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|5bI 0-81-272-4
|5bh 0-81-278-2 (pbk.)
!. Luturc. 2. Lvzaton, Nodcrn150- 8. Lthncty. 4. Nass
mcda-5oca aspccts. l. Itc. l. 5crcs.
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2 LisuncturcandLi||crcnccinthc Loba| CuturaLconomy 27
3 Loba|Lthnoscapcsotcsanducrics|ora
Jransnationa|Anthropo|ogy 48
4 Consumption, urationandlistory
uri orn Lolonirs
5 l|aying with lodcrnity JhcLccoonizationo| lndian Ccct 89
umbcr inthc Co|onia| lmagination I I 4
uri] oshuiionu|ocuiions
7 Li|ca|tcrlrimorda|sm I 39
8 latriotismandltsuturcs I 58
9 Jhclroductiono|Loca|ity I 78
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s OOOk was wr!!Cn OvCr a pCrOd O sx yCars, and dUrng !ha! !mC
avC OCnCb!CdrOmCOn!aC! w!h many pCrsOns andns!!U!Ons hCdCa
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Or ransna!Ona \U!Ura b!UdCs. ! was COmpC!Cd a! !hC LnvCrs!y O
\hCagO, whCrC havCCn)OyCdagrCa!rangCOCrOss-dsCpnaCOnvCr-
sa!Ons a! !hC \hCagO uman!Cs ns!!U!C, and wCrC havC OCnCb!Cd
rOm !hC CnCrgCs O !hC 'OOaza!On rO]CC!. sO, n \hCagO dUrng
!hs pCrOd, COnvCrsa!Ons and dCOa!Cs a! !C \Cn!Cr Or ransCU!Ura
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!Ona andn!Crna!OnapCrspCC!vCs!a!wCrCnvauaOC.
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'Up!a, ChaC anChard, ram ansCn, aryn vy, |rvar LOgrCn,

Lavid Luddcn,|oacA|oon,Achi | |clbcmbc,Ashisandy, Lyancn-

dralandc lctcr lc|s, Koylortcr, loishc lostonc, lau| Kabinow, 5rucc
Kobbins, Kousc, larsha|| Sah|ins, Lcc Schcsingcr, Jcrry Smith,
StancyJambiah Char|csJay|or, lichc|-Ko|phJroui||ot LrcgOrban,
AshutoshVarshncJoby Vo|kman, lyronWcincr,andLco||rcyWhitc
Jo thosc lhavcinadvcrtcnt|yovcr|ookcd,mysinccrcapo|ogics.
A|cw pcrsons dcsccspccia|mcntion|orthcirmorcgcncra| andgcn-
croussupport lytcachcr, |ricnd andco|| caguc 5crnardS Cohnstartcd
mcona)ourncy invo|vinganthropo|ogyandhistoryin I 970andhasbccn
a stcad|ast sourcc o| idcas, |ricndship, and critica| rca|ism cvcr sincc.
ancyarrisskcptmca|waysa|crttothccha|cngcso|histoca|compar-
isonandtothc mcanings o|dc|ityto thc archivc. O|| lanncrzhasbccn
mypancrinthcstudyo|thingsg|oba|sincc I84,whcnwcspcntaycar
togcthcr at thc Ccntcr |or Advanccd Study in thc 5chaviora| Scicnccs
,la|o A|to). lctcrvan dcrVccr, inboth lhi|adcphiaandAmstcrdam, has
bccn a stcad|astsourcco||ri cndship, wit and cngagcd dcbatc.|ohn and
|canComaro||, throughboth thcirscho|arshipand thcir stimu|atingprcs
cncc in thc dcpartmcnt o| anthropo|ogy at thc Onivcrsity o| Chicago,
contributcdinmanywaystothc shapingo|thisbook. Shcrry rtncrcn-
couragcdthc pro) cctom thcstartandprvidcdonc o|twocarc|u|, sug-
gcstivcrcadingso|thcmanuscript|orthcOnivcrsityo|linncsotalrcss l
am gratc|u| to thc sccond, anonymous rcadcr as wc||. Li|ipLaonkarand
5cn)amin Lcc ,cocditors o|thc scrics in which this book appcars) havc
bccn|ricnds, co||cagucs, and intcr|ocuto inmorcwaysthat l cancasi|y
dcscribc lomi 5habha,|acquc|inc 5habha Lipcsh Chakrabarty, Stcvcn
Co||ins, lrascnit Luara, and Shc|don lo||ock prvidcd a community o|
idcaswhich,cvcnasit|orms, hashcpcdmccomp|ctcthisbookandimag-
incmanyuturcs.
Lisarccman, thc dircctoro|thcOnivcrsityo| linncsota lrcss, and
|anaki 5akh|c ,prcvious|y at thc lrcss) staycd with mc, combining pa-
ticnccandprodding,critica|suggcstionsandcditoria|wisdom.
lanystudcnts,bothatthcOnivcrsityo|lcnnsy|vaniaandthcOnivcr-
sityo|Chicago,havcbccnasourcco|inspirationandcncry.l mustmakc
spccia| mcntion o|thoscwhoscworkhascnrichcdthc idcas containcd in
this book 5rian Axc|, Wi|iam 5issc|, Caro|inc C|cavcs, icho|as Lc
Lcnova, Victora armcr, Lautam Lhosh, lanu Loswami, lark Licchty,
Annc Lorimcr, Caitrin Lynch,|acqui lcLibbon, Vy) ayanthi Kao, rank
Komagosa lhi|ipSchcrAwadcndhraSharan, Sarah Strauss, Kachc| Jo|cn,
Amy Jrubck, and lik|os Voros. Lvc LarianSmith, Kitty Lukosc, and
|anc|cJay|ordcscrvc spccia| mcntion|orboth thcirintc||cctua|contribu-
A.+r o + l + j H+!:
* _ ~
tions to this book and |or thcir practica| assistancc. Caitrin Lynch did a
sp|cndid )ob on thc indcx. thcrs who havc hcpcd in thc comp|cx
proccss o| producing this tcxt inc|udc amita Lupta Wi ggcrs and Lisa
lcair.
ly|ami|yhas |ivcdwith this book, a|waysgcncrousyandsomctimcs
withoutknowingit.lywi|candco||caguc, Caro| A.5rcccnridgc, isprc-
scnt in somcwayon cvcry pagc thisbookisoncmorcdocumcnto| our
| i|c advcnturclysonA|ok,towhomthcbookisdcdicatcd, hasgrownto
aduthoodwith it. lis tacnt|or|ovc andhispassion |or| i |c havcbccn a
stcadyrcmindcrthat booksarcnotthc wor|d thcyarcaboutit.
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abOuIIhcidcaIhaIiIsncwncssisancwkindOncwncss)OOwsrOIhis
duaiIy. NhaIcvcr csc Ihc prOcCI O Ihc LniyhIcnmcnI may havc Crc-
aIcd, iI aspircd IO CrcaIcpcrsOns whO wOud, aIcr Ihc aCI, havc wishcd
IO havc bcCOmc mOdcrn. +his sc-uhiny and sc-]usIiyiny idca has
prOvOkcdmanyCriIiCismsandmuChrcsisIanCc,inbOIhIhcOryandcvcry-
dayic.
n my Owncary ic in bOmbay IhccpcricnCcO mOdcrniIy was nO
IabysynacsIhcIiC andarycyprcIhcOrcIiCa. saw andsmccdmOdcrniIy
rcadiny and PmcriCan COcyc CaIaOys aI Ihc \niIcd bIaIcs nOa
IiOn bcriCc ibrary scciny b-yradc ms (and sOmc P-yradc Oncs) rOm
OywOOd aI Ihc LrOs +hcaIrc, hvc hundrcd yards rOm my aparImcnI
buidiny. bcyycdmybrOIhcraI bIanOrd (in Ihc cay !'Us) IO brinymc
baCk buccans andsmccdPmcriCainhis KiyhI \uard whcnhcrcIurncd.
yraduay OsI Ihc nyand IhaI had caricr imbibcd i my iCIOrian
sChOObOOks, in rumOrs O KhOdcs sChOars rOm my COcyc, and in biy
bunIcr and biyycs bOOks dcvOurcd indisCriminaIcy wiIh bOOks by KiCh-
maLrOmpIOnandnidbyIOn.rannyandOOcy, OdcnLauhcd,and
KabbiIPnysIrOmsOwycrOdcdIhaI parI O mc IhaI had bccn unIiIhcn,
OrCvCr ngand. buCh arC!hC!!C dCCa!s !ha!CxpanhOwngand Os!
!hCmprCnpOs!COOnabOmOay.
dd nO! knOw !hCn !ha! was dr!ng rOm OnC sOr! O pOs!COOn
suO]CC!v!y (ngOphOnC dC!On, an!asCs O dCOa!Cs n !hC |xOrd
\nOn, OOrrOwCd pCCks a!Lrceri: apa!rCann!CrCs!n!hChuman!Cs)
!O anO!hCr !hC harshCr, sCxCr, mOrC addC!vC Cw NOrd O umphrCy
bOgart rCruns, arOd KOOOns, 7i:, and sOCa sCCnCC, mCrCan-s!yC
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nCOmC), sOCa COnnCC!Ons !O !hC Og mCn and wOmCn O !hC COCgC, a
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Cr!CzCdn Chap. 7)
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wCrCCsCCrarCadyCCmingOaCCmC, OCarings!CrCsandpCssiOi!iCs.
n !s sCnsC, OC! pCrsCnsand imagCs C!Cn mCC! unprCdiC!aOy, Cu!sidC
!C CCr!ain!iCs C CmC and !C CCrdCn sani!airC C CCa and na!iCna
mCda CCC!s. ismCOiCandunCrCsCCaOC rCa!iCnsip OC!wCCn mass-
mCdia!Cd CvCn!s and migra!CryaudiCnCCs dCnCs !C CCrCC!C in OC-
!wCCn gCOaiZa!iCn and !C mCdCrn n !C Cap!Crs !a! CCw, sCw
!a!!C wCrC!Cimagna!iCn, viCwCdin !sCCn!Cx!, isnCi!Cr purCy
CmanCipa!Cry nCr Cn!irCy dsCipinCd Ou! is a spaCC C CCn!Cs!a!iCn in
wiC individuasand grCups sCC!CannC !CgCOa in!C!CirCwnpraC-
!iCCsC!CmCdCrn.
d:: c J Na +
T: wel ej i: lc)rcier
vCr sinCC urCim, and !C wCr C !C rr:!s 5ec|eleq|;:s grCup, an-
!rCpCCgs!s avC CarnCd !C rCgard CCCC!ivC rCprCsCn!a!iCns as sCCia
aC!s-!a!s,!CsCC!Cmas!ransCCndng indviduavCi!Cn, aswCig!Cd
wi! !C CrCC CsCCia mCrai!y and asCO]CC!ivC sCCarCa!iCs. Na!
wis!CsuggCs! s!ha!!CrCasOCCnasi!inrCCCn!dCCadCs,OudingCn
!CCnCCgiCa CangCsCvCr !C pas! CCn!uryCrsC, in wiC !Cmagina-
!iCnasOCCCmCa CCCC!ivC, sCCaaC! s dCvCCpmCn!, n!urn, is!C
OassC!Cpurai!yCimaginCd wCrds.
|n!CaCCCi!, !sCCmsaOsurd!CsuggCs!!a!!CrCsany!ngnCw
aOu!!CrCCC!Cimagna!Cnn!CCCn!CmpCrarywCrd. !Cra,wC
arC nCw aCCus!CmCd !C !ning aOCu! a sCCiC!iCs as aving prCduCCd
!Cr vCrsCns C ar!, my!, and CgCnd, CxprCssiCns !a! mpCd !C p-
!Cn!ia CvanCsCCnCC C Crdinary sCCia iC. n !CsC CxprCssiCns, a sCC
C!Cs sCwCd !a! !Cy CCud OC!!ransCCnd and rCramC Crdinary sCCia
C Oy rCCCursC !C my!CCgiCs C variCus inds in wiC sCCia iC was
magina!ivCy dCCrmCd. n drCams, nay individuas CvCn n !C mCs!
smpCsCCiC!iCsavCCund!CspaCC!CrCgurC!Cir sCCia ivCs, vC Cu!
prCsCriOCd CmC!iCna s!a!Csand sCnsa!iCns, and sCC !ngs !a! avC!Cn
spiCd CvCrn!C!CrsCnsCC rdnaryiC. !CsCCxprCssiCns, ur!Cr,
avC OCCn !C Oasis C a CCmpCx diaCguC OC!wCCn !C imagina!Cn and
ri!uainmanyumansCCiC!iCs, !rCugwC!CCrCCCCrdnarysCCia
nCrmswassCmCCwdCCpCnCd, !hrCug nvCrsiCn, irCny,Cr!CpCrCrma
!ivC in!Cns!y and !C CCaOCra!ivC wCrdCmandCd Oymany ndsC r!
ua!sis!C surCs!sCr!C nCwCdgC OCquCa!Cd !CusOy!COCs!C
CanCnCaan!rCpCCgyCvCr!Cpas!CCn!ury.
n suggCs!ing !a!!C magina!Cn in!CpCs!CCC!rCnC wCrd pays a
nCwysigniCan!rCC, rCs!myCasCCn!rCCds!inC!iCns. rs!, !Cimagi
na!iCnasOrCCnCu!C!C spCCa CxprCssvCspaCCCar!, my!, andri!-
ua andasnCw OCCCmCa par! C !C quC!idan mCn!a wCr CCrdnary
pCCpC in many sCCiC!Cs. ! as Cn!CrCd !C CgiC C Crdinary C rCm
wiC i! ad argCy OCCn suCCCssuy sCquCs!CrCd | CCursC, !is as
prCCCdCn!sn!CgrCa!rCvCu!iCns, CargCCu!s, andmCssianCmCvCmCn!s
CC!Cr!imCs, inwCCrCCuCadCrsmpan!Cd!Cir visiCns in!CsCCa
iC, !usCrCa!ingpCwCrumCvCmCn!sCrsCCaCangC.Cw,CwCvCr, !
isnCCngCrama!!CrCspCCayCndCwCd (Carsma!C)indivduas, in]CC!-
ing!Cimagna!iCnwCrCi!dCCsnC!OCCng |rdinarypCCpCavCOCgun
!C dCpCy !Cir magna!iCns in !C praC!CC C !Cr CvCryday ivCs. s
aC!isCxCmpiCdin !Cmu!uaCCn!Cx!uaingCmC!iCn andmCdia!iCn
d-. oJ No+
^orcpcoplcIhancvcrbcIorcsccmIoimagincrouIincIyIhcpossibiIiIy
IhaI Ihcy orIhcir chiIdrcnwilIlivc andwork in pIaccsoIhcr Ihanwhcrc
Ihcywcrcborn:IhisisIhcwcllspringoIIhcincrcascdraIcsoImigraIiona
cvcrylcvcloIsocial, naIional, andglobaIliIc.LIhcrsarcdraggcdinIoncw
scIIings, as Ihc camps oI Jhailand, lIhiopia, Jamil ladu, and
IaIcsIinc rcmind us. lor Ihcsc pcoplc, Ihcy movc and musI drag Ihcir
imaginaIion Ior ncw ways oI living aIong wiIh Ihcm. And Ihcn Ihcrc arc
IhoscwhomovcinscarchoIwork,wcaIIh, andopporIuniIyoIIcnbccausc
IhcircurrcnIcircumsIanccsarc inIolcrabIc. SIighIIy IransIorming and cx-
IcndingAlbcrI |irschmansimporIanIIcrmsle,:l andrxi|, wcmayspcak
oIdiasporas oI diasporasoIIcrror, anddiasporasoIdcspair. buIin
cvcry casc, Ihcsc diasporas bring Ihc Iorcc oI Ihc imaginaIion, as boIh
mcmory and dcsirc, inIo Ihc livcs oI many ordinary pcoplc, inIo
myIhographicsdiIIcrcnIIromIhcdisciplincsoImyIhandriIuaIoIIhcclas-
sissorI.JhckcydiIIcrcncchcrcisIhaIIhcscncwmyIhographicsarcchar-
IcrsIorncwsocial projccIs, andnoIjusIa counIcrpoinIIoIhc ccrIainIics
oIdailyliIc. JhcymovcIhcglaciaIIorccoIIhchabiIusinIoIhcquickcncd
bcaIoIimprovisaIionIorlargcgroupsoIpcoplc. |crcIhcimagcs, scripIs,
modcs, andnarraIivcsIhaIcomcIhroughmassmcdiaIion (in iIs rcalisIic
andhcIionalmodcs)makcIhcdiIIcrcnccbcIwccnmigraIionIoday andin
Ihc pasI. Jhoscho wish Io movc, Ihosc who havc movcd, Ihosc who
wish Io rcIur, andIhoscwhochooscIosIay rarcIy IormulaIc Ihcirplans
ouIsidcIhcsphcrcoIradioandIclcvision, casscIIcsandvidcos,ncwsprinI
andIclcphonc. lormigranIs, boIhIhcpoIiIicsoIadapIaIionIoncwcnvi
ronmcnIs and Ihc sIimulus Io movc or rcIurn arc dccpIy aIIccIcd by a
mass-mcdiaIcdimaginaryIhaIIrcqucnIIy IransccndsnaIionalspacc.
JhcscconddisIincIion isbcIwccnimaginaIionand IanIasy. Jhcrcisa
largcand body oIwriIing, noIably by Ihc criIicsoI masscul-
IurcoI Ihc lrankIrI School and anIicipaIcd in Ihc work oI^ax Wcbcr,
IhaI vicws Ihc modcrn world asgrowing inIo an ironcagc and prcdicIs
IhaIIhcimaginaIionwillbcsIunIcdbyIhcIorccsoIcommodiIizaIion, in-
dusIrial capiIaIism, and Ihc gcncralizcd rcgimcnIaIion and sccularizaIion
oIIhcworld. JhcmodcrnizaIionIhcorisIsoIIhcpasIIhrccdccadcs(Irom
WcbcrbywayoIJalcoIIIarsonsandldwardShiIsIoLaniclcrncr,AIcx
Inkclcs,andmanyoIhcrs)largcly acccpIcdIhcvicwoIIhcmodcrnworld
asaspaccoIshrinkingrcligiosiIy (andgrcaIcrscicnIism),Icssplay (andin-
crcasingIy rcgimcnIcd lcisurc), and inhibiIcd sponIanciIy aI cvcry Icvcl.
JhcrcarcmanysIrandsinIhisvicw,sIrandsIhaIlinkIhcorisIsasdiIIcrcnI
as lorbcrI llias and KobcrI bcll, buI Ihcrc is somcIhing IundamcnIally
wrongwiIhiI.JhccrrorworksonIwolcvcls. iIisbascdonaprcma-
Hr r r o+J N u :
Iurc rcquicmIorIhcdcaIhoIrcligionandIhcvicIory oIscicncc. Jhcrcis
vasIcvidcnccinncwrcIigiosiIicsoIcvcrysorIIhaIrcIigionisnoIonlynoI
dcadbuIIhaIiImaybcmorcconscqucnIialIhancvcrinIoday'shighlymo-
bilcandinIcrconnccIcdglobalpoliIics.LnanoIhcrlcvcI,iIiswrongIoas-
sumcIhaI Ihc cIccIronic mcdia arc Ihc opium oI Ihcmasscs. Jhis vicw
which is onIy bcginningIo bc corrccIcd, isbascdonIhc noIion IhaI Ihc
mcchanical arIs oI rcproducIion largcly rcprimcd ordIna pcoplc Ior in-
dusIrial work. lIisIarIoosimplc.
Jhcrc is growing cvidcncc IhaI Ihc consumpIion oI Ihc ass mcdia
IhroughouIIhcworIdoIIcnprovokcsrcsisIancc,irony,sclccIiviIy,and, in
gcncraI, aqrrcy JcrrorisIs modcling IhcmscIvcs on Kambo-likc hgurcs
(who havc IhcmscIvcs gcncraIcd a hosI oI non-WcsIcrn counIcrparIs),
houscwivcs rcading romanccs and soap opcras as parI oI Ihcir cIIorIs Io
consIcIIhcirownlivcs, ^usIimIamiIy gaIhcrings lisIcningIospccchcs
by lslamiclcadcrsoncasscIIcIapcs, domcsIicscranIsinSouIh lndiaIak-
packagcdIoursIoKashmir:IhcscarcalIcxamplcsoIIhcacIivcwayin
which mcdia arcappropriaIcd by pcoplcIhroughouIIhc worId. JshirIs,
biIlboards, andgraIhIiaswcllasrapmusic,sIrccIdancing,andslumhous-
ing all show IhaI Ihc imagcs oI Ihc mcdia arc quickly movcd inIo local
rcpcrIoircsoIirony,angcr,humor,andrcsisIancc.
hor is Ihis jusI a maIIcroIJhird World pcoplc rcacIing IoAmcrican
mcdia, buI iI is cquaIIy Iruc oI pcopIc IhroughouI Ihc world rcacIingo
IhcirownnaIional,clccIronicmcdia. LnIhcscgroundsaIonc, IhcIhcory
oImcdiaasIhcopiumoIIhc nccdsIobcIookcdaIwiIhgrcaIskcp-
Iicism.JhisisnoIIosuggcsIIhaIconsumcrsarcjr: agcnIs,livinghappily
inaworIdoIsaIcmalls,Ircclunchcs,andquickhxcs.AslsuggcsIin chap-
Icr4consumpIioninIhcconIcmporaryworIdisoIIcnaIormoIdrudgcry,
parI oIIhc capiIaIisI civilizig proccss. lcvcrIhclcss, whcrc Ihcrciscon-
sumpIion Ihcrc is plcasurc, and whcrc Ihcrc is plcasurc Ihcrc isagcncy.
lrccdom,onIhcoIhcrhand, isaraIhcrmorcclusivccommodiIy.
lurIhcr,IhcidcaoIIanIasycarricswiIhiIIhcincscapabIcconnoIaIionoI
IhoughIdivorccdIromprojccIsandacIions,andiIaIsohasaprivaIc,cvcn
individualisIicsoundabouI iI. JhcimaginaIion, on IhcoIhcrhand, has a
projccIivcscnscabouI iI, IhcscnscoIbcing a prcIudc Iosomc sorIoIcx-
prcssion,whcIhcracsIhcIicoroIhcrwisc.lanIasycandissipaIc(bccausciIs
IogicissooIIcnauIoIcIic),buIIhcimaginaIion,cspcciallywhcncollccIivc,
canbccomcIhcIuclIoracIion. lIisIhcimaginaIion,iniIscollccIivcIorms,
IhaI crcaIcs idcas oI ncighborhood and naIionhood, oI moral cconomics
andunjusIrulc, oIhighcrwagcsandIorcignIaborprospccIs. Jhcimagina-
IionisIodayasIaginggroundIoracIion, andnoIonlyIorcscapc.
H:r : c +J N:+
JhcIhrddsIncIonsbcIwccnIhcndvdualandcolIccIvcscnscsoI
Ihc magnaIon. lI s mporIanI Io sIrcss hcrc IhaI l am spcakng oI Ihc
magnaIonnowasapropcrIyoIcollccIvcs,andnoImcrclyasaIaculIyoI
IhcgIIcd ndvdual (Is IacI scnsc sncc Ihc Howcrng oI Ko-
manIcsm). IarI oI whaI Ihc mass mcda makc possblc, bccausc oI Ihc
condIons oI coIlccIvc rcadng, crIcsm, and plcasurc, s whaI l havc
cIscwhcrc calIcd a commun oI scnImcnI (Appadura !0), a group
IhaI bcgns Io magnc and Iccl Ihngs IogcIhcr. As bcncdcI Andcrson
(183) has shown so wcII, prnI capIalsm can bc onc mporIanI way n
whch groups who havc ncvcr bccn nIacc-Io-Iacc conIacI can bcgn Io
IhnkoIIhcmsclvcsaslndoncsanorlndanor^alaysan.buIoIhcrIorms
oIclccIronccapIalsmcanhavcsmIar,andcvcnmorcpowcrIuIcIIccIs,
Ior donoIworkonIyaIIhclcvcIoIIhcnaIon-sIaIc.LoIIccIvccxpc-
rcnccsoIIhcmassmcda,cspccalIy hImand vdco, cancrcaIcsodalIcs
oIworshpandcharsma,suchas IhoscIhaIIormcdrcgonally aroundIhc
lndanIcmalcdcIySanIosh^anIhcscvcnIcsandcghIcsandIransna-
Ionally aroundAyaIolIah Khomcn nroughIy Ihc samc pcrod. SmIar
sodalIcscanIormaroundsporIandnIcrnaIonalsm,asIhcIransnaIonal
cIIccIsoI Ihc |lympcs soclcarly show. cncmcnIsandbuIdngs housc
vdcocIubsnplaccslkcKaIhmanduandbombay.IanclubsandpolIcal
IoIlowngscmcrgcIromsmalI-IownmcdaculIurcs,asnSouIhlnda.
hcscsodalIcsrcscmblcwhaILanaLranc (17J)hascallcdnvs-
bIc collcgcs n rcIcrcncc Io Ihc world oI sccncc, buI Ihcy arc morc
volaIIc, lcss proIcssonalzcd, lcsssubjccIIocolIccIvclysharcdcrIcraoI
pIcasurc, IasIc, ormuIualrclcvancc. Jhcy arc communIcsnIhcmscIvcs
buI aIways poIcnIally communIIcs Ior IhcmscIvcs capablc, oI movng
Irom sharcd magnaIon Io colIccIvc acIon. ^osI mporIanI, as l wIl
arguc n Ihc concIuson Io IhschapIcr, Ihcsc sodalIcs arc oIIcn Irans-
naIonaI,cvcnposInaIonal,andIhcyIrcqucnIIyopcraIcbcyondIhcbound-
arcs oI Ihc naIon. hcsc mass-mcdaIcd sodalIcs havc Ihc addIonal
complcxIy IhaI, nIhcm, dvcrsclocal cxpcrcnccs oIIasIc, pIcasurc, and
polIcs can crsscross wIh onc anoIhcr, Ihus crcaIng Ihc possbII oI
convcrgcnccsnIranslocal socal acIon IhaI wouldoIhcrwscbchard Io
magnc.
lo snglc cpsodc capIurcs Ihcsc rcalIcs bcIIcr Ihan Ihc now mnd-
numbng SaIman Kushdc aIIar, nvolvng a banncd book, a rcIgously
mandaIcddcaIhscnIcncc,andanauIhorcommIIcdIopcrsonaIvoccand
acsIhcIcIrccdom.: o|ac V:r::: provokcd^usIms(andoIhcrs)across
IhcworldIodcbaIcIhcpolIcsoIrcadng, IhccuIIuraIrclcvanccoIccn-
sorshp, IhcdgnIyoIrclgon,andIhcIrccdomoIsomcgroupsIojudgc
auIhorswIhouIndcpcndcnIknowIcdgcoIIhcIcxI.JhcKushdcaIIars
abouIaIcxI-n-moIon,whosccommodIzcdIrajccIorybroughIIouIsdc
Ihc saIc havcn oI WcsIcrn norms abouI arIsIc Irccdom and acsIhcIc
rghIsnIo IhcspaccoIrcIgousragcandIhcauIhorIy oI rclgousschol-
ars n Ihcr own IransnaIonal sphcrcs. |crc, Ihc IransnaIonal worlds oI
lbcralacsIhcIcsandradcaI lslammcIhcad-on, nIhcvcry dIIcrcnIscI-
IngsoIbradIordand Karach,lcw`orkandlcwLcIh. lnIhs cpsodc,
wccanalsoscchowgIobaI proccsscs nvolvngmoblcIcxIsandmgranI
audcnccscrcaIcmplosvccvcnIsIhaIIoldglobaIprcssurcsnIosmaIl, al-
rcadypoIIczcdarcnas chap.7),producnglocalIy(chap.)nncw,
gIobaIzcdways.
JhsIhcory oIabrcakor IssIrongcmphassonclcc-
IroncmcdaIonandmassmgraIon,sncccssarly aIhcoryoIIhcrcccnI
pasI(orIhccxIcndcdprcscnI)bccauscIsonlynIhcpasIIwodccadcsor
soIhaImcdaandmgraIonhavcbccomcso massvcly globalzcd, IhaIs
Io say, acIvc acrossIargcandrrcguIar IransnaIonaI Icrrans. Why do l
consdcr Ihs Ihcory Iobc anyIhng morc Ihan an updaIc oIoldcr socaI
IhcorcsoIIhcrupIurcsoImodcrnzaIon' IrsI, mncsnoIaIclcologcaI
Ihcory,wIharccpcIorhowmodcrnzaIonwIlunvcrsally ycldraIonaI
Iy, puncIuaIIy, dcmocracy, Ihc Ircc markcI, and a hghcr gross naIonaI
producI. Sccond, Ihc pvoIoI my Ihcory snoIany largc-scalc projccI oI
socaIcngnccrng (whcIhcrorganzcdbysIaIcs, nIcrnaIonaIagcnccs,or
oIhcr IcchnocraIc cIIcs) buI s Ihc cvcryday culIural pracIcc Ihrough
whch Ihc work oI Ihc magnaIon s IransIormcd. hrd, my approach
lcavcs cnIrcly opcnIhc qucsIon oIwhcrcIhc cxpcrmcnIs wIh modcr-
nIyIhaIcIccIroncmcdaIon cnabIcsmghIlcadnIcrmsoInaIonaIsm,
volcncc,andsocal IuIanoIhcrway, lammorcdccpIyambvalcnI
abouI prognoss Ihan any varanI oI classcaI modcrnzaIon Ihcoiy oI
whch lamawarc.IourIh, andmosImporIanI, myapproachIoIhcbrcak
causcdbyIhcjoIIorccoIcIccIroncmcdaIonandmassmgraIonscx-
pIcIly IransnaIonaIcvcn posInaIonaI--s l suggcsInIhcIasIparIoI
Ihsbook.As such, Imovcsaway dramaIcally Irom Ihc archIccIurc oI
classcalmodcrnzaIonIhcory,whchoncmghIcallIundamcnIallyrcalsI
nsoIarasIassumcsIhcsalcncc, boIhmcIhodologcalandcIhcal, oIIhc
naIon-sIaIc
Wc cannoI smpIIy maIIcrs by magnng IhaI Ihc gIobal s Io spacc
whaIIhcmodcrnsIoImc.IormanysoccIcs,modcrnIysanclscwhcrc,
jusIasIhcglobalsaIcmporalwavcIhaImusIbccncounIcrcdn|b:ir prcs-
cnI.|IobalzaIonhasshrunkIhcdsIanccbcIwccncIIcs,shIIcdkcyrcla-
Ionsbcccnproduccrsandconsumcrs,brokcnmany lnksbcIwccnIabor
|. oJ t+
and amiy ic, ObsCUrcd Ihc incs bcIwccn IcmpOrary OCacs and imagi-
nary naIiOna aIIaChmcnIs. OdcrniIy nOw sccms mrc praCIiCa and css
pcdagOgiC, mOrc cxpcricnIia and css disCipinary Ian in Ihc hIics and
sixIics, whcn iI was mOsIy cxpcricnCcd (cspcCiay Or IhOsc OUIsidc Ihc
naIiOna IhrOUghIhc prOpagandaapparaIUscs OIhcncwyindcpcn-
dcnI naIiOn-sIaIcs and Ihcir grcaI cadcrs, ikc)awahara chru, \ama
Pbdcasscr, wamckrumah,and bUkarnO.+hcmcgarhcIOCOdcvc-
OpmcnIa mOdcrniZaIiOn (cCOnOmiC grOwth, high IcChnOOgy, agribUsi-
ncss, sChOOing, miiIarZaIiOn) in many COUnIrics is sIi wiIh Us. bUI iI is
OIcn pUnCIUaIcd, inIcrrOgaIcd, and dOmcsIiCaIcd byIhc miCrOnarraIivcs
Ohm, IccvisiOn, mUsiC, andOIhcr cxprcssivc Orms, whiCh aOw mOdcr-
nityIObcrcwrIIcn mOrc as vcrnaCUargObaiZaIiOn andcss as a COnCcs-
siOn IO argc-sCac naIiOna andinIcrnaIiOna pOiCics. Ps sUggcsIcdcar
icr, Ihcrc was sOmcIhing O Ihis cxpcricnIia qUaiIy Or IhOsc (sUCh as
mysc)bOrninIOIhcrUingCasscsO IhcncwnaIiOnsinIhchIicsandsix-
Iics, bUI Or manywOrkingpcOpc and IhcpOOr, Ihis cxpcricnIiacngagc
mcnIwiIhmOdcrnyis arcaIivcyrcCcnIaCI.
+hcsc sUbvcrsivc miCrO narraIivcs asO uc OppOsiIiOna mOvcmcnIs,
ranging rOm Ihc bhining aIh in crU IO abiIaI Or UmaniIy, rOm
grccn mOvcmcnIs in UrOpc IO +ami naIiOnaism in bri Lanka, rOm s-
amiC grOUps in IO brcakaway naIiOnaisI gucias in \hcChnya. n
Ihcsc mOvcmcnIs, sOmc O whiCh arc rcprcssivc and viOcnI whic OIhcrs
arc dcmOCraIiC and pcaCc!u, wc Can scc IhaI ccCIrOniC mass mcdiaIiOn
andIransnaIiOnamObiiZaIiOnhavcbrOkcn Ihc mOnOpOyO aUIOnOmOUs
naIiOn-sIaIcs Ovcr Ihc prO]cCI O mOdcrniZaIiOn. +hc IransOrmaIiOn O
cvcryday sUbcCIiviIics IhrOUgh ccCIrOniC mcdiaIiOn and Ihc wOrkO Ihc
imaginaIiOn is nOI Ony a CUIUra aCI. I is dccpy COnncCIcd IO pOiIiCs,
IhrOUgh Ihc ncw ways in whiCh individUa aIIaChmcnIs, inIcrcsIs, and as-
piraIiOns nCrcasingyCrOssCUIIhOsc O Ihc naIiOn-sIaIc.
+hc diaspOriC pUbiCsphcrcs IhaIsUChcnCOUnIcrsCraIcarc nOOngcr
sma, margina, Or cxCcpIiOna. +hcy arc parI O Ihc CUIura dynamiC O
Urbanc in mOsICOUnIrics and COnIincnIs, inwhiChmigraIiOn and mass
mcdiaIiOn COCOnsIiIUIc ancw scnscO Ihc gObaasmOdcrnandIhcmOd-
crn asgOba. ira airs hmA|ssissijji Adsdd, Or cxampc is an cpiC O
diaspOraandraCcrcdOUbcd, cxpOringhOw ndians IransOrmcdand dis-
pacd by raCc rcaIiOns in \ganda dca wiIh Ihc inIriCaCics O raCc in
Ihc PmcriCa bOUIh, a Ihc Iimc rcIaining Ihcir scnsc O ndianncss-in-
mOIiOn. +hc vicwing O CriCkcI maIChcs bcIwccn ndia and akisIan by
migranIsinIhc\U sIaIcsrOm IhcscCOUnIrics (scc Chap. 5)isabOUI Ihc
pcCUiariIics O diaspOriC naIiOnaism in an cmcrgcnI ndian LCcan pOi-
Ht ++ u+ o +
IiCs. +hcinIcnsc baIIcs Ovcr Ihc Lngish angUagc and abOUI immigranI
righIs nOw hcaIing Up in Ihc \niIcd bIaIcs arc nOIUsI Onc mOrc
varianIOnIhcpOiIiCs OpUraism IhcyanabOUIIhc CapabiiIyOPmcri-
CanpOiIiCsIOCOnIain IhcdiaspOriCpOiIiCsO cxiCansinbOUIhc \ai
Ornia, aiIians in iami, \OOmbians in cw AOrk, and Orcans in LOs
Pngccs. ndccd, as wiprOpOsciny COnCUding ObscraIiOns, iIisIhc
widcsprcad appcaranCc O variOUs kinds O diaspOriC pUbiC sphcrcs IhaI
COnsiIUIc OncspcCiadiaCriIiC OIhcgObamOdcrn.
bO mUCh Or Ihc gOba nOw. +hcrc isahcrc IO IhcscChapIcrsas wc.
+hcy arcwriIIcn in parI OUI O an cnCOUnIcr bcIwccn my pOsIwar PngO
phOnc Upbringing and my cnCOUnIcr wiIh Ihc PmcriCan sOCia-sCicnCc
sIO O mOdcrniZaIiOn as Ihc IhcOry O Ihc Iruc, Ihc gOOd, and Ihc in-
cviIabc. +hcyarcasO wriIIcnrOmaprOcssiOnapcrspcCIivcshapcdsUb-
sIanIiay by IwO PmcriCan rcscarCh OrmaIiOns wiIhin whiCh havc had
Ihc bUk O my Iraining and in whiCh havc spcnI mUCh O my ic as an
aCadcmiC.IhcscarcanIhrOpOOgyandarcasIUdics.PIhOUghIhisisabOOk
abOUI gObaiZaIiOn, iI is markcd and COnsIraincd by Ihc COnIcsIs O Ihc
pasI IwOdcCadcswiIhinbOIh Ihcsc PmcriCanaCadcmiCOrmaIiOns. +hUs
iIs cpisIcmOOgiCa anxicIics arc dcCidcdy OCa, cvcn i OCaiIy is nO
OngcrwhaIiIUscd IO bc (Chap ) .
1rLr o]Arioroolo
PnIhrOpOOgyis myarChivcO ivcdaIuaiIics, OUnd inasOrIsOcIhnO-
graphicsabOUIpcOpcswhOhavcivcdvcdicrcnIsOrIsOivcsrOmmy
Own,IOdayandin IhcpasI.+hcarChivcOanIhrOpOOgyisashadOwprcs-
cnCcinaIhcChapIcrsIhaIOOw.+haIisnOIbcCaUsciIisinhcrcnIybcI
Icr Ihan sOmc OIhcr disCipina arChivc. ndccd, CrIiqUcs OIhis arChivc
havcbccn IrcnChanI andUnIiring in Ihc pasI hIccn ycars. bUIiI isIhcOnc
bcsI knOw hOw IO rcad. Ps an arChivc, iI asO has Ihc advanIagc O rc-
minding Onc IhaI cvcry simiariIyhidcsmOrc Ihan OncdicrcnCc, and IhaI
simiariIics and dicrcnCcs COnCca Onc anOIhcr indchniIcy, sO IhaI Ihc
asI IUrIc is aways a maIIcr O mcIhOdOOgiCa COnvcnicnCc Or sIamina.
+his arChivc, and Ihc scnsibiiIy IhaI iI prOdUCcs in Ihc prOcssiOna an-
IhrOpOOgisI, prcdispOscsmc sIrOngyIOwardIhcidcaIhaIgObaiZaIiOnis
nOI IhcsIOry O CUIUra hOmOgcniZaIiOn. +hs aIIcr argUmcnIisIhc vcry
casIIhaIwOUdwanIIhcrcadcrIO IakcawayrOmIhisbOOk. bUIanIhrO-
pOOgy brings wiIh iI a prOcssiOna IcndcnCy IO privicgc Ihc CUIUra as
Ihc kcy diaCriIiC in many praCIiCcs (IhaI IO OIhcrs mighI appcar simpy
hUman, Or sIUpid, Or CaCUaIing, Or paIriOIiC, Or sOmcIhing csc). bcaUsc
H+t c r o +
I I
thisbookcIamstobcaboutthccl!raldimcnsionsoIgIobalization,Ictmc
spcIIoutthcspccaI thatthsadcctivccarrcs inmyusagc.
hndmyscIIIrcqucntIytroublcdbythcwordcl!r:asanounbutccn-
traIly attachcd tothcadJcctivalIormoIthc word, thats, cl!tal. Vhcn |
rchcctonwhythisisso, l rcaIizcthatmuchoIthcprob{cmwththcnoun
Iorm has to do with ts impIication that culturc is somc kind oI obJcct,
thing, or substancc, whcthcr physcal or mctaphysicaI. Jhs substantial-
zation sccmstobringculrcbackintothcdiscursivcspacc oIracc, thc
vcry idca it was originally dcsigncd to combat. |mplying a mcntaI sub-
stancc, thcnoun cl|r:appcars topriviIcgcthc sort oIsharing, agrccing,
andboundng that hy in thcIacc oI thc Iacts oIuncqual knowIcdgcand
thc diIIcrcntal prcstigc oI liIcstylcs, and todiscouragc attcntion to thc
worldvcws and agcncy oI thosc who arc margnalizcd or dominatcd.
icwcdasa physcaIsubstancc, culturcbcgnstosmackoIanyvarictyoI
biologisms, ncIudingracc,whhwchavcccrtainlyoutgrownasscicntihc
catcgorics. lIrcd brocbcrs tcrm sjrrcranic nccly capturcs both sdcs
oI thssubstantalsm, somcthingwith which | am not n sympathy. Jhc
cIIortsoI thcpast Icwdccadcs, notably nmcricananthropoIogy, to cs-
capcthistrapbylookngatculturclargclyasalinguistcIorm(undcrstood
manlyinSaussurcanstcturaIsttcrms)onIypartlyavodsthcdangcrsoI
suchsubstantialsm.
I cl!r: as a noun sccmstocarry assocatons wthsomc sort oI sub-
stanccnways that appcar to conccaI morc than thcy rcvcal, cl!ral thc
adJcctvc movcs onc into a rcalm oI diIIcrcnccs, contrasts, and compar
sonsthatismorchcIpIuI.Jhisad}cctivalscnscoIcuIturc,whichbuldson
thc contcxt-scnsitivc, contrast-ccntcrcd hcart oI Saussurcan linguistics,
sccmstomconcoIthcvrtucsoIstructuralismthatwchavctcndcdtoIor
gctinourhastctoattackitIortsahistoricaI,IormaI,bnaiy,mcntaIst,and
tcxtualistassociations
Jhc most valuabIcIcaturc oI thc conccpt oI cuIturcisthc conccpt oI
diIIcrcncc, a contrastvc rathcr than a substantvc propcrty oI ccrtan
things. AIthoughthctcr J('j:r:nc:has now takcnonavastsctoI associa-
tions(principaIIybccauscoIthcspccialuscoIthctcrmbyacqucslcrrida
and his IolIowcrs), its main virtuc s that tisa uscIul hcurstic that can
highlight pointsoIsimIarityandcontrastbctwccnaIlsorts oIcatcgorics:
classcs, gcndcrs, rolcs, groups, andnations. VhcnwcthcrcIonpointtoa
practicc,adistnction, aconcpton, anob}cct, or an dcologyashavng a
culturaIdimcnson(noticcthcadcctivalusc),wcstrcssthcidcaoIsituatcd
diIIcrcncc,thatis,diIIcrcnccinrcIationtosomcthngIocaI,cmbodcd,and
sgnhcant. JhispontcanbcsummarizcdinthcIollowingIorm: culturcs
Hx++ u+ u!
! =
+
not uscIuIlyrcgardcdasa substanccbutsbcttcrrcgardcdasadimcnson
oIphcnomcna, adimcnsonthatattcndstostuatcd and cmbodicd diIIcr
cncc. Strcssngthc dimcnsionality oI cuIturcrathcr thanits substantiality
pcrmitsourthinkingoIculturclcssasapropcrtyoIindivdualsandgroups
andmorcasahcurstcdcviccthatwccanusctotalkaboutdIIcrcncc.
but thcrcarc manykindsoI diIIcrcnccsinthc world and onIy somcoI
thcscarc cultural.Andhcrc|bringinasccondcomponcntoI myproposaI
aboutthc ad}cctival Iorm oI thc word cl!r:. | suggcst that wc rcgard as
cuItural onlythoscdiIIcrcnccsthatcithcrcxprcss,orsctthcgroundwork
Ior, thc moblization oI group idcntitcs. Jhs qualication providcs a
brutcprinciplcoIsclcctionthatIocuscsusonavarictoIdIIcrcnccshav-
ngtodowithgroupdcntity,bothwthinandoutsidcanyparticIar socal
group. |n puttng thc mobilizaton oI group dcntitics at thc hcart oI thc
ad}cctvccl!rtl, |havcinIactmadcamovcthatlooks, athrstgIancc, rct-
rogrcssvc, as it appcarsthat | am bcgnning tobring thc wordcl!r: un
comIortablycIosctothcdcaoIcthnicity.ndthatgctsmcintosomcncw
problcmsthatnccdtobcunravclcd.
bcIorc l trytodothc unravcIng, whichwiIl aIIowmcto movc toward
thcidcaoI cuIturalism, lctmc rcvicwhcrcwchavcbccn. Kcsistingidcas
oI culturcthattcmptustothnkoIactualsocialgroupsasculturcs, |havc
aIsorcsistcd thcnounIormcl!r:andsuggcstcdanad}cctivaIapproachto
cuIturc, whchstrcsscsts contcxtual, hcuristc, and comparatvc dimcn-
sions and oricnts us to thc dca oI culnrc as diIIcrcncc, cspcciaIly dIIcr
cnccinthcrcaImoIgroupidcntiy.|havcthcrcIorcsuggcstcdthatcuIturc
is a pcasivc dmcnson oI human discoursc that cxpIoits diIIcrcncc to
gcncratcdvcrscconccptonsoIgroupidcntty
|avingvccrcdsoclosctothcdcaoIcthnicity-thcdcaoInaturaIzcd
groupidcntty-tsmportanttobcclcaraboutthcrcIationbctwccncul-
nrc and group idcntity that l sck to articulatc. CuIturc, unmarkcd, can
contnuctobcuscdtonIcrtothcplcthoraoI dIIcrcnccsthatcharactcrizc
thc worId today, diIIcrcnccs at varous IcvcIs, with various valcnccs, and
withgrcatcrandIcsscrdcgrccsoIsocialconscqucncc. |proposc,howcvcr,
thatwcrcstrictthctcrmcl!r:asamarkcdtcrm tothcsubsctoIthcscdI-
IcrcnccsthathasbccnmobiIizcdtoartculatcthc boundaryoIdiIIcrcncc.
As a boundaiy-maintcnancc qucstion, culturc thcn bccomcs a mattcr oI
groupcntityasconsttutcdbysomcdIIcrcnccsamongothcrs.
butis thisnotawayoIsmplycquatngcthnicityandcuIturc1cs and
no.1cs,bccauscin ths usagc clrrewoldnotstrcsssmpIythc posscsson
oI ccrtain atibutcs (matcral, linguistc, ortcrritoriaI) butthcconscious-
ncssoIthcscattbutcsandthcirnaturalzationascsscntaItogroupdcn
H+:x a+ t+
!I!y (sCC Chap. 7). ha! Is, ra!hCr !han aIng prCy !C !hC assUmp!ICn, a!
Cas!asCdasNCOCr,!ha!C!hnICItyrCs!sCnsCmCsCr!CCx!CnsICnC!hC
prImCrdIa IdCa CInshIp (whIChIsIn!urn OICCgICa and gCnCaCgICa),
!hC IdCa C C!hnICI!y prCpCsC !aCs !hC CCnsCICUs and ImagIna!IvC CCn-
s!rUC!ICnand mCOIIza!ICn C dICrCnCCs as I!sCCrC. \u!urC I, CCns!I!U!-
Ing a vIr!uay CpCn-CndCd arChIvC C dICrCnCCs Is CCnsCICUsy shapCd
In!C\U!urC2 , !ha!sUOsC!C !hCsCdICrCnCCs!ha!CCns!I!U!Cs!hCdIaCr!-
ICsCgrCupIdCn!I]
bu! !hIs prCCCss C mCOIIzIngCCrtaIn dICrCnCCsandInIng !hCm !C
QrCUp IdCn!I!y Is asC UnIC C!hnICI!y, a! Cas! In an CdCr UndCrs!andIng,
OCCausC I!dCCs nC! dCpCnd Cn !hC Cx!CnsICn C prImCrdIa sCn!ImCn!s !C
argCr and argCr unI!s In sCmC sCr! C UnIdIrCC!ICna prCCCss, nCr dCCs I!
maC!hC mIs!aC CsuppCsIng!ha!argCr sCCIa UnI!s sImpy draw Cn!hC
sCn!ImCn!s C amIy and InshIp !C gIvC CmC!ICna CrCC !C argC-sCaC
grCUpIdCn!I!ICs. hUs, InChap!Cr51shCw!ha!arrCmdrawIngCn!hCCx-
Is!IngrCpCr!CIrC C CmC!ICns and mCvIng !hCm In!C aargCr arCna, ndIan
CrICC! Is a argC-sCaC Crm !ha! CCmCs !C OC InsCrIOCd Cn !hC OCdy
!hrCughavarIC!yCpraC!ICCsCInCrCasIngysmaCrsCaC.hIsCgICIs)us!
!hCrCvCrsCC CdprImCrdIaIs!(CrCx!CnsICnIs!)IdCaCC!hnIIdCn!I!y.
hCIdCaCCU!urCasInvCvIng!hCna!UraIzCdCrganIza!ICnCCCr!aIn
dICrCnCCsIn!hCIn!CrCs!sCgrCupIdCn!I!y,!hrCUghandIn!hChIs!CrICa
prCCCss, and!hrCUgh and In !hC !CnsICns OC!wCCn agCn!s and s!ruC!urCs,
CCmCsCCsCr!C wha!hasOCCnCaCd!hCIns!rumCn!aCCnCCp!ICnCC!h-
nICI!y, as CppCsCd !C !hC prImCrdIa CnC. havC !wC qUaIhCa!ICns aOCu!
!hIsCCnvCrgCnCC, qUaIhCa!ICns!ha!Cad!C mydIsCUssICn C Cu!uraIsm.
|nCIs!ha!!hCCnds!CwhIChIns!rUmCn!aCCnCCp!ICnsC C!hnICIdCn!I!y
arC CrmCd may !hCmsCvCs OC CCun!Crs!ruCtura rCspCnsCs !C CxIs!Ing
vaCrIza!ICns C dICrCnCC. !hCy may !hus OC vaUCra!ICna ra!hCr !han
Ins!rUmCn!a-ra!ICna, InNCOCrssCnsC. mayhavCa pUrCyIdCn!Ity-
CrICn!CdIns!DmCn!aI!yra!hCr!han anIns!rUmCn!aIty!ha!, asIssCC!Cn
ImpICd, IsCx!raCutura (CCCnCmICCrpCI!ICaCrCmC!ICna) U!anC!hCr
way,!hCmCOIIza!ICn CmarCrsCgrCupdICrCnCCmayI!sCOCpartC
a CCn!Cs!a!ICn C vauCs aoe| dICrCnCC, as dIs!InC! rCm !hC CCnsC-
quCnCCsCdICrCnCC Cr wCa!h, sCCurI!y, Cr pCwCr y sCCCnd qUaIhCa-
!ICn aOCu! mCs! Ins!rumCn!a aCCCun!s Is !ha! !hCy dC nC! CxpaIn !hC
prCCCssOywhIChCCr!aInCrI!CrIaCdICrCnCC, mCOIIzCdCrgrCUpIdCn-
!Ity(In!UIns!rUmCn!a!CC!hCrgCas)arC (rC)InsCrIOCdIn!COCdIysUO
)CC!s,!hUs!COCCxpCrICnCCdasOC!hna!uraandprCCUndyInCCndIarya!
!hCsamC!ImC.
NChavCnCwmCvCdCnCs!Cpur!hCr,rCmCU!urCassUOs!anCC!CCu
Hr r r oJ N:+
!urC as !hC dImCnsICn C dICrCnCC, !CCu!urC asgrCup IdCn!I!y OasCd Cn
dICrCnCC, !C CU!urC as !hC prCCCssC naraIIng a suOsC! C
!ha!havCOCCnmCOIzCd!Car!ICUa!C grCupIdCn!I!y. NCarCa!!hIspOIn!
InapO>I!ICn!CmCvC!C!hCquCs!ICnCCuturaIsm.
NC CnCCUn!Cr!hCwCrdcl|tals OyI!sC.I!IsUsuayhI!ChCdas
a nCUn !C CCr!aIn prChxCs IC o, l||. and |r:r !C namC !hC mCs! prCmI-
nCn!. bu!I!mayOC usCU!COCgIn!CusCc|tals !CdCsIgna!CaCa!urCC
mCvCmCn!s InvCvIng IdCn!I!ICs CCnsCICusy In !hC maIng. hCsC mCvC-
mCn!s, whC!hCr In!hC LnI!Cd b!a!Cs Cr CsCwhCrC, arC usUay dIrCC!Cd a!
mCdCrn na!ICns!a!Cs, whICh dIs!rIOu!C varICUs Cn!I!CmCn!s, sCmC!ImCs
InCudIngICanddCa!h, InaCCCrdanCCwI!hCassIhCa!ICnsandpCICICsrC-
gardInggrCUpIdCn!I!y. hrCughCU!!hCwCrd,aCCdwI!h!hCaC!IvI!ICsC
s!a!Cs!ha! arC CCnCCrnCd wI!h CnCCmpassIng !hCIr C!hnIC dIvCrsI!ICs In!C
and CCsCdsC!s C Cu!Ura Ca!CgCrICs !C whICh IndIvIdUas arC C!Cn
>661!! CrCIOy, many grCUpsarCCCnsCICusymCOIIzIng!hCmsCvCs aC-
CCrdIng!CIdCn!I!arIanCrI!CrIa \U!UraIsm, pU!sImpy, IsIdCn!I!ypCI!ICs
mCOIIzCda!!hCCvC C!hCna!ICn-s!a!C.
hIs sCr! C CU!ura Ism Is my prInCIpa CCus In Chap!Cr 7, whCrC l
mCUn!a sUs!aInCdCrI!IquCC!hCprImCrdIaIs!vICwC!hCC!hnICvICCnCC
C!hC pas! dCCadC. Nha! appCars!C OC a wCrdwIdCrCOIr!hCC!hnIC na-
!ICnaIsmsandsCpara!IsmsIsnC!rCaywha!)CurnaIs!sandpundI!sa!CC
rCquCn!yrCCr!Cas!rIOaIsm,ImpyIngCdhIs!CrICs,CCarIvarICs,and
dCCpha!rCds a!hCr,!hCC!hnIC vICCnCCwCsCC Inmany paCCs Is par!C
awIdCr!ransCrma!ICn !ha!Is sUggCs!Cd Oy!hC!Crmcitai|s. \UtUra-
Ism, as lhavCarCadsUggCs!Cd, Is!hCCCnsCICUs mCOIIza!ICn C Cu!Ura
dICrCnCCsIn!hCsCrICCCa na!ICnaCr!ransna!ICna pCI!ICs. !Is
rCqUCn!y assCCIa!Cd wI!h Cx!ra!CrrI!CrIa hIs!CrICs and mCmCrICs, sCmC-
!ImCs wI!h rCUgCC s!a!Us and CxIC, and amCs! aways wI!h s!ruggCs Cr
s!rCngCr rCCCgnI!ICn rCm CxIs!Ing na!ICn-s!a!Cs Cr rCm varICUs !ransna-
!ICnaOCdICs.
\U!UraIs! mCvCmCn!s (Cr!hCyarC amCs! aways CCr!s!CmCOIIzC)
arC !hC mCs! gCnCra Crm C !hC wCr C !hC ImagIna!ICn and draw rC-
qUCn!yCn!hCaC!CrpCssIOII]CmIQra!ICnCrsCCCssICn. Cs!ImpCr!an,
!hCy arC sC-CCnsCICus aOCU! IdCn!I!y, CUturC, and hCrI!agC, a C whICh
!Cnd !C OC par! C !hC dCIOCra!C vCCaOuary C Cu!uraIs! mCvCmCn!s as
!hCys!ruggCwI!h s!a!Cs andC!hCr CU!UraIs! CCusCs and grCUps. !Is!hIs
dCIOCra!C, s!ra!CgIC, and pCpUIs! mCOIIza!ICn C CU!ra ma!CrIa !ha!
)Us!IhCsCaIngsuChmCvCmCn!sCu!UraIs!, !hCugh!hCymayvaInmany
ways. \U!UraIs! mCvCmCn!s, whC!hCr !hCy InvCvC rICan-mCrICans,
aIs!anIsInbrI!aIn,gCrIansInranCC,na!IvCawaIIans,bIhs, CrDnCh
J N+
spcakcrs i nLanada, tcndto countcational andmctacultural. In thc
broadcst scnscasIshallsuggcst inthclastpart olthisbook, culturalism is
thclormthatculturaldillcrcnccstcndtotakc inthccraolmassmcdiation,
migration, andglobalization.
Ham A:cs C:t StJi:J
Jhc anthropological strcss on thccultural , which is thcmaininIlcction |
wishtogivctothc dcbatconglobalization,is inmycasclurthcrsustaincd
by my trai ni ng and practicc as a scholar ol arca studics, spccihcaIly ol
5outh ^sian studics in thc lnitcd5tatcsJhcrchas not yct bccn a sus-
tancdcrticaIanaIysisolthcl i nkinthclnitcd5tatcs,bctwccnthccmcr-
gcncc ol thc idca ol cuIturc arcas in anthropology bctwccn thc World
Warsandthc luIIIIcdgcdlormationaltcrWorldWar11olarcastudicsas
thcma|orwaytolookatthcstratcgicallysignihcantpartsolthcdcvclop-
ingworId\ctthcrcisl i ttlcdoubtthatbothpcrspcctivcs inclinc onctoa
particular sort ol map in which groups and thcirways ol l i lc arc markcd
by dillcrcnccs ol culturc, and i n thc arca-studics lormationthcscdillcr-
cnccs slidc into a topographyolnational cultural dillcrcnccs. Jhusgco
graphical divisions, cultural dillcrcnccs, and national boundarics tcndcd
tobccomcisomorphic, andthcrcgrcwastrongtcndcncytorclractworld
proccsscsthrough this sort ol national-cultural map ol thc world. ^rca
studicsaddstothisspatialimaginaryastrong, ilsomctimcstacit, scnscol
thcstratcgici mportanccol i nloation inthispcrspcctivc.Jhisis
thcrcason lorthcoltcnnotcdlinksbctwccnthcLoldWar, govcmcnt
lunding,andunivcrsitycxpansioni nthcorganizationolarcastudicsccn-
tcrsaltcrWorldWarI I . cvcrthclcss, arcastudicshasproidcdthcma|or
countcrpointtothcdclusionsolthcvicw lrom nowcrc thatundcrwritcs
much canonical social scicncc. It is this aspcct olmy trai ni ngthat co
pcllcdmctosituatcmygcncalogy olthcglobalprcscntin thcarcaI know
bcst I ndia.
JhcrcisaspccialanxictythatnowsurroundsthcstructurcsandidcoIo-
gicsol arca studics i nthclnitcd5tatcs Kccognizingthatarca studics is
somchowdccplyticdupwitha stratcgizingworIdpicturc drivcnbyl. 5.
lorcign-policynccdsbctwccn I 4and I 8lcadinghgurcs inthcworld
ol univcrsitics, loundations, think tanks, and cvcn thc govcmcnthavc
madcitclcarthatthcoldwayoldoingarcastudics docs not makcscnsci n
thcworld altcr I 8. Jhus lclt-wingcritics ol arca much inlu-
cnccdby thc i mportant work ol Ldward 5aid on oricntalism, havc bccn
|oincdby lrcc-markctccrs andadvocatcs ollibcralization, who arc impa
H r r r u n J N+
It
ticntwith whatthcy dcridc as thc narrowncss and hi story lctish ol arca-
studics cxpcrts. ^rca-studics scholars arc widclycriticizcd asobstaclcs to
thcstudyolcvcrythinglromcomparisonandcontcmporancitytocivilso-
cicty and lrcc markcts. Ll coursc, no critiquc that is so andso
suddcn couldbc cntircly lair, andthcodd mixolitscritics suggcsts that
arca-studicsscholarshipmightbc takingthcraplora widcrlailurci nthc
l. 5.acadcmytodclivcrabroadcrandmorcprcscicntpi cturcolthcworld
altcr I 8
Jhcarcastudicstraditioni sadoublc-cdgcdsword I na notori-
ously dcvotcd to cxccptionalism, and to cndlcss prcoccupation with

