does not yield the reasons behind behavior or why people hold certain attitudes. Example Consider investigating client satisfaction with the provision of a construction project. What quantitative and what qualitative data are likely to be available readily on a case study of a construction project? Quantitative data would comprise time and cost performance derived from project records predicted v. actual; quality might be considered from records of re-worked items, corrections required due to defects recorded during the maintenance period measured by number, value etc. Qualitative data could present participants perceptions of client satisfaction with respect to the performance criteria of cost, time and quality. Such data would be obtained through questioning of those participants identification of the variables and hypothesizing of their inter-relations. Research could proceed by endeavoring to hold all but one of the independent variables constant and examining the effects of controlled changes in the remaining independent variable on the dependent variable.

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Other types of research Descriptive research The purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics or behaviors of a given population in a systematic and accurate fashion, or to systematically identify and record (all the elements of) a phenomenon, process or system. Such identification and recording it should always be done as objectively (accurately) and as comprehensively as possible (this is important for later analysis). The research may be undertaken as a survey (possibly of the population identified) or as case study. Typically, descriptive research is not designed to test hypotheses but rather is conducted to provide information about the physical, social, behavioral, economic, or psychological characteristics of some group of people. The group of interest may be as large as the population of the world or as small as the students in a particular school. Exploratorydone to test, or explore, aspects of theory. A central feature is the use of hypotheses. Either an hypothesis is set up and then tested via research (data collection, analyses, interpretation of results) or a complex array of variables is identified and hypotheses are produced to be tested by further research. Explanatoryto answer a particular question or explain a specific issue/phenomenon. As in exploratory studies, hypotheses are used but here, as the situation is known better (or is defined more clearly), theory etc. can be used to develop the hypotheses which the research will test. Also, this could be a-follow-on from exploratory research which has produced hypotheses for testing. Research Design Research design is concerned with determining the most appropriate approach (methodology and method(s)) to adopt. Its critical consideration is the logic that links the data collection and analysis to yield results, and, thence, conclusions, to the main research question being investigated. The main priority is to ensure that the research maximizes the chance of realizing its objectives. Therefore, the research design must take into account the research questions, determine what data are required, and how the data are to be analyzed. Research design is closely allied to statistical analysis of data, for sound reasons. If you plan your research design properly, then whatever you find should be a useful contribution to knowledge. Types of Design: which to use and how to use them The term method relate principally to the tools of data collection or analysis: techniques such as questionnaires and interviews. Methodology has a more philosophical meaning, and usually refers to the approach or paradigm that underpins the research. Thus, an interview that is conducted within, say, a
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qualitative approach or paradigm will have a different underlying purpose and produce broadly different data from an interview conducted within a quantitative paradigm. Field experiments Its different from an interventionist case study because youre using a larger sample size: large enough to give you some idea how your results would scale up to the population at large. (As with surveys, the precise size will depend on the statistics youre using.) Field experiments give you answers to a lot of questions that you cant answer through case studies and surveys. Experiments and quasi-experiments What is an Experiment? An experiment is an activity or process, a combination of activities, which produces events, possible outcomes. Usually, in scientific contexts, experiments are devised and conducted as tests to investigate any relationship(s) between the activities carried out and the resultant outcomes. The experiment is a situation in which the independent variable (also known as the exposure, the intervention, the experimental or predictor variable) is carefully manipulated by the investigator under known, tightly defined and controlled conditions, or by natural occurrence. At its most basic, the experiment consists of an experimental group which is exposed to the intervention under investigation and a control group which is not exposed. The experimental and control groups should be equivalent, and investigated systematically under conditions that are identical (apart from the exposure of the experimental group), in order to minimize variation between them. In a field experiment, youre doing something to people, and seeing the results. However, one major limitation of the field experiment is that youre doing it out in the field, to any apparently suitable people that you can find. You have no control over what sort of people are happening along. The experimental style of research is, perhaps, suited best to bounded problems or issues in which the variables involved are known, or, at least, hypothesized with some confidence. The experimental method is particularly associated with the physical sciences, where materials and nonhuman life forms are more amenable to experimentation. Indeed, experiments are at the heart of what is known as the scientific method, with its practice of formulating and testing hypotheses through carefully designed and controlled tests. Experiments are, however, widely used as a research approach in a number of the social sciences, particularly psychology (which is often classified as a science rather than a social science), but also economics, health care and education.
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As already indicated, the social sciences are concerned with human behavior and perspectives. A strict application of an experimental approach to research in these areas would suggest exposing one group of individuals to the experimentwhich might be beneficial or disadvantageous, and difficult to judge in advancewhile denying it to others. There are, in other words, ethical issues around the use of experiments involving people. Yet, while they appear particularly evident in the case of experiments, these issues are just as strong for other research approaches. They apply to action research, to case studies and to surveys as well Advantages and disadvantages of experiments

Advantages
1. Generally viewed as the best way of getting a definitive answer to a research question. 2. Through random assignment of people to intervention and control groups the risk of extraneous variables confounding the results is minimized. 3. If both pre- and post-testing is conducted this controls for time-related threats to validity. 4. The modern design of experiments permits greater flexibility, efficiency and powerful statistical manipulation. 5. The experiment is the only research design which can, in principle, yield causal relationships.

Disadvantages
1. It is difficult to design experiments so as to represent a specified population. 2. It is often difficult to choose the control variables so as to exclude all confounding variables. 3. Contriving the desired natural setting in experiments is often not possible. 4. Experiments cannot capture the diversity of goals, objectives and service inputs which may contribute to outcomes in natural settings. Quasi-experiments The usual approach to experimental design is to devise a study in which the main independent variables, except the one of interest, are held approximately constant and the consequences for the major dependent variable are measured. Such approaches are called quasi-experiments. A common approach is to undertake comparative studies on similar projects executed at about the same time by similar firms employing similar organizational arrangements. Such a study could investigate the impact of different management styles of project managers on project management performance, as measured in terms of time, cost, quality, etc. Case studies: A case study is a detailed study of a single individual, group/organization, or event/project. The data for case studies can come from a variety of sources, including observation, interviews, questionnaires,
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reports and archival records (such as minutes of meetings). Normally, and because only a small number of cases are studied, but the studies are in-depth, the purpose is to secure theoretical validity (as for experiments), rather than the (more common) statistical validity required of surveys. Unlike the experimenter who manipulates variables to determine their causal significance or the surveyor who asks standardized questions of large, representative samples of individuals, the case study researcher typically observes the characteristics of an individual unita child, a clique, a class, a school or a community. The purpose of such observation is to probe deeply and to analyze intensively the multifarious phenomena that constitute the life cycle of the unit with a view to establishing generalizations about the wider population to which that unit belongs. Advantages and disadvantages of case studies Advantages 1. The method of choice when the phenomenon under study is not readily distinguishable from its context. 2. It is drawn from peoples experiences and practices and so it is seen to be strong. 3. Ideally suited to the needs and resources of the small-scale researcher. 4. Case studies allow for generalizations from a specific instance to a more general issue. Disadvantages 1. The disadvantages of case studies are linked to their advantages, in particular: 2. The very complexity of a case can make analysis difficult. 3. While the contextualization of aspects of the case strengthen this form of research, it is difficult to know where context begins and ends. Collecting Data As you gather information, take notes from all the sources of primary and secondary research available to you. Begin your research with a careful review of the literature to establish what has been published about your topic. A review of the relevant information in your field can be insurance against writing an article that has already been published. (Some articles, in fact, begin with a literature review.) As you compile that information, record your references in full; include all the information you need to document the source. All research involves the collection and analysis of data, whether through reading, observation, measurement, asking questions, or a combination of these or other strategies. Access and Ethics