thistraditionhasbccnatinyrclugclorthcscriousstudyollor-
languagcs,altcrnativcworldvicws,andlargc-scalcpcrspcctivcson so-
cocultural changc outsidc Luropc and thc lnitcd5tatcs. bcdcvilcdby a
ccrtain towardphilology(i nthcnarrow, lcxical scnsc)andaccr-
tain ovcridcntihcationwit thc rcgions ol its spccialization, arca studics
hasnoncthclcssbccnoncolthclcwscriouscountcrwcightstothctirclcss
ffFIf tomarginalizchugcparts olthcworld in thc^mcricanacadcmy
and in ^mcrican socictymorc gcncrally.\ctthc arca-studics tradition has
probablygrown toocomlortablc with itsown maps olthc world, toosc-
curc in its own cxpcrt practiccs, and too inscnsitivc to transnational
proccsscsbothtodayandi nthcpast.5ocriticismandrclorm arcccrtainly
inordcr,buthowcanarcastudicshclp toi mprovcthcwaythatworldpic-
turcsarcgcncratcdinthclni tcd5tatcs
romthcpcrspcctivc advanccdhcrc andin thc rcstolthisbook, arca
studicsisasalutarrcmindcrthatglobalizationis itsclladccplyhistorical,
uncvcn, andcvcnacc|zirq proccss lobalization docs notncccssarily or
cvcnlrcqucntly implyhomogcnizationorAmcricanization, andtothccx-
tcntthatdillcrcntsocicticsappropriatcthcmatcrialsolmodcrnitydillcr-
cntly, thcrc is stillamplcroom lor thc dccpstudy ol spcci hcgcographics,
historics, and languagcs. What | discussin chaptcrs J and 4 as thc rcla-
tionshipbctwccnhistoryandgcncalogyisimpossiblctocngagcwithouta
strongscnscolthcactualiticsolthcarqu: dur:, whichalwaysproduccspc-
gcographics, both rcal and imagincd. Il thc gcncalogy ol cul tural
lormsisaboutthcircirculationacrossrcgions,thchistoryo l thcsc lormsis
about thcirongoingdomcstication into local practicc. Jhcvcryintcrac-
tion ol hi storical and gcncalogical lorms is uncvcn, divcrsc, and contin-
gcnt. In this scnsc history, thc ruthlcss disciplinc ol contcxt (n . I
Jhompsons colorlul phrasc), is cvcrything. butthisrccognition is nota
warrant lor localismol thc sort somctimcsassociatcd with arca
studics. ln any casc, arca studics is a spccihc Wcstcrn tcchniquc ol rc
H r a r J N..
scarch and can hardly prctcnd to bc a simplc mirror o|thc civilizational
Lthcr.Whatdocsnccdtobcrccognizcd,i|thcarcastudicstraditionisto
bcrcvi talizcdis thatlocalityitscl|is ahistoricalproductandthatthchis-
torics through which localiticscmcrgc arc cvcntually sub|ccttothcdy-
namicso|thcglobal.hisargumcnt,whichculminatcs ina rcmindcrthat
thcrc is nothingmcrcaboutthclocal,isthcburdcno|thc hnalchaptcro|
thisbook.
hismixcdrcvicwo|arcastudics, atradition inwhichl havcbccni m
mcrscd|orthcpasttwcnty-hvcycars,undcrlicsthcprcscnccatthcccntcr
o| this book o| two chaptcrs about l ndia. hcsc chaptcrs, on thc ccnsus
and on crickct, arc a countcrpoint to thosc that might othcrwisc sccm,
wcll,tooglobal . but| hastcntoplcadthatlndiain thisbookis notto
bcrcadasamcrccasc,cxamplc,orinstancco|somcthinglargcrthanitsc|.
lt is,rathcras|t:|orthccxaminationo|howlocalitycmcrgcs inaglobaliz-
ingworld,o|howcolonialproccsscsundcrwritccontcmporarypolitics,o|
howhistory and gcncaoinhcct onc anothcr, and o| how global |acts
takc local |orm. ln this scnsc thcsc chaptcrs-andthc |cucnt invoca-
tionso|l ndiathroughoutthcbook-arcnotaboutlndia (takcnasanatural
but about thc proccsscs through which contcmporary l ndia has
cmcrgcd. l am awarc o| thc irony (cvcn thc contradiction) in having a
nation-statc bc thc anchoingrc|crcnt o|a book dcvotcdto lobalization
andanimatcdbyascnsco|thccndo|thccrao|thcnation-statc. buthcrc
mycxpcrtiscandmyimitationsarctwo sidcs o|thcsamccoin, andl urgc
thcrcadcrtoscc l ndiaasan optic,andnot asarci hcdsocial|actoracrudc
nationalistrchcx.
|makcthisdctourinrccgntono|thc|actthatanybookaboutglob-
alizationisamildcxcrciscinmcgalomania,cspcciallywhcn itisproduccd
inthc rclativclyprivicgcdcircumstanccso|thcmcrianrcscarchunivcr-
si ty l t sccms important to idcnti|y thc knowlcdgc |orms through which
anysuchmcgalomaniacomcstoarticulatc itscl| lnmycasc, thcsc|orms
anthropology andarca studics-prcdisposc mc by habit to thc hxing o|
practiccs, spaccs, andcountrics into a map o|static di ||crcnccs. is i s,
countcrintuitivcy, a dangcr cvcn in a book such as thi s, which is con-
sciouslyshapcdby a conccrn with diasporadctcrritorializtion, andthc
irrcgularityo|thcticsbctwccn nations, i dcologics,andsocialmovcmcnts.
ooctu|octrncru]trrutrtoft:m
hc hnalpart o|thc hcrcandnow is a |actaboutthc modcrn world that
has cxcrciscd somc o| thc bcst contcmporary thinkcrs in tc social and
H t r t u n 1 I o u
humanscicnccs itisthcissuco|thcnationstatc,itshisto,itscurrcntcri-
sis, its prospccts. l did not bcgin towritcthisbookwith thc crisis o|thc
nation- statc as my principal conccrn. but in thc sixycars ovcrwhich its
chaptcrswcrcwrittcn, l havc comctobcconvinccdthat thc nation-stat,
asacomplcxmodcrn political|orm, is onits lastlcgs. hc cvidcncc isby
nomcansclcar, andthc rcturnsarchardlyallin. lam awrc that allnation-
statcsarc not thc samc n rcspcct tothc national maginary, thc appara-
tuscso|thc statc, orthcsturdincsso|thchyphcnbctwccn thcm. !ctthcrc
is somc |ustihcation |orwhat might somctimcs sccm likca rci hcdvicwo|
t|: naton-statc n this book. laton-statcs,|or all thcirimportant di||cr-
cnccs (andonly a |ool wouldcon|atcSri Lanka with \rcatbritain),makc
scnsconlyaspartso|asystcm. his systm(cvcnwhcnsccnasasystcmo|
di||crcnccs)appcarspoorlycquippcdtodcal withthc intcrlinkcddiaspo-
ras o| pcoplc and imagcs thatmark thc hcrc and now. ation-statcs as
units in a complcx intcractivcsystcm, arc notvcry likcly to bcthc long-
tcrmarbitcrso|thcrcl ationshipbctwccnglobalityandmodcmity. hatis
why, inmytitlc, l implythatmodcrnityisatlargc.
hc idca thatsomc nation-statcsarc in crisis isa staplco|thchcldo|
comparativc politics andwas in somc scnsc thc]ustihcation |or much o|
modcrnizationthcory, cspccially inthc sixtics. Jhc idca that somcstatcs
arc wcak, sick, corpt, or so|t has bccn around |or scvcral dccadcs rc-
mcmbcr\unnarNyrdahl). Norcrcccntly, it hasbccomcwidclyacccpt-
ablc to scc nationalism asa discasc, cspcciallywhcn iti ssomcbodyclscs
nationalism. hc idca that all nation-statcsarc tosomc cxtcntbcdcvilcd
byglobalizcdmovcmcntso|arms,moncys, discascs, andidcologics isalso
hardly ncws in thccra o|thc multnatonalcorporation. but thc idca that
thcvcrysystcm o| nation-statcs is in |copardy is hardly popular. ln this
book,mypcrsistcnt|ocusonthchyphcnthatlinksnationtostatcisparto|
an cvolving argumcnt thatthcvccpoch o| thc natonstatc isncar its
cnd.hisvicw, which lics somcwhcrcbctwccn adiagnosisanda progno-
sis, bctwccnan intuition andanargumcnt, nccdstobcspcllcdout.
irst, l nccdtodistinguishbctwccnthccthicalandthcanalyticcompo
ncntso|myargumcnt. Lnthccthical hont, |am incrcasingly inclincdto
sccmostmodcrngovcrnmcntalapparatuscsasinclincdtoscl |-pcrpctuation,
bloat, violcncc, andcorruption. |crc, l am in mixcd company, om thc
lc|tand|romthcright.Jhccthical ucstion |amo|tcn|accdwithi s, i|thc
nation-statcdisappcars whatmcchanism willassurcthcprotcctiono|mi-
noritics, thcminimaldistributiono|dcmocraticrights,andthcrcasonablc
possibilityo|thcgrowtho|civilsocictyNyanswcristhatl do notknow,
but this admission is hardlyan cthical rccommcndation |or asystcm that
Ht ++ a n J I o u
= I
sccms plagucd by cndcmic discasc. As Io alIcrnaIivc socal Iorms and
possbilIics,IhcrcarcacIuallycxsIngsociaIIormsandarrangcmcnIsIhaI
mighI conIan Ihc sccds oI morc dispcrscd and dvcrsc Iorms oI Irans-
naIionalalIcgianccandaIhIiaIion.1isisparIoIIhcargumcnIoIchapIcr8,
alIhough l rcadly admiI IhaI Ihc road Irom various IransnaIional movc-
mcnIs Io susIainablc Iorms oI IransnaIional govcrnancc is hardly clcar. l
prcIcr,howcvcr, IhccxcrcscoIIookng imagnngIhcscal-
IcrnaIivc possbiliIics Io Ihc sIraIcgy oI dchning somc naIion-sIaIcs as
hcalIhicrIhanoIhcrsandIhcnsuggcsIngvariousmcchanismsoIidcology
IransIcr.Jhs sIraIcgyrcplaysmodcrnaIioncumdcvcIopmcnIpoI-
icyallovcr wiIhIhcsamcIrumphalsIundcrpnningsandIhcsac
unhcalIhyprospccIs.
lI Ihc cIhcal IronI oI my argumcnI is ncccssarily luzzy, Ihc analyIc
IronI issomcwhaIsharpcr. Lvcna cursory inspccIionoIIhcrclaIionships
wiIhnand amongIhcmorcIhan I 50naIion-sIaIcsIhaIarcnowmcmbcrs
oIIhcIniIcdlaIionsshowsIhaIbordcrwars,cuIIurcwars,runawayinHa-
Iion, massivc immigranI populaIions, orscriousllighIsoI capIaIIhrcaIcn
sovcrcgnIyinmanyoI Ihcm. LvcnwhcrcsIaIc sapparcnIly
inIacI, sIaIclcgiIimacyisIrcqucnIlyinsccurc. LvcninnaIion-sIaIcsasap-
parcnIlysccurc asIhc UniIcd SIaIcs,}apan, and dcbaIcsabouI
raccandrighIs, mcmbcrshipandloyalIy,ciIizcnshpandauIhoriIyarcno
longcrculIurallypcriphcral. WhilconcargumcnIIorIhclongcvityoIIhc
naIon-sIaIc Iorm s bascd on Ihcsc apparcnIly sccurc and lcgIimaIc in-
sIanccs, IhcoIhcr argumcnIsannvcrsconcandbascsiIsclIonIhcncw
cIhnonaIionalsmsoIIhcworld, noIablyIhoscoILasIcrn Luropc. bosnia-
lcrzcgovinaisalmosIaIwaysponIcdIoinIhc UniIcdSIcsasto: princi-
paI sympIomoIIhcIacI IhaInaIionalism is alvc and sick, whilc Ihcrich
dcmocracics arcsimulIancouslyinvokcd Io show Ih
g
I Ihc naIion-sIaIc is
alivcandwcIl.
|vcn Ihc IrcqucncywiIh which LasIcrn Luropcis uscdIoshow IhaI
Ir|balismisdccplyhuman, IhaIoIhcrpcoplcsnaIionalismisIribalismwrI
largc,andIhaIIcrriIoralsovcrcigntyissIllIhcma|or oImanyargc
cIhnicgroups, lcImcproposc an alIcrnaIivc inIcrprcIaIion. In myudg
mcnI, LasIcrn hasbccnsingularlydisIorIcd inpopuIar argumcnIs
abouInaIionalism in Ihcprcssand in Ihc acadcmy in Ihc In Icd SIaIcs.
KaIhcrIhan IhcmodalinsIanccoIIhccomplcxiIicsoIallconIcmpo-
racIhnonaIonalisms, LasIcrnLuropc, andiIsScrbianIaccinparIicular,
hasbccnuscdasadcmonsIraIonoIIhcconIinucdvigoroInaIionalisms n
which land, languagc, rcligion, hisIi, and blood arc congrucnI, a IcxI-
bookcascoIwhaInaIonalismis all abouI. |Icoursc, whaIis IascinaIng
d- c J t:+
= 20 =
abouI

LasIcrn Luropc s IhaIsomc oIiIsown righI-wingidcoIogucshavc

convinccd Ihc libcral WcsIcrn prcss IhaI naIionaIsm |s a poliIics oI pri-
mordia, whcrcasIhc rcal s howiIhasbccn madc Io IhaI
way. Jhis ccrIainly makcs LasIcrn Luropc a IascinaIing and urgcnI casc
Irommany ponIsoIvcw, ncludngIhcIacIIhaIwcnccdIobcskcpIical
whcncxpcrIscIamIohavccncounIcrcdidcalIypcsinacIualcascs.
InmosIcascsoIcounIcaIonalism, scccssion,supranaIionaIism,orcIh-
nicrcvivalonalargcscaIc, IhccommonIhrcadissclI-dcIcrmnaIonraIhcr
Ihan IcrriIorial sovcrcignIy as such. Lvcn in Ihosc cascs whcrc IcrrIory
sccmsIobcaIundamcnIa suchasinIalcsInc, IcouldbcargucdIhaI
dcbaIcs abouI Iand and IcrriIory arc n IacI IuncIionaI spn-oIIs oI argu-
mcnIs IhaI arc subsIanIiaIly abouI powcr, |usIicc, andsclIdcIcrminaIion.
InaworIdoIpcopIconIhcmovc,oIglobalcommodIizaIionandsIaIcsn
capablcoIdclivcringbascrghIscvcnIoIhcirmaoriIycIhncpopulaIions
,sccchap. 2) , IcrrIoriaI sanicrcasingIydiIhculI
dcpcndcnIonIorcignlabor,
cxpcrIisc, arms, or soldcs. lor counIcaIionalisI movcmcnIs, '' '
sovcrcignIyisa plausibIcidiomIor IhcraspiraIions, buI I shouId noIbc
misIakcn Ior Ihcir Iounding Iogic or IhcirulIimaIcconccrn.Jodoso s Io
commiIwhaIlwouldcaIlIhcbosnialallacy, ancrrorIhaInvolvcs,a) mis
undcrsIanding LasIcrn Luropcan cIhncbaIIlcsasIribalisIandprmordial,
ancrrorinwhichIhcN:m Yes T:s isIhclcadcr,and,b)compoundingIhc
misIakc by Iakng Ihc LasIcrn Luropcan casc Io bc Ihc modal casc oIall
cmcrgcnI naIionaIsms. Jo movc away Irom Ihc bosnia lallacy rcquircs
Iwo diIhcuII conccssions. hrsI, IhaI Ihc poIiIical sysIcms oI Ihc wcalIhy
norIhc naIionsmayIhcmsclvcsb in crisis, andsccond, IhaI Ihc cmcr-
gcnInaIionalsmsoImanyparIs oI IhcworldmaybcIoundcd onpaIrio-
Iisms IhaI arc noI ciIhcr cxclusivcly or IundamcnIally IcrrIoral.
mcnIsIormakingIhcscconccssionsanmaIcmanyoIIhcchapIcrsin
book. l nmakingIhcm,1 havcnoI IoundiIcasyIomanIainIhcdis-
IincIionbcIwccnIhcanaIyIicandIhccIhcalpcrspccIivcsonIhcmIurcoI
IhcnaIon-sIaIc,alIhoughl havcIricdIodoso.
As Ihc naIion-sIaIc cnIcrs a Icrmnal crsis ,iI my prognosIcaIions
provcIobccorrccI),wccanccrIainlycxpccIIhaIIhc maIcriaIsIor aposI
naIional maginary musI bcaround us alrcady. lcrc, l Ihnk wc nccd Io
payspcciaI aIIcnIion Io Ihc rclaIionbcIwccnmassmcdiaIionandmgra-
Iion, Ihc Iwo IacIs IhaIundcrpin my scnsc oI Ihc culIural poliIicsoI Ihc
globaImodcrn.InparIicuIar,wcnccdIolookclosclyaIIhcvaricIyoIwhaI
havccmcrgcd as J|osje|c j|l|c sjo::s. bcncdicIAndcrsondidusascrvicc
inidcnIiIyingIhcwayinwhichccrIainIormsoImassmcdiaIion, noIably
d -: c J t: +
2 I
thosc involving ncwspapcrs, novcls and oticr print mcdia playcd a kcy
rolcin imagining thcnationandin|acilitating thc sprcad o|this |orm to
thc coloniaI worIdinsiaand clscwhcrc. ^y gcncraI argumcnt isthat
thcrcisasimilarlinktobc|oundbctwccnthcworko|thcimaginationand
thc cmcrgcncc o|a postnationaI politicaI world. Vithout thc bcncht o|
hindsight(whichwcdohavcwithrcspccttothcglobal)ourncyo|thcidca
o|thcnation itishardtomakcaclcarcasc|orthcrolco|thcimagination
inapostnationaIordcr. butasmassmcdiationbccomcsincrcasingIydom-
inatcd by clcctronic mcdia and thus dclinkcd |rom thc capacity to rcad
andwrtc) and as such mcdiaincrcasinglylink produccrs and audicnccs
across nationaI boundarics, and as thcsc audicnccs thcmsclvcs start ncw
convcrsations bctwccn thosc who movc and thosc who stay, wc hnd a
growingnumbcro|diasporicpublicsphcrcs.
Jhcsc diasporcsphcrcs arc|rcqucntIyticdupwith studcntsandothcr
intcIlcctuaIscngaginginlong-distanccnationalism (as withactivists |rom
thclcoplcs Kcpublico| China). JhccstabIishmcnt o|blackma)oriqruIc
in South |rica opcnsup ncw kinds o| discoursc o|racial dcmocracy in
|ricaaswcIlasinthcOnitcdStatcsandthcCaribbcan.Jhclslamicworld
isthcmost |amiliarcxamplco|awhoIcrangco|dcbatcsandpro)cctsthat
havclittlctodo with nationalboundarics. Kcligionsthatwcrcinthcpast
rcsolutcly national now pursuc gIobal missions and diasporic clicntclcs
with vigor: thc global |induism o| thc pastdccadcis thcsinglc bcst cx
amplco|thisproccss.ctivistmovcmcntsinvolvcdwiththccnvironmcnt

womcns issucs, and human rights gcncrally havc crcatcd a sphcrc o|

transnational discoursc, |rcqucntIy rcsting on thc moral authority o|
cxilcs andothcr displaccd pcrsons. ^a)or transnational scpa
ratistmovcmcntsIikcthcSikhs,thcburdsandthcSrilankanJamilscon
ductthcirscI|-imagining insitcsthroughout thc wrId, whcrcthcy
cnoughmcmbcrstoalIow |or tccmcrgcncco|multipIcnodcsin alargcr
diasporicpublicsphcrc.
Jhc wavc o|dcbatcsabout multiculturaIism that hassprcad through
thc Onitcd Statcs and Iuropc is surcIy tcstimony to thc incapacity o|
statcstoprcvcntthcir minority populations Iromlinking thcmsclvcs to
widcr constitucncics o| rcligious or cthnic a|hliation. Jhcsc cxampIcs,
and othcrs, suggcst that thc cra in which wc could assumc that viablc
pubIicsphcrcswcrctypically,cxcluivcly,orncccssarilynationalcouldbc
atancnd.
liasporicpubIicsphcrcs, divcrsc amongthcmsclvcs, arc thccruciblcs
o|a postnationaI politicalordcr. Jhccngincs o|thcir discourscarc mass
mcdia(bothintcractivcandcxprcssivc)andthcmovcmcnto|rcIugccs,ac-
t r t c o c :r
ivists, studcnts, andlaborcrs. It may wcll bc that thc cmcrgcnpostna-
tionalordcrprovcsnottobcasystcmo|homogcncousunits (aswiththc
currcntsystcm o|nation-statcs) but a systcm bascdonrclationsbcwccn
hctcrogcncous units (somc social movcmcnts somcintcrcst groups,somc
pro|cssional bodics, somc nongovcrnmcntal organizations, somc armcd
constabuIarics somc )udicial bodics). Jhc challcngc |or this cmcrgcnt
ordcrwillbcwhcthcrsuchhctcrogcncityisconsistcntwithsomcminimal
convcntionso|normandvaluc,whichdonotrcquircastrictadhcrcnccto
thclibcralsocialcontracto|thcmodcrnVcst. Jhis|atcIuIqucstionwiIlbc
answcrcdnotbyacadcmichatbutbythcncgotiations(bothciviIandvio
lcnt)bctwccnthcworldsimagincdbythcscdi||crcntintcrcstsandmovc-
mcnts. nthcshort run aswccansccalrcady, itislikclytobca worIdo|
incrcascdincivilityandviolcncc. Inthclongcrrun,Ircco|thcconstraints
o|thcnation|orm, wcmayhndthatcuIturaIIrccdomandsustainablc)us-
ticcinthcworIddonotprcsupposcthcuni|ormandgcncralcxistcncc
thcnation-statc.JhisunscttIingpossibilicouldbcthcmostcxcitingdiv-
idcndo|Iivinginmodcrnityatlargc.
t r r c o o +
l P K
| c | a |
| | c 5
2
SjunCluf6 8n0 6f6nC6 n l6
L| 008 Lu| luf8| bC0n0m
|t tacsonlythc mcrcst acquantancc wththcIactsoI thcmodcrnworld
tonotcthattsnowanntcractvcsystcmnascnscthatsstrik nglyncw
lstorans and socologsts, cspccally thosc conccrncd wth translocal
proccsscs(lodgson I 4) and thcworld systcmsassocatcd wthcaptaI-
sm (Abu-ughod I 8 raudc 8 Curtn I 84, Vallcrstcn I 74,
VolI 82) , havclongbccnawarcthatthcworldhasbccna congcrcsoI
largc-scalc ntcractonsIor manyccnturcs 1cttodays world nvolvcs n
tcractons oIancw ordcrand ntcnsty. Culturaltransactonsbctwccnso-
cal groups in thc past havc gcncralybccn rcstrctcd, somctmcsby thc
IactsoIgcographyandccology,andatothcrtmcsbyactvcrcsstanccto
ntcractons wth thc Cthcr (as n Chna Ior much oI ts hsto and n
)apanbcIorcthc^cJ Kcstoraton)Vhcrcthcrchavcbccnsustancdcul
tural transactons across largc parts oI thc globc, thcy havc usually n
volvcd thclong-dstanccJourncy oI commodtcs (and oI thc mcrchants
most conccrncd wth thcm) and oI travclcrsand cxplorcrs oIcvcpc
(lclms I 88, SchaIcr I 6J). Jhc two manIorccsIor sustancd culturaI
ntcracton bcIorcthsccntury havcbccnwarIarc (and thcIargcscalcpo-
ltcal systcms somctmcs gcncratcd by t) and rclgons oI convcrson
whch havcsomctmcs,as nthccascoI|slam, takcnwarIarcasoncoIthc
lcgtmatc nstrumcnts oI thcr cxpanson. Jhus, bctwccn travclcrs and
mcrCanIs, ptgrtmsandCOnqUcrOrs, IcWOrdassccnmUCOng-dtsIanCc
(and Ong-Icrm)CUUraIrahC. ts mUC sccms sc-cVtdcnI.
bUI cW Wt dcny IaIgtVcn Ic prOOcms O Itmc, dtsIanCc, and tm-
tIcd IcCnOOgtcs Or IcCOmmandO rcsOUrCcs aCrOssVasIspaCcs, CU-
IUra dca t ngsOcIWccnsOCtayandspaItay scparaIcd grOUps UnIt
IcpasIcWCcnIUrtcs, OccnOrtdgcdaIgrcaICOsIandsUsIatncdOVcrItmc
OnyWtIgrcaIcOrI.cOrCcsOCU IUra graVtIysccmcdaWaysIOpU
aWay rOm Ic OrmaItOn O argcsCac cCUmcncs, WcIcr rctgtOUs,
COmmcrCta, Or pOtItCa, IOWard smacr-sCac aCCrcItOnsOtnItmaCy and
t nIcrcsI.
bOmcItmctn IcpasIcWCcnIUrtcs, IcnaIUrc OIts graVtIaItOnahcd
sccmsIOaVc Cangcd. arIy OcCaUsc OIcsptrtI O Ic cxpanstOn O
NcsIcrn martItmct nIcrcsIsaIcr I 500, andparIyOcCaUscOIcrcaItVcy
aUIOnOmOUsdcVcOpmcnIs Oargc andaggrcsstVc sOCta OrmaItOnst nIc
mcrtCas (sUC asIczIcCsandIc nCas), tn Urasta ( sUCas Ic On-
gOsandIctrdcsCcndanIs, IcUgasand'IIOmans), t ntsandbOUI
casIsta(sUCasIcbUgtncsc), and tnIcKtngdOmsOprcCOOntartCa
(sUC as LaOmcy), an OVcrapptngscI O cCUmcncs IO cmcrgc, t n
WtC COngcrtcs OmOncy, COmmcrCc, COnqUcsI, andmt graItOn Ocgan IO
CrcaIc dUraOc CrOss-sOCtcIa OOnds. ts prOCcss Was aCCccraIcdOyIc
IcCnOOgy Iranscrs and tnnOVaItOns O Ic aIc and ntnc
IccnICcnIUrtcs(c. g. ,bayy I8), WtCCrcaIcd COOntaOrdc!s
CcnIcrcd On UrOpcan CaptIas and sprcadIrOUgOUI Ic nOn-UrOpcan
WOrd. ts t nIrtCaIc and OVcrapptng scI O UrOCOOnta WO!ds (hrsI
bpantsandOrIUgUcsc, aIcrprtnCtpayngts, rcnC, andLUIC) scI
Ic Oasts Or a pcrmancnI IrahC t n tdcas O pcOpcOOd and scOOd,
WtC CrcaIcd Ic tmagtncd COmmUntItcs (ndcrsOn I83) O rcCcnI na
ItOnatsms IrOUgOUIIcWOrd.
NtI WaI bcncdtCI ndcrsOn as Cacd prtnI CaptIatsm, a ncW
pOWcrWas Uncascd tn Ic WOrd, Ic pOWcr mass tIcraCy and tIs aI-
IcndanI argc-sCac prOdUCItOn OprO)cCIs OcIntC ahntIy IaIWcrc rc-
marKaOy rcc O Ic nccd Or aCc-IO-aCcCOmmUntCaItOn OrcVcn O tndt-
rcCI COmmUntCaItOn OcIWccn pcrsOns and grOUps. c aCI O rcadtng
Itngs IOgcIcr scI Ic sIagc Or mOVcmcnIs Oascd On a paradOxIc
paradOxOCOnsIruCIcdprtmOrdtatsm. crct s, OCOUrsc, agrcaIdcacsc
IaI ts tnVOVcd tn Ic sIO OCOOntatsm andtIs dtacCItCay gcncraIcd
naItOnatsms ( !aIIcr)cc I86), OUI Ic tssUc OCOnsI!uCIcd cIntCtItcs ts
sUrcyaCrUCtasIrand tn Its Iac.
bUIIc rcVOUItOnOprt nICaptIatsm andIcCUIura ahntItcs anddta-
OgUcsUncascdOyt I WcrcOny mOdcsIprcCUrsOrsIOIcWOrdWctVct n
D s ) i t oJ D ;; : c :
2 8 =
nOW. Or t n Ic pasI CnIUry, Icrc as Occn a IcCnOOgtCa cxpOstOn,
argcytn IcdOmatn OIranspOrIaItOnandt nOrmaItOn,IaImaKcsIct n-
IcraCItOns O a prtnI-dOmtnaIcd WOrd sccm as ardWOn and as casty
crascdasIc prtnIrcVOUItOnmadc cartcr Orms OCUIUra Ira| C appcar.
Or WtI Ic adVcnI O Ic sIcamst p, Ic aUIOmOOtc, Ic atrpanc, Ic
Camcra, Ic COmpUIcr, and Ic IccpOnc, Wc aVc cnIcrcd t nIO an aIO
gcIcrncWCOndtItOnOnctgOOrtncss,cVcnWtIIOscmOsIdtsIanIrOm
OUrscVcs. arsaCUan, amOngOIcrs, sOUgIIOIcOrtzcaOOUI Its
WOrdasa gOOaVt agc OUIIcOrtcssUC asCUas appcarIO aVc
OVcrcsItmaIcd Ic COmmUntIartan tmp tCaItOns O Ic ncW mcdta Ordcr
(CUan and OWcrs I Nc arc nOW aWarc IaI WtI mcdta, caC
Itmc Wcarc IcmpIcdIO OIc Vtagc, Wc mUsI Ocrcmtndcd
IaImcdtaCrcaIcCOmmUntItcsWtInOscnscOpaCc( cyrOWtIz I85).
c WOrdWc t Vc t nnOWsccms rtzOmtC (LccUzc and\UaIIart I87),
cVcn sCtzOprcntC, Catng Or IcOrtcs O rOOIcssncss, atcnaItOn, and
psyCOOgtCa dt sIanCc OcIWccn t ndtVt dUas andgrOUps On Ic Oncand,
andanIastcs(Ornt gImarcs) OccCI!OntCprOptnqUtIyOnIcOIcr. crc,
Wc arc COsc IO Ic CcnIra prOOcmaItC O CUIUra prOCcsscs tn IOdas
WOrd.
Us, Ic CUrtOstIy IaI rcCcnIy drOVc tCO ycr IO sta ( I88) ts t n
sOmc Ways Ic prOdUCI O a COnU>tOn OcIWccn sOmc tncaOc -
LOnadtzaItOn OIcWOrdandIcmUCsUOIcr payOt ndtgcnOUs Ira-
cCIOrtcsO dcstrc and carWtI gOOa OWsOpcOpc ad Itngs ndccd,
ycts OWn tmprcsstOns arc IcsItmOny IO Ic aCI IaI, t gOOa CUIUra
sysIcm ts cmcrgtng, tItshcdWtI trOntcsandrcstsIanCcs,sOmcItmcsCam-
OUhagcd as passtVtIy and a OOIIOmcss appcItIc tn Ic stan WOrd Or
ItngsNcsIcrn
ycrs OWn aCCOUnI O Ic UnCanny ttpptnc ahntIy Or mcrtCan
pOpUarmUstC t srtC IcsItmOny IO Ic gOOaCUIUrc OIc ypcrrca, Or
sOmcOWttpptncrcndtItOnsOmcrtCan pOpUarsOngs arcOOImOrc
dcsprcadt nIcttpptncs, andmOrcdtsIurOtngyatIUIOIctrOrtg-
t nas, Ian Icyarc tn Icnt IcdbIaIcsIOday. n cnItrc naItOn sccms IO
aVc carncd IO mtmtC KOgcrs and Ic cnnOn stsIcrs, tKc a VasI
stanOIOWnCOrUs.bUI:|cr|zt|er tsCcrIatnya patdIcrmIOappy
IO sUC a stIUaItOn, Or nOI Onyarc Icrc mOrc ttptnOs stngtng pcrcCI
rcndtItOns O sOmc mcrtCan sOngs (OIcn rOm Ic mcrtCan pasI) Ian
Icrc arc mcrtCansdOtngsO, Icrc ts asO, OCOUrsc, Ic aCI IaIIcrcsI
O Ictr tVcs ts nOI tn COmpcIc synCrOny WtI Ic rccrcnItaWOrd IaI
|rsIgaVcOtrIIO Icsc sOngs.
n a UrIcr gOOattng IWtsI On WaI rcdrtC )amcsOn as rcCcnIy
D s , c i a oJ D ;; : : c
2 ~
Cacd nOsIagta Or Ic prcscnI I8), Icsc ttptnOs OOK OaCK IO a
WOrdIcyaVc ncVcr OsI. tsts Onc OIcCcnIra trOntcsOIcpOtItCs
O gOOa CUIUra OWs, cspcCtay t n Ic arcna O cnIcrIatnmcnI and
ctsUrc. Ipays aVOC WtI Ic cgcmOny O UrOCrOnOOgy. mcrtCan
nOsIagtaccds OnttptnO dcstrcrcprcscnIcdas a ypcrCOmpcIcnI rcprO-
dUCItOn. crc, Wc aVc nOsIagta WtIOUI mcmOry. c paradOx, O
COUrsc, as tIs cXpanaItOns, and Icy arc tsIOrtCa UnpaCKcd, Icy ay
Oarc Ic sIOry O Ic mcrtCan mtsstOntzaItOn and pOtItCa rapc O Ic
ttpptncs,OncrcsUIOWtCasOccnIcCrcaItOnOa naItOn OmaKc-
OclcVc mcrtCans, WO IOcraIcd Or sO Ong a cadtng ady WO paycd
Ic ptanO Wtc Ic sUms Oanta cxpandcd and dcCaycd. craps Ic
mOsIradtCa pOsImOdcrntsIs WOUdargUcIaIIts tsardysUrprtstngOc-
CaUsct nIc pcCUtarCrOntCtItcsOaIcCaptIatsm, pasItCc and nOsIagta
arc CcnIra mOdcs O tmagc prOdUCItOn and rcCcpItOn. mcrtCans Icm
scVcsarc ardy tn Ic prcscnI anymOrc as IcysIUmOc tnIO Ic mcga-
IcCnOOgtcs O Ic IWcnIy hrsI CcnIUry garOcdt n Ic hm-nOtrsCcnartOs
O stxItcs Cts, hItcs dtncrs, OrItcs COItng, ItrItcs OUscs, IWcnItcs
danCcs, andsOOn adt nhnt IUm.
s ar as Ic LntIcd bIaIcs t s COnCcrncd, Onc sUggcsI IaI Ic
tssUc ts nO Ongcr Onc O nOsIagta OUI O a sOCta |o}|ro|: OUtI argcy
arOUnd rcrUns. )amcsOn Was OOd IO tnK Ic pOtItCs O nOsIagta IO Ic
pOsImOdCrn COmmOdtIy scnstOt tIy, and cWasrtgI ( I83) . c
drUgWars tn !OOOta rcCaptIUaIc Ic IrOptCa sWcaI O tcInam, WtI
!tcOrI andtssUCCcsstOnOmasKs)tmmybIcWarICOnCca t ng]On
Naync COnCcang bptrO gncW and a Icm IransmOgrt|tng tnIO
byVcsIcr bIaOnc, WO Wtns t n stmUIancOUsy Uh-
t ng Ic scCrcI mcrtCan cnVy O bOVtcI tmpcrtatsm and Ic rcrUn (Its
ItmcWtI a appycndtng) OIcNtcInam Nar. c OtngbIOncs, ap
prOaCtng Ictr hItcs, gyraIc OcOrc ctgIccnycar-Ods WO dO nOI ap-
pcarIOnccdIcmaCtncryOnOsIagtaIOOcsOdOnIctrparcnIscrOcs
aU C!arIncy ts sctng Ic bcaIcs IO a ncW aUdtcnCc Oy tICtngts
OOtqUcnOsIagtaIOIctrdcstrcOrIcncWIaIsmaCKs OIcd. Dto}r:t
tsOaCKtn nt ncItcsdrag, andsOtsJo- : ., nOI IO spcaKO3otor andM|s
s|er ljess|l:, a drcsscdUp IcCnOOgtCay OUI rcmarKaOy atIUIOIc
amOspcrtCs OIctrOrtgtnas.
c pasI ts nOWnOIa andIO rcIUrn IO tn a stmpc pOtItCs OmcmOry.
I asOcCOmcasynCrOntCWarcUsc O CUIUra sCcnartO>, aKtndOIcm-
pOra CcnIra CasItng, IO WtC rcCOUrsc Can Oc IaKcn as apprOprtaIc, dc-
pcndtngOnIc mOVtc IOOcmadc, IcsCcnc IOOccnaCIcd,IcOsIagcsIO
OcrcsCUcd. Its ts par Or Ic COUrsc, t yOU OOW]can baUdrtard Or
L i : u n c | u r o n J L i [[ r r r n c r
" 3 0 =
)canranOts yOIard tnIO a WOrd O stgns WOyUnmOOrcd rOm Ictr
sOCta stgnthcrs (a IcWOr s a Ltsncyand). bUI WOUdtKc IO sUggcsI
IaI IcapparcnItnCrcastngsUOsIttUIaOttOWOc pcrtOdsandpOsIUrcs
Or Onc anOIcr, t n Ic CUtUra stycs O adanCcd CaptIatsm, ts Itcd IO
argcr gOOa OrCcs, WtC aVc dOnc mUC IO sOW mcrtCans IaI Ic
pasIt sUsUayanOIcrCOUnIry. yOUr prcscnI ts Ictr UIUrc (as tn mUC
mOdcrntzaItOn IcOry and tn many sc-saItshcd IOUrtsI anIastcs), and
IctrUIUrc tsyOUrpasI(astn IcCascOIc ttptnOVtrIUOsOsOmcrtCan
pOpUarmUstC) , IcnyOUrOWn pasICan OcmadcIO appcarasstmpyanOr-
matzcd mOdatIy OyOUr prcscnI. Us, aIOUg sOmc anIrOpOOgtsIs
mayCOnItnUc IO rccgaIcIctr!Icrs IOIcmpOra spaCcsIaIIcydO nOI
IcmscVcsOCCUpy(aOtanI 83), pOsItndUsIrta CUIUraprOdUCItOnsaVc
cnIcrcda pOsInOsIagtCpasc.
c CrUCta pOtnI, OWcVcr, ts IaIIc LntIcd bIaIcs ts nOOngcr Ic
pUppcIccrOa WOrdsysIcm OtmagcsOUI ts OnyOnc nOdc Oa COmpcx
IransnaItOna COnsIrUCItOn O tmagtnary andsCapcs. c WOdWc tVc t n
IOday t sCaraCIcrtzcdOya ncW rOc Or Ic tmagtnaItOn t nsOCta t c. O
grasp Its ncWrOc, Wc nccdIOOrtngIOgcIIc Odtdca Otmagcs, cs-
pcCtay mcCantCay prOdUCcd tmagcs (tn Ic rankUrI bCOO scnsc)
IctdcaOIc tmagtncdCOmmUntIy (tn ndcrsOnsscnsc) andIcrcnC
t dca O Ic tmagtnary ,|o}ro|:) as a COnsIrUCIcd andsCapc O COcCItVc
asptraItOns,WtC tsnOmOrc andnOcssrcaIanIcCOcCItVcrcprcscn
IaItOns O