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Two key issues are likely to confront you as a researcher as soon as you begin to consider collecting data for your project are access and ethics. These issues are also likely to be a continuing concern throughout the process of data collection, and possibly also afterwards. They have to do with what data you are able to collect, how you get it and how you use it. Access-Gaining access to the people, institutions or documents you wish to study for your research is not just a one-off exercise. Rather, it is a continuous and potentially very demanding process. Our research topic may necessitate your gaining, and maintaining, access to any or all of the following: documents, held in libraries or by institutions; people, in their homes, places of work, in the wider community, or over the Internet; institutions, such as private companies, schools or government departments. Common Ethical Issues- Ethics refers to the choices we make that affect others for good or ill. Most commonly, ethical issues are thought to arise predominantly with research designs that use qualitative methods of data collection. This is because of the closer relationships between the researcher and researched. It is often necessary to impinge upon the rights of individuals. Virtually all studies with human participants involve some degree of risk. These risks may range from minor discomfort or embarrassment caused by somewhat intrusive or provocative questions (e.g., questions about sexual practices, drug and alcohol use) to much more severe effects on participants physical or emotional well-being. These risks present researchers with an ethical dilemma regarding the degree to which participants should be placed at risk in the name of scientific progress. Informed consent- mechanism for describing the research study to potential participants and providing them with the opportunity to make autonomous and informed decisions regarding whether to participate is

informed consent. Prior to your collecting any data from study participants, the participants must voluntarily
agree to participate in the study. Through a process called informed consent, all potential study participants are informed about the procedures that will be used in the study, the risks and benefits of participating in the study, and their rights as study participants. There are, however, a few limited instances in which researchers are not required to obtain informed consent from the study participants, and it is therefore important that researchers become knowledgeable about when informed consent is required.

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Confidentiality & Anonymity. Trust and confidence are important considerations in data collectionthe more sensitive the data, the more trust in the researcher which is required by the provider. Confidentiality is a similar to anonymity. Anonymity refers to persons and organizations whilst confidentiality relates to the data. The two issues are closely related such that confidentiality concerns neither revealing data to anyone nor using the data for purposes other than those for whom the respondents have given permission. If trust and confidence have been established, it is likely to be easier to obtain data and it may be possible to obtain data which might not be available otherwise. The assurances can be given verbally but should be confirmed in writing in the formal letter of request for response in which the purpose and legitimacy of the research should be explained. It is useful if the letter contains an explanation of the research, the envisaged outcomes, benefits and purpose of the work as well as an explanation of its role in a degree course etc. Despite assurances of confidentiality, such as, . . . any data provided will be treated as confidential and used for the purposes of this research only; the identity of respondents will not be revealed, respondents may require further restrictions to apply concerning publication of results. Such restrictions should be considered carefully as they could stifle the work and its value. Sampling: strategies The objective of sampling is to provide a practical means of enabling the data collection and processing components of research to be carried out whilst ensuring that the sample provides a good representation of the population; i.e. the sample is representative. The first question new researchers tend to ask is how many people should I speak to? For some research projects, there will be only a small number of people within your research population, in which case it might be possible to contact everyone. This is called a census. However, for most projects, unless you have a huge budget, limitless timescale and large team of interviewers, it will be difficult to speak to every person within your research population. You are probably restricted by time and moneyyou have to make sure that you construct a sample which will be manageable. Also, you have to account for non-response and you may need to choose a higher proportion of your research population. Researchers overcome this problem by choosing a smaller, more manageable number of people to take part in their research. This technique is called

sampling. For example, all buildings on Hong Kong Island or all buildings in Greater London can be viewed as
populations, whilst both of these are also samples of all buildings in the world. If the population is sufficiently small, a full population sample may be researched, but in the vast majority of cases a sample must be taken.

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There are many different ways to choose a sample, and the method used will depend upon the area of research, research methodology and preference of the researcher. The sample size will also depend on what you want to do with your results. Generally, in quantitative research, the larger the sample the more accurate your results. Therefore, for large scale, quantitative surveys you will need to contact many more people than you would for a small, qualitative piece of research. In quantitative research, it is believed that if this sample is chosen carefully using the correct procedure, it is then possible to generalize the results to the whole of the research population. For many qualitative researchers however, the ability to generalize their work to the whole research population is not the goal. Basically there are two main types of sample: probability samples purposive samples. In probability samples, all people within the research population have a specifiable chance of being selected. These types of sample are used if the researcher wishes to explain, predict or generalize to the whole research population. On the other hand, purposive samples are used if description rather than generalization is the goal. Probability sampling: Simple random sampling selection at random Systematic sampling selecting every nth case. Stratified sampling sampling within groups of the population. Stratified sampling is appropriate where the population occurs in distinct, groups or strata. Cluster sampling surveying whole clusters of the population sampled at random Non-probability sampling: Convenience sampling sampling those most convenient. Convenience sampling may be used where the nature of the research question(s) and the population do not indicate any particular form of sample and so, the researcher collects data from a sample which can be accessed readily (it is convenient). Voluntary sampling the sample is self-selected Quota sampling convenience sampling within groups of the population Purposive sampling handpicking supposedly typical or interesting cases Snowball sampling building up a sample through informants involves data which are difficult to access, perhaps because the individual sources of data cannot be identified readily. In such situations, the researcher may identify a (very) small number of sources (respondents) and, after collecting data from each one, requests that source to identify further sources thereby progressively building a sufficient sample. Applying Techniques for Collecting Data
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Documents All research projects involve, to a greater or lesser extent, the use and analysis of documents. Researchers are expected to read, understand and critically analyze the writings of others, whether fellow researchers, practitioners or policy-makers. Considerable attention has, therefore, already been given to the techniques of reading for research. They might, for example: be library-based, aimed at producing a critical synopsis of an existing area of research writing; be computer-based, consisting largely of the analysis of previously collected data sets; be work-based, drawing on materials produced within an organization; have a policy focus, examining materials relevant to a particular set of policy decisions; have a historical orientation, making use of available archival and other surviving documentary evidence. Interviews The interview method involves questioning or discussing issues with people. It can be a very useful technique for collecting data which would likely not be accessible using techniques such as observation or questionnaires. If you have decided to carry out a number of interviews for your research project, one of the basic decisions you will have to take is whether to record the interview or to take notes. Each of these strategies has associated advantages and disadvantages: Using an audio or digital recorder means that you need only concentrate on the process of the interview. You can focus your attention on the interviewee, give appropriate eye contact and non-verbal communication. You will have a verbatim record of the whole interview. Recording may, however, make respondents anxious, and less likely to reveal confidential information. Recordings also take a long time to transcribe and analyze. Note-taking gives you an instant record of the key points of an interview. You do not need to acquire an audio or digital recorder, and do not need to worry about initial sorting, categorizing and analyzing of the data collected. However, note-taking can also be distracting. Putting pen to paper may lead interviewees to think that they have said something significant. Conversely, when you dont make a note, they may think that you find their comments unimportant. Another key issue in carrying out interviews, as well as other forms of questioning like questionnaires, is how best to ask potentially sensitive questions. About age: ask for year of birth or the year when they left school or how old their first child is
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or when they are due to retire About ethnic group: ask them to select from a range of options or to write it down for you or ask them how they would like you to describe their ethnic group or make an assessment yourself About income: ask them if they could afford to buy a new car or house or whether they would regard their income as above average, average or below average or which of a number of income bands they come in Hint: Instead of asking all of your questions directly and verbally, you could make some use of prompt cards, particularly for sensitive questions, and ask your interviewee to point to the answer. distinguishes three types of questions: factual, knowledge and opinion. Opinion questions are the most sensitive category; factual are least sensitive. The more sensitive the category of questions, the more important it is that the questions are not perceived by the respondent to be threatening. A threatening question reduces the response rate to individual questions, if not to the entire interview or questionnaire. Interviews vary in their nature, they can be: structured, unstructured. The major differences lie in the constraints placed on the respondent and the interviewer. In a structured semi-structured and