mtc LUrKctm, nOW mcdtaIcdIrOUg Ic COmpcx prtsm O

mOdcrn mcdta.
c tmagc, Ic tmagtncd, Ic arc a Icrms IaI dt
rcCIUsIO sOmcItngCrtItCaandncWt ngOOa CUIUraprOCcsscs to: |o}-
|rot|er os o sec|ol joct|c: O Ongcr mcrc (OptUm Or Ic masscs
WOscrcaWOrKts c scWcrc) , nOOngcrstmpc csCapc (rOm aWOrddc
hncd prtnCtpay Oy mOrc COnCrcIc pUrpOscs and sIrUCIUrcs) nO Ongcr
c t Ic pasItmc ( IUs nOI rCcVanI IO Ic tVcs O Ordtnary pcOpc), and nO
OngcrmcrcCOnIcmpaItOn OrncWOrms Odcstrc andsUO)cC
ItVtIy), Ic tmagtnaItOnasOcCOmc an hcd OsOCta praCItCcs,
a Orm OWOrK ( t nIc scnsc OOOI aOOr andCUIUray OrgantzcdpraC-
ItCc), and a Orm OncgOItaItOnOcIWccn st IcsOagcnCy( tndtVtdUas) and
gOOay dchncd hcds O pOsstOttIy. t s OIc tmagtnaItOn
t nKsIcpayOpasItCc (tn sOmc IOIcIcrrOrandCOcrCtOn O
sIaIcsand Ictr COmpcItIOrs. c tmagtnaItOn t snOW CcnIra IO a Orms
O agcnCy, t s tIsc a sOCta aCI, and t s Ic COmpOncnI O Ic ncW
gOOa Ordcr. bUI IO maKc Its Catm mcantngU, Wc mUsI addrcss sOmc
OIcrtssUcs.
L i : u c f u r r u n J L i [[ r r r n c r
~ 3 I
Hee):rizotier orJ H:t:e):rizotar
Jhc ccnlraI probIcm otlodays gIobaI inlcraclionsis lhclcnsionbclwccn
cullural homogcnizalion and cullural hclcrogcnizalion. A vasl array ot
cmpirical tacls couldbcbroughl lobcaronlhcsidcot homogcniza
lionargumcnl andmuchotilhascomctromlhclccndotlhcspcclrum
mcdia sludics ( lamcIink I83 NallcIarl I83 5chilIcr I7t), and
somc|romolcrpcrspcclivcs(Lans I85lycr I88) Noslotlcn,lhcho
argumcnlsubspccialcsinlocilhcranargumcnlaboulAmcr
icanizalion or an argumcnl aboul commodilizalion, andvc otlcn lhc
lwoargumcnlsarcclosclyIinkcd. Whallhcscargumcnlstailloconsidcris
lhalallcaslasrapidIyastorccstromvariousmclropoIiscsarcbroughlinlo
ncwsociclicslhcylcndlobccomc indigcnizcdinoncoranolhcrway.lhis
islruc otmusicandhousingslyIcsasmuchasilislrucotscicncc andlcr-
rorism,spcclaclcsandconslilulions. Jhcdynamicsotsuchindigcnizalion
havc|uslbcgunlobccxpIorcdsyslcmicalIy( barbcr I87cld I88 lan-
ncrz I87, I8lvyI88licoIII81oshimolo I8), andmuchmorc
nccdslobcdonc. bulili sworlh nolicinglhaltorlhc pcoplcotlrianaya,
l ndoncsianizalion may bc morc worrisomc lhan Amcricanizalion, as
apanizalion may bc tor Iorcans, l ndianizalion tor 5ri Vicl-
namizaliontorlhcLambodians, andKussianizalion torlhcpcoplcot5o-
viclArmcnia and lhc ballic rcpublics. 5uch a Iisl ot allcrnalivc tcars lo
Amcricanizalion couId bc grcalIy cxpandcd, bul il is nol a shapclcss i n-
vcnlory poIilicsotsmaIlcrscalc, lhcrc i salwaysa tcarotcuI luraI ab-
sorplion bypolilicsotlargcrscalc, cspccially lhosc lhalarc ncarby. Lnc
mans communilyis anolhcrmanspoIilicalprison.
Jhis scalar dynamic, which has widcsprcad global manitcslalions, is
also lolhcrclalionshipbclwccnnalionsandslalcs,lowhichlshallrc-
lurnlalcr.orlhcmomcnlIclusnolclhallhcsimplihcalionotlhcscmany
torccs (and tcars) ot homogcnizalion can also bc cxploilcd by nalion-
slalcs inrclalionlolhcirownminorilics, by posinggIobal commodiliza-
lion(orcapilaIism, orsomcolhcrsuchccrnalcncmy) asmorc rcallhan
lhclhrcalotilsownhcgcmonicslralcgics.
JhcncwglobaIcuIluraIcconomyhaslobcsccnasacomplcxovcrlap-
ping, dis|unclivc ordcrlhalcannolanylongcrbcundcrslood in lcrms ot
cxislingccnlcr-pcriphcry modcls(cvcnlhosclhalmighlaccounltormuI-
lipIc ccnlcrs and pcriphcrics). lor is i lsusccpliblc lo simpIc modcls ot
pushandpull(i nlcrmsotmigralionlhcory) , orotsurpluscsanddchcils(as
inlradilionaI modcls otbalanccotlradc) , orotconsumcrs andproduccrs
(as in moslnco- Naisllhcoricsotdcvclopmcnl). Lvcn moslcompIcx
O i : u n c f u r r a r J O i [[r r r n c r
' 3 2 =
and hcxiblc lhcorics ot gIobal dcvclopmcnl lhal havc comc oul ot lhc
Narxisl lradilion (Amin I80 Nandcl I78, Wallcrslcin I74, Wolt
I82)arcinadcqualcIyquirky andhavc taiIcdlo comc lolcrmswilh whal
5coll LashandohnLrryhavccaIIcddisorganizcdcapilalism( I87). Jhc
complcxity otlhc currcnl gIobaI cconomy has lo do wilh ccrlain nda-
mcnlal dis|unclurcsbclwccncconoy, cuIlurc, and polilics lhalwc havc
onlybcgunlolhcorizc.
lproposclhala n clcmcnlarytramcworktorcxploring dis|unclurcs
islo lookallhcrclalionshipamonghvcdimcnsionsotglobalcuIluraIhows
lhal can bc lcrmcd (a) :toresccj:s, (b) :J|csccj:s, (d)
rcrc:sccj:s, and (c) |J:esccj:s.' Jhc suthx -sccj: alIows us lo poinllo thc
huid, irrcguIarshapcs otlhcsc landscapcs shapcs lhalcharaclcrizc inlcr-
nalionaI capilaI asdccpIy aslhcydo inlcrnalional cIolhing Jhcsc
lcrmswilhlhccommonsu|hx-sccj: also indicalclhallhcscarcnolob|cc-
livcly rclalionslhallooklhc samc trom cvcanglcotvision bul,
ralhcr, lhal arc dccply pcrspcclival conslrucls incclcd by lhc his
lorical, l i nguislic,andpoIilicalsilualcdncssotdittcrcnlsorlsotaclors na-
lion-slalcs, muIli nalionals, diasporic communilics, as wcll as subnali onal
groupingsandmovcmcnls(whclhcrrcligious,polilical,orcconomic),and
cvcn inlimalc tacc-lo-tacc groups , such as villagcs, ncighborhoods, and
tamilics. lndccd, lhc individual aclor is lhc lasl locus otlhis pcrspcclival
sclotIandscapcs, torlhcsc landscapcsarc cvcnlually navigalcdbyagcnls
who bolh cxpcricncc andconslilulc l argcr tormalions, in parltromlhcir
ownscnscotwhallhcscIandscapcsottcr.
Jhcsc Iandscapcs lhus arc lhc buiIding bIocks ot whal (cxlcnding
bcncdiclAndcrson) l wouldIikclo caII|c}|r:J me|Js, lhali s, lhcmulliplc
worldslhalarcconslilulcdbylhchisloricalIysilualcdimaginalionsotpcr-
sonsandgroupssprcadaroundlhcglobc (chap. I) . An imporlanltaclot
lhcworIdwcIivcinlodayi slhalmanypcrsonsonlhcglobclivcinsuch
imagincdworIds(andnol|usl in imagincdcommunilics)andlhus arcabIc
loconlcslandsomclimcscvcnsubvcrllhcimagincdworldsotlhcothcial
mindandotlhccnlrcprcncurialmcnlaIilylhalsurroundlhcm.
by lmcanlhcIandscapcotpcrsonswhoconslilulclhcshi|ing
worldinwhichwcIivclourisls,immigranls,rclugccs,cxilcs,gucslworkcrs
andolhcr movinggroupand individuaIs conslilulc ancsscnlial tcaluot
lhc world and appcar lo attccl lhc polilics ot (and bclwccn) nalions lo a
hilhcrlo unprcccdcnlcd dcgrcc. Jhis is nol lo say lhal lhcrc arc no rcla-
livclyslablc ommunilics and nclorks ot kinship, tricndship, work, and
lcisurc, aswcll as otbirlh,rcsidcncc, andolhcrhlialtorms. bul il is lo say
lhallhcwarpotlhcscslabililics iscvcrywhcrcshollhroughwilhlhcwoot
O i s u n c f u r r a r J O i [[ r r r n c r
3 3
othumanmolion,asmorcpcrsonsandgroupsdcaIwilhlhcrcaIilicsothav-
inglomovc orlhc tanlasics otwanlinglomovc. Whalismorc, bolhlhcsc
rcaIilics and tanlasics now unclion on Iargcr scaIcs, as mcn and womcn
tromviIlagcs in lndia lhink nol|usl otmovinglo oona orNadras bulot
movingloLubaiandlouslon,and trom5riLankahndlhcmsclvcs
in 5oulh lndiaaswcll as in |usl aslhc lmong a drivcn lo
London as wcIl as lo hiladclphia. And as inlcalionaI capilal shitls ils
nccds, as produclion and gcncralc dittcrcnl nccds, as nalion-
slalcsshitllhcirpolicics on popuIalions, lhcscmovinggoups can
ncvcrattordlolcllhcirimaginalionsrcsllooIongcvcnitlhcywishlo.
byt:corescoj:, lmcanlhcgIobaIconhguralionalsocvcrtluidotlcchnol-
ogyandlhctacllhallcchnology, bolhhigh andI ow,bolhmcchanicaland
intormalionaI,nowmovcsalhighspccdsacrossvariouskindsotprcviously
impcious boundarics. Nanycounlrics nowarc lhcroolsotmuIinalionaI
cnlcrprisc ahugcslccIcompIcxinLibyamayinvoIvcinlcrcsls trom lndia,
Lhina Kussia, and)apan, providingdi ttcrcnl componcnls otncw lcchno-
logicaI conhguralions. Jhc odddislribulionotlcchnologics, andlhuslhc
pcculiarilicsotlhcsclcchnoscapcs, aincrcasingIydrivcnnolbyanyobvi-
ouscconomicsotscaIc, otpolilicaIconlol orotmarkclralionalibulby
incrcasingIycomplcxrclalionshipsamongmoncyhows, pol ilical possibili-
lics,andlhcavaiIabiIilyotbolhun- andhighIyskillcdlabor.5o,whilclndia
cxporls wailcrs and chauttcurs lo Lubai and5har|ah il also cxporls so-
warccnginccrs lolhcLnilcd5lalcsindcnlurcdbrichyloJalaburroughs
orlhc World bank, lhcn Iaundcrcd lhrough lhc 5lalc Lcparcnl lo b-
comcwcallhyrcsidcnlaIicns,whoarcinlurnob|cclsotscduclivcmcssagcs
lo invcsllhcirmoncyandknow-how in tcdcraI andslalc pro|ccls inlndia.
JhcgIobalcconomycansliIlbcdcscribcdinlcrms otlradilional indi-
calors ,aslhc World bankconlinucslo do) andsludicdinlcrms otlradi-
lionaI comparisons ,as in Link allhcLnivcrsily otcnnsyIvania) ,
bullhccompIicalcdlcchnoscapcs ,andlhcshitlingclhnoscapcs) lhalun-
dcrIiclhcscindicalorsandcomparisonsarcrlhcroulotlhcrcachotlhc
quccnotsocialscicnccslhancvcrbctorc lowis onclomakcamcaning-
ul comparison otwagcs in)apan andlhc Lnilcd5lalcs orotrcaI-cslalc
coslsinlcw1orkandJokyo, wilhoullakingsophislicalcdaccounlotlhc
vcry compIcx scal and i nvcslmcnl Iows lhal link lhc lwo cconomics
lhroughaglobaIgridotcurrcncyspcculalionandcapilallranstcr
Jhus il is uscuI lo spcak as wcII ot]rorc:scoj:s, as lhc disposilion ot
globaI capilaI isnowa morc myslcrious, rapid, anddithculllandscapc lo
tolIow lhan cvcr bctorc, as currcncy markcls, nalionaI slock cxchangcs,
and commodily spcculalions movc mcgamonics lhrough nalionaI lurn-
l s ) c i r : o1 l | ;; : r : c :
~ J 4 ~
slilcs al blindingspccd, wilh vasl, absolulc impIicalions tor smalI dittcr-
cnccsin pcrccnlagcpoinlsand limcunils. bullhccrilicaIpoinlislhallhc
gIobaI rclalionship among clhnoscapcs, lcchnoscapcs, and nanccscapcs
isdccplydis|unclivcandprotoundlyunprcdiclablcbccausccachotlhcsc
landscapcsissub|cclloilsownconslrainlsandinccnlivcs ,somc poIilical,
somcintormalionaI, andsomclcchnocnvironmcnlal ) , allhcsamclimcas
cach acls as a conslrainl and a paramclcr tormovcmcnls in lhc olhcrs.
Jhus, cvcn an cIcmcnlary modcI ot globaI polilicaI cconomy musl lakc
inlo accounl lhc dccply dis|unclivc rclalionships among human movc-
mcnllcchnologicalow, andnancillranstcrs.
urlhcrrctraclinglhcscdis|unclurcs,whichhardlytorm a simpIc, mc-
chanicaI gIobal i ntraslruclurc in any casc) arc whal l call :J|oscoj:s and
|J:escoj:s, whicharccIoscIyrcIalcdlandscapcs otimagcs. M:J|oscoj:s rctcr
bolh lolhc dislribulionotlhc cIcclroniccapabililicslo producc and dis-
scminalc i ntormalion ,ncwspapcrs, magazincs, lcIcvision slalions, and
hlm-produclionsludios), whicharcnowavailabIcloagrowingnumbcrot
privalcandpubIicinlcrcslslhroughoullhcworId,andlolhcimagcsotlhc
worIdcrcalcdbylhcscmcdia.Jhcscimagcsinvolvcmanycomplicalcdin-
Icclions,dcpcndingonlhcirmodc,documcnlaryorcnlcrlainmcnl),lhcir
hardwarc ,cIcclronicorprccIcclroni), lhciraudicnccs ,Iocal, nalionaI, or
lransnalionaI)

and lhc inlcrcsls ot lhosc who own and conlroI lhcm.

Whalis moslimporlanlaboul lhcsc mcdiascapcs islhallhcy providc ,cs-
pccialIy in lhcir lclcvision, Im, and casscllc torms) largc and compIcx
!!! ! ot imagcs
f
narralivcs, and clhnoscapcs lo vicwcrs lhroughoul
lhcworld, in whichlhcworldotcommodilics and lhcworId ot ncwsand
poIilics arc protoundIy mixcd Whl lhis mcans is lhal many audicnccs
aroundlhc worldcxpcricncc lhc mcdia lhcmscIvcs as a complicalcdand
inlcrconncclcd rcpcrloirc otprinl, cclluIoid cIcclronic scrccns, and bil l
boards. Jhc Iincsbclwccn lhc rcalislicandlhc clionaI I andscapcs lhcy
sccarcblurrcd,solhallhctrlhcrawaylhcscaudicnccsarctromlhcdirccl
cxpcricnccs ot mclroplilan l itc, lhc morc IikcIy lhcy arc lo conslrucl
imagincdworldslhaarcchimcrical, acslhclic, cvcn tanlaslicob|ccls,par
licuIarly itasscssdby lhccrilcria ot somcolhcrpcrspcclivc, somcolhcr
imagincdword.
Ncdiasapcs,whclhcrproduccdbyprivalcorslalcinlcrcsls,lcndlobc
narralivc-bascd accounls ot slri ps ot rcaIily, and whal
lhcy ottcrlo lhoscwhocxpcricncc andlranstorm lhcm isa scrics otcIc-
mcnls,such ascharaclcrs, plols,andlcxlual oul ot whichscripls
canbctormcdotimagincdIivcs,lhcirownaswcll aslhoscotolhcrsliving
inolhcrplaccs Jhcscscriplscananddogcldisaggcgalcd inlocompIcx
l s ) c i s r : o 1 l ;; : r : c :
~ J 5
sc OmcIapOtsOyWtCpcOpctVc |aKOand]OnsOn I8)asIcy
cpIO COnsItIUIc narraItVcs OIc 'IcrandprOIOnatraItVcs O pOsstOc
tVcs, IaICOUdOcCOmc ptOcgOmcna IO Ic dcstrc Or aCqUtst
ItOnandmOVcmcnI.
ro:ct: arcasOCOnCaIcnaItOns Otmagcs, OUIIcyarcOIcn dtrcCIy
pOtItCa and rcqUcnIy aVc IO dO WtI Ic tdcOOgtcs O sIaIcs and Ic
COUnIcrtdcOOgtcs O mOVcmcnIs cXptCtIy OrtcnIcd IO CapIUrtng sIaIc
pOWcrOra ptcCc O tI. +csc tdcOsCapcs arc COpOscd O ccmcnIs O Ic
ntgIcnmcnI WOrdVtcW, WtC COnstsIs O a Catn O tdcas, Icrms, and
tmagcs, tnCUdtng urgr:, rgbf:, :or:r:iga{, rrrr:nffoa, andIcmas
Icr Icrm dtmocr_. +c masIcr n arraItVc O Ic ntgIcnmcnI |and tIs
manyVartanIs t n brtIatn, ranCc, and Ic nt IcdbIaIcs) Was COnsIrUCIcd
WtI a CcIatn t nIcna OgtC and prcsUppOscd a CctIatn rcaItOnstp Oc-
IWccnrcadtng,rcprcscnIaItOn,andIcpUOtCspcrc. |OrIc dynamtCs O
Its prOCcss t nIc caytsIO OIc ntIcd bIaIcs, scc Narncr I. )
bUIIc dtaspOra OIcsc Icrms and tmagcs aCrOss Ic WOrd, cspcCtay
stnCc Ic nt ncIccnI CcnIUry, as OOscncd Ic tnIcna COcrcnCc IaI
cdIcmIOgcIcrt n a UrOmcrtCanmasIcrnarraItVc andprOVtdcdt n
sIcadaOOscysIrUCIUrcdsynOpItCOnOpOtItCs,t nWtCdtcrcnInaItOn-
sIaIcs, as parI OIctr cVOUItOn aVc Organtzcd Ictr pOtItCa CUIUrcs
arOUnddtcrcnIKcyWOrds|c. g., Nttams I7) .
s a rcsUI O Ic dtcrcnIta dtaspOra O Icsc KcyWOrds, Ic pOtItCa
natraItVcs IaIgOVcrnCOmmUntCaItOnOcIWccn ctIcs andOOWcrs t n dt-
crcnI patIs O IcWOrdtnVOVc prOOcms OOOI a scmanItC and prag-
maItC naIUrc scmanItC IO Ic cXIcnI IaI WOrds |and Ictr cXtCa cqUtVa-
cnIs) rcqUtrc CarcU IransaItOn rOm COnIcXI IO COnIcXI t n Ictr gOOa
mOVcmcnIs, and praaItC IO Ic cXIcnI IaI Ic Usc O Icsc WOrds Oy
pOtItCa aCIOts andIctraUdtcnCcsmayOc sUOjcCIIO Vcry dtcrcnIscIs O
COnIcXIUa COnVcnItOns IaImcdtaIc IctrIransaItOn tnIO pUOtC pOtItCs.
bUCCOnVcnItOns arcnOIOny maIIcrs O Ic naUrc O pOtItCa rcIOrtC
OrcXampc,WaIdOcsIcagtng!tncsccadcrstpmcanWcn tIncrsIO
IcdangcrsOOOtgantsmNaIdOcsIcbOUIOrcan cadcrstpmcan
Wcnt IspcaKsOdtsCtptncasIcKcyIOdcmOCraItCt ndUsIrta grOWI
+csc COnVcnItOns asO tnVOVc Ic ar mOn sUOIc qUcsItOn O WaI
scIs OCOmmUntCaItVc gcnrcs arc VaUcd tn WaI Way |ncWspapcrsVcrsUs
Ctncma, OrcXampc) andWaIsOrIs O pragmaItC gcnrc COnVcnItOnsgOV
crn Ic COcCItVc rcadtngs O dtcrcnI Ktnds O IcXI. bO, Wtc an ndtan
aUdtcnCcmayOcaIIcnItVcIOIcrcsOnanCcsOa pOtItCspccCt nIcrms
OsOmcKcyWOrds and prascsrcmt nt sCcnIO tndtCtncma, a Orcan aU
dtcnCc may rcspOnd IO Ic sUOIc COdtngs O bUddtsI OrncO-!OnUCtan
L i : u n c | u r r u n J L i ]] r r r n c r

rcIOrtC cnCOdcdtn apOtItCadOCUmcnI.+cVcryrcaItOnstpOrcadtng
IOcartngandscctngmayVaty tn tmpOrIanIWays IaIdcIcrmt ncIcmOr-
pOOgyOIcsctcrcnItdcOsCapcsasIcysapcIcmscVcstndtcrcnI
naItOna and IransnaItOna COnIcXIs. +ts gOOay VartaOc synacsIcsta
asardycVcnOccnnOIcd,OUItIdcmandsUrgcnIanaysts. +Usdtmocmcj
as CcaryOcCOmc a masIcr Icrm, WtI pOWcrU cCOcs rOm atIt and
OandIOIcOrmcrbOVtcI ntOn and!tna,OUItIstIsaIIcCcnIcrOa
VartcIyOtdcOsCapcs,COmpOscdOdtsItnCItVc pragmaItC COnhgUraItOnsO
rOUg IransaItOns O OIcrCcnIra Icrms rOm IcVOCaOUaty OIc n-
t gIcnmcnI.+t sCrcaIcscVcrncWIcrmtnOOgtCaKactdOsCOpcs, assIaIcs
(and Ic grOUps IaI sccK IO CapIUrc Icm) sccK IO paCt| pOpUaItOns
WOscOWncInOsCapcsarct nmOItOn andWOscmcdtasCapcsmayCrcaIc
scVcrc prOOcms Or Ic tdcOsCapcs WtI WlC Icy arc prcscnIcd. c
hUtdtIyOtdcOsCapcstsCOmptCaIcdtn parItCUarOyIcgrOWtngdtaspOras
(OOIVOUnIary and t nVOUnIaty) O t nIccCIUasWOCOnItnUOUsytn)cCI
ncWmcantng-sIrcamstnIOIcdtsCOUrscOdcmOCratn dtcrcnIparIsO
IcWOrd.
+tscXIcndcdIcrmt nOOgtCadtsCUsstOnOIchVcIcrms1 aVcCOtncd
scIsIcOastsOraIcnIaItVcOrmUaItOnaOOUIIcCOndtItOnsUndcrWtC
CUttcnI gOOa hOWs OCCUr Icy OCCUr t n and IrOUg Ic grOWtng dts-
UnCIUrcs amOngcInOsCapcs, IcCnOsCapc, hnanCcsCapcs mcdtasCapcs,
andtdcOsCapcs +ts OrmUaItOn,IcCOrc OmymOdc OgOOa CUIUra
hOW, nccds sOmc cXpanaItOn. trsI, pcOpc, maCt ncry, mOncy,
and tdcas nOW OOW t nCrcastngy nOntsOmOrptC paIs O COUrsc, aI a
pcrtOds tn Uman t sIOty, Icrc aVc Occn sOmc dtsUnCIUrcs tn Ic hOWs
O Icsc Itngs, OUI Ic sccr spccd, sCac, and VOUmc O caC O Icsc
OWs arc nOW sO caI IaI Ic dtsUnCIUrcs aVc OcCOmc CcnIra IO Ic
pOtItC>OgOOaCUIUrc.+c]apancsc arcnOIOrtOUsyOsptIaOcIOtdcas
and arc sIcrcOIypcdas tnCtncd IO cXpOrI (a) and tmpOrI (sOmc) gOOds,
OUI Icy arc asO nOIOrtOUsy COscd IO tmmtgraItOn, tKc Ic bWt>>, Ic
bWcdcs, andIcbaUdts cIIcbWtssandIcbaUdtsaCCcpIpOpUaItOnsO
gUcsI WOrKcrs, IUs CrcaItng aOOrdtaspOrasOUrKs Iatans, andOIcr
CtrCUm-cdtIcrrancan grOUps. bOmc sUC gUcsI-WOrKcr grOUps matnIatn
COnItnUOUsCOnIaCIWtIIctrOmcnaItOns, t KcIc+UrKs,OUIOIcrs, t Kc
tgcVc bOUI stan mtgranIs, IcndIO dcstrc tVcs tn IctrncW Omcs,
ratstng ancW Ic prOOcm O rcprOdUCItOn tn a dcIctrtIOrtatzcd COnIcXI.
LcIcrrtIOrtatzaItOn, tn gcncra, ts Onc OIcCcnIra OrCcs OIcmOd-
cWOrdOcCaUsc t IOrtngsaOOrtngpOpUaItOns tnIOIcOWcr-Cass scC
IOrs andspaCcs O rcaItVcy WcaIy sOCtcItcs, Wtc sOmcItmcs CrcaItng
cXaggcraIcdandtnIcnsthcdscnscsOCrtItCtsm OraIIaCmcnIIO pOtItCs t n
L i : u n c f u r r a n J L i ]] r r r n c r
7
thc homc statc. Lctcrritoriaization, whcthcr o| |indus, Sikhs, |alcstini-
ans, or Lkrainians, is now at thc corc o| a varicty o| goba |undamcn-
taisms, incudinglslamicand |indu |undamcntai sm. l nthc |indu casc,
|orcxampc, itisccarthatthcovcrscasmovcmcnto|l ndianshasbccncx-
poitcdbyavarictyo|intcrcstsboth within andoutsidc lndia tocrcatca
compicatcd nctwork o| hnanccs andrcigi ous idcntihcations, by which
thc problcm o|cutura rcproduction |or|indus abroad hasbccomcticd
tothcpoiticso||indu|undamcntaismathomc.
tthcsamctimcdctcrritoriaizationcrcatcsncwmarkcts|orhmcom-
panics, artimprcsarios, and travc agcncics, which thrivc on thc nccd o|
thc dctcrritoriaizcdpopuation|orcontactwithitshomcand. aturaly,
thcsc invcntcdhomcands,whichconstitutcthcmcdiascapcso|dctcrrito-
rializcdgroups,can o|tcnbccomcsu|hcicnty |antastic andonc-sidcdthat
thcyprovidcthcmatcria |orncwidcoscapcsinwhichcthniccon|ictscan
bcgintocrupt.Jhccrcationo|Khaistan,aninvcntcdhomcando|thcdc-
tcrr toraizcdSikhpopuationo|LngandLanada, andthc LnitcdStatcs,
isonccxampco|thcboodypotcntia in suchmcdiascapcsas thcyintcr
actwiththc intcmacoloniaismso|thcnation-statc(c. g. , |cchtcrI5) .
JhcWcstbank, amibia,andLritrcaarc othcrthcatcrs |orthccnacmcnt
o|thcboody ncgotiationbctwccn cxisting nation-statcs andvariousdc
tcrritori aizcdgroupings.
l tisinthc|crticgroundo|dctcrritoriaization, inwhichmoncy, com-
mditics, and pcrsons arc invovcd i n ccasccssy chasing cach othcr
around thc word, that thc mcdiascapcs and i dcoscapcs o| thc modcrn
word hnd thcir |racturcd and |ragmcntcdcountcrpart orthc idcas and
imagcsproduccdbymassmcdiao|tcnarc onypartiaguidcstothcgoods
andcxpcricnccsthatdctcrritoriaizcd popuations trans|crtooncanothcr.
l nNira airs briiant hm nJ|a Ca|arr!, wc scc thc multiplcoops o| this
|racturcddctcrritoriaization asyoungwomcn,barcycompctcntin bom-
baysmctropoitangitz,comctoscckthcir|ortuncsascabarctdanccrsand
prostitutcs i n bombay, cntcrtainingmcn i ncubswith dancc |ormats dc-
rivcd whoIy |rom thc pruricnt dancc scqucnccs o| |indi hms. Jhcsc
sccncs in turn catcrtoidcas about Wcstcrn and |orcignwomcn and thcir
looscncss,whicthcyprovidctawdcarccraibis |orthcscwo

cn. Somc
o| thcsc womcn comc |rom Kcraa, whcrccabarctcubs and thc porno-
graphichm indstryhavcbossomcd,partyinrcsponsctothcpurscsand
tastcs o| Kcraitcs rcturncd |rom thc Niddc Last, whcrc thcir diasporic
livcsaway|romwomcn distortthcir vcry scnsc o|what thcrcations bc-
twccnmcn andwomcn might bc. Jhcsc tragcdics o| dispaccmcnt coud
ccrtainybcrcpaycdin amorcdctaicdanaysiso|thcrcationsbctwccn
i > ] w n c f w r t u n d [[ t r r n c t
3 8

thcapancsc and \crman scx tours to Jhaiand and thc tragcdics o|thc
scx tradc in bangkok, andinothcrsimilaroopsthat tictogcthcr|antasics
about thcLthcr, thcconvcnicnccsandscductionso|travcl , thccconom-
icso|gobatradc,andthcbrutamobility|antasicsthatdominatcgcndcr
poiticsinmanypartso|siaandthcworldatargc.
Whic|armorccoudbcsaidaboutthccuturalpoiticso|dctcrritori al -
ization and thcargcrsocioogyo|dispaccmcntthat itcxprcsscs,it is ap-
propriatcatthis|uncturctobringinthcrolco|thcnation-statcinthcdis-
]unctivcglobacconomyo|culturc today.Jhcrcationshipbctwccnstatcs
and nationsi scvcrywhcrc an cmbattlcd onc. lt is possibc to say that in
many socictics thc nation and thc statc havc bccomc onc anothcrs pro-
|ccts. Jhat is, whic nations (or morc propcrly groups with idcas about
nationhood)scckto capturcorco-optstatcsandstatcpowcr,statcssimu-
tancousysccktocapturcandmonopolizcidcasaboutnationhood(baruah
I 8, Lhattcr|cc I 8andy I8a) . ln gcncra, scparatist transnational
movcmcnts, incuding thosc that havc incudcd tcrror in thcir mcthods,
cxcmpli nations in scarch o| statcs. Sikhs Jami Sri Lankans, basqucs,
Noros, [ucbccois-ach o|thcscrcprcscnts imagincd communitics that
scck tocrcatc statcs o| thcir own orcarvc picccs out o| cxisting statcs.
Statcs, on thc othcr hand, arc cvcrywhcrc sccking to monopoizc thc
morarcsourccs o|community, cithcrbyatyclaimingpcr|cctcocvaity
bctwccn nation and statc, orby systcmaticaly muscumizing and rcprc-
scnting all thc groups within thcm i na varicty o| hcritagc politics that
sccms rcmarkablyuni|orm throughoutthcworld(|andlcr I 88,|crz|cld
I82Nc[uccn I88) .
|crc, nationaandintcrnational mcdiascapcs arccxpoitcdbynation-
statcstopaci|yscparatistsorcvcnthcpotcntial hssiparousncsso|aidcas
o|di||crcncc. Jypicay, contcmpora nation- statcsdo thisbycxcrcising
taxonomic contro ovcr di||crcncc, by crcatingvarious kinds o| intcrna
tiona spcctaclc to domcsticatc di||crcncc, and by scducing sma groups
with thc |antasy o| sc|- dispay on somc sort o| goba or cosmopolitan
stagc. Lnc important ncw |caturc o| globa cutural poitics, ticd to thc
dis|unctivcrclationshipsamongthcvariousandscapcsdiscusscdcari cr, is
thatstatcandnationarcat cachothcrsthroats,andthchyphcn thatinks
thcm is nowlcssanicono|con|uncturcthananindcxo|dis]uncturc.Jhis
dis|unctivc rcationship bctwccn nation and statc has two cvcs. at thc
cvco|anygivcnnationstatc, itmcansthatthcrci sabattco|thcimagi-
nation, with statc and nation scckingto cannibalizc oncanothcr.|crcis
thcsccdbcdo|brutascparatismsma|oritarianismsthatsccmtohavcap-
pcarcd|rom nowhcrcandmicroidcntiticsthathavcbccomc poiticapro
> ] w n c l u r t u n d i [[t r r n c r
3
]cctswithinthc nationstatc.tanothcrlcvcl,thisdisJunctivcrclationship
is dccplycntanglcdwiththcglobaldisJunctunsdiscusscdthroughoutthis
chaptcr idcasoInationhoodappcartobc stcadilyincrcasinginscalcand
rcgularlycrossingcxistingstatcboundarics,somctimcs, aswiththc |urds,
bccauscprcvious idcntiticsstrctchcdacrossvastnationalspaccsor,aswith
thcJamils in Sri Lanka, thc dormat thrcadsoI a transnational diaspora
havcbccnactivatcdto ignitcthcmicropoIiticsoIanation-statc.
|ndiscussingthccultural politicsthathavcsubvcrtcdthc hyphcn that
lnksthc nation to thcstatc it is cspcciay important not to Iorgct thc
mooringoIsuchpoliticsinhcirrcgulariticsthatnowcharactcrizcdisorga-
nizcdcapital (|othari I 8c,LashandL I 87).bccausclabor,hnancc,
and tcchnology arc nowsowi dcly scparatcd, thc volatiliticsthatundcrIic
movcmcntsIornationhood(aslargcastransnational|slamonthconchand,
orassmallasthcmovcmcntoIthcLurkhasIorascparatcstatcinorthcast
|ndia) grind against thc vulncrabilitics that charactcrizc thc rcIationships
bctwccnstatcs.StatcshndthcmsclvcsprcsscdtostayopcnbythcIorcsoI
mcdia, tcchnology, and travcl that havc Iuclcd consumcrism throughout
thc worldand havc incrcascd thc craving, cvcn inthc non-Vcstcrn worId,
Iorncw commoditics andspcctacIcs Cnthcothcr hand, thcsc vcry crav
ingscan bccomccaughtup inncwcthnoscapcs,mcdiascapcs,and, cvcntu-
alIy, idcoscapcs,suchasdcmocracy in China,thatthcstatc cannottolcratc
as thrcats to its own control ovcr idcas oI nationhood and pcoplchood.
Statcsthroughoutthcworldarcundcrsicgc,cspcciallywhcrccontcstsovcr
thci

dcoscapcs oIdcmocracyarc hcrccandIundamcnta andwhcrcthcrc

arc radical dis}uncturcs bctwccn idcoscapcs and tcchnoscapcs (as in thc
casc oI vcsmalIcountrics thatlack contcmporary tcchnologics oI pro-
ductionand inIormation), or bctwccn idcoscapcsand hnanccscapcs(as in
countricssuch as ^cxicoorbrazil, whcrc intcationaI Icndingi nIIucnccs
national politics to a vcry largc dcgrcc) or bctwccn idcoscapcs and
cthnoscapcs(asinbcirut,whcrcdiasporic,local,andtransIocalhIiationsarc
suicidally at battlc), orbctwccn idcoscapcs and mcdiascapcs (as in many
countrics in thc ^i ddlcIastand sia) whcrcthcliIcstylcs rcprcscntcd on
bothnationalandintcmationalJVandcincmacompIctclyovcrwhcImand
undcrmincthcrhctoricoI nationalpolitics. |nthc |ndian casc, thcmythoI
thclaw-brcakinghcrohascmcrgcdtomcdiatcthisnakcdstgglcbctwccn
thc pictics and rcalitics oI |ndian poIitics, which has grown incrcasingly
brutalizcdandcorrupt (Vachani I 8) .
Jhctransnational movcmcnt oIthcmartialarts, particularly through
sia, as mcdiatcd by thc lolIywood and long |ong hIm industrics
(arilli I 5)isarichiIlustrationoIthcwaysinwhichlongstandingmar-
U i : v+c t v r x a + U i ]]xr+r c x
40
tiaI arts traditions, rcIormulatcd to mcct thc Iantasics oI contcmporary
(somctimcslumpcn) youthpopulations,crcatcncwcuturcsoImascuIinity
andvioIcnccwhicharcintuthcIuclIori ncrcascdvioIcnccinnational
andintcrnationalpolitics. Suh violcncci sinturn thcspurtoanincrcas-
ingly rapid and amoral arms tradc that pcnctratcs thc cntirc world Jhc
worIdwidc sprcad oI thc |-47 and thc Li, in hlms, in corporatc and
statc sccurity, intcrror, and in poIiccandmiIitary activity, i sa rcmindcr
thatapparcntlysimpIctcchnicaluniIormiticsoItcnconccalanincrcasingIy
compIcxsctoIloops,liningimagcsoIvioIcncctoaspirationsIorcommu
nityinsomcimagincdworId.
Kcturning thcn to thc cthnoscapcs with which | bcgan, thc ccntral
paradox oI cthnic politics in todaysworld is that primordia (whcthcroI
Ianguagc or skin colororncghborhoodorkinship) havcbccomcglobal-
izcd. Jhat is, scntimcnts, whosc grcatcst is in thcir ability to ignitc
intimacy into a political statc and turnlocalityinto a staginggroundIor
idcntity, havc bccomc sprcad ovcr vast and irrcgular spaccs as groups
movcyctstaylinkcdtooncanothcrthroughsophisticatcdmcdiacapabiI
itics Jhis isnot todcnythatsuch primordiaarcoItcnthc productoIin-
vcntcd traditions (lobsbawm and Kangcr I 8J ) orrctrospcctivc aIhIia-
tions, but to cmphasizc that bccausc oI thc disJunctivc and unstabIc
intcrpIay oI commcrcc, mcdia national poIicics, and consumcrIantasics,
cthnicity, oncc a gcnic containcd in thcbottlc oI somc sort oI locality
(howcvcr largc), has nowbccomc a global Iorcc, Iorcvcr slippinginand
throughthccracksbctwccnstatcsandbordcrs.
but thc rclationship bctwccn thccultural andcconomiclcvcIsoI this
ncwsctoIglobaldisJuncturcsi snotasimplconc-waystrcct inwhich thc
tcrms oI global cultural politics arc sct wholIy by, or conhncd wholIy
within,thcvicissitudcsoIintcrnationalIlowsoI tcchnology, labor,andh-
nancc, dcmanding onIy a modcst modihcation oI cxisting nco-^arxist
modcls oI uncvcn dcvcIopmcnt and statc Iormation. Jhcrc is a dccpcr
changc, itsclI drivcn bythcdis]uncturcsamongall thcIandscapcs| havc
discusscdandconstitutcdby thcir conti nuousIyIluidandunccrtainintcr-
pIay,thatconccrnsthcrclationshipbctwccnproductionandconsumption
in todays gIobal cconomy. lcrc, | bcgin with ^arxs Iamous (and oItcn
mincd) vicw oI thc Ictishism oI thc commodity and suggcst that this
IctishismhasbccnrcplaccdinthcworldatIargc(nowsccingthcworldas
onc intcractivcsystcm,composcdoImanycompIcxsubsystcms)by
two mutuaIIy supportivcdcsccndants,thchrst oI which | callproduction
Ictishismandthcsccond,thcIctishismoIthcconsumcr.
byjrcJuct|cnjet|s||sm |mcananillusioncrcatcdbycontcmporarytrans-
U i : ] u+c t v rx u++ U i ]]x rx+c +
" 4I =
natonal producton locthatmaskstranslocalcaptal, transnational carn-
inghows, globalmanagcmcnt, and oItcnlarawayworkcrs(cngagcdinvar
iouskindsolhigh-tcchputting-outopcratons)nthcidiomandspcctacIc
oIlocal |somctimcscvcnworkcr)control nationalproductvty,andtcrr
toral sovcrcgnty. Jo thc cxtcnt that varous knds oI Ircc-tradc zoncs
havcbccomc thcmodcIs Iorproductionat cspccially oIhigh-tcch
commodtics, productonhastscllbccomca lctish, obscuringnotsocal
rcIatons as such but thc rclations ol producton, which arcncrcasingly
transnational.Jhclocality|bothnthcscnscoIthclocalIactory orsitcoI
productionandinthccxtcndcdscnscoIthcnatonstatc)bccomcsaIctsh
that dsguiscsthcglobaly dispcrscd Iorccs thatactuallydrvcthcproduc-
tonproccss.Jhisgcncratcsalicnation|n^asscnsc)twccintcnshcd,
lortssocal scnscsnow compoundcd by a complcatcdspatialdynamic
thatisincrcasinglygIobaI.
As lor thcj:t|s||sm cj t|:ccrsum:r | mcantoindicatc hcrc that thc con-
sumcr has bccn transIormcd through commodty hows (and thc mcda
scapcs, cspccally oIadvcrtising, that accompany thcm) ntoa sign, both
nbaudr|lIards scnscoIasimulacrumthatonlyasymptotcallyapproachcs
thcIormoIa rcalsociaIagcnt, andinthcscnscoIamask lorthcrcalscat
oI agcncy, which is not thc consumcr but thc produccr and thc many
Iorccs thatconstitutc production. LIobaI advcrt|ng is Ihckcy tcchnoI-
ogy Ior thcworlddcdsscminatonoI apIcthora oIcrcativcandcuItur-
allywcl-choscndcasoIconsumcragcncy.JhcscimagcsoIagcncyarcn-
crcasingy dstortons oI a world ol mcrchandising so subtlc that thc
consumcrisconsstcntlyhclpcdtobclcvcthathcorshcsanactor,whcrc
inIacthcorshcisatbcstachooscr.
Jhcglobalzaton oI culturcsnotthcsamcastshomogcnization,but
globalizatoninvolvcsthcuscoIavarictyoIinsttumcntsolhomogcnzaton
|armamcnts, adcrtsing tcchnqucs, languagc hcgcmoncs, and clothing
stylcs)thatarcabsorbcdintoIocalpoliticalandculturaIcconomcs,onlyto
bcrcpatr|atcd as hctcrogcncous dalogucs olnat|onal sovcrcignty, Ircccn-
tcrprisc, and Iundamcntalimn whch thc statcplays anncrcasingly dcl-
catcrolc. toomuchopcnncsstogIobalIIows,andthcnationstatcisthrcat-
cncdby rcvolt, asnthcChinasyndromc,too litlc,and thcstatccxitsthc
intcmatonal stagc, as burma, Albania, and orth borca nvarious ways
havcdonc. |ngcncral,thcstatchasbccomcthcarbitragcuroIthisr:jatr|at|cr
cjJ_ :t:rc: nthclormolgoods,signs,slogans, andstylcs) . butthisrcpatri-
ation orcxport olthcdcsignsandcommoditicsoIdiIIcrcncccontnuously
cxaccrbatcs thc intcrnal politcs oI ma}oritaranism and homogcnization,
whichsmostIrcqucntlyplaycdoutindcbatcsovcr
L : [ u ! u r t n d L ]] t r t c t
42 =
Jhus thc ccntral lcaturc oI globaI culturc today s thc politics oI thc
mutual clIort oI samcncss and diIlcrcncc to cannbalzc onc anothcr and
thcrcby proclam thcr succcsslul hi}acking oI thc twin InIightcnmcnt
dcas oI thc trumphantIy univcrsal and thc rcsilcntly particular. Jhs
mutual cannbalizaton shows ts ugly Iacc n rots rclgcc llows statc-
sponsorcd torturc, and cthnocdc | wth or wthout statc support) |ts
brightcrsidcsin thc cxpansionoImanyndvidualhorzonsolhopcand
Iantasy, n thc globaI sprcad oI oral rchydration thcrapy and othcr low-
tcchnstrmcnts olwcIl-bcing, n thc susccptibliqcvcn olSouthAIrica
to thclorccoIglobalopinon,nthcnablityoIthclolishstatctorcprcss
tsownworkingclasscs, and inthcgrowthoI awidcrangcoIprogrcssvc,
transnational allianccs. Ixamplcs oI both sorts could bc multiplicd Jhc
crticalpointisthatbothsidcsolthcconoIglobalculturalproccsstoday
arcproductsoIthcinhnitclyvaricdmutuaIcontcstolsamcncssanddiIIcr
cncc on a stagc charactcrizcd by radical dis}uncturcs bcIwccn dIIcrcnt
sortsoI globalllows and thc unccrtainlandscapcscrcatcd in andthrough
thcscdis}uncturcs.
Worko]KrroucfioninunAro]rcounicu|Arf
|havcnvcrtcdthckcytcrmsoIthcttIcolaltcrbcnamnslamouscssay
, I 6) to rcturn thisrathcrhigh-hng discussionto a morcmanagcablc
lcvcl. Jhcrc is a classchuman problcm that will notdsappcar howcr
much globaI cultural proccsscs mght changcthcr dynamics, and ths is
thc probIcm today typically discusscd undcr thc rubrc ol rcproduction
(andtradtionallyrcIcrrcdtontcrmsolthctransmssonoIculturc).|nc
thcr casc, thc qucstion s, how do small groups, cspccally Iamlcs, thc
classicalIoci ol socializaton, dcal wth thcsc ncw globalrcaltcs as thcy
scckto rcproducc thcsclvcs and, inso doing, byaccidcntrcproducccul-
turalIorms thcmsclvcs |ntradtonal anthropoIogcal tcrms, ths couldbc
phrascd as thc problcm oI cncuIturaton n a pcrod oI rapid cuIturc
changc.Sothcproblcmishardlynovcl. buttdocstakconsomcnovcId-
mcnsionsundcrthcglobalcondtonsdscusscdsoIarnthischaptcr
lrst,thcsortoltransgcncratonalstabItyoIknowlcdgcthatwasprc-
supposcd inmost thcorics oIcnculturaton(or, inslghtly broadcr tcrms,
ol socalzation) cannolongcrbcassumcd Aslamilicsmovctoncwloca-
tions,oraschildrcnmovcbcIorcoldcrgcncratons, orasgrownsonsand
daughtcrsrcturnIromtimcspcntinstrangcpartsolthcworld,Iamlyrcla
tionshipscan bccomc volatlc ncw commoditypattcrns arc ncgotatcd,
dcbtsandoblgationsarcrccalibratcd, andrumorsandIantascsaboutthc
L i : [ u c I u r t n u d L i ]] t r t c t
4
ncw scIIiny arc mancUvcrcd inIO cxisIiny rcpcrIOitcs O! knOwcdyc and
praCIiCc. L!Icn, yOOa aOOr diaspOras invOvc immcnsc sIrains On mar-
riaycs in ycncra and On wOmcn in parIiCUar, as mariaycs OcCOmc Ihc
mccIiny pOinIs O! hisIOriCa paIIcrns O! sOCiaizaIiOn and ncw idcas O!
prOpcrOchaviOr. \cncraIiOns casiy dividc, as idcas aOOUI prOpcrIy, prO-
pricty, and COcCIivc OOiyaIiOn wiIhcr Undcr Ihc sicyc O! disIanCc and
Iimc. OsIimpOrtanI, IhcwOrkO!CUIUrarcprOdUCIiOninncwscIIinysis
prO!OUndyCOmpiCaIcdOyIhcpOiIiCsO!rcprcscnIinya!amiyasnOrma
(parIiCUary !Or IhcyOUny) IO nciyhOOrs and pccrs inIhc ncw OCac. P
Ihis is, O!COUrsc, nOI ncw IO IhcCUIUrasIUdyO!immiytaIiOn.
NhaI is ncw isIhaI Ihis is a wOrd in whiCh OOIh pOinIs O! dcpartUrc
and pOinIs O! arriva arc in CUIUra hUx, and IhUs Ihc scarCh !Or sIcady
pOinIsO!rc!crcnCc,asCriIiCai!cChOiCcsarcmadc, CanOcvcrydi!hCUI. I
is inIhisaImOsphcrcIhaIIhcinvcnIiOnO! IradiIiOn (andO! cIhniCiIy, kin-
ship, and OIhcr idcnIiIy markcrs) Can OcCOmc sippcry, as Ihc scarCh !Or
CcrIainIics is rcyUary !rsIraIcd Oy Ihc hUidiIics O! IransnaIiOna COmmU-
niCaIOn. PsyrOUppasIs OcCOmc inCrcasinyy parIs O! mUscUms, cxhiOiIs,
and COcCIiOns, OOIh in naIiOna and IransnaIiOna spcCIaCcs, CUIUrcOc
COmcscsswhaIicrrc bOUrdicU wOUd havc CacdahaOiIUs (aIaCiIrcam
O! rcprOdUCiOc praCIiCcs and dispOsiIiOns) and mOrc an arcna !Or COn-
sCiOUs ChOiCc, UsIihCaIiOn, andrcprcscnIaIiOn, IhcaIIcrO!Icn IO mUIipc
andspaIiay disOCaIcd aUdicnCcs
+hcIaskO!CUIUrarcprOdUCIiOn,cvcniniIsmOsIinIimaIcarcnas, sUCh
as hUsOandwi!c andparcnIChid rcaIiOns, OcCOmcs OOIh pOiIiCizcdand
cxpOscdIO Ihc IraUmas O! dcIcrriIOriaizaIiOnas!amiymcmOcrspOOand
ncyOIiaIc Ihcir mUIUaUndcrsIandinys andaspiraIiOnsinsOmcIimcs aC-
IUrcdspaIia arranycmcnIs. PIarycrcvcs, sUCh asCOmmUniIy,nciyhOOr-
hOOd, andIcrriIOry, IhispOiIiCizaIiOnisO!IcnIhccmOIiOna!uc!OrmOrc
cxpiCiIyviOcnI pOiIiCsO!idcnIiIy,UsIasIhcscarycrpOiIiCssOmcIimcs
pcncIraIc and iyniIc dOmcsIiC pOiIiCs. Nhcn, !Or cxampc, IwO O!!spriny
in a hOUschOd spiI wiIh Ihcir !aIhcr Ona kcy maIIcr O!pOiIiCaidcnIih-
CaIiOn in a IransnaIiOna scIIiny, prccxisIny OCaizcd nOrms Carry iIIc
!OrCc. +hUsasOnwhOhasOincd Ihc czOOah yrOUp in cOanOnmay nO
Onycr ycI aOny wiIh parcnIs Or siOinys whO arc a!hiaIcd wiIh Pma Or
sOmcOIhcrOranCh O! bhii cIhniC pOiIiCa idcnIiIy in cOanOn. NOmcnin
parIiCUar Ocar Ihc OrunIO!IhissOrIO! tiCIiOn, !Or Ihcy OcCOmc pawns in
Ihc hcriIayc pOiIiCs O! Ihc hOUschOdandarc O!Icn sUOcCI IO Ihc aOUsc
and viOcnCc O! mcn whO arc Ihcmscvcs IOrn aOOUI Ihc rcaIiOn OcIwccn
hcriIaycandOppOrIUniIyinshi!IinyspaIiaandpOiIiCa !OrmaIiOns.
+hc painsO!CUIUrarcprOdUCIiOn ina disUnCIivc yOOawOrdarc, O!
i > ; u r c f u r r u n J [[ r r r n c r
44
COUc, nOI cascd Oy Ihc O! mcChaniCa arI (Or mass mcdia), !Or
Ihcsc mcdia a!!Ord pOwcrU rcsOUrCcs !Or COUnIcOdcs O! idcnIiIy IhaI
yOUIh Can prOcCI ayainsIparcnIa wishcs Ordcsircs.PIarycrcvcsO!Or-
yaniZaIiOn, Ihcrc Can Oc many !Orms O! CUIUra pOiIiCs wiIhin dispaCcd
pOpUaIiOns (whcIhcrO!rc!UyccsOrO!vOUnIay immiyranIs), aO! whiCh
arc inhcCIcd in impOrIanI ways Oy mcdia (and Ihc mcdiasCapcs and
idcOsCapcs IhcyO!!cr) . PCcnIraink OcIwccn Ihc!rayiiIics O! CUra n-
prOdUCIiOn and Ihc rOc O! Ihc mass mcdia inIOdays wOtd is Ihc pOIiCs
O!ycndcrandviOcnCc. Ps!anIasicsO!ycndcrcdviOcnCcdOminaIcIhcb-
gtadc hm indUsIrics IhaIOankcI Ihc wOrd, Ihcy OOIh rchcCI and rcnc
ycndcrcd viOcnCcaI hOmcandin Ihc sIrccIs, asyOUny mcn (inparIiCUar)
arc swaycdOy Ihc maChO pOiIis O!sc!-asscrIiOninCOnIcxIs whcrc Ihcy
arc!rcqUcnIydcnicdrcaaycnCy,andwOmcnarc!OrCcdIOcnIcrIhcaOOr
!OrCc in ncw ways OnIhcOnc hand, and COnIinUc Ihc mainIcnanCc O!!a-
miia hcriIayc On Ihc OIhcr. +hUs Ihc hOnOrO! wOmcnOcCOmcs nOI UsI
an armaIUrc O! sIaOc (i! inhUman) sysIcms O! CUIUra rcprOdUCIiOnOUI a
ncw arcna !Or Ihc!OrmaIiOn O!scxUa idcnIiIy and!amiy pOiIiCs,as mcn
andwOmcn!aCcncwprcssUrcs aI wOrkandncw!anIasicsO!cisUrc.
bcCaUsc OOIh wOrk andcisUrc havc OsI nOnc O! Ihcir ycndcrcd qUai-
IicsinIhis ncw yOOa OrdcrOUIhavc aCqUircdcvcr sUOIcr!cIishiZcdrcp-
rcscnIaIiOns, IhchOnOrO! wOmcnOcCOmcsinCrcainyy asUrrOyaIc !OrIhc
idcnIiIy O! cmOaIIcd COmmUniIicsO! macs, whic Ihcir wOmcn inrcaity
havc IO ncyOIiaIc inCrcasinyy harsh COndiIiOns O! wOrk aI hOmc and in
Ihc nOndOmcsIiC wOrkpaCc. n shOrI, dcIcrriIOriaizcd COmmUniIics and
dispaCcd pOpUaIiOns, hOwcvcr mUCh Ihcy may cnOy Ihc !ruiIs O! ncw
kinds O! carniny and ncw dispOsiIiOns O! CapiIa and IcChnOOyy, havc IO
pay OUI Ihc dcsircsand!anIasicsO!Ihcsc ncwcIhnOsCapcs, whicsIriviny
IO rcprOdUCc Ihc!amiy-as-miCrOCOsm O!CUIUrc.PsIhcshapcsO! CUIUrcs
Ow css OOUndcd and IaCiI, mOrc hUid and pOiIiCizcd, Ihc wOrk O! CU-
IUrarcprOdUCIiOnOcCOmcsadaiyhaZard. armOrc COUd, and shOUd,Oc
said aOOUI Ihc wOrk O! rcprOdUCIiOn in an ayc O! mcChaniCa att: Ihc prc-
Ccdiny disCUssiOnis mcanI IO indiCaIc Ihc COnIOUrs O! Ihc prOOcms IhaI a
ncw, yOOay in!Otmcd IhcOry O! CUIUra rcprOdUCIiOn wi havc IO!aCc.
ooucnrocr::|r |o|u|Lu|furu|ormufion:
+hc dciOcraIiOns O! IhcaryUmcnIs IhaI havcmadcsO !arCOnsIiIUIc Ihc
OatcOOncsO!anapprOaChIOaycncraIhcOryO!yOOaCUra prOCcsscs.
OCUsiny On disUnCIUrcs, havc cmpOycd a scI O! Icrms ,:|onccajr,]-
nancrcaj:, |:conccaj:, m:J|ascaj:, and|Jrcscaj:) IO sIrcss di!!crcnI sIrcams Or
r s ) u r c l w r t u r J i [[ r r ri c r
45
llows along which cultural matcrial may bc sccn to bcmovingacross na-
tionalboundarics havcalsosoughttocxcmplilythcwaysinwhichthcsc
various|ows,orlandscapcs,lromthcstabilizingpcrspcctivcsolanygivcn
imagincd world) arc in lundamcntal disjuncturc with rcspcct to onc an-
othcr. Whatlurthcr stcpscan wc takc towarda gcncral thcory olglobal
culturalproccsscsbascdonthcscproposals
Jhc hrstis tonotcthatourvcrymodclsolcuturalshapcwillhavcto
altcr, as conhgurationsolpcoplcplacc,andhcritagcloscall scmblancol
isomorphism Kcccnt work in anthropology has donc much to lrccusol
thcshacklcsolhighlylocalizcd,boundary- oricntcd,hoistic,primordialist
imagcsolcultural lormandsubstancc,lanncrz I 8,larcusandischcr
I 8,Jhornton I 88) . lutnotvcmuch hasbccnputi nthcirplacc, cx-
ccptsomcwhatlargcrillcssmcchanicalvcrsionsolthcscimagcs,as inLric
Wolsworkonthcrclationship olLuropcto thcrcstolthcworld( I 82) .
Whatwouldlikctoproposci sthatwcbcgintothinkolthcconhguration
olculturallormsin todays worldas lndamcntaly lractal, that is, as pos-
no Luclidcan boundarics, structurcs, or rcgularitics. Sccond
wouldsuggcst that thcsc cultural lorms, whichwc should strivcto rcprc-
scnt as lullylractal, arc alsoovcrlappinginwaysthat havc bcndiscusscd
only in purc mathcmatics ,n sct thcory, lorcxamplc) and in biology ,i n
thclanguagc olpoly thctic classihcations) . Jhus wc nccdto combinc a
lractal mctaphorlorthc shapc olculturcs,i nthcplural) with apoythctic
account ol thcirovcrapsandrcscmblanccs. Withoutthis lattcrstcp, wc
shallrcmain mircdincomparativcworkthatrclicson thcclcarscparation
olthccntiticstobccomparcdbclorc scrious comparison canbcgi n. low
arcwc tocomparclractallyshapcdculural lormsthatarc also polythcti-
callyovcrlappingintcircovcragcoltcrrcstrialspacc
inally,inordcrlorthcthcoryolglobalculturai ntcractionsprcdicatcd
on dis)unctivc ||ows tohavc any lorccgrcatcrthan thatol a mcchanical
mctaphor,itwillhavctomovcinto somcthinglikcahumanvcrsionolthc
thcothatsomc scicntistsarccallingchaos thcory.Jhat is,wcwilnccd
toasknothowthcsccomplcxovcrlapping, lractalshapcsconstitutcasim-
plc, stablc ,cvcnillargc-scalc) systcm, butto askwhat its dynamics arc
WhydocthnicriotsoccurwhcnandwhcrcthcydoWhydostatcswithcr
at grcatcrratcs in somc placcs and timcs than in othcrs Why do somc
countrics|outconvcntionsolintcrnationaldcbtrcpaymcntwithso much
lcssapparcntworrythan othcrs lowarcintcationaarms l|owsdriving
cthnicbattlcsandgcnocidcsWhyarcsomcstatcscxitingthcgobalstagc
whilcothcrsarcclamoringtogcti nWhydokcycvcntsoccurataccrtain
point in a ccrtain pacc rathcr than in othcrs Jhcsc arc, ol coursc, thc
L t s ) v n c l v r t a n d L i [[ r r t n c t
4 =
grcattraditionalqucstionsolcausal ity,contingcncy,andprcdiction inthc
humanscicnccs,buti naworldoldis)unctivcgobalHows,itispcrhapsim-
portanttostartaskingthcmin awaythatrclicsonimagcsolHowandun-
ccrtainty, hcnccc|ac,rathcrthanon oldcrimagcsolordcr, stabiity, and
systcmaticncss.Cthcrwisc,wcwillhavcgonclartowardathcoolglobal
cultural systcms but thrown out proccss in thc bargain. And that would
makcthcscnotcspartola)ourncytowardthckindolillusionolordcrthat
wc can no longcr allord to imposc on a world that is so transparcntly
volatilc.
atcvcrthc dircctionsi nwhichwccanpush thcscmacromtaphors
,lractals, polythctic claihcations, andchaos),wc nccd to ask onc othcr
old-lashioncd qucstion out ol thc larxist paradigm is thcrc somc prc-
ordcr to thc rclativc dctcrmininglorcc olthcsc globa llows lc-
causc havc postulatcdthcdynamicsolglobalcutural systcmsasdrivcn
bythcrclationships among Howsolpcrsons,tcchnologics, hnancc,inlor-
mation,andidcology, canwcspcakolsomcstructural-causalordcrlinking
thcscHowsbyanalogytothcrolcolthccconomicordcrinoncvcrsionol
thclarxistparadigmCanwcspcakolsomcolthcsc||owsasbcing,lora
priori structural or historica rcasons, always prior to and lormativc ol
othcrHowslyownhypothcsiswhichcan onlybctcntativcatthispoint,
isthatthcrclati onshipolthcscvarious ||owstooncanothcrasthcy con-
stcllatcinto particular cvcnts andsocial lorms wil bc radically contcxt
dcpcndcnt. Jhus, whilc abor Hows and thcir loops with hnancia l|ows
bctwccn Kcrala andthc liddlc Lastmayaccountlorthcshapc olmcdia
HowsandidcoscapcsinKcrala,thcrcvcrscmaybctrucolSiliconalcyin
Calilornia, whcrc intcnsc spccialization in a tcchnological scctor
,computcrs) andparticularHowsolcapital maywclproloundlydctcrminc
thcshapcthatcthnoscapcs,idcoscapcs,andmcdiascapcsmaytakc.
Jhisdocsnotmcanthatthccausal-historicalrclationshipamongthcsc
variousl|ows israndom ormcani nglcsslycontingcntbutthat ourcurrcnt
thcoricsolculturalchaosarcinsulhcicntlydcvcopcdtobccvcnparsimo-
niousmodclsatthis point, muchlcsstobcprcdictivcthcorics,thcgodcn
l|ccccsolonckindolsocialscicncc.Whathavcsoughttoprovidcinthis
chaptcr is a rcasonably cconomi

al tcchnicalvocabulary and a rudi mcn-

tar modcoldisunctivcHows,lromwhichsomcthingikcadcccntglobal
analysis might cmcrgc. Withoutsomcsuch analysis, it wil bc dilhcult to
constructwhatohnlinksoncallsasocialthcoryolpostmodcitythat
isadcquatclygobal ( I , 84) .
L i : ) v n c I v r r u n 1 L i [[ r r r n c t
4
3
L| 008| bln0SC86S. N0l6S 8n0 Lu6f 6S 0f 8
1f8nSn8l|0n8| Pnlf00| 0g
n ChapIcr 2, uscIhcIcrm:|orccaj:.+his ncOOyismhasCcrIain ambiyui-
IicsdcibcraIcy buiIinIOiI. I rccrs, hrsI, IO Ihc dicmmas OpcrspcCIivc
andrcprcscnIaIiOnIhaIacIhnOyraphcrsmusICOnrOnI,andiIadmiIsIhaI
(aswiIhandsCapcsinvisuaarI) IradiIiOns OpcrCcpIiOnand pcrspcCIivc,
aswcasvariaIiOnsinIhcsiIuaIiOn OIhcObscrvcr, mayacCIIhcprOCcss
andprOduCI O rcprcscnIaIiOn. buI asO inIcnd IhisIcrm IO indiCaIc IhaI
Ihcrc arc sOmc bruIc aCIs abOuI Ihc wOrd O Ihc IwcnIicIh CcnIury IhaI
any cIhnOyraphy musI COnrOnI. cnIra amOny Ihcsc aCIs is Ihc
iny sOia, IcrriIOria, and CuIura rcprOduCIiOn O yrOup idcnIiIy. Ps
yrOups miyraIc, rcyrOup in ncw OCaIiOns, rcCOnsIruCIIhcir hisIOrics, and
rcCOnhyurcIhcir cIhniC prO]cCIs, Ihc:|orcin cIhnOyraphy Iakcs Ona sip-
pcry, nOnOCaizcd quaiIy, IO whiCh Ihc dcsCripIivc praCIiCcs OanIhrO
pOOgy wi havc IO rcspOnd. +hc andsCapcs O yrOup idcnIiIyIhc
cIhnOsCapcs-arOund Ihc wOrd arc nO Onycr amiiar anIhrOpOOyiCa
ObcCIs, insOar as yrOups arc nO Onycr IiyhIy IcrriIOriacd, spaIiay
bOundcd, hisIOriCay unscCOnsCiOus, Or CuIuray hOmOycncOus. Nc
havccwcrCuIurcs in IhcwOrdandmOrcinIcrnaCuIuradcbaIcs(arkin
I 78) nIhisChapIcr, IhrOuyh a scrics O nOIcs, qucrics, and viyncIIcs,
scck IO rcpOsiIiOn sOmc O Our disCipinary COnvcnIiOns, whic Iryiny IO
shOw IhaI Ihc cIhnOsCapcs OIOdayswOrdarc prOOundy inIcraCIivc.
48
A|frnufirrornifir:unLfonoruoic'o:moo|ifuni:m
PCcnIraChacnyc OrCurrcnIanIhrOpOOyyisIOsIudyIhcCOsmOpOiIan
(abinOw 8) CuIura Orms O Ihc COnIcmpOra wOrd wiIhOuI Ogi
Cay OrChrOnOOyiCay prcsuppOsiny ciIhcrIhcauIhOriIy OIhc NcsIcrn
cxpcricnCc Or Ihc mOdcs dcrivcd rOmIhaIcxpcricnCc. I sccms impOssi-
bc IO sIudy Ihcsc ncw COsmOpOiIanisms ruiIuy wiIhOuI anayzinyIhc
IransnaIiOna CuIura Ows wiIhin whiCh Ihcy Ihrivc, COmpcIc, and ccd
O Onc anOIhcr in ways IhaI dccaI and COnOund many vcriIics O Ihc
human sCicnCcs IOday. Lnc suCh IruIh COnCcrns Ihc ink bcIwccn spaCc,
sIabiiIy, and CuIura rcprOduCIiOn. +hcrc is an urycnI nccd IO OCus On
Ihc CuIuradynamiCs OwhaIis nOw CacddcIcrriIOriaizaIiOn. +his Icrm
appics nOI Ony IO ObviOus cxampcs suCh as IransnaIiOna COrpOraIiOns
and mOncy markcIs buI asO IO cIhniC yrOups, scCIarian mOvcmcnIs, and
pOiIiCa OrmaIiOns, whiCh inCrcasinyy OpcraIc in ways IhaI IransCcnd
spcCihC IcrriIOria bOundaricsandidcnIiIics. cIcrriIOriaizaIiOn (OwhiCh
l Ocr sOmc cIhnOyraphiC prOhcs in Chap. 2) Ihc OyaIics O
yrOups ( cspcCiay in Ihc COnIcxI O COmpcx diaspOras) , Ihcir Iransna
IiOna manipuaIiOn O CurrcnCics and OIhcr Orms O wcaIh and invcsI
mcnI , and Ihc sIraIcyics O sIaIcs. +hc OOscniny O Ihc hOds bcIwccn
pcOpc, wcaIh, and IcrriIOrics undamcnIay aIcrs Ihc basis O CuIura
rcprOduCIiOn.
PIIhcsamcIimc,dcIcrriIOriaizaIiOnCrcaIcsncwmarkcIs Or hmCOm
panics, imprcsariOs, and Iravc agcnCics, whiChIhrivcOn Ihc nccd OIhc
rcOCaIcd pOpuaIiOnOr COnIaCI wiIh iIs hOmcand. buI IhchOmcand is
parIy invcnIcd, cxisIiny Ony in Ihc imayinaIiOn O Ihc dcIcrriIOriaizcd
yrOups , and iI Can sOmcIimcs bcCOmc sO anIasIiC and Onc-sidcd IhaI iI
prOvidcsIhcucOrncwcIhniCCOnhiCIs.
+hc idca O dcIcrriIOriaizaIiOn may asO bc appicd IO mOncy and h-
nanCc, as mOncy manaycrs scckIhcbcsImarkcIs OrIhcirinvcsImcnIs, in
dcpcndcnIOnaIiOnabOundarics. nIurn,IhcscmOvcmcnIsOmOncysarc
Ihc basis Or ncw inds O COniCI, as LOs PnyccnOs wOrry abOuI Ihc
)apancscbuyinyupIhcirCiIy, andpcOpcin bOmbaywOrryabOuIIhc riCh
Prabs rOm Ihc \u sIaIcs, whO havc nOI Ony ansOrmcd Ihc priCc O
manyOcs in bOmbay buI havc asO subsIanIiayaIcrcd Ihc prOhc OhO
Ics, rcsIauranIs, and OIhcr scrviCcs in Ihc cycs O Ihc OCa pOpuaIiOn
]usIas Ihcyhavcin LOndOn. AcI mOsI rcsidcnIs O bOmbay arcambivacnI
abOuI Ihc Prabs Or Ihc ip sidc O Ihcir prcscnCc is Ihc abscnI
ricnds and kinsOk carniny biy mOncy in Ihc iddc LasI and brinyiny
baCk bOIh mOncy and uxury COmmOdiIicsIO bOmbayand OIhcr CiIics in
o r u | b n o s c a [ r :
^ 4
&
lndia Such commoditics trans|orm consumcr tastc in thcsc citics. hcy
o|tcn cndupsmuggcdthroughair- and scaports andpcddcd in thc gray
markcts o| bombays strccts. ln thcscgray markcts (a coinagc that aows
mctocapturc thcquasi-cgacharactcristic o|suchscttings), somcmcm-
bcrso|bombays middcclasscsanditsumpcnproctariatcanbuy goods,
ranging|romcartons o|Narborocigarcttcs to LdSpicc shaving crcam
and tapcs o| Nadonna. Simiar gray routcs, o|tcn subsidizcd by moon-
ightingsaiors, dipomats, and airincstcwardcsscs, who gctto movc in
and out o| thc country rcguary, kccp thc gray markcts o| bombay,
Nadras, and\alcutta hcdwith goodsnotony hom thc Wcst, but also
|rom thcNi ddc Last, longKong, andSi ngaporc. tis asosuchpro|cs-
siona transicnts who arc i ncrcasingy impicatcd in thc transnationa
sprcado|discasc,notthccasto|whchisA|LS.
hc vision o|transnationacuturastudicssuggcstcdbythcdiscussion
so |arappcars athrstsightto i nvovconymodcstad]ustmcnts o|anthro-
poogists traditionaapproachcs to cuturc. ln myvicw, howcvcr, a gcn-
uincy cosmopoitan cthnographic practicc rcquircs an intcrprctation o|
thc tcrrai no|cuturastudics inthcLnitcdStatcstodayando|thcstatus
o|anthopoogywithinsuchatcrrain.
Lu|furulofutr:inu |o|u|1rrruin
sthisvoumc conccms anthropologics o| thc prcscnt it may bc impor-
tanttoaskaboutthcstatuso|anthropoogyi nthcprcscntandinparticu-
arabout its now cmbattcd monopoy ovcr thc study o|cuturc ( |rom
nowon, withoutquotationmarks) . hc|olowingdiscussionsctsthcstagc
|orthc critiquc o|cthnographycontaincdinsubscqucntscctions.
s a topic, cuturc has many historics, somc discipinary, somc that
|unction outsidcthcacadcmy. Within thc acadcmy, thcrc arc ccrtain di|-
|crcnccs bctwccn discipincs in thc to which cuturc has bccn an
cxpicittopic o|i nvcstigation andthc dcgrcc to whichi thasbccnundcr-
stoodtacity. lnthcsociascicnccs,anthropoogy(cspcciayinthcLnitcd
Statcsbutcssso inLngand)hasmadccuturcitsccntralconccpt,dchning
it as somc sort o|human substancccvcn though idcas about this sub-
stancchavcshi|tcdovcrthccoursco|accntury, roughy|romL. b.yors
idcas aboutcustom to \li ||ord \ccrtzs idcas about mcaning. Somc an-
thropoogistshavcworricdthatthcmcaningsgivcntocultur:havcbccn|ar
toodivcrsc|ora tcchnicatcrmothcrshavcmadcavirtuco|thatdivcrsy.
t thc samc timc thc othcr socia scicnccs havc notbccn unconccrncd
withcuturc in socioogy, NaxWcbcrsscnsco|r:rt:o:n and\corgcSim-
! | o b u I b n u + c u t :
F 50
mcls arious idcashavcmcdiatcdbcccnthc \crma nco-Kantianidcas
o|thcatcninctccnthccntury andsociol ogyas asociascicnccdiscipinc
si nmanyothcrcascs,cuturcisnowasubhcdwithinsioogy, andthc
mcrican Socioogical ssociation has lcgitmizcd this scgrcgation by
crcating a subunit in thc socioogy o|cuturc, whcrc pcrsons conccrncd
withthcproduction and distribution o|cuturc,cspcciayin cstcrnsct-
tings may|rccy associatcwith oncanothcr.
tthc cpiccntcro|currcntdcbatcs in and aboutcuturc,manydivcrsc
strcams|owintoasing,rathcrturbucntrivcro|manypoststructuraiss
( argcy rcnch) o| }acqucs Lacan, }acqucs Lcrrida, Nichcl oucault,
|icrrc bourdicu and thcir many subschoos. Somc o| thcsc strcams arc
sc|-consciousaboutanguagcasthcirmcans andthcirmodc, whicothcrs
arc so. hccurrcntmutiplicityo|uscs thatsurroundsthcthrccwords
m:an|n, Jiccr, and t:xt shoud bc su|cicnt to indicatc that wc arc not
onyi n ancra o| blurrcd gcnrcs (as \ccrtz I 80 said prcscicnty morc
thana dccadc ago),but wc arci na pccuiar statc that | woud ikc toca
postburring," in whichccumcnism hashappiy, i n my opiniongivcn
waytosharp dcbatcs about thc word,thcworld, andthc rcationshipbc-
ccnthcm.
ln thispostburbur, itiscrucialtonotcthatthchighgroundhasbccn
cizcdbyLngish itcraturc (a a discipinc) in paticular and by l i tcra
studicsi ngcncra.hisis thc ncxus whcrcthcwordt|:c_, a rathcrprosaic
tcrm in manyclds|ormanyccnturics, suddcnlytookonthcscxyringo|
a trcnd or an anthropoogist i nthc Lnitcd Statcs today, what is most
striking about thc pastdccadc inthc acadcmy is thc hi]ack o|cuturc by
i tcrary studics-athough wcnoongcrhavcaonc-sidcdrnodiangazc,
buta many-sidcdhi]ack(whcrc ahundrcdbooms|owcr) with many in-
tcrnal dcbatcs about tcxts and antitcxts, rc|crcncc and structurc, thcory
and practicc. Socia scicntists ook on with bcidcrmcnt as thcir co-
cagucsin Lnglishandcomparativci tcraturctak(andght)aboutmattcrs
that,unti asrcccntyash|tccnycarsago,wouldhavcsccmcdaboutasrc
cvantto Lngishdcpartmcntsas,say,quantummcchanics.
hcsub] cctmattcro|cuturasudicscoudroughybctakcnasthcrc
ationshpbctwccnthcwordandthcword. | undcrstandthcsctwotcrms
in thcirwidcst scnsc, so thatucrJcan cncompass a |orms o|tcxtuaizcd
cxprcssionanducr|Jcanmcananything|romthcmcanso|productionand
thc organiation o| i|c-words to thc gobaizcdrcl ations o| culra rc-
productiondiscusscdhcrc.
\uturastudicsconccivcdthiswaycoudbcthcbasis |oracosmopoi-
tan (gobal macro transoca) cthnography o transatc thc tcnsion bc-
| o r u ! b n o : c u t
5 I
Iwccn Ihcword andIhcworld inIo a producIivccIhnographicsIraIcgyrc-
quircsancwundcrsIandingo|IhcdcIcrriIorializcdworldIhaImanypcrsons
inhabiIandIhc possiblclivcsIhaImanypcrsonsarcIodayablcIocnvision.
JhcIcrmso|IhcncgoIiaIionbctwccnimagincdlivcsanddcIcrriIori alizcd
worldsarc andIhcysurclycannoI bccapIurcdbyIhc localiing
sIraIcgics o|IradiIionalcIhnographyalonc. WhaIancwsIylc o|cIhnogra-
phycandoisIocapIurcIhcimpacIo|dcIcriIorializaIion on Ihc imagina-
Iivc rcsourccs o| livcd, local cxpcricnccs. uI anoIhcr wa, Ihc Iask

|
cIhnographynowbccomcsIhcunravclingo|aconundrum whaI isIhcna-
Iurco|localiasalivcdcpcricnccinaglobalizcd,dcIciIorializcdwold
As l will suggcsI in Ihc ncI sccIion, Ihc bcginnings o| an answcr Io Ihis
puzzlclicina |rcshapproachIoIhcrolco|Ihc imaginaIion insociall i |c
JhcmasIcrnarraIivcsIhaIcurrcnIlyguidcmuch cIhnographyallhavc
LnlighIcnmcnIrooIs andallhavc bccncallcdinIo scrious qucsIion. ou-
caulIs scaringcriIiquc o|WcsIcrn humanism and iIs hiddcn cpisIcmolo-
gicshasmadciIdi|hculIIo rcIainmuch |aiIhinIhcidcao|progrcssiniIs
manyoldandncwmani|csIaIions.JhcmasIcrnarraIivc o|cvoluIionccn-
IralIoanIhropologyinIhcLniIcd5IaIcs, su||crs ma pro|oundgapbc-
IwccniIsshorIrun,culIurallyoricnIcdvcrsions in Ihcworko|Narvin
larris)andiIslongrun,morcappcaling,buIlcssanIhropologicalvcrsions
asinIhcbiogcological|ablcso|5Icphcn)ayLould.Jhccmcrgcncco|Ihc
individualasamasIcrnarraIivcsu||crsnoIonly|rom IhccounIcrcxamplcs
o|ourma|or IwcnIicIh-ccnIury IoIaliIarian cxpcricnccsbuIalso|romIhc
many dcconsIrucIions o|Ihc idca o| scl|, pcrson, andagcncy in philoso-
phy,sociology, andanIhropology(arhI I 8tLiddcns I LarriIhcrs,
Lollins,andLukcs !85 NasIcrnarraIivcso|IhcironcagcandIhcmarch
o| burcaucraIic raIionaliIy arc consIanIly rc|uIcd by Ihc irraIionaliIics,
conIradicIions, and shccr bruIality IhaI arc incrcasingly Iraccablc Io Ihc
paIhologics o|Ihc modcrn naIion-sIaIc (andy I 8) inally, mosIvcr-
sionso|IhcNaisImasIcrnarraIivc hndIhcmsclvcscmbaIIlcdasconIcm-
porary capiIalismIakcsonamorcandmorcdisorganicdanddcIcrriIori-
alicd look (Lash and Ly I 8) and as culIural cprcssions rc|usc Io
bcnd IoIhc o|cvcn Ihc lcasI parochialNarxisIapproachcs
,orcxamplc, sccIhcdcbaIcbcIwccnrcdcric)amcson andAi|azAhmad
inSec|l Txt )amcson I 8t,Ahmad I 8 . )
LosmopoliIan cIhnography, orwhaI mighIbccallcd macrocIhnogra-
phy, Iakcs on a spccial urgcncy givcn Ihc ailmcnIs o| Ihcsc many posI-
LnlighIcnmcnImasIcrnarraIivcs. Iisdi|hculIIobcanyIhingbuIcxplora-
IoryabouIwhaIsuchamacrocIhnography,andiIscIhnoscapcs)mighIlook
likc,buIIhc |ollowingsccIionsccksbyillusIraIionIopoinIIoiIsconIours.
C l u r u | L f b r u : c u p t
52 =
c)iroier orJ Fire)rcjy
Wclivc in aworldo|manykindso|rcalism, somcmagicalsomc
somccapiIalisI, andsomcIhaIarcycIIobcnamcd.Jhcscgcncricrcalisms
havcIhcirprovinccso|origin rcalisminLaIinAmcricanhcIionin
Ihc pasItwodccadcs socialisIrcalism inIhc5ovicI Lnion o|Ihc I 30s

andcapiIalisIrcal ism, aIcrm coincdbyNichacl 5chudson ( I 84, in Ihc

visualand vcrbal rhcIoric o|conIcmporaAmcrican advcrIising. lnmuch
acsIhcIiccxprcssionIoday,IhcboundaricsbcIwccn Ihcscvariousrcalisms
havc bccn blurrcd. Jhc conIrovcrsics ovcr 5alman Kushdics : Sotor|c
\:s:s, ovcrIhc KobcrINapplcIhorpc phoIographiccxhibiIion in Lincin-
naIiandovcrmanyoIhcrworks o|arIinoIhcrparIs o|Ihcworldrcmi nd
usIhaIarIisIsarci ncrcasinglywillingIoplacchighsIakcsonIhcirscnsco|
IhcbundaricsbcIwccnIhcirartandIhcpoliIicso|publicopinion.
NorcconscqucnIialIoourpurpossis Ihc |acIIhaIIhcimaginaIionhas
now acquircd a si ngular ncw powcr i nsocial li|c Jhc imaginaIioncx-
prcsscd in drcams, songs, |anIasics, myIhs, and sIoricshas always bccn
parI o|IhcrcpcrIoirco|cvcry in somc culIurally organizcd way.
buI Ihcrc is a pcculiar ncw |orcc Io Ihc imaginaIion in social li|c Ioday.
Norc pcrsons in morc parIs o| Ihc world considcra widcr scI o| possiblc
livcsIhanIhcycvcrdidbc|orc.LncimporIanIsourcco|IhischangcisIhc
mass mcdia, which prcscnI a rich, cvcr-changing sIorc o| possiblc livcs,
somco|which cnIcrIhclivcd imaginaIions o|ordinarypcoplc morcsuc-
ccss|ully Ihan oIhcrs. lmporIanI also arcconIacIswiIh, ncws o andru
mors abouIoIhcrs in oncs social ncighborhoodwhohavcbccomcinhabi-
IanIso|Ihcsc|arawayworlds.JhcimporIancco|mcdiaisnoIsomuch as
dirccIsourccso|ncwimagcsandsccnarios|orli|cpossibiliIicsbuIasscmi-
oIic diacriIicso|grcaI powcr, which also in|ccI social conIacI wiIh Ihc
mcIropoliIanworld|aciliIaIcdbyoIhcrchanncls.
Lnc o| Ihc principal shi|Is in Ihc global culIural ordcr, crcaIcd by
cincma Iclcvision, andvidco Icchnology ,and Ihc ways i n which Ihcy
|ramc and cncrgic oIhcr, oldcr mcdia), has Io do wiIh Ihc rolc o| Ihc
imaginaIion in social li|c. LnIil rcccnIly, whaIcvcr Ihc |orcc o| social
changc, a casc couldbcmadc IhaIsociall i|c waslargcly incrIial IhaIIra-
diIions providcd a rclaIivcly hniIc scI o| possiblc livcs, and IhaI |anIasy
andimaginaIionwcrcrcsidualpracIiccs,conhncdIospccialpcrsonsordo-
mains,rcsIricIcdIospccialmomcnIsor lngcncraimaginaIionand
|anIasy wcrc anIidoIcs Io Ihc hnitudc o| social cxpcricncc ln Ihc pasI
twodccadcs, as Ihc dcIrriIoriazaIion o|pcrsons, imagcs, and idcas has
Iakcn on ncw|orcc, IhiswcighIhas impcrccpIiblyshi|Icd. Norc pcrsons
C | o r u | L t b : c s c o p t
5 3 =
throughout thc word scc thcir livcs thugh thc prlsms olthc posslblc
ivcs ollcrcd bymasscdlain allthclrlorms.Jhatls, lantasyis nowaso-
clalpractlcci tcntcrs, i nahostolways,intothclabricatlonolsociallivcs
lormany pcoplc inmanysocictlcs
l shouldbc qulck to notc that this ls not a chccrlul obscrvation, ln-
tcndcdto lmplythatthcworldisnowa happlcr wlthmorccholccs
,ln thc utltarlan scnsc) lor morc pcoplc, and with morc moblllty and
morchappycndingslnstcad,whatislmplicdlsthatcvcnthcmcancstand
most hopclcss ol livcs, thc most brutal and dchumanlzing ol clrcum-
stanccs, thcharshcstollivcdlncqllticsarc nowopcn to thcpay ol
imaginatlon. lrlsoncrs olconscicncc, chlldlaborcrs, womcn who toll i n
thc hcds and lactorlcs olthcworld, and othcrs whosc lot is harsh no
longcr scc thclr livcs as mcrc outcomcs olthcglvcnncss olthlngs, but
oltcn as thc ironc compromlsc bctwccn what thcy could lmaginc and
whatsoclal l i lc will pcrmlt. Jhus, thcblographicsolordinaypcoplcarc
constructlons ,or labricatlons) ln which thc lmagination plays an impor
tantrolc. orls thls rolc a slmplc mattcrolcscapc holdlng stcadythc
convcntionsthatgovcrnthcrcstolsociall i lc) , lorinthcgrlndlngolgcars
bctwccnunloldlnglivcsandthcirimaglncdcountcrparsavarlctyolimag
incdcommunilcs ,Andcrson I 8J ) lslormcd,communiticsthatgcncratc
ncwkinds olpolitics, ncw knds olcollcctivccxprcsslon, and ncw nccds
lorsocladlsclplincandsurvclllancconthcpartolclitcs.
A this has many contcxts and implications that cannot bc pursucd
hcrc. lut what docs it imply lor cthnography ltlmpics that cthnogra-
phcrscannolongcrslmplybccontcntwiththcthlckncss thcybringtothc
local and thc partlcular, nor can thcy assumc that as thcy approach thc
loca, thcy approach somcthing morc clcmcntary, morc contlngcnt, and
thus morcrcal thanl i lc sccn ln largcr-scalc pcrspcctlvcs. orwhatlsrcal
aboutordlnary llcs isnow rcal ln manyways that rangc lrom thc shccr
contingcncyolindividuall lvcs andthcvagaricsolcompctcnccandtalcnt
thatdlstinguishpcrsonsin alsoclctlcstothcrcalismsthatlndivldualsarc
cposcdto and drawonin thclrdalyllvcs.
Jhcsccomplcx, partly lmaglncdlvcsmustnow lormthc bcdrock ol
cthnography, atlcast olthc sort olcthnography that wlshcs to rctain a
spccialvolcc in atransnatlonal,dctcrritorlalizcdworldorthcncwpowcr
olthc lmaglnation ln thc labrication soclal livcs ls incscapablytlcdup
wlth imagcs, idcas, and opportunltlcs that comc lrom clscwhcrc oltcn
movcdaroundbythc vchlclcs olmass mcdia. Jhus, standardculturalrc-
production ,llkcstandardLnglish)isnowan cndangcrcdactivitythatsuc-
cccdsonlybyconsclous dcslgnandpoliticalwil,whcrc itsuccccdsatall .
| o b c | L t b o : c c :
54
lndccd, whcrc insulation hom thclargcrworld sccms tohavc bccnsuc-
ccsslulandwhcrcthcrolcolthcglobal lmaglnatloniswithhcldhomordi-
naypcoplc,in placcslikcAlbanla,orthKorca,andlurma), whatsccms
toappcar lnstcad lsa bizarrc statcsponsorcdrcalism, whlch aways con-
talnswithln ltthcpossiblityolthcgcnocida andtotaizingunacicsola
lollotor olong-rcprcsscddcslrcslorcritlqucorcxlt,asarccmcrgingln
Albania and lyanmar, lurma) .
Jhc lssuc, thcrclorc, i snothowcthnographic writlngcan draw ona
widcr rangc oll ltcramodcls, modcls thattoo oltcn clidc thcdlstinctlon
bctwccnthcllcolctlonandthchctionalizatlonollivcs,buthowthcrolc
olthc imagination lnsoclallilc canbc dcscribcdlnancwsortolcthnog-
raphythatis not sorcsolutcly locailng.Jhcrc is,olcoursc,muchtobc
said lorthc loca, thc particul ar, andthccontlngcnt,which havc always
bccnthclortcolcthnographicwrti ngatltsbcst.lutwhcrcllvcs arcbcing
lmaglncdpartly in and through rcalismsthatmustbc ln oncwayor an-
othcr olhcial or largc-scalc in thcir lnsplratlon, thcn thc cthnographcr
nccdsto hndncwwaystorcprcscntthcllnksbctwccnthcimaginatlonand
soclal lllc.Jhis probcm olrcprcscntationisnotquitcthcsamc asthc la-
mi llar probcm olmlcro and macro smal andargc scalc,although ithas
lmportant conncctlons to it. Jhc conncction bctwccn thc probcm ol
cthnographicayrcprcscntlnglmagincd llvcsandthcdilhcultyolmaking
thcmovclrom ocalrcalitlcstolargc-scalcstructurcs ls lmplicit ln Shcr
Crtncrs articlc KcadlngAmcrica , I I ). Jakcn togcthcr, Crtncrs argu-
mcntandmlncpointto thcimportancc olcmbcddlnglargc-scalcrcalitlcs
lnconcrctclllc-words,butthcyalso opcnup thc posslbi ltyoldlvcrgcnt
lntcrprctations olwhat'ccu|i lmplics.
Jhcllnkbctwccnthclmaglnationandsoclallilc,lwouldsuggcst,isi n-
crcaslngly a global anddctcrrltoralizcdonc. Jhus, thoscwhorcprcscnt
rcalorordlnalvcsmustrcsistmaklngclalmstocpstcmlcprivllcgcinrc-
gard to thc livcd particularltlcs olsocia lilc. Kathcr, cthnography must
rcdchncltscllasthatpractlccolrcprcscntationthatllluminatcsthcpowcr
olargc-scac,lmaglncdlllcpossibilticsovcrspcclclllctrajcctorlcs.Jhls
isthlckncsswltha dlllcrcncc, andthcdlllcrcncc llcs lna ncwalcrtncssto
thc lact that ordinary livcs today arc morc oltcn powcrcd not y thc
givcnncssolthingsbutbythc possibllltlcsthatthcmcdia ,clthcrdircctly
ori ndlrccty)suggcstarcavailablc lutanothcrway,somcolthclorccol
lourdlcusidcaolthchabltuscanbcrctaincd, I 77),butthcstrcssmustbc
putonhl sidcaollmprovlsation,lorlmprovisationnolongcroccurswithin
arclativclyboundcdsctolthlnkablcposturcsbutisawaysskiddlngand
takingoll,powcrcdbythcimagincdvlstasolmass-mcdlatcdmastcrnarra-
l o b c | b ! b o : c c r :
5 5
tivcs. hcrc has bccn a gcncra changc I: thc globa conditions o| l i |c-
worlds put simply whcrc oncc i mprovi sation was snatchcd out o| thc
gacia undcrtow o| habitus, habitus now has to bc painstakingy rcin-
|orccdin thc|acco|l i |c-wordsthatarc |rcqucntlyin|ux.
hrcc cxampcswisuggcstsomcthingo|whatl havcinmind. ln)an
uary I 88, mywi|c (who isa whitc mcrican |cmac historian o| lndia)
andl aamilbrahmanmalc, broughtup inbombayandturncdintoocmc
acaJ:m|cus inthcLnitcdStatcs) , aongwithourson, thrcc mcmbcrsomy
cl dcstbrothcrs |amiy, andan cntouragc o|hiscocacs andcmpoyccs,
dccidcdto visit thc Nccnaksi cmplc in Nadurai , onc o|thc grcat pi-
grimagc ccntcrs o|South lndia. Nywi|chasdonc rcscarch thcrc o||and
on|orthc pasttwodccadcs.
LurpurposcsingoingwcrcvariousNybrothcrandhiswi|cwcrcwor-
ricd about thc marriagc o| thcir cdcst daughtcr and wcrc conccrncd to
havc thc good wishcs o| as many powcr|ul dcitics as possibc i n thcir
scarch|oragoodaiancc. ormybrothcr,Naduraiwasaspcciapaccbc-
causc hc spcntmosto|his hrsttwcntyycars thcrc with my mothcrs cx-
tcndcd |amiy. lc thus had od |ricnds and mcmorics in al thc strccts
aroundthc tcmpc lowhchadcomctoNadurai as a scniorrailwayo|h-
cia, with busincss to conduct with scvcra privatc busincssmcn who
wishcdto pcrsuadc him o|thc quaityo|thcirbids. l ndccd, onc o|
potcntia clicnts had arrangcd |or us to bc accommodatcd in a garishly
modcrnhotcinNadurai , astoncsthrowhomthctcmpc, anddrovc him
aroundinaNcrccdcs,whicthcrcsto|ustookinourownNadurai.
Lurccvcn-ycaroldson, |rcsh|rom |hiadcphia, kncwthathcwasin
thcprcscncco|thcpracticcso|hcrtagcanddovctothcgroundman|uy,
inthclindupracticco|prostrationbc|orcc dcrsanddciticswhcncvcrhc
wasaskcd. lc putupgraciouslywiththci ncrcdibc noisc, crowding, and
scnsoryrushthatama|orlindutcmpcinvovcs.ormyscl|,lwasthcrcto
cmbcishmybrothcrs cntouragc, to addsomcvagucmora|orccto thcir
wishcs |or a happy marriagc |or thcir daughtcr, to rcabsorbthc city in
whichmymothcrgrcwup lhadbccnthcrcscvcratimcsbc|orc), tosharc
inmywi|cscxcitcmcntaboutrcturningtoacindatcmplcthatarcpos
siby thc most importantparts o|hcr imagination, and to hsh |or cos-
mopoitanisminthcraw.
Sowccntcrcdthc|ourtccn-acrctcmplccompoundas an importantcn-
touragc athoughoncamongmany, andwcrcsoonapproachcdbyonco|
thcscvcra pricstswho o|hciatcthcrc.hisoncrccognizcdmyi|c,who
askcdhim whcrchangam bhattar was hangam bhattar was thc prcst
withwhomshchadworkcdmostcoscly.hcanswcrwashangambhat-
| o b u | L I h o : c c r :
56 =
tarisin louston.his punch inctookusaa wilc to absorb, andthcn
it all camc togcthcr in a |lash. hc l ndian community in louston, likc
many communitics o| sian lndians in thc Lnitcd Statcs, had buit a
lindutcmplc,thisonc dcvotcdtoNccnaksi,thcrulingdcity inNadurai.
hangam bhattarhadbccn pcrsuadcd togo thcrc, caving his |amiybc-
hind. lc cads a oncy i|c in louston, asistinginthc compcxcutura
politics o| rcproduction in an ovcrscas l ndian communi ty, prcsumably
carningamodcstincomc,whichiswi|candchidrcnstayonin thcirsma
homc ncar thc tcmpl c. hc ncxt moming my wi|c and niccc visitcd
hangambhattars homc, whcrc thcywcrctodo|histravaisinlouston,
and thcy tod thc |amiy what had gonc on with us in thc intccning
ycars. hcrc isa transnationa ironyhcrc, o| coursc Laro brcckcnridgc,
mcrcan historian, arivcs in Nadurai waiting with batcdbrcath to scc
hcrcloscst in|ormant and |ricnd, a pricst, anddiscovcrs that hcisin |ar-
away louston,whichis |arawaycvcn |rom |araway|hiladclphia.
butthis transnationa ironyhas many thrcads that unwind backward
and |oardn timctolargcandhuidstructurcso|mcaningandcommuni
cation. mongthcscthrcadsarcmybrothcrshopcs|orhisdaughtcr,who
subscqucntymarricd a |h. candidatc in physica chcmi stry in an up-
statclcw!orkunivcrsityandrcccntycamctoSyracuschcrsc|mywi|cs
rccontcxtuaizingo| hcrNaduai cxpcricnccs in awordthat, at cast |or
somco| its ccntral actors, now incudcslouston,andmy own rcaization
that Nadurais historica cosmopotanism has acquircd a ncw goba di-
mcnsion andthatsomckcyivcsthatconstitutcthchcart o|thctcmpcs
ritua practiccsnow havc louston in thcirimagincdbiographics.Lacho|
thcscthrcadscoudandshoudbcunwound.hcycadto anundcrstand-
ingo|thcglobaization o|linduism,thctrans|ormationo|"nativcs into
cosmopolitcso|thcirown sort, andthc|actthatthc tcmpc nownotony
attracts pcrsons |rom a ovcrthc word but also itscl| rcachcs out. hc
goddcss Nccnaksi has aivingprcscnccin louston.
Ncanwhic, ourson nowhasin hisrcpcrtoirc o|cxpcricnccsa]ourncy
o|thcKcctsvaricty. lcmayrcmcmbcrthisashc|abricatcshisownl i |c as
an mcricano|partylndiandcsccnt. buthcmay rcmcmbcr morcvividy
hissuddcnccdtogotothcbathroomwhicwcwcrc going|romsanctum
to sanctum in a visit to anothcr maor tcmplc in)anuay I 8 and thc
bathroom atthcgucsthousco|a charitabc |oundation inwhichhc|ound
biss|urccasc. buthcrc,too,isanunhnishcdstory, whichi nvolvcsthcdy-
namiso||amiy,mcmory,andtourism, |oranccvcn-ycar-oldhyphcnatcd
mcricanwho has togopcriodicalytolndia,whcthcrhc ikcs itornot,
andcncountcrthcmanywcbs o|shi|tingbiography that hc hnds thcrc.
o b c | b t b o : c u t s
= 5 7
Jhis account, ikc thc oncs thatlolow, ncsnotonlytobcthickcncdbut
to bcstirrcd, but itmustscrvc lornowas onc glimpscolan cthnography
thatlocuscsonthcunyokingolimagination omplacc.
y sccondvigncttc comcs lrom a collcction ol picccs ol onc ki ndol
magicalrcalism,abookby)ulioLortzarcallcdA Lrrtain ucas , ! 84) bc-
causcthcrchasbccnmuchborrowingolli tcramodclsandmctaphorsi n
rcccntanthropologybutrclativcly ittlcanthropoogyollitcraturcaword
aboutthischoiccolcxampcsccms appropriatc. iction, likcmyth, ispart
olthc conccptual rcpcrtoirc olcontcmorarysocictics.Kcadcrsolnovcls
and pocms can bc movcd to intcnsc action ,as with : :atanic \:rs:s ol
balmanKushdic), andthcirauthorsoltcncontrbutctothcconstruction ol
social and moral maps lor thcir rcadcrs. Lvcn morc rclcvant to my pur-
poscs, prosc hction is thc cxcmpap provincc ol thc post-Kcnaissancc
imagination, andinthisrcgarditi sccntraltoa morc gcncralcthnography
olthcimaginati on.Lvcnsmalragmcntsollantasy, suchas Lortzarcon-
structs inthisbriclstor, showthc contcmporaryimaginationatwork
agical rcalism is i ntcrcsti ngnot onyasa itcrarygcnrcbut aso asa
rcprcscntation ol how thc world appcars to somc pcoplc who livc in it.
,oranintcrcstingcommcntary ononcaspcctolthisapproachto itcrary
narrativc, scc clman ! 8. ) Lortzar i s doubtlcss a uniquc pcrson, and
notcvcryoncimagincsthcworldhisway,buthisvisioni ssurclypartolthc
cvidcnccthatthc gobchasbcgunto spini nncwways. ikcthcmythsol
small-scalcsoci ctyasrcndcrcdi nthcanthropological cassics olthc past,
contcmporaryl itcrary lantasicstcl ussomcthingabout displaccmcnt, dis-
oricntati on, andagcncyin thccontcmporaryworld ,oran cxcclcntrc-
ccntcxamplc olthis approach in thccontcxtolcutural studics, scc Kos-
aldo ! 8, chap. 7. )
bccauscwchavcnowlcarncdagrcatdcalaboutthcwritingolcthnog-
raphy ,Llillord and arcus ! 8 arcus and ischcr I Lccrtz
I 88) , wc arc in a strongposition to movc to an anthropologyolrcprc-
scntation thatwouldproht immcnsclylromourrcccnt discovcrics about
thcpoliticsandpoctics ol"writingcuturc. ln thisvicw,wccanrcstorcto
thc rcccnt criti qucs ol cthnographic practicc thc lcssons ol carlicr cri
tiqucs ol anthropology as a hcd ol practiccs opcrating within a l argcr
world ol i nstitutiona poicics and powcr ,lymcs ! ). Jhc Lortzar
story i n qucsti on, which is both morc light-handcd and morc hcavy-
hittingthan somc othcr, largcrchunks olmagicalrcal ism, i scalcd"bwim-
ming in a oo ol Lray Lrits. lt conccrns rolcssor )osc i gucctcss
I 4discovcryolaswimmingpoolcontaininggraygrits instcadolwatcr.
Jhis discovcry is quickynoticcdbythc worldol sports, andat thcLco-
L l o 0 u L I h tI o : c n r >
" 58 =
ogic