interview, the interviewer administers a questionnaire, perhaps by asking the questions and recording the
responses, with little scope for probing those responses by asking supplementary questions to obtain more details and to pursue new and interesting aspects. In unstructured interviews , at the extreme, the interviewer introduces the topic briefly and then records the replies of the respondent. This may be almost a monologue with some prompts to ensure completion of the statements; clearly the respondent can say what and as much as she/he desires. Semi-structured interviews fill the spectrum between the two extremes. They vary in form quite widely, from a questionnaire-type with some probing, to a list of topic areas on which the respondents views are recorded. Observations The observation method involves the researcher in watching, recording and analyzing events of interest. Direct observation tends to be used in areas such as health, sociology and psychology. It involves the observation of a subject in a certain situation and often uses technology such as video cameras or one-way mirrors. Participant observation, as a research method, can be a covert participant observer-entering organizations and participating in their activities without anyone knowing that they were conducting research. Overt
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participant observation, where everyone knows who the researcher is and what she is doing, however, can be a
valuable and rewarding method for qualitative inquiry. Questionnaires Questions occur in two primary formsopen or closed. In open questions respondents use their own words to answer a question, whereas in closed questions prewritten response categories are provided. Open questions are designed to enable the respondent to answer in full; to reply in whatever form, with whatever content and to whatever extent the respondent wishes (in interviews, the researcher may probe). Such questions are easy to ask but may be difficult to answer, the answer may never be full/complete and, often, the answers are very difficult to analyze. It is essential that answers to open questions are recorded in detail and in. Closed questions have a set number of responses as determined by the researcher. Thus, it may be preferable to place open questions before related, closed questions. It is possible to ask more closed than open questions, as responses to closed questions can be given more easily and quickly. Questionnaires may be administered by post or email/web to respondents, to groups by the researcher or particular individuals, such as to a class of students, by a lecturer, or to individuals by the researcherperhaps to form the basis of an interview. Wording and Structure of Questions Questions should be kept short and simple. The questions should be unambiguous and easy for the respondent to answer, they should not require extensive data gathering by the respondent. Check that a question is not double-barreled, that is, two questions in one. If it is, ask two questions rather than one. Also, avoid negative questions the type which have not in them as this can be confusing, especially when a respondent is asked to agree or disagree. Make sure that your questions dont contain some type of prestige bias. This phrase refers to questions which could embarrass or force respondents into giving a false answer. They might do this if they do not want to look bad in front of the researcher, or they might do it because it is expected behavior. Questions about income or educational qualifications might illicit this type of response, so you need to be careful about how you try to obtain this information. Avoiding leading questions-The question How often do you wash your car? might seem innocuous enough. However, it makes two assumptions. Firstly, it assumes that the respondent has a car and secondly, it assumes the respondent washes his car If you need to ask this question, you should ask a filter question first to find out whether the respondent actually owned a car. Then you would need to ask: If you
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wash your car, how many times a year? By wording the question in this way and by being careful about the frequency list, youre not leading the respondent into answering in a certain way. Some issues may be very sensitive and you might be better asking an indirect question rather than a direct question. Promising confidentiality and anonymity may help, but many respondents can, understandably, be skeptical about these promises. They should not contain requests for unnecessary data, for instance, they should not request a name when the respondent is known, if the questionnaire was sent to the person by name, especially when anonymity is to be provided or when the identity of the respondent is not needed. Observations An important component in any scientific investigation is observation. In this sense, observation refers to two distinct conceptsbeing aware of the world around us and making careful measurements. Observations of the world around us often give rise to the questions that are addressed through scientific research. For example, the Newtonian observation that apples fall from trees stimulated much research into the effects of gravity. Therefore, a keen eye to your surroundings can often provide you with many ideas for research studies. In the context of science, observation means more than just observing the world around us to get ideas for research. Observation also refers to the process of making careful and accurate measurements, which is a distinguishing feature of well-conducted scientific investigations. When making measurements in the context of research, scientists typically take great precautions to avoid making biased