l Lamcs in baghdadthc)apancscchampion,kiroJashuma,brcaks
thc world rccord byswimming hvc mctcrs i n onc mi nutc and lour scc-
onds" ,Lortzar I 84, 80). Lortzars piccc gocs on to spcak ol how
Jashuma solvcd thc tcchnical probcm ol brcathing in thi s scmisolid
mcdium Jhcprcssthcn cntcrsthcpicturc,i nLortzars own irrcducibly
sparcwords
8KCO OCuI IhC tC8Cn8 Why mny | nICtnIiCn IhCIC8 8hCW n CVCt
gtCWing ptCC|V|Iy CI 8W|mming |n gtII8, 8hum WCuO Cny n8WCt IhI
ICt 8CVCt miCnn| | I h8 hny OCCn ptCVCn IhI IhCtC |8 CCtIin mC
nCICny | n IhC CI C jumping |nIC IhC WICt nO CCm|ng CuI WCI WiIhCuI
nyIh| ng hV|ng ChngCO VC muCh |n IhC 8pCtI. mC CI | I OC unOCt8ICCO
IhI IhC |mg|nI|Cn |8 8CWy CCm|ng inIC pCWCt nO IhI |I8 I|mC nCW IC
ppy tCVCuIiCn Ctm8 IC CO 8pCtI8 WhC8C Cny inCCnIiVC i8 IC CWCt
tCCCtO8 Oy tCI|Cn8 C 8CCCnO, WhCn IhI Cn OC OCnC, Wh|Ch |8 qu|IC ttC.
mC mCOC8Iy OCCtCO h|m8C unOC IC 8uggC8I Cqu|VCnI Oi8CCVCt|C8 Ct
8CCCCt nO ICnn|8, OuI hC OiO mKC n CO|quC tCCtCnCC IC nCW OCVCCp-
mCnI |n 8pCII8, mCnIiCning gl88 O IhI my hVC OCCn u8CO |n O8KCI
O gmC in g, nO WhC8C CC|OCnI OuI Wy8 pC88|OC OtCKgC
OtCughI Cn IhC CI C htK|t| Oy IhC WhCC ICm WhC8C uI | I W8. VC|
Ihing Cn OC CXpCCICO C ippCnC8C CuIutC, C8pCC|y | |I 8CI8 CuI IC imi
IIC IhC CXiCn. buI IC |m|I Cut8CVC8 IC IhC NC8I nO IC gt|I8, Ihi8 8I
iICm h8 OCgun IC OCmnO highCt ptiCC8, IC IhC ptIiCut OCighI C CCun-
ItiC8 IhI ptCOuCC iI, C IhCm |n IhC h|tO NCtO. hC OCh Oy 8phyX
|I|Cn C 8CVCn u8It| n Ch|OtCn WhC ItiCO IC ptCIiCC nCy O|VC8 in IhC
nCW pCC in \nOCtt OCmCn8ItIC8, hCWCVCt, IhC !mIIIiCn8 C Ih|8 inICt
C8Iing ptCOuCI, IhC u8C C WhiCh 8hCuO nCI OC Ctt|CO ICC t WhCn m
ICut8 tC inVCVCO. b2-bJ)
owthisi sa vcrylunnyparablc, anditcouldbcrcadatmanycvcs,
lrommany pointsolvicwormypurposcs, notchrstthatitiswrttcnby
anPrgcntinc, borni nbrscs,wholivcdi narislrom ! 52untihisdcath
in ! 84. Jhc inkbctwccn magical rcalism and thc scll-imposcd cxilc in
arisolmanyolits ncstvocsdcscrvcs|rthcrcxploration, butwhatclsc
docsthisvigncttchavctoollcr thcstudyolthcncwcthnoscapcsolthc
contcmporarywodJhcstoryispartlyaboutacrazyinvcntionthacap-
turcsthclarawayimaginationolJashuma, apcrsonwhobclicvcsthatthc
imagination isslowlycomingintopowcr tisalsoaboutthctransnational
| ourncy ol idcas that may bcgin as playlul mcditations and cnd up as
bizarrc tcchnica rcaiticsthatcarcsult i ndcath. lcrc, onci s lorccdto
think about thc tra|cctory olat :atan|c \tr:e:, whichbcgan as a satiric
! l o 0 u c I h o : c u ) c >
=
mcdlalionon good, cvil,andlslam, anddc

up awcapon ingroupvo-
Icnccnmanyparlso|lhcworId.
JhcvigncllcisaIsoaboullhcnlcrnalonalizaliono|sporlandlhcspir-
iluaI cxhauslon lhal comcs |rom lcchnical obscssion wilh smaII dllcr-
cnccsnpcr|ormancc.Li |lcrcnlaclorscanbringlhcirimagnalionslobcar
onlhcproblcm o|sporlinvarousways.Jhc Llympc Lamcso|lhc pasl
arcluIIo|ncdcnlslhalrcvcalcompIcxwaysinwhchndivdualssilualcd
wilhn spccic nalional and cuIlural lra|cclorics mposcd lhcir imagna-
lonsongIobalaudicnccs.l n5couln I88, |orinslancclhcdc|calcdIo-
rcanboxcrwho salin lhc rng |orscvcraIhourslo publicly procIaim his
shamcasa IorcanandlhcIorcano|hcalswhoswarmcdinlolhcrglo
assaullalcwcaIandrc|crcclorwhallhcylhoughlwasabiascddccision
wcrc br ngnglhcirimagncdI ivcs lobcaronlhc o|hcaI LIympicarra-
livcs ollarpIay, goodsporlsmanshp, and clcan compclilon. JhcwhoIc
qucslono|slcroids,ncIudinglhc casc o|Canadanrunncrbcn|ohnson
(scc NacAIoon I0), is aIso nol |ar |rom lhc lcchnicaI absurdilcs o|
Corlzarsslory, inwhchlhcbodyismanipuIalcdloycIdncwrcsullsina
worId ol compcllvc and commodlizcd spcclaclc. Jhc vision o|scvcn
AuslraIanchildrcns divinginlo a pooI olgrls anddyingalsodcsccslo
bc drawn oul inlolhcmanyslorcsolindivduaIabncgalon andphysicaI
abusclhalsomclmcs powcrlhcspcclacIcso|globalsporl.
Corlzar s also mcdilaling on lhc problcms o|milalon and culluraI
lranslcr, suggcslnglhallhcycanIcadloviolcnland cuIluraIIy pccuIarin-
novalons.Jhcad|cclvc cltcl appcars graluilous hcrc andnccds somc
|uslhcalion. JhalJokyo andCanbcrra, baghdadandNcxco Clyarc alI
nvoIvcdinlhcslorydocsnolmcanlhallhcyhavcbccomclungibIcpicccs
olanarblrarlyshilling,dclocaIizcdworId.Lacho|lhcscpIaccsdocshavc
compIcxIocaIrcalilcs,suchlhaldcalhnaswmmngpoolhasonckindo|
mcanng n Canbcrra, as do hoslng largc spcclacIcs in lraq and making
bizarrc lcchncal innovalions n |apan. Whalcvcr Corlzars idca aboul
lhcsc d ||crcnccs,lhcyrcmain cuIlural, bul no longcr inlhcncrlial modc
lhallhc word prcviously implcd. CuIlurc docs mpIy d ||crcncc, bul lhc
dllcrcnccs now arc no Iongcrlaxonomic lhcyarc nlcraclvc andrclrac-
lvc, solhal compcling lora swmmingchampionshiplakcs onlhcpccu-
IiarpowcrlhalildocsinCanbcrraparlIybccausco|lhcwaysomclransna-
lonaI lorccs havc comc lo bc conhgurcd in lhc imaginalion o| ils
rcsdcnls. CuIlurclhussh|ls|rombcingsomcsorlo|incrl,Iocalsubslancc
lobcngaralhcrmorcvoIaliIc|ormoldi||crcncc.Jhisisanmporlalparl
ollhc rcason |orwrilng againsl cuIlurc, as LiIa Abu-Lughod ( I ) has
suggcslcd.
C l o r a l L l b r o s c o p r s
~ t0 ~
J

crc arc surclyolhcrmacronarralivcs lhalspinoulo| lhis smaIlpiccc

o|magicaIrcaIism, bulaII o|lhcmrcminduslhalIivcslodayarc as much
aclso|pro|cclionandimagnalonaslhcyarccnaclmcnlso|knownscripls
orprcdiclablcoulcomcs.Inlhisscnsc,aIIlivcshavcsomclhingincommon
wilh inlcrnalionaI alhIclic spcclacIc, asgucslworkcrs slrivclomcclslan-
dards ol clhccncy in ncw nalional scllings, andbrdcs who marry nlo
houscholds al Iargc dislanccs lrom homc slrivc lo mccl lhc crilcria ol
hypcrcompclcncclhallhcscncwconlcxlsollcn dcmand.Jhcdclcrrlor -
alizcdworld inwhchmanypcopIcnowI ivcsomcmovngin ilaclivcly,
olhcrs l iving wilh lhcir abscnccs or suddcn rclurnss, lkc Corlzars
pooI olgrls, cvcr lhirsly|or ncw lcchnical compclcnccs andollcnharsh
wlh lhc unprcparcd. Corlzars vigncllc is ilscI| a comprcsscd clhno-
graphcparabIc, andinlcasngoullhcpossibIchislorcso|ilsprolagonisls
andlhcrpossblc|ulurcs,ourownclhnographcso|l lcralurccanbccomc
cxcrciscs inlhcnlcrprclalono|lhcncwrolco|lhc magnaloninsocial
Ii|c. Jhcrcsnsuchc||orls a buill-in rclIcxivcvcrlgo aswcconlcmplalc
Corlzars nvcnlng olashuma, bul such rclIcxvily lcads nolonIy inlo
rclIcclions on our own rcprcscnlalional pracliccs aswrilcrs bul aIso nlo
lhccomplcxncslngolmaginalivcapproprialionslhalarcnvolvcdinlhc
conslrucliono|agcncyinadclcrriloraIzcdworld.
bul nolall dclcrriloriaIizalion s globaI in ils scopc, andnol all imag-
incdlvcs span vaslinlcrnalionaIpanoramas. Jhcworld on lhc movc a|-
|cclscvcnsmaIIgcographcaIandcuIluraIspaccs.l nscvcraIdillcrcnlways,
conlcmporarycincmarcprcscnlslhcscsmallworIdso|dsplaccmcnl. Nra
lairs hImscaplurclhclcxlrc ollhcscsmaIl displaccmcnls, whoscrcvcr-
bcralions can ncvcrlhclcssbcIargc. Lncolhcrhlms,lrJ| Cl:t, swhal
Ihavccallcdanclhnodrama. Nadcin I84, illclIsaboulasmaIlgroupo|
womcnwhohavclclllownsandvlIagcs, gcncraIIynlhcsoulhcrnparlol
lndia,locomclobombayandworkascabarcldanccrsinasccdysuburban
barandnghlclubcaIlcdlhcNcghra| .JhchImconlains(nlhcslyIcollhc
carly |can-Luc Lodard) cxlcndcd convcrsalions bclwccn lhc hImmakcr
anda |cwo|lhcscwomcn,who arc prcscnlcd|acinglhccamcraas i|lhcy
arclalkinglolhcvcwcrollhc hIm. Jhcscinlcicwscgmcnls,whicharc
richly narralivc, arc inlcrcul wlh dancc scqucnccs |rom lhc cabarcl and
cxlcndcd lrcalmcnls o|lhc sIcazy paradoxcs ollhc l ivcs ol somc |lhc
mcnwhoarcrcgularslhcrc.JhchIm also |ollowsonco|lhcwomcnback
lo hcrnalalviIlagc,whcrcwc arc shown lhc pain olhcroslracsm, ashcr
occupalion inbombayisknownlocvcryonc. Ilsrumorcdlhallhssccnc
wasslagcdlorlhcbcnchlollhc hImmakcr, bullanylhinglhisrcplaying
addslo lhc awkwardncss andpano|lhc scqucncc. Jhc hImisnolaboul
C l o r o l L t b r o s c a p : s
~ t I ~
happy cndings, and il Icavcs us wilh possibiIlics ot various sorls in lhc
livcsotlhcscwomcn,aIIo|whomarcsimIlancousIyproudandashamcd,
dignincdanddchanldctacloproslilulcswhohavctabricalcdidcnlilicsas
arlisls.
orourpurposcs, whalismoslimporlanlaboul lhis nIm islhcway in
whichilshowslhallhccabarclcIubisnolsimplyamarkclpIacctordcsirc
bul aIso a placc whcrc magncdl ivcs arc ncgolialcd lhc danccrs acl oul
lhcir prccarious scnscot lhcmscIvcsasdanccrslhcsccond-ralcbandlrics
lo workup ils musical passions, which arc tcdby lhc aspiralions ot lhc
LalhoIic communilyinLoa|wcslcrn l ndia) lo playLuropcan and^mcri -
can inslrumcnlaI music wcII. Jhc mcn who comc ascuslomcrs cIcarlyscc
lhcmscIvcs as parlicipanls insomclhingIargcrlhan litc, andlhcy bchavc
cxaclly Iikc lhc cuslomcrs in cabarcl sccncs in many lindi commcrciaI
hIms. l ntacl, lhc sccnariolhaprovidcslhc mcclinggroundtoraII lhcsc
characlcrs is providcdbylhccabarclscqucnccs trom lindi commcrciaI
cincma.
lnmanysuchslocksccncs, alawdrynighlcIubquarlclpIaysan opprcs-
sivcIyscnsuous mcIody combining Wcslcrn and l ndian inslrumcnls and
lonaIilics,whilclhcviIIainandhiscronicsconsumcobviousIynaslyaIco-
hoIic drinks andwalch a paintuIly cxplicildanccroulinc by avamp slar.
Jhchcro is usuaIIyinsinualcdinlo lhc aclion insomcwaylhalsimuIlanc-
ousIycmphasizcshisviriIilyandhismoraIsupcriorilyovcrlhclawdrycn-
vironmcnl.JhcscsccncsarcusualIynIIcdwilhcxlras |romlhchImsludi,
whoslruggIclomainlainlhcsophislicalcdvisagcotpcrsonshabilualcdlo
lhchigh litc. Jhcsc sccncsarcslcrcolypicaIIyvicariousinlhcirapproach
lo drnk, dancc, andsoundandarcsomchowdcprcssing.JhccIicnls lhc
danccrs, andlhc band allhcNcghra| sccm lo pIayoul a sIighllyoul-o|-
slcp,somnambuIislicvcrsiono|suchcIassiclindinImscqucnccs.
Litc inlhc Ncghra| issurcIy drivcn bycommcrciaI cincmalic imagcs,
bullhcirtorccisinadcqualclocovcrlhcanxiclics,lhcscl t-abascmcnl,and
lhcagonizcddramaotIcisurc inwhichlhccharaclcrsarcalIcngagcd.1cl
lhc characlcrs in lhis clhnodrama havc imagcs and idcas ot lhcmscIvcs
lhalarcnol simpIyconlingcnloulcomcsotlhcirordinaryIivcs |orsimpIc
cscapcstromlhcm)bularc|abricalionsbascdonasublIccompIicilywilh
lhcdiscursivcandrcprcscnlalionaIconvcnlionsotlindicincma.Jhu,al
lhoughlhis nImisadocumcnlaryinconvcnlionallcrms,ilis aIsoanclhno-
drama, inlhc scnsclhalilshowsus lhcdramalic slruclurc andlhc char-
aclcrs lhal animalc a parlicuIar slrand ot bombays ways ot Iitc. Jhcsc
aclorsarc aIsocharaclcrs, nolsomuchbccausclhcyhavcobviousidiosyn-
crasics allachcdlo lhcm bulbccausclhcyarc tabricalions ncgolialcdin
C | c | a | L b o s c a p s
= t =
lhc cncounlcr bclwccn lhc ct|orls otcincma lo rcprcscnl cabarcl and ot
rcaI cabarcls lo caplurc lhc cxcilcmcnl ot cincma. ll is lhis ncgolialion,
nolonlylhcncgolialionotbodics, lhalislhcrcaIordcrotbusincssallhc
Ncghra| . Jhc womcn whowork i n lhc cabarclarc dclcrriloriaIizcd and
mobiIc. lhcyarcgucslworkcrsinbombay.l lishardlosccinlhcmlhcdis-
coursc ot rcsislancc (lhough lhcy arc cynicaI aboul mcn, as proslilulcs
cvcrywhcrc arc) , aIlhough lhcir vcry bodilyposurcs, lhcrI inguislic ag-
grcssivcncss, lhcir bawdy, quasi-Icsbian playwilh cach olhcr impIyakind
otraunchyandsclt -consciouscounlcrcullurc.Whalwchavci sascnsclhal
lhcyarc pulling Iivcs logclhcr, tabricainglhcirowncharaclcrs,usinglhc
cincmalicandsocialmalcrialsallhcirdisposaI.
Jhcrcarc individuaIs hcrc, lo bc surc, andagcncyas wcIl, bul whal
drivcs lhcsc individuaIs and lhcir agcncy arc lhc complcx rcaIisms lhal
animalc lhcm. acrudc rcaIism aboulmcn andlhcirmolivcs asorlotcapi-
laIislrcalismlhalinspircslhcirdiscourscaboulwcaIlhandmoncyacuri-
oussocialislrcaIism lhalundcrIicslhcirowncalcgorizalionsotlhcmscIvcs
as dignincdworkcrs in lhc |lcshlradc (nolvcry di t|crcnltrom lhc housc-
wivcs ot bombay). Jhcy consllulc a slriking clhnographic cxampIc tor
lhischaplcrbccausclhcvcry dispIaccmcnllhal is lhc rool o| lhcirprob-
Icms(allhoughlhciroriginaIdcparlurcslurnoulusuaIlylobcrcsponscslo
cvcnworscdomcslichorrors)isaIsolhcngincotlhcirdrcamsotwcallh,
rcspcclabiIily, andaulonomy.
Jhus, pasls in lhcsc conslruclcd l ivcs arc as imporlanl as tulurcs, and
lhc morc wc unravcI lhcsc pasls lhc cIoscr wc approach worlds lhal arc
lcss and Icss cosmopoIilan, morc andmorcIocaI. 1clcvcn lhcmoslIocaI-
izcdotlhcscworIds,allcaslinsociclicsI ikcl ndia, hasbccomcncclcd
cvcn at|liclcdbycosmopolilan scriplslhaldrivc lhcpoIilics o| tamilics,
lhctruslralionsotIaborcrs,lhcdrcamsotlocaIhcadmcn. Lnccagain,wc
nccdlobccarctuInollosupposclhalaswcworkbackwardinlhcscimag-
incdlivcswcwilI hilsomc IocaI, culluralbcdrock,madcupotacIoscdscl
otrcproduclivc pracliccs andunlouchcdbyrumors o|lhcworldalIargc.
(or a di ttcrcnl bul compIcmcnlary anglc on lhcsc tacls, scc lanncrz
I8. ) NiralairslrJ| Cl:t isaslrikingmodclothowclhnographyina
dclcrrilorializcdworId mighl handlclhc probIcms ot characlcr andaclor,
torilshows howscIt-tabricalionacluaIIyprocccds inaworldotlypcs and
lypincalion. llrclainslhclcnsionbclwccn gIobal andlocaIlhaldrivcscuI -
luraIrcproduclionloday.
Jhc vigncllcs l havc uscd hcrc havc lwo purposcs. Lnc is lo suggcsl
lhcsorlsotsilualionsinwhichlhcworkingsotlhcimaginalioni nadclcr-
rilori alizcd world can bc dclcclcd. Jhc sccond is lo suggcsl lhal many
C l c | a L l b n c s c a p : s
^ t 3 =
IivcsarcnowincxlricabIyI inkcdwilhrcprcscnlalionsandlhuswcnccdlo
incorporalc lhc complcxilics o| cxprcsc rcprcscnlalion (hIm, novcls
lravcl accounls) inlo our clhnographics, nol onIy as lcchnicaI ad|uncls
bul asprimary malcrial wilh which loconslrucl and ourown
rcprcscnlalions.
Cercias|er. lro|tct|ers crJ xoetctiers
AIlhoughlhccmcrgcnlcosmopoIilanismso|lhcworIdhavccompIcxlocaI
hislorics and lhcirlranslocal diaIoguc has a compIcx hislory aswclI (ls-
IamicpiIgrimagc i s|uslonccxampIc) ilsccmsadvisabIclolrcallhcprc-
scnlasa hisloricaI momcnlandusc ourundcrslandingo| illo iIIuminalc
and guidc lhc |ormuI alion o| hisloricaI probIcms. Jhis is nol pcrvcrsc
Whiggishncss il is, ralhcr, a rcsponsc lo a praclicaI probIcm in many
cascsilissimpIynolcIcarhoworwhcrconcwouldIocalcachronologicaI
bascIinc|orlhcphcnomcnawcwishlosludyJhcslralcgyo|bcginningal
lhcbcginningbccomcscvcn morc whcnonc wishcs loilIu
minalclhcIivcdrcIalionshipsbclwccnimagincdlivcsandlhcwcbso|cos-
mopoIilanismwilhinwhichlhcyun|oIdJhus,nollopullooncapoinl
on il,wcnccdan clhnographylhalisscnsilivc lolhchisloricaI nalurc o|
whalwcsccloday(whichaIsoinvoIvcscarc|ulcomparison,ascvcgood
hislorian nows) , bul suggcsl lhalwcculinlolhcprobIcm lhroughlhc
hisloricalprcscnl.
WhiIcmuchhasbccn wrillcn aboullhcrcIalionshipbclwccnhislo
andanlhropology(bypraclilioncrso|bolhdiscipIincs)inlhcpasldccadc,
|cwhavcgivcncarc|uI lhoughllowhalilmcans loconslruclgcncaIogics
o| lhc prcscnl. Lspcciay in rcgardlo lhc many aIlcalivc cosmopoIi-
lanismslhalcharaclcriclhcworIdloday, andlhccompIcxlransnalionaI
cuIluraI lowslhal Iinlhcm, lhcrc is nocasywaylobcgin allhcbcgin-
ning. Jodays cosmopolilanisms combinc cxpcricnccs o| various mcdia
wilh various |orms o| cxpcricncccincma, idco, rcslauranls, spcclalor
sporls, andlourism, lo namc|usla |cwlhal havcdi||crcnlnalional and
lransnalionaI gcncaIogics.5omco|lhcsc|ormsmayslarloulascxlrcmcIy
globaI and cndup asvcryIocaIradio wouldbcan cxamplcwhiIc olh-
crs, such as cincma, mighl havc lhc obvcrsc lracclory. ln any parlicuIar
clhnoscapc (alcrm wc mighlwish lo subslilulc|orcarIicr whoIcs such as
viIIagcs,communilics, andIocaIilics) lhcgcncaIogicso|cosmopolilanism
arc nolIikcIylobc lhc samc as ils hislorics whilc lhcgcncaIogicsrcvcaI
lhccuIlural spaccswilhin which ncw |orms can bccomc indigcnizcd( |or
cxampIcaslourismcomcsloinhabillhcspacco|piIgrimagcinlndia) , lhc
C | o a | L l b n o s c u p r s
t4
hislorics o| lhcsc |orms may Icad oulward lolransnalionaI sourccs and
slclurcsJhus,lhcmoslapproprialcclhnoscapcs|orlodaysworId,wilh
ils aIlcrnalivc, inlcraclivc modcrnilics, shouId cnabIc gcncaIogy andhis-
lory lo con|ronlcacholhcr, lhus Icaving lhc lcain opcn |or i nlcrprcla-
lions o| lhc ways in which IocaI hisloricaI ow inlo compI-
calcd lransnalionaI slruclurcs. | coursc, lhis diaIoguc o| hislorics and
gcncaIogicsilscI|hasahislorybul|orlhisIallcrhislowcsurcIydonol
yclposscssamaslcrnaalivc. orlhosco|uswhomighlwishlomovclo-
wardlhisncwmaslcrnarralivc, ils|orm,ncwgIobaIclhnoscapcs
musl bc lhc crilical bilding bIocks. NichcI-KoIph JrouiIIol ( ! 1) sug
gcslslhallhchisloricaIroIco|anlhropoIogywaslohlI lhcsavagcsIoli n
an inlcaI Wcslcrn diaIoguc aboul ulopia. A rccupcralcd anlhropology
musl rccognizc lhal lhc gcnic is now oul o| lhc bollIc andlhal spccula-
lions aboululopia arc cvcryoncs prcrogalivc. AnlhropoIogy can surcIy
conlribulc ils spcciaI purchasc onIivcdcxpcricncc loa widcr lransdisci-
plinary sludy o|gIobaI culluraI proccsscs ul lo do lhis, anlhropology
muslrslcomcin|romlhccoIdand|acclhc chalIcngco|makingaconlri-
bulion lo cuIluraI sludics wilhoul lhc bcncl o| ils prcvious principaI
sourcco|lcvcragcsighlingso|lhcsavagc.
C l o o a L t n o s c a p :
`

^ t5
+
L0Sumt|0, u|8t|0, 80 H| St0|
Lonsumplion as a lopic has always comc cquippcdwilh an oplical illu-
son.Jhsllusion,cspccially|oslcrcdbylhcncoclassicalcconomicso|lhc
paslccnluyorsoislhalconsumploni slhccndo|lhcroad|or and
scvccs,alcrinus|orlhcirsociall|c,aconclusionlosomcsorlo|malc-
rialcyclc. Nymanconccrninlhischaplcrisloshowlhallhisvicwisin-
dccdan illusion, andlhal inordcrlogclrid o|ilwcnccdlorcsilualccon-
sumplion inlimclimc conccivcd mulliplyas hislory, pcrodicily, and
proccss. romlhisvicw|ollowsascricso|mclhodological and
a prcliminary proposal aboul a way lo conccplualicwhal i sncw aboul
consumcrisma|lcrlhcadvcnlo|clcclronicmcdia.
K:j:tt|er crJ K:)alcter
Likc brcalhng consumplon is a scl|-c||acinghabil lhalbccomcs nolicc-
ablconlywhcnconlcxluallyoslcnlalious. buli lisonlyinoslcnlalionlhal
wc o|lcnlakc nolicc o|consumpli on, and lhis is lhc rsl o| lhc mclhod-
ologicallapswcnccdloavoid, alraplhalpcrlainslomanyolhcrlopicsas
wcll. Jhal is, wcnccdlorcsisllhclcmplalionlo conslrucl agcncral lhc
oryo|consumplion aroundwhalcilNcIcndrickand callcd
lhcVcblcnc||ccl(NcIcndrick,brcwcr andlumb I Vcblcn l l ),

namly lhc lcndcncyo|mobililypallcrnslobcorgancdaroundlhcim
laliono| social supcriors. Jhc|acllhalconsumplion maysomclimcsbc
conspicuousandimilalivcshouldnollcmpluslorcgardi lasalwaysbcing
so,nollcaslbccauscvarous|ormso|abslincncccanbccquallyconspicu-
ousandsociallyconscqucnlialAppadura I8).
As a gcncral |calurc o|lhc cullural cconomy, consumplion musl and
docs|allinlolhcmodco| o| habilualion. I nlhsrcgard,lhcob-
scrvalion by rcdric )amcson , I), bilding on)can baudrillard, 5ig-
mundrcud,5rcn and olhcrs lhalrcpclilioncharaclcrics
lhc commodilycullurc o| consumcrcapilalism,canbcsilualcdin awidcr
anlhropology o| lhc bclwccn consumplon and rcpclilion.
vcninlhcmosl|ashion-riddcn o|conlcxls,asI shallsuggcslinlhcncxl
scclion o| lhis chaplcr, consumplion lcans loward habilualion lhrough
rcpcllion. Jhc principal rcason |orlhisslhalconsumplion n aI socia
conlcxls,isccnlcrcdaroundwhalNarcclNausscallcdlhclcchnqucso|
lhcbody (Nauss I7J) , andlhcbodycalls|ordisciplncslhalarcrcpcli -
lious, oral lcasl pcriodic. Jhis is nol bccausc lhcbody is cvcrywhcrclhc
samc biological |acl andlhus dcmands lhc samc disciplincs Lnlhccon-
lrary, bccausclhcbodyisan inlmalcarcn|orlhcpracliccs o|rcproduc-
lion, il is an idcal silc |orlhc inscrplion o|social disciplincs, dsciplincs
lhalcanbcwidclyvaricd.layingononco|lhcclymologicalroolso|lhc
wordcers:, i lis worlh nolinglhalcalingunlikc, say, lallooingcalls
|orhabilualion,cvcninlhcmoslupscalccnvironmcnlswhcrc |oodhasbc-
comc largcly dominalcd by idcas o| bodily bcauly and comporlmcnl
ralhcrlhanbyidcaso|cncrgyandsu|cicncybourdcu I84)
bulcvcnwhcrchcdonislicandanlinomianconsumplionpracliccshavc
lakcndccphold,lhcrcrcmansalcndcncy|orlhoscpracliccso|consump-
lion lhal arc closcsl lo lhc lo acquircuni |ormily lhrough habia-
Islrcsslhc|orcco|habilualion, asilhas |rc-
o|in |avoro|lhc |orccso|imilalionoropposilion
l allcr|orccscano|lcnbcvcrymporlanl,bullhcyawayscncounlcr
lhc social ncrliao|bodilylcchniqucs.Jhus,cvcn amongmonksvcgclar-
ans |ood|addsls, andcounlcrconsumcrso|cvcrysorl,iliscxlrcmclydi|-
culllomainlain an anarchcconsumplonrcgimc.Jhclcchnqucso|lhc
body, howcvcrpcculiar,i nnovalivc, andanlisocal, nccdlobccomcsocial
dsciplincs Asad I87) , parls o| somc hablus, rcc o|arlhcc orcxlcal
cocrcion, in ordcr lo lakc on lhcr |ul powcr. Jhc corc o| consumplion
pracliccsbcing lhc body, lhc hablualon lhalrcqurcs bodily discplincs
lobcsucccss|ul cnlailsconsumplionpallcrnslhalwllalwayslcndlorcp-
cllion,allcaslin somcrcgards.Jhsislhcinncrparadoxo|hcdonismcs-
c e s j t . e . l c t e , c J H s t c
pcciallyin its anarchicdimcnsions cvcn hcdoisticconsumptionrcquircs
itsbodiy andthcsc disciplis cncouragc rcpctition anddis-
couragcinvcntivcncssbythcirnaturc ,Lampbcll I 8 Z) . Lvcnanunkcmpt
bcardmustbcmaintaincd.
aturally, notallconsumptionnccdbcrcpctitivcorhabitual, butany
consumptionsystcmthatstrivcs|or |rccdom|romhabitispushcdtoward
an acsthctic o|thc cphcmcral, as l will suggcsti nthccoursc o| this chap-
tcr. hisaccounts|orsomci mportant|caturcso|thcrclationamongcon-
sumption,|ashion,andplcasurc,discusscdinmyconclusion.Allconsump-
tion practiccs that cndurc at all must pay somctributc to bodily i ncrtia,
cvcni |this incrtiaa||cctsvcjdi||crcntarcasandisanchorcd in dramati-
callydi||crcnt idcologicsacross timcandspacc Ln this incrtialbasc can
bc builtavaricty o|di ||crcntpcriodiciticsandtcmporal rhythms, includ-
ingsomcdrivcnbyJhorstcin Vcblcnstypco|conspicuousconsumption.
l nanysociallyrcgulatcdscto|consumptionpracticcs, thoscthatccn-
tcraroundthc body, andcspccially aroundthc |ccdingo|thcbody, takc
on thc nction o| structuringtcmporal rhythm, o|sctting thc mi nimum
tcmporal mcasurc ,byanalogyto musical activity) onwhichmuchmorc
It1|Y1 andchaoticpattcrnscan bcbuilt.ushingthc a stcp |ur-
thcsmallhabitso|consumption,typicallydaily |oodhabits,can pcr
|orm a pcrcussivc rolc in organizing largcscalc consumption pattcrns,
which maybc madc up o|much morc complcxordcrso| and
improvisation. Jhc mcthodological moral hcrc may bc put as |ollows
whcrc imitation sccmstodominatc,rcpctitionmightbclurking.
hcincrtiallogico|rcpctitionisarcsourccaroundwhichsocicticsand
thcir ruling classcs build largcrrcgimcs o| pcriodicity typically around
somc|ormo|scasonality Lurcxpcricncco|thcLhristmas |rcnzy
in thclnitcdStatcscxcmplihcsthis sorto|rcgimcvcrywcll. l nmany h|~
importantritcso|passagchavcconsumptionmarkcrs, o|tcn cohcr-
ing around obli gatoyorncarobligatory pattcrns o|gi|t giving Iypically
bctwccn prcdcsignatcd catcgorics o| socially l i nkcd pcrsons, o|tcn kins-
|olk.butthisdocsnotimplyamcchanicalmarriagco|Arnoldvan\cnncp
andNarcclNauss,van\cnncp I 5Nauss I Z) . In|act,thcscasonali-
ticsthat consumptionarcmorccomplicatcdandlcssmcchanical
thani sathrstapparcnt.
hc acts o| consumption that surround routinc ritcs o|passagc arc
o|tcn lcss mcchanicallyprcscriptivc than thcymightappcar. icrrc bour-
dicuhasshownthisvcrywcll in hisdiscussiono|thc bctwccna|hncs
in labylc marriagcallanccs inAlgcria , Z). Whatbourdicu sablc to
show,asaninstancc o|whathccalls thc rcgulatcd improvi sationso|thc
C c n s u m p f i c n , L o r a f | c n , u n J H : i c r
habitus, isthat whatappcarstobc a hxcd sct o|prcscriptionsthat govcrn
gi|ttransactionsbctwccna|hncsis govcrncdbyancxtrcmclycomplcxsct
o|stratcgicintcractions,whoscscqucncc,bccauscimprovisatory,i sunprc-
dictablc, although its soc| almorphologyisknown tothcactorsat
thcvcryoutsct.Acrucialsourcc o|unccrtainty, whichcanbctrcatcdasa
stratcgic rcsourcc bythckcy actors, isthcljs: e]t|: bctwccnvariousacts
o|gi|ting. bronislawNalinowski hadcarlicrnotcdthiskcyrolc o|timing
i ngi|tgiving , I 22) and so hadNauss, whilcNarshall Sahlins gavc it
grcatcrtypological ,Nauss I ZSahl ins I Z2). orourpurposcs, it
suggcsts that thc rhythms o|accumulation and divcstiturc thatgcncratc
particularstatcs matcrial wcalth in many socictics arc products not o|
mcchanicaldistributionso|goodsoro|prcdictablcpattcrnso|gi|tingbut
o| complcx calculativc scqucnccs, built, l ikc othcr agonisti |orms, on
sharcdundcntandingso| butconsidcrablclatitudci nstratcgy.
Jhis calculativc dimcnsion o| gi |t givingo||crs a morc complcx pcr-
spcctivc on thc rclationship bctwccn consumption and ritcs o| passagc.
Acts o|gi|t with thcir attcndant implications |orconsumption
andproduction,arco|tcnsccn i nthccontcxto|ritcso|passagcashi ghly
convcntionalizcdmarkcrs ,inLharlcsicrccstcrm,asicons)o|thcscritcs.
butitmaybcmorcusc|ultosccthcscconsumptionstratcgicsas|rJ:|cll,
rclatcdto ritcs o|passagc,that is,ascrcatingthcmcaningo| thcsc ritcs by
thcwayi nwhichthcypointtothcirmcaning Lctmcclaboratc.Jhcbasic
packagco|ritcsdcscribcdbyvan\cnncp, I 5) , thoschavingtodowith
birth, initiation, marriagc, and dcath, arcusuallyrcgardcdasculturalrcgu-
lariticswitharcmarkablc dcgrcco|univcrsaliIyowing invan\cnncp'sar-
gumcnt,tothcphysiologicalandcosmologicaluni |ormiticsonwhichthcy
arc built. Nausssidcasaboutthctcchniqucso|thcbody, I ZJ) to
turn van on his hcad, l suggcst that consumption pcr|odicitics,
mcdiatcd by stratcgics o|accumulation and divcstiturc, o|tcn constitutc
thc principal o| thcsc "natural cvcnts rathcr than simply
marki ngthcmin somc loosc,symbolicmanncr Jhis isvcryclcarin initi
ation andmarriagc,whcrc issucso|timcandtimingarcobviously
givcn thc o|play availablcto kcyactorsindctcrm i ni ngwhcn and
who thcsc cvcnts shall a||cct. With birth anddcath, thc biological clock
sccmsprimary, andyctcvcnhcrcwcknowthatthcritualmarkingo|thcsc
cvcnts, which can bc lcngthy, dcbatcd, and highly idiosyncratic dchncs
thcirsocialsalicncc, \ccrtz I ZJ) . Whata||cctssocial salicnccisthcna-
turc timing and social visibility o| thc matcrial transactions that
constitutcthcritualproccsso|thcsc ritcs.Jhcargumcntwouldbcsimplcr
still i nthc casc o|thcothcrritcs o|passagcthatvan \cnncp discusscd,
c a s s j i a , L u r o f i u n , a J H i s l a r
rlcs involvinglranslons n spacc, lcritory, goup mcmbcrshp, agricul -
lurc, and thc Ikc. ln a word, thc sociaIIyorganzcd pcrodiclcs ot con
sumption, andthccalcuIatvcslralcgicshalgvcthcm agcncyandampl-
ludc, arc consllulvc otthcsocial mcanngs ot rlcs otpassagc, and nol
simplysymboIcmarkcrs otlhcscmcanings. Jhus, onlhcIargcrscasonal
scaIcsotscasons, biographics, andgrouphislorcsdiscusscdbyvan Lcn-
ncpandothcrs,consumplonrcgulatcslhcmorclghlpcrodiclcsottcm-
poraIritcsotpassagc. lnthsscnsc,consumptoncrcatcslmcanddocsnot
smpIyrcspondtoil.
Jo makc lhis maxim cIcarcr, l rclurn lo Lhrislmas. l n thc Lntcd
5lalcs, as lhc rangc ot commodlics grows, as tamIcs hnd thcmscIvcs
wilhIargcrl islsotgoodsandscrviccslhalmghltulhIIlhcdcsrcsottam-
iIy mcmbcrs, and as tashons, particuIarIy tor youth, shtl mcrcuraIly,
lhoscwho playlhccrucial5antarolchndlhcmsclvcsshoppingcarIicrtor
Lhrislmas ming sa dcIcatc probIcm, ascvcryoncwanls to gcl hs or
hcrshopping donc bctorcthc Lhrstmas rush, andlhc dcaI thingwould
bc to do your Lhristmas shoppng whiIc you arc swcllcring in)unc or
)uly. Absurd as lhs aIrcady sccms, t s madc doubIydithcullby thc tact
lhalilisnolunll5cplcmbcrorLctobcrlhalthctashoncyclc,cspcalIy
torsuch itcms aschldrcns toys, slarts ssungcIcar sgnaIs. 5o, you havc
lo know how longto wait bctorc dccidingthat ths ycars tavortcs havc
bccn cslabIshcd,bulnolsoIonglhatlhcslorcs havcrun oulotlhcm.At
lhcolhcrcndotthcproccss, alIlargcslorcsrunattcr-LhrstmassaIcs, but
trcqucnlly, bccausc otlowshoppcrlurnoulinsomc parts otlhccountry,
lhcrc arc prc-Lhrslmas saIcs, turlhcr distorlngthc pcriodicity ot priccs
andscnlimcntslhalhavclobc]uggIcdbyAmcricantamlcs. Jhcshrcwd
shoppcrhas aIways known thatlhcbcstlimc lo shop tor Lhrstmas gtts
(cspccialIy it you arc nolworricd about goods sub]ccl lo short tashion
cyclcs) is in lhc mmcdiatc posl-Lhrstmas polIalchcs al thc bigstorcs.
5o LhrislmassobvousIynot a smplc scasonaI tacl. rom onc point ot
vicw,ilmaybcsccnasaycarIongcclcbraton,wthmorcandIcsstrcnzicd
pcriods otconscousaclivity. l nths casc, tsa IolmorclkcJrobriand
yam gardcninglhan lkcbrth by ccsarcan scction. JhcdittcrcnccIics n
lhcl argcrsocal logcsotacqusilonanddivcsliturcthatarc coordnalcd
tor lhc parlcular rilc ot passagc to bc succcsstul. Jhc mclhodoIogical
maxim hcrcsomcwhalcompIicatcs thc prcvous onc whcrcrcpctiton n
consumplionsccmstobcdctcrmincdbynaturaIorunivcrsal scasonaltcs
otpassagc, always consdcrlhc rcvcrsc causalchain, nwhch consump-
lion scasonaItcs mght dclcrminc lhcstyIc andsignihcanccotnatural
passagcs.
C o n u m p | i o n , O u r a | i o n , a n J H i s f o r
= 70 =
P:eJ|ct:s crJ Hste:s
but thc scasonaltics ot consumplon lhcmsclvcs arc carvcd oul ot morc
opcn-cndcd, morc crcumslanlial, morc conlngcnl lcmporaI proccsscs,
andwcgcncraIlychoosctocalIthcschisloricaI.listory, nalIsocctcs,ir
rcspcclvcotwhcthcrthcyarcholorcool, l ilcralc ornol, isbydchnlion
thcsloryotlhclerq: J:, whcthcrornotwc knowcnoughaboulalIlhc
hislorcswccncounlcr. lnrcgardloconsumptonlhcslruclurcsotlhcIong
runhavcnotbccnasclaboralclystudcdinlcrms otlhcworIdoutsidclhc
WcslasthcyhavcbccntorLuropcandthcworldlhalLuropccncountcrcd
attcr I 500. 1ctwcknowcnoughaboutallcastsomcotlhc hslorcs otthc
rcst ot lhc world ovcr long spans ot limc (Lurtin I 84, lodgson I74
crIn I8J, 5chatcr I tJ, Wolt I82)loknowthalralhcrthancIcarunils
otspaliotcmporal proccss, lhcworldhastoravcryIong tmc bccn consl-
tutcdby ovcrlappngcongcricsotcuIlural ccumcncs. Lcnlrallo thc cul
tural cconomyotdstancchasbccnlhcdrivingtorccotmcrchanls,tradc,
and commoditcs, cspccaIIy ot lhc luxury varicty (Lurtn I84, lclms
I88, Nintz I85, 5chatcr It) . lcvcrlhcIcss, not aIl slructurcs otthc
longrunarccharactcrzcdbylhcsamclurns,orconlngcnccs,lhalnrct-
rospccttakconthcappcaranccotncccssity. Litcracyddnolappcarcvcry-
whcrc and ncthcrddbubonicpIagucorlhcdcaotdcmocralicrghls. 5o
pattcrns in lhclerq: Jo: mustbcconsidcrcd, in thc hrslnstancc,locaIly,
lhals, wthntairIywcll-obscrvcdanddocumcnlcdsphcrcsotintcraclon.
Wthrcgardto consumpton, long-lcrm changcisnotcvcrywhcrccqualIy
rapd, although lsccmsncrcasngIytooIishtocontraststatcwlhchang-
ingsocctcs.Jhc qucstion sccmstobcthc pacc andntcnslyotchangc,
aswcllaslhcalacrtywithwhichilisinvilcd.
Whal wc know otLuropc aIIows us to walch a soccty otsumpluary
lawsIowIychanginginloasocctyottashion. ln gcncraI, aIl socalIyorga-
nzcdtormsotconsumptonsccm torcvolvcaroundsomc combnatonot
lhc toIIowng lhrcc paltcrns intcrdicton, sumpluary Iaw, and tashon.
Jhc hrstpatlcrn, lypcaI ot smaII-scaIc, low-tcch, rituaIIy orcntcdsoci -
ctcs, organizcs consumplonlhrough a tarlylargclslotdos anddonts,
many ot thcm combnng cosmology and cliqucltc n a spcciaI way. ln
lhcsc socclcs, whal uscd to bc caIlcd laboos in an oIdcr anthropoIogy
trcqucnlIyrcguIatcconsumplion torccrtan socal calcgorcs, torccrtan
tcmporal contcxls, torccrtaingoods (LougIasandl shcrwood I 8 I). Jhc
socal Itc ot lhngs n smaIIscaIc socictcs appcars to havc bccn drvcn
Iargclybylhctorccotinlcrdclon. 1claswcIcarn morc tromlhcarchac-
oIogcaIrccord, smaIl socclics npIaccs lkcNclancsasccmtohavclong
C o n : u m p r i o n , O u r a r i o n . a n J H i : | o r
= 7 I =
bccncharaclcrzcdbylong-dislancctIows,bolhmarilimcandland-bascd,
otalIcaslsomckindso|goods. lnsuchsocicls, nlcrdiclonslruclurcsot
varioussorls appcarlohavcsucccsstullyaccommodalcdncwcommodlcs
inlocxislingslruclurcsotcxchangcandpoIly, parlIybccausclhcquanl
lalivc cxpIosion associalcdwilh lhc commodily orId had nol ycl ap-
pcarcd. Lvcn insuchlow-lcch sociclics, parlicuIarcon|unclurcs ot com-
modly|Iow andlradc cancrcalcunprcdiclcdchangcsnvaIucslruclurcs
,5ahIins I 8 I ) .
Al lhs poinl il s lcmpling lo posc LoIin LampbcIls vcrson ot lhc
Wcbcrianqucstionrcgardnglhchislorica

condilionstorlhc rsc otcapi-

laIism, lhal is, lo askil ina way lhal highIghlslhcconsumplon sdco|
lhings. Jhcrc sccmslo bc widcsprcad agrccmcnl among hslorans and
socoIogislsworkinginLuropc andlhcLnlcd5lalcs lhal a ma|orlrans-
tormalon on lhc dcmand sidc appcars lo havc lakcn placc in Luropc
somclimc atlcr lhc h|lccnlh ccnlury ,LampbcIl I 87, Nukcr|i I 83
NcIcndrickclal . I 82 NcLrackcn I 88 WIliams I 82) . Jhcrc s, how-
cvcr, no unanimily on lhc nalurc o|lhc condlons lhal cnablcd lhc con-
sumcrrcvolulion,cxccplabroadscnsclhallwasassocialcdwilhlhcrcIa-
lionships bclwccn lradilional arislocraccs and asccndanl bourgcoscs n
lhccarIymodcrnpcriod.bulislhcrcamorcsharpIyarlculalcdwayloask
lhcqucslion,whcnandundcrwhalsorlsotcondlionsdoconsumcrrcvo-
Iulionsoccur
lwiIIcvcnlualIysuggcsllhallhcidcao|consumcrrcvolulonisilscl|n
somcways inadcqualc to lhc clcclronic prcscnl. 1cl lmghlbco|somc
prcIminaryvaIuclodchnccers: :oelt|er nasuthccnlIynarrowwayso
asto makc comparison appcaIngandna su|hccnlly broadway so aslo
avod lhc lauloIogous qucslion, why dd lhc hslory o| Luropc ,or Lng-
Iand)happcnonIyinLuropc,orLngIand)lsuggcsllhalwcdchnccers:
:oelt|er asa cIuslcro|cvcnls whosc kcy|caturc s aq:r:l|t:J sh|l |rom
lhcrcgnotsumpluaryIawlolhc rcign o||ashon.Jhsdclachcsconsmcr
rcvolulions|romanyparlicuIarlcmporaI scqucnccinvoIvngamoblcso
cicly, sophislicalcd markcling on lhc |osiah Wcdgwood modcl, rsng
wagcs,massmcrchandising, andcIasscon|Icl. llalso dclachcs consmcr
rcvolulions|romspccihc hisloricaI scqucnccs andcon|unclurcs invovng
Ilcracy, numcracy, cxpcrlknowcdgc, lhcbooklradc, andolhcr|ormsot
commodilizcdintormalonotlhcsorlrclcvanlloLngIand,rancc,andlhc
Lnilcd5lalcs inlhcpasllhrccccnlurics. lnslcad,lhsdchnlonopcnsup
lhcpossibiIilylhalIargc-scaIcchangcsnconsumplionmaybcassocialcd
wilh various scqucnccs and con|unclurcs o|lhcsc taclors. Jhus, in lnda
dcparlmcnl slorcs arc a vcry Ialcdcvclopmcnl, comnga|lcr advcrlising
C o n s u m f i o n , L u r a f i o n , a n J H i s | o r
= 72 =
hadbccntoralIcasl |orlyycars awcll -cslablshcdcommcrcalpraclicc, n
conlrasllorancc,whcrcdcparlmcnlslorcs,NIIcr I 8 I , Wlliams I 82)
sccm lo havc prcccdcd lhc modcrn |orm o|lhcadvcrlsng induslry, i n
con|unclonwilhnalionaIcxposlonsandolhcrphcnomcnao|lcsurcand
spcclacIc.Jhcrclalonshpo|con|unclurcandscqucnccbclwccnlhcLng
lsh andrcnchconsumcrrcvolulonssccmslscltlobccomplcxandcon-
lcslabIc. ln|apan a|lcrWorId War , lhcrc s good cvdcncc lhal mass
consumploncmcrgcdsubslanlallyasarcsuIlotlcIcvsonvcwng,otlcn
o| silualon comcdcs |rom lhc Lnlcd 5lalcs), and lhal advcrlsng tol-
lowcd as a poslmodcrnsl commcnlaloriaI modc on such consumplion
ralhcrlhan asa prmary causal |aclor ,lvy I 8). 5uch di||crcnccs arc, ot
coursc, n parl a produclotlhc complcxlcs o|cuIluraI tIow a|lcr I 800
whcrcbymanycounlrcshavccvoIvcdsophslicalcdlcchnoIogcsolmar-
kclingbctorcbccomingmassvclynduslralcconomics.Jhus, |youcom-
parc LIizabclhan Lnglandwilh lda, lhcrghlcomparisonwouIdhavclo
bcwlh lndanlhcIalccghlccnlhccnlury, whcnlhcsumpluaryrcacho|
lhcNughaIsovcrcgnwasbolhmlalcdandconlcslcdbyaIlsorlso|com-
mcrcaI and poIilical groups in orlh lnda ,bayIy I 8t) . kcwisc, lhc
rolc otcIasscontIiclsandsumpluaryballlcsbclwccnoIdandncwarsloc-
raccs can havc vcry dit|crcnl wcghl, |you comparc |apan and lnda,
whcrclhcdssolulionotmonarchcaI dcasandlhcrscotnduslrialcap-
laIsmhavcvcrydit|crcnlinlcrnaIcausalandlcmporalrcIalonshps.5uch
cxampIcscouIdbcmuIlpIcd.
Jhc gcncral mclhodoIogcal poinl i s cIcar. |usl as wc havc l carncd,
parllylhroughlhcproloinduslr aIzalondcbalc,nolloprc|udgclhcInks
bctwccn Luropcan commcrcaI |orms andlhc risc o|capilaIsl modcs ol
produclon and cxchangc, Ikcwscwilh consumplon whal wc nccd lo
avod s lhc scarch tor prccslablshcd scqucnccs o| inslilulonal changc,
axomalcalIydcncdasconsllulvco|to: consumcrrcvoIulon. Whallhs
mghl cncouragc s a mullpIcalon ot sccnaros conccrnng lhc appcar-
anccotconsumcrsoccly, nwhichlhcrcslotlhcworldwIl nolsmpIybc
sccn asrcpcal ng, orimilalng, lhccon|uncluraI prcccdcnlsotLngIandor
rancc.lavngcxplorcdsuchcon|uncluralaralionsnlhcInksbctwccn
cIass, produclon, markclng, and pollcsovcrIongslrclchcs olany par-
licular hslory, wc mghl bc in a bcllcr poslon lo conslrucl modcls o|
globaI nlcraclon inlhcrcaImotconsumplion, bolh bctorc anda|lcrlhc
grcalmarilmccxpansono|Luropcnlhcsxlccnlhccnlury.
l n comparing consumcr rcvoIulons n lhis manncr, wc can manlain
lhclcnsionbclwccnlhclerq: J: o|IocaIlcsandlhcvarabIc duralon
o|varous world proccsscsbymaknga dslnclonlhalhas provcdusctuI
C o n : u m p f i o r , L u r a f i o n , a r J H i s f o r
7 3
in anolhcrconlcxl ,chap. J), lhc dislinclionbclwccn and
ogy. WhiIc cach o| lhcsc words has a hoslo| mcanings ,dcpcnding on
your|argon o|choicc),myownusagcisas|oIIowshislory Icadsyououl-
ward, lo Iinkpallcrns o|changcs loincrcasingIyIargcrunivcrscs o| inlcr-
aclion gcncalogyIcadsyouinward,lowardcuIluraldisposlionsand
lhalmighl bc slubbornIycmbcddcd bolhin IocaI inslilulions andin lhc
h sloryo|lhc IocaI hablus.Jhus,lhchisloryo|Nahalma Landhisasccli-
caIrcIalionshiplolhcworIdo|goodsmighlIcadoulwardlo|ohnKuskin,
lcnLavidJhorcau, andolhcrs i nlhcWcslwhoarlicuIalcda pasloraI,
anliinduslriaI vision. bul lhc gcncaIogy o| Landhis hosliIily lo goods
and posscivc individuaIism gcncralIy probably Icads inward, lo a Iong-
slandinglndicdiscom|orlwilhallachmcnllo scnsorycxpcricnccalIargc.
urlhcrmorc, hislo and gcncaI ogymay inrcgardlo parlicularpracliccs
orinslilulions,rcin|orcc cacholhcr, lo lhc poinl whcrconcmaydisguisc
lhcolhcrorconlradicloncanolhcr,asinlhc|oIIowingcxampIc,aIso|rom
lndia. Whcn lndiansbcgan lo cnlcr lhc brilish worId o|clolhing in lhc
ninclccnlhccnlury ccrlai ndcsirabIc ilcms o|cIolhingacquircda hislo
lhalindigcnouscIilcs|oundappcaIingbulagcncaIogylhalwasmorclrou
bing or brahmancIilcs, |orcxampIc lhc hislo o|hal Iinkcd
lhcm lo a narralivc o|lhcirowncosmopoI ilan, coIoniaI pasl,buli ls gc-
ncaIogy was probabIy Icss com|orling |or il vc di||crcnl
idcasaboulhairandhcadgcar aIsocruciaIlolhcbrahmanhabilus. lngcn-
craI,inanygivcn sociaIandlcmporaIlocalion,lhc o|lhclenq: Jt::
wilhrcspccl lo consumplion shouIdinvoIvclhcsimuIlancouscxpIoralion
o|lhc hislorics and gcncaIogics o| parlicular Jhis doubIc his-
loricizingisIikcIylorcvcaImuIlipIc proccssual |lows lhalundcrilcany
givcn con|unclurc andsimuIlancousIymakcilpossibIc locomparcwilh-
oulsacri hcingconlrasl,inrcgardlolhcsludyo|consumcrrcvolulions.
KclurninglhcnlolhcrcIalionshipbclwccnlhcsmaIIcyclcs, anchorcd
inlhclcchniqucso|lhcbody, whichconslilulclhccorco|aIIdurabIccon-
sumplion pracliccs, andinlhcmorc opcn-cndcd hislorical scqucnccs in
whichlhcyarccmbcddcd il is imporlanl lo scclhallhclcmpoo|lhcsc
smaIIscaIcpcriodicilicsmaybcscl inmorc lhan onclenq: Jt::, wilh lhc
proccsscs impIicdbyhislory and gcncaIogy crcaling mullipIc lcmporali -
lics |or any givcn praclicc laIbwachs I 80). ll |urlhcr |oIIows lhal in
sludying lhc consumplion pracliccs o|dislincl wc muslbcprc
parcdlocncounlcrahoslo|di ||crcnlhislorics and prcscnlal
lhc samc momcnl. Jhus, in rancc lhc consumplion o| pcr|umc in I880
, Corbin I8t)maybcundcrpinncdbyonckindo|hislory o|bodiIydis-
cipIinc and acslhclics, whiIc lhc consumplion o| mcal may rcspond lo
C o u : u m p f i o r , L u t u f i o n , u u J H i : f o t
whoIlyolhcrhisloricsandgcncaIogics. Jhcmorcdivcrscaciclyandlhc
morc compIcx lhc slory o|ils inlcraclionswilh olhcr sociclics, lhc morc
|ragmcnlcdlhchislory o|ilsconsumplionpracliccsisIikcIylobc, cvcni |
broadslyIcs, lrcnds,andpallcrnsarc disccrnibIc. Jhcmovc |rom smaII lo
Iargc lcmporaI consumplion rhylhms is a movc |rom morc lo Icss pal-
lcrncd pcriodicilics. Wriling lhc hislory o| dislinclion in lhc scnsc o|
bourdicu , l 8wiIIcnlaiIopcnncsslosuchmuIlipIicily. ln lhc|oIowing
scclions l conhncmyscI|lo lhosc sociclics in whch |ashion allcasl |or
somc cIasscs, hasbccomc lhcdominanlmcchanism drivingconsumplion
andinwhichcommodihcalion isacrilicaI|calurco|sociaIIi|c.
Iosier orJ Nestol)io
Whilc much has bccn saidaboul |ashion NcCrackcn l 88 NiIIcr I87
5immcI I 57), il issliIInol|ulIyundcrsloodas a |calurc o|lhclcmporaI
rhylhms o| induslriaI and poslinduslriaI sociclics AIlhough il has bccn
widcly nolcd lhal |ashion is lhc cruciaI Iink bclwccn produclion, mcr
chandising, and consumplion in capilaIisl sociclics, lhc rcIalionship o|
|ashionlowhalhasrcccnlIybccncaIIcdpalinabyLranlNcCrackcnhas
nolbccn |uIIy cxpIorcd. Jhc problcm o|palina, which NcCrackcn pro
poscsasagcncraI lcrm lodcalwilhlhalpropcrlyo|goodsbywhichlhcir
agcbccomcsakcyindcxo|lhcirhighslalus,disguiscsa dccpcrdiIcmma,
lhcdiIcmmao|dislinguishingwcar|romlcarJhalis,whiIcinmanycascs
wcarisa o|lhcrighlsorlo|duralioninlhcsociaIIi|co|lhings,shccr
disrcpairordccrcpiludc isnol. Wcar, asa propcrly o|malcrialob|ccls, is
lhusilscI|avcrycompIicalcdpropcrlylhalrcqurcs considcrablcmainlc-
nancc. Jhc poIishingo|oldsi Ivcr lhcduslingo|oId|urnilurc, lhcpalch-
ingo|oIdclolhcs,lhcvarnishingo|oIdsur|accslhcscarcalIparlo|lhc
cmbodicdpraclicco|lhcuppcrcIasscsinmanysociclics,or morccxaclIy,
o| lhcir scanls Wc say paraphrasinglhc wcII-known aphorism,
as |or palina, ourscranlswiII providc il |orus. bul poorlymainlaincd
palina can bccomc ilscI| a sign cilhcr o| poor brccdi ng, oulrighl sociaI
counlcr|ciling,Lo||man I 5 I) , or, worsc slilI,compIclcpcnury. lnshorl,
palina isasIippcrypropcrlyo|malcrial Ii|c,cvcropcn lo |aki ngaswcIIas
locrudchandIing.Jhcpalina o|ob|cclslakcsoni lsuIImcaningonIyina
propcr conlcxl, o| bolh olhcr ob|ccls and spaccs |or lhcsc asscmbIics o|
ob|cclsand pcrsonswhoknowhowlo indicalc,lhroughlhcirbodiIy prac-
liccs, lhcirrclalionshipslolhcscob|ccls,lhcLnglishcounlryhousccomcs
lo mind asa goodcxampIco|lhis complcx sclo|rcIalionships.Whcn alI
lhcsc condilions arc |cIicilous, lhcn lhc lransposilion o| lcmporaIily, lhc
C o u : u m p f i o r , O u r a f i o r . u u J H i : f o r
7 ~
subIlc shitIotpaIinatrom Ihc ob|ccIIo iIs owncr orncighbor, is succcss-
tul , and Ihc pcrson (or tamilyorsocialgroup) himscltorhcrsclt Iakcson
IhcinvisiblcpaIinaotrcproducIionwcllmanagcd,otIcmporalconIinuiIy
undisIurbcd. buI paIina, Ihc gloss otagc, cannoI by iIsclt gcncraIc Ihc
righIIcmporal associaIions torhumanbcings lcr, asi nsomanyoIhcr
maIIcrs involving maIcrial litc, conIcxIiscvcryIhing.JhcdisIincIionbc-
twccnan hcirloomand|unk isnoIpaIina as such, buIalsoIhcsucccssl
scmioIic managcmcnI otIhc social conIcxI Jhcrc is,Ioo, a dclicaIc Icm-
poral rhyIhm Io bc managcd, parIicularlywhcrcmcmbcrship in cliIcs is
parIlyconsIrucIcdIhroughpaIina.bccauscallIhingshavcaculIuralbiog
raphy ,opyIott I 8t),cvcnIhoscob|ccIsIhaIhavcIhcmosIunchangc
ablc paIina havc possiblc hisIorics, somc otwhich includc IhctI, salc, or
oIhcr impropcr modcs ot acquisiIion As Ihc nouvcaux richcs know, Ihc
imporIanI Ihing is Io rcgulaIc Ihc pacc aIwhich ancnscmblcot ob|ccIs
wiIh paIina is asscmblcd. ltyou arc Ioo slow, only your dcsccndanIs will
knowIhcplcasurcsotIhcrighIgloss,buIi tyouarcIooquick,Lcorgcbab
biIIs taIc awaiIs you, surroundcd asyou mighIbcwiIh Ihc righI Ihings
IhcmanagcmcnIotIcmporalrhyIhmsiscriIicalIoIhccxploiIaIion
otpaIina
AsakcyIoIhcmaIcriallitcotarisIocracics(andwouldbcarisIocraIs
paIina a dccpcrsIrcamin Ihcsocial l i tc otIhin,andIhaI isIhcca-
pabiliIyotccrIainIhingsIocvokcnosIalgia,asyndromcNarcclrousIim-
morIalizcd. Lb|ccIswiIhpaIinaarc pcrpcIualrcmindcrsotIhcpassagcot
Iimcasadoublc-cdgcdsword,whichcrcdcnIialsIhcrighIpcoplc,|usIas
iIIhrcaIcnsIhcwayIhcylivcd. WhcncvcrarisIocraIicl i tcsIylcsarcIhrcaI-
cncd,paInaacquircsadoublcmcaning, indcxingboIhIhcspccalsIaIusot
iIs owncr andIhc owncrs spccial rclaIionship Io a way ot litc IhaIis no
longcr availablc. Jhc laIIcr iswhaI makcs paIina a Irulyscarccrcsourcc,
toriIalwaysindicaIcsIhctacIIhaIawayotlivingisnowgonctorcvcr.cI
IhisvcrytacI isa guaranIcc againsIIhc ncwlyarrivcd, torIhcycan acquirc
ob|ccIswiIhpaIinabuIncvcrIhcsubIly cmbodicd anguishotIhosc who
canlcgiIimaIclybcmoan Ihc loss ot away ot litc aIurally, goodimpos-
IorsmayscckIomimic Ihis nosIalgic posIurcaswcll,buIhcrcboIh pcr-
toanccs andrcvicws arc a morc IighIly rcgulaIcdattair. lI ishardcrIo
prcIcndIohavc losI somcIhingIhan i IisIoacIuallydo so orIoclaim Io
havctoundiI lcrc,maIcrialwcarcannoIdisguiscsocialrupIurc.
Jhc cttorI Io i nculcaIc nosIalgia is a ccnIral tcaIurc ot modcrn mcr-
chandisingand is bcsI sccn in Ihcgraphicsand IcxIsot caIalogs
inIhcLniIcd5IaIcs.JhcsccaIalogsuscavaricIyotrhcIoricaldcviccs,buI
cspcciallywhcni IcomcsIocloIhing, turniIurc,and IhcyplaywiIh
L o n s u m p f i o n , L u r a f o n , a n J H i s f o r
^ 7t
many kinds ot nosIalgia nosIalgia tor bygonc li tcsIylcs, maIcrial asscm
blagcs, litcsIagcs (suchaschildhood),landscapcs ,otIhcLurricrandlvcs
varicIy), sccncs (otIhclormanKockwcllsmallIownvaricIy) andsoon.
NuchhasbccnwriIIcnabouIIhcscmaIIcrsandwcnowhavcsomccxccl
lcnIworkonIhcrclaIionshipotnosIalgiaandauIhcnIiciIyIocollccIions,
Ioys, andspccIaclcs(brcckcnrdgc I 8 5IcwarI I 84) buIwhaIhasnoI
bccncxplorcdisIhctacIIhaIsuchnosIalgia, astarasmassmcrchandising
isconccrncd,docsnoIprincipallyinvolvcIhccvocaIionotascnIimcnIIo
which consumcrs who rcally havc losI somcIhing can rcspond. KaIhcr,
Ihcsctorms ot mass advcrIisingIcach consumcrs IomissIhingsIhcy havc
ncvcrlosI ( lalbwachs I 80) JhaIis, IhcycrcaIccxpcricnccsotduraIion,
passagc, andloss Ihat rcwriIc Ihc livcdhisIorics oti ndividuals, tamilics,
cIhnicgroups,and lnIhuscrcaIingcxpcricnccsotlosscsIhaIncvcr
Iook placc, Ihcsc advcrIiscmcnIs crcaIc whaI mighI bc callcd imagincd
nosIalgia, nosIalgia tor Ihin IhaI ncvcrwcrc. Jhis imagincd nosIalgia
Ihus invcrIs Ihc Icmporal logic ot tanIasy (which IuIors Ihc sub|ccI Io
imagincwhaIcouldormighIhappcn)andcrcaIcsmuchdccpcrwanIsIhan
simplccnvy,imiIaIion,orgrccdcouldbyIhcmsclvcsinviIc.
Jhc hnalIwisIinIhcpcculiarlogicotnosIalgiai nIhpoliIicsotmass
consumpIion involvcswhaIrcdric)amcsonhascallcdnosIalgiatorIhc
prcscnI,aIcrmhcuscsIodiscussccrIainrcccnIhlmsIhaIpro|ccIatuIurc
tromwhosc pcrspccIivc Ihc prcscnI is noI onlyhisIoricizcdbuI alsomis-
rccognizcd as somcIhing Ihc vicwcr has alrcady losI ( I 8) . ) amcsons
idca,illuminaIinginrcgardIoccrIain sIrands in popularcincmaandliIcra-
IurcIoday,canbccxIcndcdmorcwidclyIoIhcworldotmassmcrchandis-
ing. losIalgiatorIhcprcscnI,IhcsIylizcdprcscnIaIionotIhcprcscnIasi t
i Ihasalrcadyslippcdaway,characIcrizcsavcryl argcnumbcrotIclcvision
advcrIiscmcnIs, Ihosc dirccIcd aIIhcyouIh markcI. A wholc
ncwvidcoacsIhcIichascmcrgcd,mosInoIablyinIhccampaignstorcpi,
Lcvi|cans,andKalphLaurcnouIhIs, inwhichconIcmporarysccncsarcliI,
chorcographcd,andshoIinawayIhaIcrcaIcsasorIotbackIoIhc-tuIurc
cIhos sparc, surrcal scicncchcIionish in ccrIain rcgards unmisIakably
cvocaIivcotIhc siics (orhtIics) in oIhcrrcgards.Wcmaywish Iolabcl
muchotIhisacsIhcIicasbascdonakindothisIoircnoirc.brackcIingIhc
prcscnIinIhispcculiarway andIhusmakingi IalrcadyIhcob|cctotahis-
IoricalscnsibiliIy, IhcscimagcspuIIhcconsumcrinanalrcadypcriodizd
prcscnI,IhuscvcnrcadicrprcyIoIhcvclociIyottashion. buynow,noIbc-
causcyouwill oIhcrwiscbcouIotdaIcbuIbccauscyour pcriodwillsoon
bcouIotdaIc.
JhusnosIalgiaandtashioncrccpupunknowinglyon onc anoIhcr, noI
L o s u m p f o n , L u r a f i o n , a n J H s f o r
7 7
jUsI OcCaUsc nOsIagtats aCcVcr tnsIrUmcnI O Ihc mcrChandtscrs IOOOOx,
OUIOcCaUsc IhcCOnItnUOUsChangcOsma caIUrcs |IhaIt saIIhchcarIO
ashtOn) nOWhasaCqUtrcda rcCyCtngdtmcnstOn,cspcCtayt n Ihcnt Icd
bIaIcs, IhaI tsrcmarKaOcKUmagtngIhrOUghhtsIOryhas OcCOmcasIan
dardIcChntqUcO adVcrItstng,cspcCtay OVtsUa andccCIrOntCads, as a
WayIOdraW OnIhc gcnUtncnOsIagtaOagc-grOUps OrpasIs IhcyaCIUay
KnOWIhrOUgh OIhcr cxpcrtcnCcs, OUI asOasaWay IOUndcrtncIhct nhcr
cnI cphcmcratIyO Ihc prcscnI. !aIaOgs IhaI cxpOtIIhcCOOnta
cnCc Or mcrChandtstng pUrpOscs arc an cxCccnI cxampc O Ihts IcCh-
ntqUc |bmtIh l 8 8 . htstnCUCaIcdscnItmcnI, CaCUaIcdIOtnIcnst yIhc
IcmpOOpUrChastngOyIOytngWtIhIhcmcrChandtscrsVcrstOn OIhccnd
OhtsIOry, t sIhcaIcsIIWtsI tn IhcCOmpaCIOcIWccnnOsIagtaandanIasy
tn mOdcrnmcrChandtstng. KaIhcr Ihan cxpcCItng Ihc COnsUmcr IO sUppy
mcmOrtcsWhtc Ihc mcrChandtscrsUpptcs Ihc UOrtCanIOnOsIagta, nOW
IhcVtcWcr nccd Ony Ortng Ihc aCUIy O nOsIagta IO an IhaI Wt
IhcmcmOryOa OsshcOrshchasncVcrsUcrcd.htsrcaItOnshtp
mtghIOcCacdarmChatrnOsIagta, nOsIagtaWtIhOUI tVcd Or
COcCItVc htsIOrtCa mcmOry 'nc mcIhOdOOgtCa tssUc hcrc t s t nIcrprc
IVcWhcnWcCOnstdcrIhOsctmagcsIOWhtCh mOdcrnCOnsUmcrsrcspOnd,
Wc nccdIOdtsItngUtshdtcrcnIIcxIUrcs OIcmpOrat Iy rOmOncanOIhcr.
Ncnccd IOdtsCrtmt naIcOcIWccn Ihc OrCc OnOsIagta tn tIs prtmaryOrm
and IhccrsaIz nOsIagta OnWhtCh mass mcrChandtstng draWs
and IO aIIcnd IO hOW Ihcsc IWO mtghIrcaIc tn Ihc COnsUmpItOn paIIcrns
O dtcrcnIgrOUps hc OIhcrmcIhOdOOgtCa tssUc ts stmpy a maIIcr O
paytngaIIcnItOnIOIhcparadOxtCarcgUartIyWtIh WhtCh paItna and ash
tOn tn sOCtcItcs Omass COnsUmpItOn ccd andrctnOrCc Onc OIhcr. ass
mcrChandtstngIcChntqUcs nOI Ony COnsIrUCI Itmc, as Was sUggcsIcd car
tcr, OUIasOt nUcnCc pcrtOdtzaItOn as amasscxpcrtcnCctn COnIcmpOrary
sOCtcItcs.
cI U rcIUrn OrtchyIO Ihc tssUc OrcpcItItOn tn rcaItOn IO COnsUmp
ItOn, IOUChcd On tn Ihc prcVtOUs dtsCUsstOn. OW Can Wc COnncCI Ihc
prOOcm OrcpcItItOnIO Ihc tssUcs O anIasy, nOsIagta, and COnsUmpItOn
tn COnIcmpOrary COnsUmcr sOCtcItcs nsOar as COnsUmpItOn t s t nCrcas
tngy drtVcn Oy rUmmagtng IhrOUgh tmagtncd ht sIOrcs, rcpcItItOn ts nOI
OascdOnIhcUnCItOntngOstmUaCra|r Itmc,OUIasOOnIhcOrCc
O Ihc stmUaCra e] Itmc. haI ts, COnsUmpItOn nOI Ony CrcaIcs Itmc,
IhrOUgh tIs pcrtOdtCtItcs OUI Ihc WOrKtngs O crsaIz nOsIagta CrcaIc Ihc
stmUaCra O pcrtOds IhaI COnsItIUIc Ihc OW O Itmc, COnCctVcd as OsI,
aOscnI, Or dtsIanI. hUs, Ihc OardOOKtng haOtIUaItOn IO prcdtCIaOc
sIycs, Orms, and gcnrcs, WhtCh drtVcs COmmOdty COnsUmpItOn OnWard
C o n s u m p f i o n , L u r a | i u n , a n J H : | o r
as a mUItptCaItVc andOpcn-cndcd aCItVtIy, ts pOWcrcd Oy an tmpOstVc,
rcIrOspcCItVc COnsIrUCItOn OItmc, tn WhtCh rcpcItItOn ts tIsc an arItaCI
OcrsaIznOsIagaandtmagtncdprcCUrsOrymOmcnIs.
: CaaJ(jcoiar aj T:
!OnsUmpIt On nOI Ony CrcaIcs Itmc, OUICOnsUmcrrcVOUItOnsarc asO rc
spOnstOc Or Ihc COmmOdthCaItOn O Itmct n a VartcIy O Ways. hc gcn
cra cadtn Ihtsarca ts, OCOUrsc, OWcd IOL. hOmpsOn, WhO, OUtdtng
Onararx,shOWcdhOWIhcdtsCtptncsOIhct ndUsIrtaWOrKpaCcCrc
aIc nccds OrIhc rcgtmcnIaItOnOaOOrOy Ihc prtOrrcsIrUCUrtngOItmc
tIsc LxIcndtngIhc IransOrmaItOnOaOOrtnIOaCOmmOdtIy,aOOrItmc
OcCOmcsanaOsIraCIdtmcnstOnOItc cxpcrtcnCcdas ndamcnIayprO
dUCItVc and t ndUsIrta. hOmpsOn tdcnItcs Ihc OgtC IhaI cads IO aIcr
ayOrcan tdcas aOOUI Ihc OOdy, mOItOn, and prOdUCItVtIy |hOmpsOn
It7) . Odcrn tdcas O prOdUCItOn IhUs haVc Itmc as a saaOc cnItIy aI
IhctrhcarI, cVOKtngbcnjamtnranKt ns hOmtyIhaIItmctsmOncy
bUIWc haVc had cWcrUndamcnIat nstghIstnIOIhcCOmmOdthCaItOn
O Itmc sccn rOm Ihc COnsUmcrs pOtnI OVtcW. n cary t ndUsIra sOCt
cItcs,Whcrct ndUsIrta ItmcscIsIhcrhyIhmOIhcWOrKCyCc,prOdUCItOn
dchncs WOrK, and COnsUmpItOn ts rcndcrcd rcstdUa aOng WtIh ctsUrc,
WhtChCOmcs IOOcrcCOgntzcdOgtCayas IhcrcWardOrprOdUCItOnItmc
WcUscd !OnsUmpItOncVOVcsas IhcphcnOmcnOOgtCa marKcrOItmc
cIOVcrrOmWOrK, prOdUCcdOyWOrK,andUsItIcdOyWOrK. ctsUrc aC-
ItVtItcs OcCOmc Ihc Vctydc ntItOn O dtsCrcItOnary COnsUmpItOn ( KOjck
l 87) , and COnsUmpItOnOcCOmcs Ihc prOCcssIhaICrcaIcs Ihc COndtItOns
OrIhcrcncWcdaOOrOrcnIrcprcncUrta cncrgy rcqUtrcdOrprOdUCItOn.
hUs, COnsUmpItOn t s sccn as Ihc rcqUtrcd t nIca OcIWccn pcrtOds O
prOdUCItOn.
bUI OnCc Itmc t s COmmOdtI1cd, tI acCIs COnsUmpItOn t n ncW Ways.
trsI, IhcdcgrccOItmcOVcrWhtChOnc hasdtsCrcItOnaryCOnIrOOcCOmcs
an tndcx Or ranKtng and dtsIt ngUtsht ngVartOUs Ktnds O WOrK, Cass and
OCCUpaIt On. rcc Itmc, WhcIhcr Or WOrKcrs, prOc>>t Onas, Or sChOO
Chtdrcn, tssccn asqUtnIcsscnItayIhcItmc OCOnsUmpItOn, andOcCaUsc
dtsCrcItOnaryCOnsUmpItOnCas OOIh Orrcc Itmc |Itmcrccd OCOmmOd-
tI1cdCOnsIratnIs)andrccmOncy, aIcasIIOsOmcdcgrcc, COnsUmpItOnOc
COmcs a IcmpOramarKcr OctsUrc, OItmc aWay rOmWOrK Nhcn COn
sUmpItOn ts IransOrmcdt nIO COnIcmpOrary Orms OctsUrc, Whcrc OOIh
spaCcandItmcmarKdtsIanCcrOmWOrK,WccnIcrIhcWOrdOIhcUxUry
CrUtsc and Ihc paCKagcdVaCaItOn, COmmOdt hcdas Itmc OUI O Itmc. bUI
C u n s u m p | u n , L r | u n , n J Hi s | o r
7
cvcryonc who has lakcn a vacalion wilhin lhc highly conslraincd cir
cumslanccs ot an induslrial socicly knows lhal lhc commodily clock ot
produclivclimcncvcrccascsloopcralc.Jhissomclimcslcadslolhcpara-
dox incrcasinglycharaclcrislic ot induslrial lcisurc lhc haricd vacalion,
packcdwilh so manyaclivilics, sccncs, andchoiccs, whoscpurposcislo
crcalc ahypcrlimco|lcisurc,lhallhcvacalion indccdbccomcs atormot
work, ot trcnclic lcisurclcisurc cvcr conscious ot ils torlhcomingrcn-
dczvouswilhworklimc.
lntacl,lhcrcisrcallylilllc cscapc trom lhcrhylhms otinduslrial pro-
duclion,torwhcrcvcrlcisurc isrcliablyavailablc, andsociallyacccplablc,
whalisrcquircdisnolonlytrcclimcbuldisposablc incomc. Jo consumc,
whclhcrin scarch ot subsislcncc or lcisurc, wc havc lo lcarn lo conlain
moncy,lhalmosltludotvalucsAsNaryouglashaspoinlcdoul,moncy
always lhrcalcns lo slip lhrough lhc cracks otlhc slruclurcs wc buildlo
dam,husband,andrcslriclilscrralictlows , I t7). lnlhoscinduslrialsoci-
clicswhcrc consumcrdcblhasbccomc monslrously largc, hnancial insli-
lulionshavc cxploilcdlhcproclivilyotconsumcrs lo spcndbctorcralhcr
lhanatlcrlhcysavc.rom lhcconsumcrs poinlotvicw, lhcyarc nolsim-
plcdupcs otan cxploilalivc syslcm o|hnanciallcnding.Jhccrcdilccon-
omyisalsoawayotcnhancingbuyingpowcrinlhctaccothugcsalarydit-
tcrcnlials, an cxplosivcgrowlh inwhal isbuyablc, grcalinlcnsihcalion in
lhc spccdwilh which tashions changc, and lhc likc. cbl is incomc cx-
pansion by olhcr mcans. t coursc, trom ccrlain pcrspcclivcs, paying
largcamounlsotinlcrcslloscriccconsumcrdcblisnolhcallhy. ultrom
whosc poinlo|vicwJhcconsumcrcanralchcluphisorhcrpurchascs,h-
nancial inslilulions makc a killing, and lhcrc i spcriodic bloodlclling, i n
lhc torm otcilhcr ma|orcollapscs likc lhc rcccnl savings andloan cala-
slrophc in lhc Lnilcd 5lalcs orbrulal incrcascs in inlcrcsl ralcs lhal as-
phyxialcconsumcrcxpcndilurc |orawhilc.
n |acl, as lhc immcnsc popularilyotmagazincssuch asMer:, in lhc
Lnilcd5lalcsallcsls, consumplionincomplcxinduslrialsociclicsisnowa
vcrycomplicalcdskill lhal rcquircs knowlcdgc ota largc varicly ot hscal
andcconomicmyslcrics,rangingtromslockmarkclvolaliilicslohousing
slarlsandN . nlhcpasldccadc,morcAmcricanconsumcrshavchadlo
bcco,ilcralc inlhc myslcrics otmacrocconomics lhancvcrbctorc, al
lcasl lo lhc dcgrcc lhal lhcy arc torccd lo cnlcr lhc mazc ot consumcr
lcnding. t coursc, lhcrc is a growing group allhc bollom, nolablylhc
homclcss, whohavcspcnllhcirchips andmuslnowwalch, ordic, onlhc
sidclincs, aslhcirtricndsandcollcagucsslrugglcwilhlhcroulcllco|con-
sumcr dcbl managcmcnl. Jhc rclcvancc otlhcsc proccsscs lo lhc argu-
C o r : u m p f i o r , L u r a f i o n , a r J H i s f o r
= 0 =
mcnlalhand islhalin sociclics likc lhc Lnilcd5lalcs,lhcrciscmcrginga
giganlic,itsilcnl,slrugglcbclwccnconsumcrsandma|orlcndcrs,whcrcal
issucarc rivalundcrslandingsotlhc |ulurcasacommodily.Whcrcbankcrs
andolhcrlcndcrsarccagcrlocncouragcborrowing,lhcirma|orchallcngc
islominimicbadloans,lhcconsumcrhaslodchncanopcn- cndcdlcm
poral horion wilhinwhich lhc discounlingotlhc |ulurc isan cxlrcmcly
lrickybusincss.Kcccnldcbalcs inlhcLnilcd5lalcsovcrrcduclionsinlhc
5ocial 5ccurilylaxrcvcal lhalmos; Amcricanconsumcrs arc prcylo ava
riclyotdislorlcd pcrccplionsabourlhclaxcslowhich lhcyarc sub|ccl.A
goodparlotlhis con|usionisroolcd in lhc dctormalion otlhccxpcricncc
otlimc by lhc slruclurcs lhalcurrcnllyorganizcconsumcr dcbl lolablc
among lhcsc is lhc lypc ot crcdil linc, bascd on homc cquily, lhrough
whichconsumcrscan simplywrilcchccksagainslsomcspccihcdlargcsum
lhal dchncs lhc banks scnsc ot lhcirabililylo pay. Whal lhis involvcs is
lakinglhcsmall pcriodicilics otlhc avcragc crcdil card and lurninglhcm
inloa scduclivc visla ottlcxiblcpurchasingpowcr, whichullimalclyprot-
ilsbanksandrclailbusincsscswhilc pullingincrcasingslrainonhouschold
incomcs loscricclhcscloans.
Jhistcalurcotlhccrcalionotlimcdisciplinconlhcconsumplionsidc
otadvanccdinduslrial sociclics is nol a simplcrctlcx, orinvcrsion, otlhc
logicotinduslrialproduclion.Jhcpcculiarcommodihcalionotlhctulurc,
which is al lhc hcarl otcurrcnlconsumcr dcbl, is inlimalcly lid lo lhc
slruclurcotmcrchandising, tashion, andtanlasylhalwcrcdiscusscdinlhc
prcvious scclion. Lalc induslrial consumplion rclics ona pcculiarlcnsion
bclwccn tanlasy and noslalgia lhal givcs subslancc ,and suslcnancc lo
consumcrunccrlainlyaboulcomodilics,moncy,andlhcrclalionshipbc-
lwccnworkand lcisurc. llis nolsimplylhc casc lhalconsumplion plays
lhcccnlral rolc in sociclicswhcrc produclion onccdid, as audrilardhas
argucd, I 75)morclo lhc poinl,consumplionhas bccomc lhc civilizing
workotposlinduslrialsocicly,Llias I 7) . Jo spcakotconlcmporary in-
duslrialsociclicsasconsumcrsociclicsislocrcalclhcillusionlhallhcyarc
simplycxlcnsions o|carlicrconsumcrrcvolulions.ulconsumplionloday
lranstorms lhc cxpcricncc ot limc in a way lhal tundamcnlally dislin-
gishcsiltromilscighlccnlh- andninclccnlh-ccnluryprcdcccssors.
Jhus,largc-scalcinnovalionsinlcndinghavchadarcmarkablccullural
cttccl. Jhcy havc crcalcd an opcn-cndcd ralhcr lhan cyclic climalc tor
consumcrborrowinglhcyhavclhcrcbylinkcdborrowinglolhclong,li n-
car scnsc ot a litclimc ot polcnlial carnings andlhc cqually opcn-cndcd
scnscotlhcgrowlhvalucotassclssuchashouscs,ralhcrlhanlolhcshorl
andinhcrcnllyrcslriclivc cyclcs o|monlhlyorannual incomc. Lonsump-
C o r : u m p f i o n , L u r a | i o n , a r J H i : f o
= I =
tion haslhus bccomc nollhc horizon otcarningbul ilscnginc tor avasl
numbcrotconsumcrsinconlcmporaryinduslrialsociclics.orlhcanlhro-
pologisl, whal isslrikinghcrc (aparl tromlhcmany implicalions torsav-
ings, productivity, invcslmcnl, cross-gcncralional cnlillcmcnls, and lhc
likc) is lhal lhc small pcriodicilics (typically daily oncs) otconsumplion
havc now bccomc subllyconlcxlual izcd in an opcn, lincar scnsc ot lhc
vcry rhylhm otconsumcrl i tc. Jhc cquivalcnl otJhompsons limc disci-
plincnowrcignsnot|uslinlhcrcalmotproduclionbulalsoinlhcrcalm
otconsumplion. bul licdasilislouncvcn, complcx, andotlcnlongpcri
odicitics,lhcsc lcmporaldisciplincsotconsumplionarcmorcpowcrtulbc
causclhcyarclcsslransparcnllhanlhcdisciplincsotproduclion. Anyonc
who has lricd lo ngurc oul thc cxacl logic ot thc hnancc chargc on a
monlhlyNaslcrCardbillwill knowaboullhcunccrlaintylowhich! rctcr.
bulilis nolsimplylhc casclhalconsumplionhas nowbccomclhcdri -
vingtorccotinduslrialsocicly.Jhctaclislhalconsumptionisnowhcso-
cial praclicc through which pcrsons arc drawn inlolhcwork ot tanlasy
(chaps. I and 2) . llis lhcdailypraclicclhroughwhichnoslalgia and tan-
tasyarcdrawlogclhcrinaworldotcommodihcdob|ccls. lnlhcprcvious
discussion, l argucd lhal a sorl ot crsalz noslalgianoslalgia wilhoul
mcmorywas incrcasingly ccnlral lo mass mcrchandising and lhal lhc
inlcrplayotpatina andtashionwaslhus paradoxical . l wouldnowsuggcsl
lhal lhc commodincalion otlimc on lhc consumplion sidc implic morc
lhanlhcsimplccxpansionotwants, slylcs, ob|ccls, andchoiccswilncsscd
incarlicrconsumcrrcvolulions. Whalwchavcnowissomclhingbcyonda
consumcr rcvolulion, somclhing wc may call a rcvolulion ot consump-
lion,inwhichconsumplionhasbccomclhcprincipalworkotlalc indus-
trial socicty. by lhis l do nol mcan lhal lhcrchavc nol bccn imporlanl
changcsinproduclion orinthc silcs, mclhods, lcchnologics, andorgani-
zalionstormanutacluringcommodilics.
Consumplionhasnowbccomca scrious torm otwork,howcvcr, itby
ae| wc mcan lhc disciplincd (skillcd and scmiskillcd) produclion ot lhc
mcans otconsumcrsubsislcncc. Jhc hcarl otlhis work islhcsocial disci-
plincotlhcimaginalion,lhcdisci plincotlcarninglo linktanlasyandnos-
lalgialo lhcdcsirctorncwbundlcsotcommodilics.Jhisisnollorcducc
worklo a palc mclaphor, mirroring ils slrong anchoragc in produclion. l
islosuggcsllhallcarninghowlonavigalc lhcopcncndcdlcmporaltlows
otconsumcr crcdil and purchasc, in a landscapc whcrc noslalgia has bc-
comc divorccd trom mcmory, involvcs ncw torms otlabor lhc laborot
rcading cvcr shitling tashion mcssagcs, lhclabor ot dcbl scrvicing, lhc
labor ot lcarninghow bcsl lo managc ncwlycomplcx domcslic hnanccs,
C u n : u m p | i a n , O u r a r i u n , a n J Hi : r a r
= 8 2 =
andlhclaborotacquiring knowlcdgc inlhc complcxilicsotmoncyman-
agcmcnl. Jhislaborisnolprincipallylargclcdallhcproduclion otcom-
modilics bulis dircclcdalproducinglhccondilions ot consciousncss in
whichly|rq canoccur.Lvcryhouscwitcknowslhalhousckcpingiswork
asrcal asanyolhcr.Wcarc all housckccpcrsnow, laboring daily lo prac-
licc lhc disciplincs otpurchasc in a landscapc whosc lcmporal slruclurcs
havcbccomcradicallypolyrhylhmic. Lcarninglhcscmulliplcrhylhms ,ot
bodics,producls,tashions,inlcrcslralcs,gitls,andslylcs)andhowloinlc-
gralclhcmi snol|uslworkilislhchardcslsorlotwork, lhcworkotlhc
imaginalion. Wc arc backlhcnlo Lurkhcim andNauss and lhc nalurc ot
lhccollcclivcconsciousncss,bulnowwilhalwisl.Jhcworkotconsump
lionisastullysocialasilissymbolic,nolcssworktorinvolvinglhc disci-
plincotthcimaginalion.bulincrcasinglytrccdtromlhclcchniqucsotlhc
body, lhcworkotconsumplionisalllhcmorcopcn-cndcd,silualcdinhis-
lorics andgcncalogics whosc con|unclurc has lo bc cxamincd, alas, casc
bycasc.Jhcsludyotconsumplionwillnccdloallcndlolhchislorical,so-
cial, andcullural condilionsundcrwhichsuchworkuntolsaslhcccnlral
prcoccupalionotolhcriscvcry dittcrcnlconlcmporarysociclics.
Carcis|ar
rom lwovcry dittcrcnl dircclions, onc drawing on Nax Wcbcr and lhc
olhcr on orbcrl Llias, Colin Campbcll , I 87) and Chris Ko|ck , I 87)
suggcsllhallhckcylomodcrntormsotconsumcrismisjl:os:, nollcisurc
(lhccrucialallcrnalivctorKo|ck)orsalistaclion ,lhc crucialallcrnalivctor
Campbcll) . Jhis lurn lo plcasurc as lhc organizing principlc ot modcrn
consumplionconvcrgcswilhmyownargumcntinlhc lasl lwoscclionsot
lhis chaplcr, bulilrcmainsnowlo showhowlhcsortotplcasurc lhavcin
mindrclalcslomyargumcnlsaboullimc,work,andlhcbody.
As tar as lhc cxpcricncc ot limc i sconccrncd, lhc plcasurc lhal licsal
lhc ccnlcr ot modcrn consumplion is ncilhcrlhc plcasurc ot lhc lcnsion
bclwccn tanlasy andulilily (as Campbcll suggcsls) nor lhc lcnsion bc-
lwccn i ndividual dcsirc and collcclivc disciplincs , Ko|cks proposal) , al -
lhough lhcsc lallcrconlraslsarc rclcvanl loanylargcr accounl otmodcrn
consumcrism.Jhcplcasurclhalhas bccn inculcalcdinlo lhcsub|cclswho
acl as modcrn consumcrs islo bc tound in lhc lcnsion bclwccn noslalgia
andtanlasy,whcrclhcprcscnlisrcprcscntcdasitilwcrcalrcadypasl.Jhis
inculcalionotlhc plcasurc ot:jo::ol|iy isallhchcarlotlhc disciplining
otlhcmodcrnconsumcr.Jhcvalorizationotcphcmcralilycxprcsscsilsclt
alavarictyotsocialandcullurallcvclslhcshorlshcltlitcotproduclsand
C a n : u m p | i u n , O u r a r i a r , a n J Hi r u r
8 3
litcslylcs, lhc spccd ot tashion changc, lhc vclocity ot cxpcndilurc, lhc
polyrhythms ot crcdit, acquisition, and gitt, thc lransicncc ot tclcvision
produclimagcs,lhcaura ot pcriodizationthathangsovcrbolhproducts
andlitcslylcs inthcimagcryotmass mcdia.Jhcmuchvaunlcdtcaturcot
modcrn consumptionnamcly, thc scarch tor novcltyis only a ymp-
lom ot a dccpcr disciplinc ot consumption inwhich dcsirc is organizcd
around thc acslhctic ot cphcmcralily. ockcts ot rcsislancc arc cvcry-
whcrc, as arislocrals baltcn down lhcir sumptuary hatchcs, as working
classcs andolhcrdiscntranchiscdgroupsapproprialcandrcsislmas acs-
lhclic, andasslalcs lrougout lhcworldscck immortalily by trcczing
cullural dittcrcncc. bul thc dominant torcc, sprcading lhrough thc con-
sumingclasscsotlhcworld, appcarslo bcthccthic,acsthctic, andmalcr-
iapracliccotthccphcmcral.
Itlhis valorization otcphcmcralily is indccd thckcy lo modcr con-
sumption, thcn thc lcchniqucs ot thc body dittcr in watwcrc carlicr
contrastcdas sumptuary and tashion rcgimcs. ln sumptuary rcgimcs, lhc
bodyisasitctorthcinscriplionotavarictyotsignsandvalucsaboutidcn-
lilyanddittcrcncc,aswcllasaboulduration,throughthcritcsotpassagc) .
l nrcgimcsottashion, thcbody isthcsitctorthcinscriptionot agcncral-
izcddcsirctoconsumcinthccontcxtotthcacsthcticotcphcmcral ily.Jhc
lcchniqucs ot thc body appropriatc lo this modcrn consumplion rcgimc
involvc whal Laura Nulvcy has callcd scopophilia ,thc lovc ot gazing)
, I75) avarictyot tcchniqucs ,rangingtromdicts to scx-hangc opcra-
lions) torbodychangcthatmakclhc body otlhc consumcrilscltpolcn-
lially cphcmcral and manipulablc, and a systcm ot body-rclatcd tashion
pracliccs inwhich|j:seroter ,otolhcrgcndcrs, classcs, rolcs, andoccu-
palions), notindcxing, isthckcylodislinction,5awchuk I88) .
Jhis nolionot lhc manipulalionot lhcbody, aswcllasmy gcncral ar-
gumcnl aboul consumplion aswork, raiscs lhc qucslion ot how lhc acs-
lhclicotcphcmcralily, thcplcasurc otthcgazc,particularly inrclalionlo
lclcvisionadvcrlising),andthcmanipulabililyotlhcbodyaddup loany-
lhing tundamcnlallyncw,attcrall, consumption, particularly allhc lcvcl
otlhc houschold, alwaysinvolvcddrudgcry, visualplcasurc isnola mod-
crn prcrogalivc, and manipulaling lhc body is as old as gymnaslics in
5parla andyogicpraxisinancicnl India.Whatisncw isthcs,st:otc and
q:r:ol|z:J li nkagcotthcscthrcctactorsintoasctotpracticcslhalinvolvca
radicallyncwrclalionship amongwanting, rcmcmbcring,bcing, andbuy-
ing. Jhchisloricsandgcncalogicslhalcrisscross ,inlhcworldotthcprc-
scnl) toconstitutcthisncwrclationshiparcdccplyvariablc,allhoughthcy
havcthcvalorizationotcphcmcralilyat thcirhcart. Lonsumptioncrcatcs
C o n s u m p f i o n , O u r o f i o n , o n J H i s f o r
= 84 =
limc, bul modcrn consumption scck lorcplacclhc acsthclicsotduration
withlhcacslhcticsotcphcmcral ity.
Although thc tull pursuilotthc rclation among bodics, consumplion,
tashion, and tcmporalily in latc capilalism is bcyond thc scopc ot lhis
chaplcr, oncsuggcslionisworlh makingbywayotconclusion. lnhcrrc-
ccnlcssay onlhc imagcry otlhc immunc syslcm incontcmporary scicn
lincandpopulardiscourscsinlhcLnitcd5tatcs,LmilyNartin , I 2)has
drawnonlhcworkotavidlarvcy, I8)andolhcrstoshowthatinthc
conlcxt ot lhc tlcxibility dcmandcd by conlcmporary global capitalism,
lhcrc has bccn a grcat dcal ot comprcssion ot limc and spacc, and lhc
body comcslobcsccnasachaolic,hypcrtcxiblcsilc riddcnwilhconlra
dictions andwartarc.JhcargumcntI havcmadcinthischaptcristosug-
gcstthatlhissilualioncanalsobc lookcdattromthc poinl otvicwotlhc
logicotconsumplion inahighly globalizcd, unruly, lalccapilalism.rom
this pcrspcclivc, lhc acsthclic ot cphcmcralily bccomcs lhc civilizing
counlcrparlottcxiblcaccumulation, andlhcworkotthcimaginalionislo
link thc cphcmcrality ot goods with lhc plcasurcs ot lhc scnscs. Lon
sumption thus bccomcsthckcylinkbclwccnnostalgiatorcapilalism and
capitalislnostalgia.
C o r s u m p f i o n , O u r o f o n , o n J H i s f o r
" 85
l P K
A c J : r n
| c | c n | : s
J
8| U w|t N006|U|Q.
6 6C00U| 28t|0U 0 U0|8U L||Ck6t
orlhctormcrcolon, dccolonizalion is adialogucwilhlhccolonialpasl
andnolasimplcdismanllingotcolonialhabilsandmodcsotlitc. owhcrc
arclhccomplcxilicsandambiguilics otlhisdialogucmorccvidcnllhanin
lhc vicissiludcs ot criccl in lhosc counlrics lhal wcrc oncc parI ot lhc
brilish Lmpirc ln lhc lndian casc, lhc cullural aspccls otdccolonizalion
dccply attccl cvcry domain otpublic litc trom languagc andlhc arls lo
idcasaboulpolilicalrcprcscnlalion andcconomic]uslicc. lncvcry ma]or
publicdcbalc inconlcmporarylndia, onc undcrlingslrand isalwaslhc
qucslionotwhallo do wilh lhc shrcds and palchcs ot lhc colonialhcri
lagc. 5omc otlhcsc palchcs arc inslilulional olhcrs arc idcological and
acslhclic
Nalcolm Nuggcridgc oncc ]okcd lhal lndians wcrc lhc lasl living
Lnglishmcn, lhus capluring lhc tacllruc al lcaslotlhc urbanizcdand
cslcrnizcd clilcs otl ndialhalwhilc Lngland ilscltbccamc gradually
dcnalurcdasilloslilsLmpircaspcclsotilshcrilagclookdccprooli nlhc
colonics ln lhc arcs otpolilics and lhcspccialrclalionship
bcccn lndiaandLnglandhasvcry l i lllcmcaninganymorc as Lngland
slrivcs lo ovcrcomc cconomicdisaslcrandlndiansrcachoulincasingly
lolhc Lnilcd5lalcs,lhcNidlcLaslandlhcrcslotlhcAsianworld. bul
lhcrc is a parl ot lndian cullurc loday lhal sccms torcvcr lo bcLngland
= 8
andlhal scrckcl. lllhcrc|orc sworlhcxamnnglhcdynamcso|dccol
onzalon nlhssphcrc, whcrc lhcurgc locullhclcswlhlhc colonal
paslsccmswcakcsl.
Jhcproccssbywhchcrckclgraduallybccamcndgcnzcdncolonal
lndacanbcslbccnvsoncdbymaknga dslnclon bclwccnard and
so|l cullural |orms.lardcullural|ormsarclhosclhalcomcwlhasclo|
lnksbclwccnvaluc mcanng, andcmbodcdpraclcclhalarcd|culllo
brcak and hard lo lrans|orm. o|l culural |orms, by conlrasl, arc lhosc
lhal pcrml rclalvcly casy scparalon o| cmbodcd pcr|ormancc |m
mcanngandvaluc and rclalvcly succcss|l lrans|ormalon alcach lcvcl.
lnlcrms o|lhs dslnclon l wouldsuggcsl lhal crckclsa hardcullural
|orm lhal changcs lhosc who arc socalzcd nlo lmorcrcadly lhan l s
lscl|changcd
Lncrcasonlhalcrckcl snolcasiysusccplblclorcnlcrprclal onas
l crosscs socal boundarcs s lhal lhc valucs l rcprcscnls arc, al lhcr
hcarl, purlan oncs, nwhchrgdadhcrcncclocxlcrnalcodcs s parl o|
lhcdscplnco| nlcrnal moral dcvclopmcnlamcs ItJ, chap lol
unlkc lhc dcsgn prncplcs o| lhc bauhaus, |orm hcrc closcly |ollows
moral)|unclon Jo somccxlcnlallrulc-govcrncdsporlhassomco|lhs
hard qual , bul l sarguably morc prcscnl n lhosc |orms
lhal comc lo cncapsulalc lhc corc moral valucs o| n whch
lhcyarcborn.
Jhus crckclasahardcullural |orm oughllorcssl ndgcnzalon. ln
|acl,counlcrnlulvcly,lhasbccomcpro|oundly anddccolo-
nzcd, and lnda so|cn sccn as su||crng|romavcrlablccrckcl |cvcr
ur I82) . Jhcrc arc lwo ways lo accounl |or lhs Jhc rsl, rc-
ccnllysuggcslcdby^shs andy | I8b), slhallhcrcarcmylhcslruc
lurcs bcncalh lhc sur|acc o| lhc sporl lhal makc l pro|oundly lndan n
splco|ilsWcslcrn h slorcal orgnsJhc allcrnalvc approach|allhough
il s nol cnlrclynconsslcnlwlh many o| landys nsghlsnlocrckcln
lndia) is lhal crckcl bccamc ndigcnzcd lhrough a scl o| complcx and
conlradcloryproccsclhalparallcl lhc cmcrgcncc o|an lndan nalon
|rom lhcbrlshLmprcJhcargumcnldcvclopcdnlhschaplcrslhaln
dgcnzal on so|cna producl o|collcclvc and spcclacularcxpcrmcnls
wlhmodcrnly andnolncccssarly o| lhc subsur|acc a|nly o|ncwcul-
lural|ormswlhcxslngpallcrnsnlhcculluralTfTtT1(|
Jhc i ndgcnzalon o| a sporllkccrckcl has manydmcnsons l has
somclhnglodowlhlhcwaylhcspors managcd,palronzcd,andpub-
lczcd,lhassomclhnglodowlhlhcclassbackoundo|lndanplaycrs
andlhuswlhlhcrcapabllylommcVcloran cllcvalucslhassomc-
P l u i n j u i f N u J r r n i f
" 0
lhng