observations. For example, if a researcher is observing the amount of time that passes between two events, such as the length of time that elapses between lightning and thunder, it would certainly be advisable for the researcher to use a measurement device that has a high degree of accuracy and reliability. Rather than simply trying to guesstimate the amount of time that elapsed between those two events, the researcher would be advised to use a stopwatch or similar measurement device. By doing so, the researcher ensures that the measurement is accurate and not biased by extraneous factors. Piloting: All questionnaires should be piloted initially; completed by a small sample of respondents. Piloting, or re-assessment is the process whereby you try out the research techniques and methods which you have in mind, see how well they work in practice, and, if necessary, modify your plans accordingly. The piloting will test whether the questions are intelligible, easy to answer, unambiguous etc. Through obtaining feedback
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from these respondents, there will be an opportunity for improving the questionnaire. Here is a model questionnaire: Triangulation Triangulation is the use of two or more research methods to investigate the same thing, such as experiment and interviews in a case study project. A postal or other questionnaire to a generalized, representative sample of respondents would assist the researchers to appreciate the general validity of the findings from the particular case study and would serve to aid understanding of its unique and generally applicable features. Many researchers believe this is a good way of approaching research as it enables you to counteract the weaknesses in both qualitative and quantitative research. Analyzing Data After conducting the study and gathering the data, the next step involves analyzing the data, which generally calls for the use of statistical techniques. The type of statistical techniques used by a researcher depends on the design of the study, the type of data being gathered, and the questions being asked. The methods you use to analyze your data will depend on whether you have chosen to conduct qualitative or quantitative research, and this choice will be influenced by personal and methodological preference and educational background. Deciding Which Approach to Use: Quantitative & Qualitative Approaches The basic broad distinction between the quantitative (i.e. numbers) and the qualitative (i.e. words and everything else) has a major influence on how data may be analyzed. This is because, qualitative data may be quantified, and quantitative data qualified. For example, it is common practice in analyzing surveys to assign, sometimes arbitrarily, numerical values to qualitative data, such as, successful (1), unsuccessful (2). Similarly, if you conduct your research entirely through interviews, and analyze the results by searching for similarities and differences in the interview records, you are quite likely to end up using numbers or their written equivalents in your writing: e.g. all of the interviewees, most of the respondents, half of the women I spoke to, etc. Or, if you base your study wholly on numerical data, you will still introduce qualitative factors in your analysis, as in discussing the relative worth of different data sources, and in interpreting what your results mean for practice.

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Quantitative approaches For quantitative data analysis, issues of validity and reliability are important. Quantitative researchers endeavor to show that their chosen methods succeed in measuring what they purport to measure. They want to make sure that their measurements are stable and consistent and that there are no errors or bias present, either from the respondents or from the researcher. For quantitative data, the analysis can be left until the end of the data collection process, and if it is a large survey, statistical software is the easiest and most efficient method to use. For this type of analysis time has to be put aside for the data input process which can be long and laborious. However, once this has been done the analysis is quick and efficient, with most software packages producing well presented graphs, pie charts and tables which can be used for the final report. Generally, quantitative approaches provide snapshots and so, are used to address questions such as what, how much, how many? Thus, the data, and results, are instantaneous or cross-sectional (e.g. compressive strength of a concrete cube; number of firms in an industry; market price of an item; content of an Architects Instruction). The data collected by questionnaires may, of course, be either qualitative or quantitative. Questionnaires do, however, lend themselves more to quantitative forms of analysis. This is partly because they are designed to collect mainly discrete items of information, either numbers or words which can be coded and represented as numbers. This emphasis is also partly due to the larger scale of many questionnaire surveys, and their common focus on representation, which encourages a numerical or quasi-numerical summary of the results. Qualitative approaches In qualitative research, the beliefs, understandings, opinions, views etc. of people are investigatedthe data gathered may be unstructured, at least in their raw form, but will tend to be detailed, and hence rich in content and scope. Analyses of such data tend to be considerably more difficult than with quantitative data, often requiring a lot of filtering, sorting and other manipulations to make them suitable for analytic techniques. Analytic techniques for qualitative data may be highly laborious, involving transcribing interviews etc. and analyzing the content of conversations. Clearly, a variety of external, environmental variables are likely to impact on the data and results and the researchers are likely to be intimately involved in all stages of the work in a more active way than usually is acceptable in quantitative studies.