o dowlh lhcdalcclcbclwccn lcamsprlandnalonalscnlmcnl,

whch s nhcrcnl nlhc sporlands mplcllycorrosvc o|lhc bonds o|
cmprc, lhassomclhnglodowlhlhcwaynwhcharcscroro|lalcnl
scrcalcdandnurlurcdoulsdc lhcurban cllcs, solhallhc sporlcanbc-
comc nlcrnally scl|-suslanng, lhas somclhng lo do wh lhcways n
whch mcda and languagc hclplo unyokc crckcl |rom ls nglshncss,
and l has somclhnglo do wlh lhc conslruclon o| a poslcolonal malc
spcclalorshp lhalcanchargc crickclwlh lhc powcro|bodlycompcl-
lonandvrlcnalonalsmacho|lhcscproccsscsnlcraclcdwlhoncan-
olhcr londgcnzccrckcl n lnda, n awaylhal s dslncl |rom lhcpar-
allcl proccss nolhcr brlsh coloncs. somc scnsc o| lhc daspora o|
crckcllhroughlhccmprcasawholc,scc^llcn I85. )
Lbvously, lhc slory o| crckcl dcpcnds on lhc vanlagc ponl |rom
whch l s lold. Jhc rcmarkablc mplcalons o| lhc hslory o| crickcl n
lhc Larbbcan havc bccn mmorlalzcd nlhccorpus o| L. L. K. |amcs
ItJ,sccalsoL awara I0andbrbalsngh I8t) . ^uslralanshavchad
a long slrugglcdramalzcd n crckcllo brcak |rcc o| lhc sanclmo
nous and palronzngway n whch lhcy arc rcgardcd by lhc Lnglsh.
oulh ^ca nds ncrckclycl anolhcr conclcd way lo rcconclc ls
bocr andLnglsh gcncalogcs bullsnlhccoloncs occupcdby black
andbrownpcoplcslhallhcsloro|crckclsmoslangushcdandsubllc
nlhc Larbbcan, akslan, lnda, andrLanka |onlhclasl, sccKobcrls
I85) . l do nol prclcnd lhal whal crckcl mplcs aboul dccolonzalon
|romlhclndanpcrspcclvcholdsgood|orcvcryolhcr|ormcrcolony, bul
l ssurclyoncparlo| lhc sloryo| lhc conslruclono| aposlcolonal
andglobalcullural|ramcwork|orlcamsporl
T: Caiarci ca:r:
ll s no cxaggcralon lo suggcsl lhal crckcl camc closcr lhan any olhcr
publ |orm lo dslllng, consllulng, and communcalng lhc valucs o|
lhc Vcloran uppcr classcs n Lngland lo Lnglsh gcnllcmcn as parl o|
lhcr cmbodcd praclccs, andloolhcrs as a mcans|orapprchcndnglhc
class codcs o| lhc pcrod lls hslor n Lngland gocs back nlo lhc prc-
colonalpcrod, andlhcrc sllllc doubllhallhcsporlsnglshn orgn
lnlhc sccondhal|o|lhcnnclccnlhccnlur, whcncrckclacqurcdmuch
o| ls modcrn morphology, l also look shapc as lhc mosl powcr|l con-
dcnsalon o|Vcloran cllc valucs. Jhcsc valucs, aboul whch much has
bccn wrllcn,canbcsummarzcdas|ollows. Lrckclwasaqunlcsscnlally
masculnc aclvly, andlcxprcsscdlhc codcslhalwcrccxpcclcdlo gov-
| a n j : f b N o J t r n i f
I
crn all masculinc bchavior sportsmanship, a scnsc o| |air play, thorough
control ovcr thc cxprcssion o| strong scntimcntsby playcrs on thc hcld,
subordination o|pcrsonalscntimcntsandi ntcrcststothosco|thc group,
unqucstioncdloyaltytothctcam.
Alhough crickctbccamca ccntral instrumcnt o| socialization |orthc
Victorianclitc,itcontaincd|romthcstartasocialparadox. l twashoncdas
aninstrumcnto|clitc|ormation, butlikcallcomplcxandpowcr|ul |ormso|
play, it both conhrmcd and crcatcd sporting sodalitics that transccndcd
class.Jhus,itwasalwaysopcntothcmosttalcntcd(andusclul) amongthc
lowcrandmiddlcclasscswhostumblcd into it. Jhoscamongthcgrcatun-
washcdi nVictorianLnglandwhowcrccapablco|subjcctingthcmsclvcsto
thcsocialandmoral disciplincso|thcplayinghcldcouldcntcrintoa lim-
itcd intimacy with thcirsupcriors. Jhc o|admissionwas complctc
dcdicationtothcsporand, usually, grcattalcntonthc hcld. ln Victorian
Lnglandcrickctwasalimitcdroadtosocialmobility. L|coursc, noamount
o|sharcdcrickctwouldmakcanLnglishmanconluscanLx|ordbIucwitha
orkshirc working-class p|cssional crickctcr but on thc playing hcId
(whcrccoopcrationwas thcrcwassomcrcspitc|romthcbrutali-
ticso|class in Lngland. Ithas alsobccn notcdthatitwas thc pnscncc o|
thcsclowcr-classplaycrsthatallowcdthcVictorianclitctoi ncorporatcthc
harsh tcchni qucs nquircdtowinwhilcrctai ningthc idcathatsportsman-
ship i nvolvcd a patrician dctachmcnt |rom compctitivcncss. Lowcr-class
pro|cssional playc thus did thc dirty subaltcrn work o|

nningso that
thcirclasssupcriorscouldprcscrvcthcillusiono|a gcntlcmanly, noncom-
pctitivcsport(andyI 8b I Jhisinhcrntparadoxnclitcsport
whosccodco||airplaydictatcdanopcnncsstotalcntandvocationinthosc
o|humblcoriginsisakcytothccarlyhistoryo|crickctin lndia.
ormuch o|thcninctccnthccntury i n I ndia crickctwas a scgrcgatcd
sport,withLnglishmcn and lndiansplayingonoppositctcams whcn thcy
playcdtogcthcratall . Lrickctwasassociatcdwithclubs,thcccntralsocial
institutions o|thcbritish i n l ndia. l ndiancrickctclubs (and thcirassoci-
atcd tcams) wcrc largcly a product o|thc last quartcr o| thc ni nctccnth
ccntury, although thcrc wcrc a numbcr o|arsi clubs bascd in bombay
startinginthc I 840s. lnthis,asinothcrmattcrs,thcarsiswcrcthcbridgc
community bctwccn Indian and Lnglish cultural tastcs. arsi tcams |rom
India tourcd Lnglandin thc I 880s, and in I 888-8 thc hrstLnglishtcam
tourcd l ndia ( although thc ma|ority o| its matchcs wcrc against tcams
whollycomposcdo|Lnglishmcn, andonly a |cw against tcams composcd
o| lndians). bombaywas thcbirthplacco|crickct|or Indians andstillrc-
tainsaprccmincntplacci nl ndiancrickctculturc.
| u i n u b N o J r n
* 2 =
Althoughthcrcwas ncvcraconsciouspolicyinrcgardtothcsupporto|
crickctbythccolonialrcgimc in l ndia, crickct cvolvcd into anuno|hcial
instrumcnt o| statc cultural policy Jhis was largcly duc to thc cultural
commitmcnts o| thosc mcmbcrs o| thc ictorian clitcwho ocupicdkcy
positionsin Indianadministration,cducation,andjournalism, andwhorc-
gardcd crickct as thc idcal way to transmit Victorian idcals o| charactcr
and htncsstothccolony. LordIars,govcrnoro| bombay |rom I 80 to
I 83, waspcrhaps thcmostcrucial hgurcinthcquasio|hcialpatronagco|
crickctinI ndia,andhcwas |ollowcdbyasucccssiono|govcrnors,bothi n
bombayandi nthcothcrprcsidcncics,whosawcrickctasmlhllingthc|ol-
lowi ngrangc o| tasks solidiing thc bonds o|
dcalings bctwccn various I ndian communitics, which
dcgcncratcinto communal (IindNuslm) and
idcalso|manlincss, stamina, andvigori ntoI ndiangroupssccnaslazy,cn-
crvatcd,andc||ctc. l nthisrcgard, crickctwasonco|manyarcnasi nwhich
a colonial sociology was constructcd and rci hcd. In this sociology, lndia
wassccn as a congcrics o|antagonistic cmmunitics, populatcdbymcn
( andwomcn)withavarictyo|psychological dc|ccts. Lrickctwassccnas
an i dcal way to socializc nativcs into ncwmodcso|i ntcrgroup conduct
and ncw standards o|public bchavior. Lstcnsibly conccrncd withrccrc
ation andcompctition,itsundcrlyingquasi-o|hcialchartcrwasmoral and
political. Jhcundcrlyingcontradiction,bctwccncommunallyorganizcd
tcamsandthcidcalo|crcatingbroadcrcivicbonds,has inucnccdthcdc-
vclopmcnt o|crickct |rom its inccption to thc prcscnt and is dcalt with
mon|ullyin thcncxtscctiono|thischaptcr.
Ln thcwholc, |rom about I 870to I 30, inthchighpcriodo|thcKa] ,
thcrc is no doubt that |or l ndiansto play crickct wasto cxpcrimcntwith
thcmystcricso|Lnglishuppcr-classli|c.Whcthcritwasbyplayingtcams
|rom LngIand, which includcd mcn who hadknown cach othcr at Lton
andIarrow, Lx|ordandLambridgc,orduringtours to Lngland, a small
scgmcnto|thcI ndiansportingpopulationwasinitiatcdi ntothcmoraland
social mystcrics andrituals o|Victoriancrickct(Lashman I 80 ockcr
I 7) .
Jhc biographics and autobiographics o| thc hncst Indian crickctcrs
o| this cra, such asVi|ayIazarc ( I 7 I 8 I ), L. .ai (Kaiji I 7), and
Nushtaq Ali ( I 8 I ), who all had activc crickct carccrs i nto thc I 40s,
clcarlyshowthatthcywcrc (i n o| thcir vcj divcrscsocial
backgrounds)tothcvaluccommitmcntsassociatcdwithVictoriancrickct
sportsmanship,scl|-c||accmcnt,tcam wcllastothchagiography
andlorc o|crickctthroughoutthccmpirc,butcspcciallyin Lngland.
l a n i I b N o J r r n i f
3 =
bUI Cass and raCc COnspircd tn Vcry COmpcx Ways in Ic NtCIOrtan
cCUmcnc (brcCKcnrtdgc I 8, I )and in tIsdWardiansUCCcssOrsIrUC-
IUrcs. aVc arcady sUggcsIcd IaI NiCIOrtan CriCKcI inVOVcd impOrIanI
Cass dtsIinCIiOns tn ngand, disIinCItOns IaI IO Iis day acCI Ic rca
IiOns Icrc OcIWccn gcnIcmcn and prOcssiOna paycrs, COaCcs and
paycrs, COUnIy and cagUc CriCKcI. OgcIcr, WtIc macs O a Casscs
cpcdIO CrcaIc and cmOOdy a spOrItng COdc WOsc paIrtCian mOra dt-
mcnstOns Wcrc CcnIra IO Uppcr Casscs, and WOsc WOrKmaniKc sKts
Wcrc pOinIcrs IO Ic rOc OIcWOrKingCasscs in Ic spOrI. (!arKc and
!arKc I 82, 828J Ocr an inIcrcsItng IrcaImcnI OIcpcCUiar tnhcC
IiOnsOIcidcaOmanincssinngtsspOrIingidcOOgy)cCOmpcx
iIyOIisspcCihCOrandOCOOnia disCOUrscasOiUsIraIcsOncVarianIO
WaI as Occn sccn, tn a raIcr dicrcnI COnIcxI, asIc amOtVacnCc O
COOnia disCOUrsc (baOa I 4) .
sinmanyOIcrarcas,nCUdtngarI,cIiqUcIIc, angUagcandCOndUCI,
tI is nOW t nCrcasingy Ccar IaI dUring Ic cyday O Ic mOdcrn COO
niaisms,a COmpcxsysIcm OcgcmOniztngandicrarCizingVaUcsand
praCIiCcs cVOVcd COnjOinIy i n Ic mcIrOpOis and iIs COOnics (!OOpcr
andbIOcr I 8) . n Ic Casc OCriCKcIin ndia, Ic Kcy IOIc COmpcx
hOWs IaIinKcdCriCKcI,Cass, and raCc in Ic COOnta cCUmcncWas Ic
sIOryOpaIrOnagcandCOaCingin ndia bOIIcOiOgraptcsrccrcdIO
aOOVc andancxCccnIsynIcIiCaCCOUnI(!asman I 80,Cap. 2)maKc
iICcarIaI in IcpcriOdOcIWccn I 870and I 0briIts t nVOVcmcnI tn
ndianCriCKcIWasVcryCOmpcxiIinVOVcdOhCcrsOIcarmysIaIiOncd
inndia,OUsincssmcnrOm ngand, andscniOrgOVcrnmcnIOhCias, aO
WOmcpcdIO tmpanIIc idca OCriCKcIinVariOUs ndtan scIIings. I
Ic samc Iimc, OWcVcr, ndian prinCcs OrOUgI ngis and UsIraian
prOcssiOnaCrtCKcIcrsIO ndiaIOIratnIctrOWnIcams.
c prtnCcy pasc in IcpaIrOnagc O ndtanCrtCKcIts tn sOmcWays
Ic mOsI t mpOrIanI tn Ic anaysts O Ic indigcnizaIiOn OCriCKcI. irsI,
CrtCKcIasanciIcspOrIrcqUircdIcsOrIOIimcandmOncynOIaVaiaOc
IOIcOOUrgcOisctIcs OCOOnia ndia. c prinCcs, OnIc OIcrand,
Wcrc qUiCK IO scc CriCKcI as anOIcr cxIcnsiOn O Icir rOya IradiIiOns,
andIcy aOsOrOcd sUCspOrIs as pOO, ric sOOItng, gO, and CriCKcI
inIO IcirIradtIiOnaartsIOCraIiC rcpcrIOtrcs. is pcrmiIIcdIcmIO Ocr
ncW Ktnds O spcCIaCc IOIcirsUOjcCIs (OCKcr I 7, 27), IO i nK Icm-
scVcs IO IcngisarisIOCraCy inpOIcnItayncWandrUiIUWays,and
IOt ngraIiaIc IcmscVcs IOIcCOOnia aUIOriIics in ndia(sUC as Ord
arris), WO aVOrcd CrtCKcI as a mcans Or Ic mOra dtsCi pintng O
'ricnIas. c prtnCcs WO sUppOrIcdCriCKcI Wcrc OIcn Ic css grand
P l a y | r a | t | M e J : r | t y
4
mcmOcrs O Ic ndian arisIOCraCy, Or CrtCKcI Was sOmcWaI Ccapcr
Ian OIcr Orms O rOya paIrOnagc and spcCIaCc. !riCKcI ad Ircc
appcasas an adjUnCIIOIc i csIycandcIOs OpcIIyKtngstp in ndia
(a) iIs rOc, cspcCiay i n Ic OrI, as a many arI in Ic arisIOCraItC
CUIUrc O ctsUrc, (O) iIs NtCIOrian CrcdcnIias, WtC Opcncd dOOrs t n
ngand IaI migI OIcrWtsc Oc css Wc -Oicd ( as t n Ic Casc O
KaniIsinj i ), and(C) tIs rOc asa UscU cxIcnsiOn O OIcr rOya pUOtC
spcCIaCcs IaI ad Occn an impOrIanI parI O Ic OOigaIiOns and mys
IiqUc O rOyaIy tn ndta. CCOrdingy, sma and argc prtnCcs tn many
parIs O ndi aIrOUgOUI Is CcnIUry tmpOrIcd COaCcs rOm ngand,
OrganizcdIOUrnamcnIsandprizcs, sUOstdizcdIcams andCOaCcs, dcVc
OpcdgrOUndsandpiICcs, impOrIcdcqUtpmcnIandcxpcrIisc,andOsIcd
ngts Icams.
OsIimpOrIanI, Ic prtnCcsprOVtdcdOOI dircCI and indircCIsUppOrI
IOmanyCriCKcIcrs (OrIctramiics) rOmUmOcOaCKgrOUnds, WOWcrc
cVcnIUay aOc IOmaKc IcirWay IO OtggcrCiIics, mOrc impOrIanI Icams
and sOmcIimcs IO naIiOna and tnIcrnaItOna VtsiOitIy. Or many ndian
CrtCKcIcrsOUIsidcIcOtgCOOniaCtIicsinIcpcrtOdOcOrcNOrdNar ,
OncOranOIcrOrm OsUOsidy rOm prinCcyOUscsWasIcKcyIOIcir
OWn cnIry inIO Ic COsmOpOtIan WOrd O OigItmc CriCKcI. bUC paycrs
WcrcIUsaOcIOaCtcVc sOmcmcasUrc OmOOiiIyIrOUg CrtCKcI andIO
i nIrOdUCc a COnstdcraOcdcgrcc OCass COmpcxtIy tnIO ndtanCriCKcI, a
COmpcxiIy IaIpcrstsIsIOday.
c grOUndWOrK Or Ic ndiantzaIiOn O CriCKcI Was IcrcOrc aid
IrOUg IcCOmpcx, tcrarCiCa CrOss-aICingObriIts gcnIcmcn in
ndta, ndian prtnCcs mOOtcndtanmcnWOWcrc OIcnparIOIcCtVi
sciCcs andIc army, and, mOsI impOrIanI, IOsc WiIc CriCKcItng prO-
cssiOnas (mainy rOm ngand and UsIraia) WO aCIUay Iraincd Ic
grcaI ndian CriCKcIcrs OIc hrsI dcCadcs OIs CcnIUry. csc prOcs-
siOnas, Ic mOsI prOmincnIOWOmWcrcranKarranI bi iIC,and
!arrtc \rimmcII, as Wc as Ic sOmcWaI mOrc sOCiay csIaOiscd
briIisarmymcn, COcgc prinCtpas, andOUsincssmcnWOCOaCcdOUd-
ding ndtan CrtCKcIcrs sccm IO aVc Occn Ic CrUCia inKs OcIWccn sIar-
dOm, arisIOCraCy, and IcCntCa sKi in Ic COOnia CrtCKcItng WOrd aI
argc NaI Icsc prOcssiOna COaCcs aCCOmpiscd Was IOprOVidc
IcCniCa sKis IaIWcrcCrUCta OrIc paIrOnagc anIasics O Ic ndtan
prinCcs (WiC t nIUrn Wcrc IicdIO IcirOWn anIastcs O a mOnarCiCa
and arisIOCraItC idca O cmpirc) IOOc IransaIcd tnIO COmpcIiIiVc ndtan
Icams aCUay COmpOscd O ndians. IOUg Icrc ts nO dcCisiVc cVt
dcnCc OrIc OOWing i nIcrprcIaItOn, iIis igy iKcyIaIsma IOWn
P l a y | r a | t | M e J : t n | t y
~ 5
boys lkc ushIaq^Il,Vl|ayazarc, and laIa ^marnaIh wouId havc had
ahardIimc cnIcrlng Ihcrarchcdworld ot worId crickcI ,sIlll dominaIcd
by lngIsh and VlcIorlan sporIlng codcs), wlIhout thc IranslaIion ot
crlckcI lnIo an cmbodlcdIcchnical pracIlcc by Ihcsc Iowcr-class whiIc
pro|csslonaIs.Jhus,lIlsnoIIhccascIhaIan^nglophonccIassdramawas
smply rcproduccd in ndia, buI IhaI ln Ihc clrcuIatlons o| prlnccs,
coachcs, armyothclals, vlccroys, collcgc principals, andplaycrs o|hum-
bIccIassoriglnbcIwccnndia,lngland, and^usIrallaa complcxi mpcrlaI
cIass rcglmc was tormcd, ln whlch ndian and lngllsh social hicrarchlcs
wcrcnIcrlinkcdandcross-hatchcdto producc, by thc I J0s, a cadrc o|
noncIlIc ndians who |clI Ihcmsclvcs Io bc gcnuinc crlckctcrs and gcn-
uinclylndianaswcIl .
nIhls llghI Ihc grcaI prlnccly baIsman Kan|lIslnh|i , I 87I J J ) ls
probabIyasadcxccpIlon,|orwhomcrickcIlngandlngIlshncssbccamcso
dccplyconnccIcdIhaIhccouIdncvcrIakcIhcldcaotcrlckcIasanndlan
gamcvcryscrlously. cwasIhcamsahcbo|lawanagar, asmallklngdom
in5aurashIra, on IhcwcsIcoasI ot ndla. Kan|ihas a myIhlc pIacc in Ihc
annals ot crlckcI and ls cvcn Ioday ,along wiIh a handtul otoIhcrs llkc
W. L racc,onbradman,andLary5obcrs)consldcrcdtobconco|Ihc
grcaIbaIsmcno|allIlmc. IisworIhspcndingallIIIcIlmconKan|i , |orhc
cxcmpllhcswhaIcoIonlalcrickctwasaIIabouI.ronically, lIwasprobably
|usI Ihls pro|ound ldcnIlhcaIlon wiIh Ihc cmpirc and Ihc crown IhaI al-
lowcdKan|lIobccomcIhcquinIcsscntialandllvlngIropco|anLricnIal
|ormotcrlckcIingskllI.
Kan|lwasnoIslmplyagrcaIrun-gcIIcrbuIwas alsosccnincrlckcIclr-
clcs as carrylng a pccuIlarLricnIaI glow. Jhc grcat L. b. lrysaidothlm
IhaIhc movcdas i|hchadnoboncs oncwouldnoI bc surprlscdIo scc
brown curcs burnlngln Ihc grass whcrc onc othiscuIshadIravclcdor
bluc tlamc shlmmcrlng round hs bat as hc madc onc o| hls sIrokcs.
lcvlIlc Lardus saldIhaI whcn hc baIIcd, sIrangclighIwassccn torIhc
hrsIIlmcon lnglish hclds.LIcmill, Ihc^usIralianIcsIcrlckctcr,lmply
saldclsmorcIhanaaIsman,hcsa|ugglcr biIllIch,Ihc5urrcyand
lngIand|asIbowIcr, rc|crrcdIohlmasIhcmasIcr, Ihcmaglclan,allclIcd
lndccllow I 7,chap.)
Kan|iwassccnI obrlngapccullarIyndlangcnlusI obaIIlng,hcnccIhc
rctcrcncc Io maglc and|uggllng, sIrangc llghI and bluc tlamcs Kan|l, ln
|acI,rcprcscnIcdIhc glamorous obvcrsc ot Ihc cttcmlnacy, Iazlncss, and
|ack o|sIamlna IhaI ndians wcrc Ihought by many coloniaI IhcorisIsIo
cmbody ,uIchlns I 7, chap J, landy I 8J) . n Kan|i , wic bccamc
guiIc, Irlckcry bccamc maglc, wcakncss bccamc supplcncss, and ct|cmi-
P l o , r a | t o M e J : t r | t ,

nacy was Irans|ormcd inIo gracc. Jhis oricntalist glow, o|coursc, hada
grcaI dcaI IodowiIh Kan|is impcccablc soclaI crcdcntials, his IoIal dcvo-
Iion IolnglishinsIiIuIions,allIhcwaytromcolIcgctothccrown) , andhis
unswcrlngloyaltyIothccmpirc. cIhusnoIonlyrcvoIuIlonizcdcrickct
andottcrcdIhccrowdsancxtraordinarytrcaIwhcnhcwasatbat,buIlng-
IishaudicnccscouIdalwaysrcadinhispcr|ormanccsaloyalandgIamorous
o||cring o| Ihc mysIcrious LricnttoIhc playing hclds ot lton. Kan|i was
Ihc ulIimaIc brown lngIishman. Jhcrc ls no doubt, howcvcr, that Kan|i
bcIongcd Io IhaI gcncraIion o| ndian princcs |or whom Ioyalty to thc
crown andIhcir prldcin bcing ndlanwcrc cocxtcnsivc wlthoncanoIhcr,
aIIhough oncrcccnI analysthas suggcstcdthaI Kan|ls commlImcnts may
havc bccn cxprcssions ot dccp pcrsonaI doubts and contlicts ( landy
I 8b) . Kan|is sIory is onIyancxIrcmccasco|amorc gcncral lrony IhaI
Ihcndianprinccs,whopatronizcdcrickcIasawayIocntcrthcpaIrician
VicIorian worId, andwhowcrc IargcIy opposcdIo thc naIionaIlsImovc-
mcnI, in |acI, IaidIhc grounds |orIhcmasIcry o|crickctamongordinary
ndians IhaI was Io bIossom into a tull -bIown prldc ln lndian crlckctlng
compcIcncc byIhc I J0s.
C:l:t, j:, crJ Ncter
Joday, Ihc cxIraordinary popuIarlty o| crickct in ndia ls cIcarly Iicd up
wlIhnaIionalisIscnIimcnI.buIinIhccarIyhistoryotcrickctlnndia,aswc
havc noIcd aIrcady, crickcI tosIcrcd Iwo othcrklnds o|loyaIty. Jhc hrsI
was ,and sIiIl is) Io rcIigious (communal) ldcntitics. Jhc sccond kind ot
Ioyaty, raIhcrmorcabstracIIyinstantiaIcdinthcsport,wasloyaItytocm-
pirc. Jhc inIcrcsIlng qucsIlon hcrcis howthc idca otIhc ndlan nation
cmcrgcdasa salicnIcrickcIingcnIity.
^s tarbackasthc hrst clubs organizcdbyarsis in bombay in thcmid-
nincIccnIh ccnIury, mcmbcrshlp ln rciglous communitics bccamc thc
salicnIprincipIc aroundwhlch ndlans bandcdtogcthcr to pIay crickcI.
^ndIhis organlzing prlncipIc rcmalncd lnpIaccuntil iIwas dislodgcdin
Ihc I J0s. lndus,arsls,usllms,luropcans, and,cvcntuaIIy, IhcKcst
,a labcl |or Ihc communaIIy unmarkcd groups brought togcthcr inIo
crlckcIIcams) wcrc organizcdintocrlckctcIubs.Jhcrcwasmuchdcbatc
|romIhcvcrysIarIaboutthcprosandcons o|IhiscommunaIorganization
otcrickcI.^lIhoughcIscwhcrcinprlnccIyndlaIhcma|orpatronsotsporI
wcrcIhc princcs, who paid norcgardtocommunal principlcs ln Ihclrrc-
cruiImcnI o|playcrs, in Ihc prcsidcncicso|britlsh ndia paycrs wcrc dl-
vldcdinIorcllglousandcIhnlcgroupings,somco|whlchwcrcantagonis-
P l c , | r a | t | M e J : t r | t ,
~ 7 ~
Iic in publicl i |c morc gcncrally. Jhus, crickcIwasanimporIanIarcna, in
whichplaycrsaswcll ascrowds lcarncdIoIhinko|Ihcmsclvcsasi ndu,
usli m, andarsi , i nconIrasIwiIhIhcluropcans
Jhcrchas bccn much good hisIorical work Ioshow IhaI Ihcsc social
caIcgoricswcrcboIhIhccrcaIion andIhc insIrumcnIo|a colonialsociol-
ogyo|rulc,^ppadurai I 8I LohnI 87,irksI 87lrciIag I 8andcy
I 0 rakash I 0). buIIhc|acI isIhaIIhcycnIcrcd dccply i nIo ndian
scl|-conccpIions and ndian poliIics and cul Iural li|c. ^lIhough iI is Iruc
IhaI ccnsus classihcaIions, Ihc conIrol o| rcligious cndowmcnIs, and Ihc
issuc o| scparaIc clccIoraIcswcrcIhcma|oro|hcialarcnas in whichissucs
o|communal idcnIiIywcrcrcihcdasparIo| acoIonial sociology o| ndia,
Ihc rolc o|crickcI i n Ihis proccss musI noI bc undcrcsIimaIcd. ^I lcasI
inWcsIcrn ndia,briIisho|hcials likcLovcrnorarriswcrccomplaccnIi n
Ihcir vicw o|crickcI as a sa|cIy valvc |orcommunal hosIiliIy, andas a
mcans|orIcachingndianshowIolivc amicablywiIhcommunaldivcrsiIy.
buI dccply cmbcddcdas Ihcy wcrc in Ihcir own hcIions abouI Ihc |rag
mcnIaIion o| ndian socicIy, whaI Ihcy did noI rcalizc was IhaI on Ihc
playing hcld ,as clscwhcrc) Ihcy wcrc pcrpcIuaIing communal conccp-
Iionso|idcnIiIyIhaIi nndianciIicsmighIhavcbccomcmorchuidJhus,
wchavcIhc paradoxIhaIbombay pcrhaps Ihc mosIcosmopoliIan colo-
nial hadiIsmaorcliIcsporIorganizcdaroundcommunallincs.
Jhiscommunal principlcwasboundIobccomc oIiosc as scrious-
ncss and qualiIy o| crickcI i n ndia i ncrcascd. Lnl ikc crickcI i n ndia,
lnglishcrickcIwasorganizcdaroundasysIcmi nwhichIhcnaIionwasIhc
cxcmplary uniI and counIics, noIcommuniIics,wcrciIslowcr-lcvcl con-
sIiIucncics. noIhcrwords,IcrriIopandnaIionhood|orlngland,commu-
niIyandculIuraldisIincIivcncss|or ndia,sccchap) . Jhuswhcnlnglish
Icamsbcgan IoIourndia, IhcqucsIionwashowIoconsIrucI an ndian
IcamIhaIwasahIIingopponcnI. nIhccarlyIours,inIhc I 80sIhcsc n-
dian Icams wcrc largcly composcd o| lnglishmcn, buI as morc ndians
bcgan IoplayIhcgamcandasmorcpaIronsandcnIrcprcncursbcganIo
rnIcamsandIournamcnIs, iIwas incviIablc IhaIIhc |ull poolo| n-
dianIalcnIbcdrawnonIoconsIrucIa hrsI-raIcndianIcamJhisproccss,
`F ndians i ncrcasingly camc IorcprcscnI ndia in crickcI |ollows
not surprisingly Ihc hisIop o| Ihc cvoluIion o| ndian naIionalism as a
massmovcmcnI.LrickcI inIhc ndiancolonialconIcxIIhuscasIsanuncx-
pccIcdlighIonIhcrclaIionshipbcIwccnnaIionhoodand nso|ar
aslnglandwasnoIsimplyidcnIicalwiIhIhccmpirc,IhcrchadIobcoIhcr
parallcl cnIiIics in Ihc colonics againsI which Ihc lnglish naIion-sIaIc
P l a y | t j a | t | M o J : t r | t y
8
could play Ihus, ndia hadI o b c invcnIcd, aI lcasI |orIhc purposcs o |
colonialcrickcI
1cIIhcrcwassurprisinglyl i IIlc cxpliciI communicaIionbcIwccnIhosc
whowcrc rcsponsiblc |or organizingcrickcIin ndia onanall- ndiabasis
andIhosc, in Ihc all-ndia Longrcss parIy ,andclscwhcrc) , who ,bcgin-
ningi nIhc I 880)wcrcpro|cionalIycommiIIcdIoIhcidcao|a|rccn-
diannaIion.Jhcidcao| ndianIalcnI, anndianIcam, andndiancompc
IiIion in inIcrnaIional crickcI cmcrgcd rclaIivcly indcpcndcnIly, undcr
nono|hcial sIimulaIion byiIspaIronsandpubl icisIs.Jhus crickcInaIion-
alismcmcrgcdasa paradical, alIhoughlogical, ouIgrowIho|IhcdcvcI-
opmcnIo|crickcIinlngland. KaIhcrIhanbcingaspin-o||o|Ihcimagincd
communiIy o|naIionalisIpoliIiciansin ndia,naIionallyorganizcdcrickcI
was an i nIcrnal dcmando| Ihc colonialcnIcrpriscand Ihusrcquircdcog-
naIcnaIionalorproIonaIionalcnIcrpriscsinIhccolonics
lcvcrIhclcss,ascrickcIbccamcmorcpopularinIhchrsIIhrccdccadcs
o|IhisccnIu, andasIhcnaIionalisImovcmcnI,particularlywiIhahaIma
Landhi and Ihc ndian laIional Longrcss gaIhcrcd momcnIum in Ihc
samcpcriod, crickcI naIionalismandcxpliciIlynaIionalisIpolIicsassuch
camc inIo conIacI in Ihc ordinary livcs o|young ndians. Jhus, l I .
5alvc a ma|or ndian poliIician and crickcI cnIrcprcncur, rccalls how i n
IhccarlyIhirIicshcandhis|ricndswcrc inIimi daIcdandprcvcnIcd|rom ,
playing on a hnc crickcI piIch in lagpur by a ccrIain r. Jhomas, an
^ngl o- ndianscrgcanI in chargc o|IhcpiIch,who "ookcdl ikcan^|rican
capc bu||alo, massivc and"c|Iy insizc, oIhcrwisc posscsscd o| o||cnivc
uncouIh andvulgarcharacIcrisIics, I 87, 5) . ^|Icrscvcralscaryandabu-
sivccpisodcs involvingJhomas (a cIassic subalIcrn hgurc kccping naIivc
urchinsaway IhcsacrosancIspaccso|impcrialpcr|ormancc) , 5alvcs
|aIhcrand his|ricnds, all inhucnIiallocal|ollowcrs o| Landhi , i nIcrvcncd
on bchal| o| Ihc young boyswiIh a scniorbriIish o|hcial i n lagpur and
won Ihcm Ihc righI Io usc Ihc piIch whcn iI was noI in o|hcial usc.
JhroughouI5alvcs narraIiono|IhissIory, wcgcIasIrongscnsco|his|car
o|Ihc^nglo- ndiansubalIcrn,IhcscnsuousaIIracIiono|playingonano|-
hcialpiIch,IhcouIragcas ndianso|bcingkcpIouIo|apublicspacc,and
IhcnaIionalisIhavoro|IhcirrcscnImcnI. Ii sprobablcIhaIcrickcInaIion-
alismando|hcialnaIionalisIpoIiIicswcrcrarclywcddcdinconsciouspub
lic dcbaIcs or movcmcnIs, buI IhaI Ihcy a||ccIcd Ihc Iivcd cxpcricncc o|
play,ski ll, spacc,andrighIs|ormanyyoungndiansinIhcsmallIownsand
playing hclds o|prcindcpcndcncc ndia. buI Ihc growIh o| crickcI con-
sciousncssandcrickcIcxciIcmcnIcannoIbcundcrsIoodwiIhouIrc|crcncc
IoIhcrolc o|languagc andIhcmcdia.
P l c y n a t t | M o J : t r t y