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Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process, with few rigid rules and procedures. Ask two researchers to analyze a transcript and they will probably come up with very different results. This may be because they have studied different subjects, or because they come from different political or methodological standpoints. For qualitative data, the researcher might analyze as the research progresses, continually refining and reorganizing in light of the emerging results. To analyze interview of qualitatively, it is useful to produce an interview summary form or a focus group summary form which you complete as soon as possible after each interview or focus group has taken place. This includes practical details about the time and place, the participants, the duration of the interview or focus group, and details about the content and emerging themes. There are many different types of qualitative data analysis. The method you use will depend on your research topic, your personal preferences and the time, equipment and finances available to you. Also, qualitative data analysis is a very personal process In most contexts, visual aids and diagrams can be extremely helpful in analyzing data, as patterns and relationships often emerge. Such diagrams should comprise (as near as is practical) the raw data; this is relatively simple for quantitative data but will be the result of the initial scrutinies where categories of qualitative data are required. Reporting the Results: Results, Inferences and Conclusions Once the research project has been structured, the theory and literature studied, the data collected and analyzed, the next stages are to produce results and, by making inferences, examine and discuss the results of empirical work in the context of theory and literature, to draw conclusions and make recommendations; limitations of the study must be made explicit. The results relate to the analyses of data, whilst the conclusions use those results, together with the theory and literature, to determine what has been found out through the execution of the study. Particularly, conclusions must relate to any hypotheses proposed, the objectives set and, hence, to the overall aim of the research. It is important to be sure of the validity and reliability of the work the confidence which someone may have in the findings. One should judge how the findings may be used in other research and in application in practice. Part of such appreciation leads to recommendations for further research this is identification of additional areas of study to extend and complement the work which has been carried out; it will inform the development of subsequent research projects. Thus, results are what emerge from analyses and, as such, require
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interpretation to give meaning in the context of what the research sought to discover. They must demonstrate what has been found out through the execution of the research. For quantitative studies, statistical inference is employed to determine the applicability of the results to the issues under investigation and, thence, the drawing of conclusions. Conclusions take a broad perspective, looking at the research executed as a whole, but focusing particularly on the hypotheses, objectives and aim of the research, adopting an incremental approach to generalizations which may be made. Inferences: Inference is the process by which the meanings and implications of the results are determined in order that conclusions may be drawn. Interpretation: Inferences and discussions enable the researcher to present the issues arising out of the research from two perspectives separated in timethat prior to the execution of the empirical work and that following its execution and production of results. In interpreting results, associations and causalities between variables are investigated. Usually, variables are considered in pairs; independent and dependent variables. For example, A random sample of 2000 people who smoke is selected to investigate whether a short TV campaign will induce them to give up smoking. Six weeks after the end of the campaign, they are asked whether they have given up smoking: Viewed Not viewed Total (V) Still smoking (S) 500 Given up (G) 1000 1500 (N) 300 200 500 800 1200 2000

67% of those who viewed the campaign had given up smoking whilst only 40% of those who did not view the campaign had given up. The results suggest that the campaign was successful but other factors (variables) could have been influentialconsider social class and age group.

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