:occicizctier crJ t: M:Jic
Jhc mcdia havc playcda crucial rolc in lhcindgcnizalion otcrickcl, hrsl
lhrough lhc nglish-languagc crickcl commcnlarics aircd by All lndia
Kadio, slarlingin I J J . LargclyinLnglishduringlhc lhirlics, torlics, and
htlics |Lashman I 80, I 454), radio commcnlaryslarlingi nlhc sixlics
wasi ncrcasinglyin lindi,Jami l andbcngali , aswcllas inLnglish.Nulli-
lingual radiocommcnlary isprobablylhc singlcma|orinslrumcnl inlhc
socializalion ot lhc l ndian mass audicncc in lhc subllclics otlhc sporl.
Whilc covcragc ot lcsl malchcs |involving li a and olhcr counlrics)
hasbccn conhncdlo Lnglish, lindi, Jamil, and bcngali, olhcr hrslclass
malchcsarc accompanicdbyradiocommcnlaryinalllhcma|orlanguagcs
otlhcsubconlincnl.osyslcmalicsludyhasbccnmadcotlhcrolcotvcr
nacularcrickclcommcnlary insocializingnonurbanlndians inlo lhccos-
mopolilancullurcotcrickcl,bulilwascvidcnllyama|ortaclorinlhcin
digcnizalionotlhcsporl.
Jhrough radios, which arc vcry widcly availablc and which allracl
largc crowds in lrain slalions catclcrias, and olhcr public placcs, l ndians
havcabsorbcdlhcnglishlcrminologyotcrickcl,cspcciallyilsnounslruc
lurc,inloavariclyotvcacularsynlaclicpallcrns.Jhislypcotsporlspid-
giniscruciallolhci ndgcnizalionotlhcsporl,torilpcrmilsconlaclwlh
anarcanctormallhcsamclimcaslhctormislinguislicallydomcslicalcd
Jhus, lhc lcmcnlary vocabulary ot crickcl lcrms in Lnglish is widcly
knownlhroughoullndia |i ncrcasinglycvcn in

llagcs).
Jhccomplcx linguislic cxpcricnccs lhal cmcrgcd i n lhc conlcxl ot
vcrnacular broadcasls arc cxcmplihcd i n lhc tollowing narralivc trom
Kichard Lashman. Luring lhc I 727J scrics lhis convcrsalion bclwccn
LalaAmarnalh, lhc cxpcrl, andlhc lindi commcnlalor look placc atlcr
A|ilWadckarhad slraighl drivcn ococktortourottlhc tronl tool. Jhc
dialoguc illuslralcs lhis hybrid languagc and somc ot lhc hazards ot
ilsusc.
M | P l L L N N L N P L K . Lala|i aapwobacktoolslraighldrivckc
barcmckyakahcnachahlchain
P NP P P M Wbacktoolnahintronltooldrivclhi . . . badisundcr
lhi . .wrstylhi .
L L N N L P P L K . lan badi riskylhi.Wadckarko aisa nahinkhclna
chahiyc.
PNPK N P M . Lommcnlalorsahib, riskynahinwrsly. Wrislscmar
hui .
P l a y r ; a | : | M o J : t r | : y
I 00
Jranslalion
L L N N L P P L K . Lala,whalwouldyoulikclosayaboullhal
drivcottlhcbacktool
P N P K N P M . Jhalwasatronland nolabacktooldrivc. . . ilwas
bcauliul . . waswristy.
L L N N L N PL K . 5lhalwasrisky.Wadckarshouldnlhavcplaycd
likclhal
P N P K P P M NrLommcnlalor,riskyisnolwrsty. llwashilwilhlhc
wrisl. . . |Lashman I 80, I 47)
Allhough Lashmanslranslalion i snolcnlircly scnsilivc ilmakcsilquilc
clcar lhallhcvcrnacularzalion otcrickcl has ils linguislic piltalls. Whal
hc docs nol nolc howcvcr is lhallhrough lhc discussion ot such crrors
lindi spcakcrs domcslicalc a rclalivcly csolcric crickcl lcrm likc ur:[.
Jhc mcdia hcgcmony ot crickcl | olcn a sourcc ot complainl on lhc
parl ot parlisans ot olhcrsporls) has grown sincclhc arrival ot lclcvision.
Atlcravcrymodcslslarlwilhsmallaudicnccsinlhclalc I 0, lclcvision
has nowcomplclclylranstormcdcrickclcullurc in lndiaAsscvcralcom-
mcnlalorshavcpoinlcdoul,crickclispcrtccllysuilcdtorlclcvisionwilh
ils many pauscs, ils spalial conccnlralion otaclion andilscxlcndcdtor-
mal or audicnccs as wcll as advcrliscrs ilislhc pcrtccl lclcvision sporl.
Jclcvision isallhc cullingcdgc ot lhcprivalizalion otlcisurc in con-
lcmporarylndia|asclscwhcrc). Aspublicspaccsgrowmorcviolcnl,disor
dcrly, and uncomtorlablc, lhoswhocanattordlclcvisionconsumc lhcir
spcclaclcs in lhc company ot lhcirtricnds and tamily. Jhis islrucotlhc
lwogrcalpassionsotlhcmassaudicnccsporlandcincma.l n lhconccasc
lhroughlivccovcragc andinlhcolhcrlhroughrcruns andvidcocasscllcs,
lhcsladiumandlhccincma hall arc bcing rcplaccdbylhc living roomas
lhc sclling tor spcclaclc Jcsl malchcs arc slill wcll allcndcd bul lhc
!
crowdslhalshowuparcmorcvolalilc. olongcracomplcxsharcdcxpc-
ricnccbclwccnlhcrichandlhc poor, lhcsladiumspcclaclcisamorcpo-
larizcdand|aggcdcxpcricncc,whichmanydonolprctcrlolhccoopri-
valc,andomniscicnllclcvisionscrccn.Asclscwhcrci nlhcworldinrcgard
lo largc-scalcspcclaclcs, lhc audicncc ot livc malchcs is ilsclta prop in a
grandcr pcrtormancc slagcd tor lhc bcncl ot lclcvision vicwcrs. Jhc
rowd is lhcrc nol lo cn|oy lhc livcncss ot lhc spcclaclc bul lo providc
cvidcncc ot il torlhc lclcvision audicncc. An audicncc ot lhc spcclaclc
trom ils own poinl otvicw ilisparl ot lhc spcclaclc torlhosc al homc.
Jhis,loo,isparlotlhcproccssotindigcnizalionanddccolonizalion.
Jclcvisionrcduccs torcignlcams andslars lomanagcablc ilvisu-
P | a y | n a | : | M o J : r r : y
~ I 0 I ~
allydomcsIicaIcsIhccxoIicnaIurc otIhcsport, parIicularly torIhosc who
mighIprcviouslyonlyhvchcard maIchcs onIhcradio. ^ndtoracounIry
whosccincmasIarsarc iIsma|orcclcbriIics,Iclcvision lcndscincmaIicau-
IhorityIoIhcsportsspccIaclc. nacivilizaIionwhcrcsccing,Josor) isIhc
sacrcdinsIrumcnI otcommunion, IcIcvision has inIcnsihcdIhc sIar sIaIus
otIhcgrcaIndiancrickcI playcrs ndian IcsI crickcIcrs havc ncvcrbccn
Ihcob|ccIs otgrcaIcr adulaIion Ihan in Ihc pasIdccadc otinIcnsc IcIcvi
sionvicwingotma|orgamcs.JclcvisionhasdccpcncdIhcnaIionaI passion
torcrickcI nurIurcd by radi, buI boIh radiocommcnIary andIcIcvision
waIchinghavcbccnrcintorccd,tromIhcvicwpoinIotaudicnccrcccpIion
and parIicipaIion, by a vasI growIh in books, ncwspapcrcovcragc, and
sporIs-magazinc consumpIion, noI|usI inlnglish buI in Ihcvcaculars
Jhc prolitcraIion otncws, biographicsotsIars, commcnIarics, and in-
sIrucIional liIcraIurc, cspccialIy in Ihc m|or crickcI-playing arcas pro
vidcs Ihc criIical backdrop torIhc spccial torcc otIclcvision. Whilc Ihis
vcrnacular maIcrial is rcad and hcard by Ihosc who do noI IhcmscIvcs
rcad, radio is hcardand imagincd in livc torm, whiIc Iclcvision covcragc
makcs Ihc IransiIion Io spccIaclc. Jhcsc massmcdiaIcd torms havc crc
aIcdapublicIhaIiscxIrcmclylargc,I iIcraIcinmanydittcrcnIscnscsinIhc
subIlcIicsotIhcsporI,andcanbringIocrickcIIhcpaionsgcncraIcdby
rcading,hcaring andsccing.
Jhcrolc otIhcmassvcrnacular liIcrarc inIhisproccssiscrucial,tor
whaIIhcsc books, magazincs,andpamphIcIs do isIocrcaIc abridgc bc
IwccnIhcvcrnaculars andIhclnglishlanguagc, puIpicIurc andnamcsot
torcign playcrs inIo ndic scripIs and synIax, and rcintorcc hc body ot
conIacIIcrms (lnglishIcrmsIransliIcraIcdinIoindi, araIhi , orJamil)
IhaIarchcardonIhcradio. omcotIhcscmaIcrialsaIsoarc insIrucIional
andconIainclaboraIcdiagramsandvcrbalIcxIsaccompanyingIhcscillus-
IraIionsIhaI cxplainIhcvarious sIrokcs, rulcs, andlogic otcrckcI
Io rcadcrs who may know no lngIish. Jhis vcrnacularizaIion proccss,
which hvccxamincdmosIclosclywiIhabody otmaIcrialsin araIhi,`
providcsavcrbalrcpcrIoircIhaIallowsIargcnumbcrsotndiansIo
cncc crickcI as a li ngi sIically tamiliar torm, Ihus libcraIing crickcI trom
IhaIvcrylnglishncssIhaIhrsIgavc iIiIsmoralauIhoriIy andinIriguc.
VcrnacularcommcnIaryon radio (andIaIcron IcIcvision)providcsIhc
hrsIsIcpIoIhcdomcsIicaIion otIhcvocabuIaryotcrickcIbccausciIpro-
vidcsnoI|usIaconIacIvocabulary,buIalsoa linkbcIwccnIhisvocabulary
andIhccxciIcmcnIotIhchcardorsccn drama otIhc gamc, iIssIrokcs iIs
rhyIhm, iIs physical Ihri ll. Jhc lnglishncss ot crckcI Icrminology is
drawn inIo Ihc worlds ot lindi, araIhi, Jmi l , and bcngali, buI iI is si -
P | o y | r a | t | M e J e r r | t y
I 0J ~
mulIancouslybroughI inIo inIimaIcconIacIwiIh IhcacIual playingotIhc
gamcIhroughouIIhcsIrccIs, playgrounds, andbuildingloIsoturbanndia
and Ihc trcc spaccs ot many viIlagcs as wcll. Jhus, Ihc acquisiIion ot
crickcIIcrminology inIhcvcrnacularrcintorccsIhcscnscotbodilycom-
pcIcnccin IhcsporI,whichisin IurngivcnahcttyboosIby rcguIarspoIs
on Iclcvision. Jhc grcaI sIars ot crckcI arc imiIaIcd, childrcn arc nick
namcdatIcrIhcm, andIhcIcrminoIogyotcrickcI,iIssIrokcsandiIssIars,
iIsrulcsandiIsrhyIhms,bccomcparIotvcrnacularpragmaIicsandascnsc
otIivcdphysicalcompcIcncc.
JhcvasIcorpusotprinIcd maIcrials inIhcvcrnaculars rci ntorcc Ihis
IinkbcIwccnIcrminological conIrol andbodilycxciIcmcnIandcxpcrIisc
byprovidingIargcamounIsoti ntormaIion,sIaIisIics,andI orcIhaIturIhcr
supporI Ihc linguisIic and picIorial compcIcncc otndians who arc only
parIiallycomtorIablcinIhc^nglophoncworId. nIhcmanybooks,maga-
and pamphlcIs inIhcvcrnaculars, Ihcrulcs, sIrokcs, andIcrminol-
ogy otcrickcI(mosIotIcn IransliIcraIcddirccIly trom Ihclnglishso IhaI
Ihcy rcmain parI ot Ihc linguisIi ccumcnc ot inIcaIional crickcI) arc
otIcnaccompanicdbyschcmaIic diagrams. iscussingaI lcngIh Ihcl ivcs
andsIylcs otcrckcIcrsboIh ndianandtorcign andcmbcddingIhcscdis-
cussionsi ndcIaiIcddcbaIcs anddialogucs abouImaIIcrs ot|udgmcnIand
rcgulaIion (suchasncuIraI umpiring), IhcscmaIcriaIs hiIch crickcIIcrmi -
nologyIoIhcbodyasasiIcotlanguagc uscandcxpcricncc. n addiIion,
bylocaIing IhcscinsIrucIional maIcrials inncws, gossip, sIars, andscnsa-
IionalcvcnIssurroundingrckcI, crickcI isdrawn inIo awidcrworId ot
cclcbriIics, conIrovcrsics, and conIcxIs ouIsidc ot sporI, which turIcr
cmbcdiI in linguisIicaIlymiliarIcrrain.
JhclindiIanguagcmagazincK||t-K|s:t providcsancxcclcnIcxam
pIcotIhci nIcrocularworldotIhcvcrnacularrcadcr(scc^ppadurai and
brcckcnridgc II b),torIhismagazincconIainsadvcrIiscmcnIstorlindi
pulphcIion, indicomicbooks,variousbodyproducIslikcconIacIlcnscs
andindigcnousIoIions, andphoIo aIbums otcrickcIsIars. Jhcrcarcalso
advcrIiscmcnIs torvarious kinds ot how-Io and sclthcIp pockcI books,
mosIcxplainingskillslikcclccIricwiringandshorIhandaswcllassIrangcr
Lt likc mcIhods ot lubricaIinggrcasctormachincry linally,
manylavishcoIorphoIosotcrickcIsIrsandnumcrousncwsiIcmsonspc-
cihcmaIchcs andIournamcnIsplacccrickcI inasplcndidworldotscmi-
cosmopoIiIangliI,inwhichcrickcIprovidcsIhcIcxIualsuIurctoramuch
morc divcrsccollagcotmaIcriaIs havingIo dowiIhmodcrnl i tcstylcs and
tanIasics bccausc magincs such as K|s:t-K|s:t arc rcIaIivcly chcapIy
produccdandsold,IhcirpapcrandgraphicsquaIIyislow,andIhcrctorciI
l o y t n j a t t | M o J : r n | r y
I 0J
ts nOI aI a casy IO dtsItngUtsVartOUstnds O ncWs andOptntOn ptcCcs
rOm Ic adVcrItscmcnIs Or OIcr tnds O tIcraIUrc and scrVtCcs. c
IOIa ccCI ts O a scamcss WcO OVcrOa and VtsUa tmprcsstOns OCOs
mOpOtIantsm t nWtCCrtCcI ts Ic COnncCItVcItssUc 'IcrVcrnaCUar
magaztncs arc mOrc CasIc and css t nIcrOCUar Ian Its Onc, OUI as Icy
arc Iacn IOgcIcr WtI OIcr prtnIcd maIcrtas, and cspcCtay WtI Ic
ad)aCcnI cxpcrtcnCcs O radtO, IccVtstOn, and hm ncWsrccs O CrtCcI
maICcs, Icrc ts tIIc dOUOI IaI Ic CUIUrc OCrtCcI IaI ts COnsUmcd
Oyscmt-ngOpOncrcadcrsts dcCtstVcypOsICOOnta andpOygOI.
crapscVcn mOrc tmpOrIanIarc IcncWspapcrand magaztnc sIOrtcs,
as Wc as Ic OOOs, IaI Ic Ic CrtCcItng t c sIOrtcs O VartOUs sIars,
OOI Od and ncW. NaIIcsc VcrnaCUarsIOrtcs dO ts IOOCaIc Ic sts
andcCtIcmcnI OIc spOrI t n tngUtsItCay managcaOc narraItVcs, IUs
matng COmprccnstOc nOI )UsI sIars OUI prOxtmaIc CrtCcItng t Vcs.
cscrcadaOc tVcsIcn OcCOmc IcOasts OrarcncWcdt nItmaCyt n Ic
rcCcpItOn OradtO and IccVtstOn COVcragc OCrtCcIcVcnIs, andIc OOd
tycxtsOcVcnIcmOsIrUsItCOOy, paytngWtIpOOrcqUtpmcnIOna a
OWhcd,t sItcdaIIccVcOangUagcandIcOOdyIOIcWOrdOtg
pOWcrcd CrtCcI spcCIaCcs. c IaI many O Icsc OOOs and
pampcIs arc ctIcr gOsIWrtIIcn Or WrtIIcn WtI prOcsstOna WrIcrs
dOcs nOI dcIraCI rOm Ictr OrCc as IOOs Or UndcrsIandtng CrtCcI Or
many rcadcrs OUIstdc Ic ngOpOncWOrd. by COnncCItng Ic tc O a
sIar IO nOWn paCcs, cVcnIs, sCOOs, IcaCcrs COaCcs, andcOW pay
crs, anarraItVcsIrUCIUrctsCrcaIcd t nWtCCrtCcIOcCOmcntVcncd)UsI
astIssIarsarcmadcgraspaOc (OrancxCccnIcxampc OIts, scc basIrt
and aIt ! ) .
c gcncra OrCc OIcmcdta cxpcrtcnCc t s IUs pOWcrUy synacs
IcItC !rtCI ts rcad, card andsccn, andIc OrCc O daty tc
cnCcsO OCCastOnagtmpscsOt VcCrtCcImaICcsandsIars,and
IcmOrc prcdtCIaOccVcnIs OIcCrtCcIspcCIaCcOnIccVtstOn aCOn
sptrcnOI)UsIIOVcrnaCUartZcCrtCcIOUIIOtnIrO)cCIIcmasIcrIcrmsand
masIcr IrOpcs O CrtCcI tnIO Ic OOdty praCItCcs and OOdy-rcaIcd an
Iastcs Omany yOUng ndtan macs rtnI, radtO, and IccVtstOn rctnOrCc
caC OIcr pOWcrUy and CrcaIc an cnVtrOnmcnI tn WtC CrtCcI ts st
mUIancOUsyargcrIan t c (OcCaUsc Ot IssIars, spcCIaCcs, andassOCta-
ItOn WtI IcgamOUrOWOrdIcsIs and tnIcrnaItOna t nIrtgDc) andCOsc
IO tc,OcCaUsc tI asOccn rcndcrcd tnIO tVcs, manUas, andncWsIaIarc
nO ngtsmcdtaIcd. s ndtans rOm VartOUs t ngUtsItC rcgtOns t n
ndtasccandcarIcCrtCcInarraItVcsOIccVtstOnandradtIcydOsO
nOIasncOpyIcssIrUggtngIOgraspanngtsOrmOUIasCUIUraytIcr-
| o i r u f b N o J r r r i l
! U ~
aIc VtcWcrs Or WOm CrtCcI as Occn dccpy VcrnaCUartzcd Us, a
COmpcxscIOcxpcrtcnIta and pcdagOgtCaOOpstsscIUpIrOUgWtC
Ic OCrtCcIOcCOmcs a CrtItCa tnsIrUmcnIOsUO)cCItVtIy and
agcnCytnIcprOCcss OdcCOOntzaItOn.
T: jir: Stril:s 8ccl
I Ic rcCcpItOn cnd, dcCOOntZaItOn tnVOVcs Ic aCqUtstItOn O CUIUra
tIcraCy tn CrtCcIOya mass aUdtcnCc, andIts stdc O dcCOOntZaItOn t n
VOVcs IcsOrIOapprOprtaItOn OCOmpcIcnCc IaIWcarcatnCtncdIO
appaUd. bUI Icrc ts asO a prOdUCItOn dtmcnstOnIO dcCOOntZaItOn and
crc WccnIcrt nIO IcCOmpcxWOrdOcnIrcprcncUrstp and spcCIaCc,
OsIaIcspOnsOrstp andVasIprtVaIc prOhIs.
Ntc t I t sIrUc IaI pOOrcr and css UrOanc ndtan mcn Wcrc aOc IO
cnIcr Ic COsmOpOt Ian WOrd O CrtCcI IrOUg rOya OrOhCta sUppOrI
tn Ic pcrtOd OcOrc NOrdNar , Ic rcaItVcyWtdc Cass Oasc O cVcn
Ic OcsI ndtan Icams WOUd nOIaVc asIcdaIcrIcWar ad tI nOI Occn
Or Ic asCtnaItng and qUtIc UnUsUa paIIcn O paIrOnagc O CrtCcI Oy
ma)Or OUstncss COrpOraItOns, cspcCtay tn bOmOay OUI asO IrOUgOUI
ndta !OrpOraIc paIrOnagc O CrtCcI ts an tnIrtgDngaCIOr tn Ic sOCtO
Ogy O ndtan spOrI. Is csscnItas arc Icsc manyprcsItgtOUsCOmpantcs
madc IcCOtCc IOtrc OUIsIandtngCrtCcIpaycrs cary tn IctrCarccrs,
IO Icm COnst dcraOc ccdOm IO matnIatn Ic rtgOrOUs praCItCc
sCcdUcs (aI Ic ncIs) IOassUrc IctrsIaytng tn Orm, and, mOsI tmpOr
IanI, IO assUrc IcmscCUrccmpOymcnIasrcgUarmcmOcrsOIctrsIas
aIcr IctrCrtCcICarccrscndcd bUCcmpOymcnIO CrtCcIcrsWas sccn,
Ortgtnay t n bOmOay tn Ic ! U, asa OcnhCta Orm O sOCta adVcrIts
t ng, aCCtng gOOdWt I OIc COmpanyOytIs sUppOrI Oan tnCrcastngy
pOpUarspOrI,OsOmcsIars,andOIccaIOIc naItOna tmagc t n n-
IcrnaItOna COmpcItItOn. !OrpOraIc cmpOymcnI O CrtCcIcrs as mcanI
nOI)UsI Ic prOmOItOn O IacnI tn Ic Otg CtItcs, OUI t n Ic Casc O Ic
bIaIc ban O ndta (aUgc pUOtC-scCIOr OpcraItOn) , cxCccnI CrtCcIcrs
Wcrc rcCrUtIcdandt rcdtn OranCcs IrOUgOUI ndta, sOIaI Its paIrOn
Was >tngc-andcdyrcspOnstOc Or Ic nUrIUranCc O CrtCcI ar rOm tIs
UrOan Omcs.Us,COrpOraIc paIrOnagc OCrtCcIt srcspOnstOcOrprO
Vtdtng nOI Ony a qUastprOcsstOna mcans OscCUrtIy Or a WOsc
dccpcsItdcasarcamaIcUr OUIasOa sIcady tntItaItVcOrdraWtngt n
t ngyOUng mcn rOm IcpOOrcrCasscs andrOm scmtrUra parIs O ndta.
nIUrn, sUCCOrpOraIc sUppOrIas mcanIIaIIcsIaIcas Occn aOc
IOmaca rcaItVcy OWtnVcsImcnItnCrtCcIandycIrcapa argc prOhIt n
| o i r u I b N o J r r I
" ! U =
Ics ot naIlona|scnIlmcnI. WhlIc Ihc paIronagc ot crlckcI slncc WorId
War has bccn |argc|y a commcrclaI undcrIaklng on Ihc parI ot ma|or
corporaIlons parIotIhclrpub|lc-rcIaIlonsand advcrIlslngbudgcIs),Ihc
sIaIclnndlahas bccngcncrouswlIh lIscxIcnslon otmcdla supporIIoIhc
gamc Jhls a||lancc bcIwccn sIaIcconIro|Icd lnvcsImcnIsIhrough
mcdla and Ihcprovlslon ot |aw and ordcr, prlvaIc commcrcla| lnIcrcsIs ln
provldlngcarccr sccurlIy IopIaycrs, and a comp|cx pubIlc (aIIhough noI
govcrnmcnIa|) body ca|Icd Ihc board ot LonIro|provldcd Ihc lntra
sIrucIurctorIhc IranstormaIlonotcrlckcIlnIoama|ornaIlonaIpasslon ln
Ihc tourdccadcs slnccndlanlndcpcndcnccln I 47.
JhcIcIcvlslonphasclnIhchlsIory ot ndlan crlckcI, otcoursc, lspart
ot Ihc lnIcnsc, rcccnI commcrcla|lzaIlon ot crlckcI and Ihc assoclaIcd
commodlhcaIlon ot lIs sIars. llkc oIhcr sporIs gurcs l n Ihc caplIa|lsI
wor|d,IhcbcsI-knownndlancrlckcIsIarsarcnowmcIacommodlIlcs, tor
saIcIhcmsc|vcs whlIc tuc|lngIhc clrcu|aIlon otoIhcr commodlIlcs Jhc
sporIlslncrcaslng|y ln Ihc handsotadvcrIlscrs, promoIcrs, andcntrcprc-
ncurs,wlIhIc|cvlslon, radl and prlnImcdla tccdlngIhcnaIlona| passlon
torIhcsporIandlIs sIars. 5uch commodlhcaIlon otpub|lc spccIac|csap-
pcars aI hrsIg|ancc Io bc slmpIyIhc Indlan cxprcsslon ota wor|dwldc
proccssandIhusIorcprcscnInoIdcco|onlzaIlonorlndlgcnlzaIlonbuIrc-
co|onlzaIlonbyIhc torccsotlnIcrnaIlona|caplIa|. buIwhaI lImosI|yrcp-
rcscnIslsIhc agcsslvcmood ndlancaplIa|lsIsl nsclzlngIhcpoIcnIla|
otcrlckcItorcommcrcla|purposcs.
Jranstocd lnIoa naIlona| passlon by Ihc proccsscs otspccIac|c, ln
IhcpasIIwodccadcscrlckcI hasbccomca maIIcrotmasscnIcrIalnmcnI
andmoblIlIy torsomcand hasbccomcwrappcdupwlIhwlnnlng
( handy !8b). ndlancrowdshavcbccomcsIcadlIymorcgrccdytorn-
dlanvlcIorlcslnIcsImaIchcsandsIcadl|ymorcvlIupcraIlvc abouIIosscs,
clIhcr aI homc or abroad. Jhus, p|aycrs, coachcs, and managcrs wa|k a
IlghIcr ropc Ihan Ihcy cvcrhavc bctorc. Whl|c Ihcy rcap Ihc bcnchIs ot
sIardom andcommcrcla|lzaIlon,Ihcyhavc Iobclncrcaslng|yso|lclIousot
criIlcsandIhccrowd, whodonoIIoIcraIc cvcn Icmporary scIbacks. Jhls
hasmcanIasIcaygrowIhlnIhcprcssurctorIcchnlca|cxcc||cncc
^tIcrascoussIumptromIhcmldhtIlcsIoIhc|aIcslxIlcs,ndlancrlck-
cIcrswon somc cxIraordlnary vlcIorlcs ln 7I ovcrIhcWcsI ndlcs and
lng|and, boIh on Ic homc grounds ot Ihclr opponcnIs. ^IIhough Ihc
7I Icam was hal|cdbycrowds andcrlIlcs a|lkc,Ihcrcwcrc suggcsIlons
IhaIIhcvlcIorlcsowcdmuchIoIuckandIhc poor torm otIhc opposlng
Icams.hcvcrIhc|css, 7I markcdaIurnlngpolnItorndlancrlckcIundcr
Ihc |cadcrshlp ot ^|lIWadckar. JhcrcwcrcsomcrcaI scIbacksatIcrIhaI,
P l a y | r a i t o M o J : r r | t y
I 0
and ,cI ndlan crlckcIcrs had shown IhaI Ihcy cou|d bcaI Ihclr tocr
co|onla| masIcrs on Ihclr homc grounds and Ihc toldab|c Larlbbcan
p|aycrs on Ihclrs.Jhcsc !7I vlcIorlcsmarkcdIhcpsycho|oglca|lnaugu-
raIlon otancwbo|dncssln ndlan crlckcI.
JhcscvcnIlcswcrcapcrlodln whlchcvcryIcsIIcamwashumb|cdby
Ihc WcsIIndlcs, who sccmcd Ioo lmposlngIo Iouch, wlIh Ihclr brlI|lanI
baIsmcn, IhclrcxIraordlnary (andscary) tasIbow|crs, andIhclrspccd ln
Ihc hc|d. had bccomc Ihc Larlbbcan sporI, wlIh cvcryonc cIsc
sugg|lngIosIaylnIhcplcIurc. nIhlsconIcxI,IhcswccIcsImomcnItor
ndlancrlckcIwas vlcIoryovcrasIrongWcsIndlcsIcam nIhc I 8J
scrlcs. WlIh IhaIwln, ndla csIabIlshcdlIsc|tasa worId torcc l nlnIcrna-
Ilona| crlckcI, whosc rcaI compcIlIlon was IhcWcsI ndlcs and aklsIan
raIhcr Ihan lng|and and ^usIra|la. 5ouIh ^trlca, hcw caIand and 5rl
lankarcmalncdIargc|youIsldc IhcIopranklnIcsIcrlckcI by I 8J, lng-
|andappcarcdIobcaspcnItorcclnIcsIcrlckcI(lnsplIcotoccaslonaIsIars
|lkc an boIham) andndlaama|oronc.
buIl Il slmportanInoIonIyIhaIIhcb|ackandbrown tocrco|onlcs
nowdomlnaIcworIdcrlckcI. IlsslgnlhcanIIhaIIhclrIriumphcolncldcs
wlIh a pcrlod ln whlch Ihc lmpacI ot mcdla, commcrcla|lzaIlon, and na-
Ilona|passlonhavc a|mosIcomp|cIcIycrodcd Ihc o|dVlcIorlan clvl|lIlcs
assoclaIcd wlIh crlckcI. LrlckcI ls now aggrcsslvc, spccIacu|ar, and trc-
qucnIIyunsporIlngwlIhaudlcnccsIhlrsIlngtornaIlonaIvlcIoryandpIay-
crsandpromoIcrsouItorIhcbuck IlshardIocscapcIhcconc|uslonIhaI
IhcdccoIonlzaIlonotcrlckcIwou|dnoIhavcoccurrcdltIhcsporIhadnoI
bccndcIachcdtromlIsVlcIorlanmora|l nIcgumcnI.horlsIhlsproccssrc-
sIrlcIcd IoIhccoIonlcs lIhas bccn noIlccd IaIJhaIchcrlsm ln lngIand
has dnc much Io crodc Ihc ldco|ogy ottalrp|ay IhaI oncc domlnaIcd
crlckcIlnlIshomccounIry (arsha I 87).
LrlckcInowbc|ongsIoadlttcrcnImora|andacsIhcIlcwor|d, tar trom
Ihc onc lmaglncd by Jhomas ^rnoId ot Kugby. hoIhlng marks Ihls
changc ln cIhos as much as Ihc arrlvaI ot Ihc protcsslona|lzcd, sIrlcIIy
commcrcla|phcnomcnon otWor|d5crlcsLrlckcI(VsC), agIoba|,mcdla-
ccnIcrcdcrlckcIpackagc crcaIcd by an ^usIra|lan byIhc namc otlcrry
ackcr. ackcrs VsC was Ihc hrsI ma|orIhrcaI boIh Io Ihc co|onla| cc-
ucnc ot amaIcur sportsmanshlp and Ihc posIWor|d War cIhlc ot
crlckcInaIlonaIlsmccnIcrcdasl IwasonIhcma|orlnnovaIlonl nIhcsport
slncc Ihcwar-nc-day whlchaslng|cdays p|ay (as opposcd
Iohvcormorcdays)scII|csIhcouIcomc.LncdaycrlckcIcncouragcsrlsk
Iaklng, aggrcsslvcncss, andbravadowhlIcsulIlngpcrtccIIyIhclnIcnscaI-
IcnIlon approprlaIc Iohlgh-powcrcdIcIcvlslon advcrIlslnganda hlghcr
P l a y | a i t o M o J : r n i t y
I 07
turnovcrolcvcnts andscttings lackcrsbC bypasscdnational loyaltyi n
thc namc olmcdiacntcrtainmcnt and last cconomicbcnchts lor playcrs.
Wcstl ndian, Lnglish,Australian,andlakistanicrickctcrswcrcquicktoscc
itsappcals.luti nl ndiaplaycrswcrcslowcrto rcspond, asthcstructurcol
atronagc inl ndiagavcthcmmuchmorcsccuritythanthcircountcrparts
cn]oycd clscwhcrc. Stl , lackcrs bold cntcrprisc was thc signal that
crickcthadmovcd into yctanothcr, postnationaistphasc,in which cntcr-
tainmcnt valuc, mcdia covcragc, and thc commcrciaization ol paycrs
woud transccnd thc national l oyalty ol thc carly postindcpcndcncc pc-
riodandthcVictorianamatcurcthicolthccolonialpcriod.
Joday, l ndian crickct rcprcscnts a compcx conhguration ol cach ol
thcsc historical translormatins. Jhc rulc structurc olthc gamc an thc
codcsolbchavior on thc cldarcstillnomi nally rcgulatcdbythcclassic
Victorianvalucs olrcstrai nt,sportsmanship,andamatcurism. Atthcsamc
nationalloyaltyisa powcrlulcountcrpointto thcscidcals, andvic-
tory at anycost is thc dcmand olcrowds and tclcvision audicnccs. lut
lrom thcpointolvicwolplaycrs andpromotcrs, thcVictoriancodcand
nationaistconccrnsarcsubordinatcd to thc transnational owoltalcnt,
cclcbrity, andmoncy.
Jhcncw cthos isbcstcapturcdinthcrcccntlycrcatcdAustralasiaCup,
hostcdbythc LullcmiratcolShar]ah, whichhasaconsidcrabc pop-
ulationollndianandlakistanimigrantsJhiscup outboththccom-
mcrcialandnationalistlogicolcontcmporarycrickct. l nan cxtrcmclycx-
citingnalscqucnccinthcdccisivcmatchin I 986, watchcdbyatclcvision
audicnccolhltccn milion,lakistannccdcdlourrunstowinandachicvcd
thcm inoncstrokcagainstthclastbalolthcmatch.Jhc lvcaudicncclor
thc gamcincludcd lm stars and othcrcccbriticslrom lndiaandlakistan,
aswcllasSouthAsianmigrantsmakingthcirlivingonLullmoncy.
Jhc Shar]ah cup is alongway lrom thc playinghcldolLton. Jhc pa
tronagco oilmoncy,thcscmiprolctarianaudicnccollndianandlakistani
migrantworkcrs in thclcrsian Lull, hlm stars lromthc subcontincnt sit-
tingonasports hcdcrcatcdby lslamic oilwcalth, ancnormous tclcvision
audicncc in thcsubcontincnt, prizcmoncyandadvcrtiscmcntrcvcnucin
abundancc, bloodthirstycrickcthcrc, hnally, is thc last blow toVicto
rianuppcrclasscrickctcodcs,andhcrcisadillcrcntglobalccumcnc.Altcr
Shar]ah all crickct s robriand crickct, notbccausc ol thc dramaticruc
changcs associatcd with that lamous lorm ol crickct, but bccausc olthc
succcsslulhi]ackingolarituallromitsoriginalLngishpracticalhcgcmony
anditsVictorianmoralntcgumcnt romthc pcrspcctivcolShar]ah, it is
thcLtonianswhosccmlikcJrobriandcrstoday.
l c i n j u t o N o J c r r i
I 08
l

rtolthc dccolonizationolcrickctisthccorrosionolthcmytholthc
Commonwcalth, thc oosc lratcrnity ol nationsunitcd by thcirprcvious
statusas parts olthc lritishLmpirc. Jhc Commonwcalth has largcly bc-
comc a community ol sport ,likc thc lvy Lcaguc |n thc castcrn Onitcd
Statcs) loltically, itrcprcscntsa laintshadowolthccivilitics olcmpirc.
l ntradc,politics,anddiplomacyithasbccomcalarcc i]iansdrivcl ndian
immigrantsoutolthc i]ianpoliy Si nhalasandJamilskillcachothcrin
Sri Lanka ,whilc Sinhala crickct tcams tour lndia) lakistan and lndia
tcctcrcontinuousyonthccdgc olwarthcncwnationsolAlricahghta
varictyoli ntcrnccincbattlcs
1ct thc Commonwcalth amcs arc a scrious and succcsslul intcrna-
tionacntcrprisc, andglobacrickct isstillon thclaccolitanallairolthc
Commonwcalth. lut thc Commonwcalth that is constitutcd by crickct
today is not an ordcrly communiy ollormcrcolonics hcd togcthcrby
commonadhcrcnccto aVictorianandcolonialcodc. ltisanagonisticrc-
ality in which a varicty ol postcolonia pathologics ,and drcams) arc
playcd out on thc landscapc ol a commoncolonialhcritagc. o morc an
i nstrumcnt lorsocializingblack and brown mcninto thc publiccti qucttc
olcmpirc,it isnowaninstrumcntlormobilizingnationalscntimcntinthc
scicc oltransnationaspcctaclcsandcommoditization.
Jhc pcculiar tcnsion bctwccn nationalism and dccolonization is bcst
sccn inthccrickctdiplomacybctwccnl ndiaandlaki stan,whichi nvolvcs
multiplclcvclsolcompctitionandcoopcration. lcrhapsthcbcstcxamplc
olcoopcration inthcspiritoldccoonization isthcvcrycomplcxproccss
throughwhich politicians andburcaucratsatthc lcvclsolthctwo
antagonistic nations coopcratcd in thc mid- I 98s to shi lt thc vcnuc ol
thc prcstigious World Cup lrom Lngland to thc subcontincnt in I 987,
withthc hnanciabackingolthc Kcliancc Lroup oll ndustrcs,oncolthc
biggcst, most aggrcssivc busincss houscs in contcmporary l ndia) andthc
cncouragcmcnt ol thc lcadcrs ol thc two countrics ,Savc I 987) 1ct in
Shar]ah, as wcll as in cvcy vcnuc in ndia, lakistan, or clscwhcrc sincc
partition,crickctmatchcsbctwccnlndiaandlakistanarcthinlydisuiscd
national wars. Crickctisnotsomuch arccascvavc lor popularhostility
bctwccnthctwopopulationsasitisacomplcxarcnalorrccnactingthccu-
rious mixturc olanimosity and lratcrnity that charactcrizcs thc rclations
bctwccnthcsctwoprcviouslyunitcdnation-statcs. Lngland, inanycasc,is
nolongcrpartolthccquation,whcthcrinthctcnsc poiticsolKashmiror
onthccrickctgroundsolShar]ah.
Kcccnt]ournalisticcovcragcolthcAustralasiaCupmatchcsinShar]ah
,Jripathi I 990) suggcsts that thc Lull statcs havcmovcd into incrcasing
l a i n g u i I b N c J r r n i
I 09 ~
promincncc as vcnucs |orintcationa crckct, and that thc nationa ri-
vay bctwccn lndiaand|akistanhasbccn dcibcratcyboth highightcd
andcontaincdinordcrtocrcatcasimuacrum o|thcircurrcnttcnsionovcr
Kashmir.Whicthcarmics|acccachothcracross thcbordcrs o|Kashmir,
thc crickct tcams providc a star-studdcd simuacrum o| war|arc on thc
crickcthcd.
Cercl:|er : M:er: e] Me!:o|t
l trcmainsnowto rcturntothcgcncraissucssctoutin thc ntroductionto
thischaptcr.hccxampco|crickctsuggcstssomcthingo|whatittakcsto
dccoonizcthcproductiono|cuturcinrcgardtowhatl car crcharactcr-
izcd as hardcutura |orms. ln this casc,partuary|rom thc lndianvan-
tagcpoint,thckcy|orccsthathavccrodcdthcictorianmora anddidac-
tic|ramcwork o|crickctarcthc indigcnizaton o|patronagc, both in thc
scnsc o| hnding ndgcnous patrons whosc stycs can accommodatc thc
|ormandhndingaudcnccswhocanbcdrawnintothcspcctaccstatcsup-
portthrough massvc mcdia subsidics, and commcrcia intcrcst, cithcr in
thcstandardcontcmporary possibitics |orcommoditization |orms or in
thcsghtymorcunusua|ormo|companypatronagc|orpaycrs. ltisony
thisstrongaiancco||orccsthatinthclndiancaschaspcrmittcdthcgrad-
uaunyokingo|crickct|rom its ictoranvauc |ramcworkandits anima-
tionbyncw|orccsassociatcdwithmcrchandisngandspcctacc.
!ct a thcsc |actors do not gct to thc hcart o|our obcm why is
crickctanationapassionWhyi sitnot|ustindigcnizcdbtthcvcsym
bo o|a sportingpractccthatsccmstocmbodylndiaWhyis itwatchcd
with rapt attcntion n stadia|rom har]ah to Nadras and in cvcry othcr
mcdacontcxt as wc Whyarcthc stars o|crckct worshppcd, pcrhaps
cvcnmorcthanthcircountcrpartsinthc cincma
|ar o| thc answcr to thcsc qucstions doubtcss ics in thc pro|ound
inks bctwccn thc idcas o| pay in human |c (luizinga I 950), o|orga
nizcd sport n mobizng simutancousy powcr|u scntimcnts o| both
nationandhumanity(Nacoon I 98 I 990) ,ando|agonisticsportinrc
caibratingthcrcationshpbctwccn ci surc andpcasurcinmodcrnindus-
triasocictics(LiasandLunningI 986largrcavcs I 982) romthcscpcr-
spcctivcs,crickctcanbcsccnasa|ormo|agonisticpaythathascapturcd
thc l ndianimaginatondccisivcy.
but to account |or thc ccntra pacc o| crickct in thc lndian imagina-
tion, onc mustundcrstandhowcrickctinks gcndcr, nation, and
bodiycxcitcmcnt. lt struc that amongthc lndan uppcr casscs, cspc-
l o i r j u i ! h o o t r r t
I
ciay inso|aras thcyarc abc to insuatc thcmscvcs |rom thc masscs (c -
thcr nthcirhomcsorinspcciavicwingscctionswhicwatchingcrickct) ,
womcn havc bccomc bothpaycrs andahcionadas o|crickct. !ct, |or thc
nation at argc, crickct is a mac-dominatcd activty in tcrms o| p aycrs
managcrs,commcntators,ahcionados,andivcaudicnccs.Nacspcctators,
cvcn whcnthcydonotdominatcaudicnccsativcortccviscdgamcs,arc
thc prc|ccd vicwcrs o| thc gamc bccausc thc apica spcctaccs, tcst
matchcsorma|oronc-daymatchcs,invovconymacpaycrs.hcl ndian
|cmac gazc, at cast thus |ar, is twicc rcmovcd, as thcy arc most o|tcn
watching macs pay but aso watchingmacs watching othcr macs pay.
orthc mac vicwcr, watchingcrickctisa dccpy cngagcd activity, atthc
cvc o|bodiy hcxis (bourdicu I 977),asmostlndian macsundcrthcagc
o| |ortyhavc cithcrsccn crickct gamcs havc paycdthcmscvcs in somc
oca vcrsion o|thc mc,orhavc rcadabout and sccn its practicc. hus
thc pcasurc o| vicwing crickct |or thc lndian mac, as with virtuay no
othcrsport, isrootcdinthcbodiypcasurco|paying, or imaginingpay-
ing,crickct
but bccausc crickct, through thc cnormous convcrgcncc o| statc,
mcdia, andprivatc-scctorintcrcsts,hascomctobcidcntihcdwithlnda,
with lndianski,"lndianguts,"lndian"tcamsprit,andlndianvictorics,
thcbodiypcasurc thatisatthccorco|thcmacvicwingcxpcricnccissi-
mutancousy part o|thccrotics o|nationhood. hiscrotcs, partcuary
|orworking-cass andumpcn mac youththroughoutlndia, sconncctcd
dccpytoviocncc, not]ustbccauscaagonisticsporttaps thcincination
toaggrcssivcncssbutbccauscthcdvisivcdcmandso|cass, cthnicity, an-
guagc,andrcgionin|actmakcthcnationapro|oundycontcstcdcommu
nity. hccroticpcasurco|watchingcrickct|orlndianmacsub|cctsisthc
jl:asr:cja:ncin an imagincdcommun ty, whichinmanyothcrarcnasis
viocnty contcstcd. (cc Nitra I 986|or asightydi||crcntangc on this
proccss.) hs pcasurc i s ncithcr whoycathartic norvicarious bccausc
payingcrickctis coscto, orparto|,thccxpccncco|manylndianmacs.
lt is, howcvcr, magnihcd, poiticizcd, and spcctacuarizcdwithoutosing
itsinkstothcivcdcxpcricncco|bodiycompctcnccandagonisticbond-
ing. his sct o| inks bctwccn gcndcr, |antasy, nation, and cxcitcmcnt
coud notoccurwithout a compcx group o| historica contingcncics in-
vovingcmpirc, patronagc,mcda,andcommcrccontingcnccsthatsct
thcstagc|orthccurrcntcmbodicdcxcitcmcntaboutcrickctinlndia.
Wc can now rcturn to thc puzzc with which wc bcgan. low did
crickct, ahardcutura |orm tightyyokingvauc,mcaning,andcmbodicd
practicc,bccomcsopro|oundyndianzcd,or,|romanothcrpointo|vicw,
u j u i t b o o c r r t :
I I I =
dc-ictorianizcd bccausc in thc proccss o| itsvcrnacuarization ( through
books ncwspapcrs, radio, and tccvi sion) it bccamc an cmbcm o| lndian
nationhoodatthcsamctimcthatitbccamcinscribcd,aspracticc,ontothc
| ndian(mac)body. ccoonization in this casc notonyinvovcsthccrc-
ationo|imagincdcommuniticsthroughthcworkino|printcapitaismas
ndcrson , I 983 ) has suggcstcd, but it aso i nvovcs thc appropriation o|
agonistic bodiy skis that canthcn |urthcrcnd paion andpurposc to
thccommunisoimagincdhismaybcthcspcciacontributiono|spcc-
tatorsport(as opposcdto thcmanyothcr|orms o|pubiccurc) to thc
dynamicso|dccooniation.
bccausc gcndcr, body, and thc cotics o|nationhood can comc into
powcr con|uncturc through othcr spors (such assocccr and hockcy,
whicharcvcrypopuarin lndiacvcntoday),onc canstiaskwhycrickct
lcrc, | must makc a spccuativc cap and suggcst thatcrickct is thc idca
|ocus |ornationa attcntion and nationaist passionbccauscita||ords thc
cxpcrcncc o| cxpcrimcnting with what might bc cacd thc mcans o|
modcrnity to a widc o| groups within |ndian socicty. o thosc
groupswho constitutcthcstatc, particuary through thcircontro o|tcc-
vision,i t o||crsthcscnsco|bcingabctomanipuatcnationaistscntimcnt.
o thc tcchnocrats, pubicists, |ournaists, and pubishcrs who dirccty
contro thc mcdia, itprovidcsthcscnscoskiin handingthctcchniucs
o|tccvisingsportsspcctaccs, o|manipuating privatc-scctoradvcrtiing
o|controing pubic attcntion, and in gcncra, o| mastcring thc mcdia
thcmscvcs. o thc privatc scctor, crickct a||ords a mcans |or inking
cisurc, stardom, andnationasm, thusprovi dingascnsco|mastcryovcr
thcskiso|mcrchandisingand promotion.o thcvicwingpubic

crickct
a||ordsthcscnsc o|cutura in a wordsport(associatcdwithth
sti-not-crascdscnsco|thctcchnoogicasupcriorityo|thcWcst)andthc
morc d |sc pcasurc o|association with gamour, cosmopoitanism, and
natonacompctitivcncss.othcuppcr-middc-cassvicwcr it a||ords thc
privatizcdpcasurcso|bringing stardom and nationaistscntimcntwithin
thcsa|c andsanitizcdcnvirons o| thc ivingroom. o working-cassand
umpcnyouth, ito||crs thcscnsco|group bconging, potcntia viocncc,
andbodiycxcitcmcnt that charactcrizcs |ootba passion i n Lngand. o
ruravicwcrs,rcadcrs,andistcncrs,crickct (appropriatcyvcrnacuarzcd)
a scnsco|controovcrthc ivcso|stars,thc|atco| nations, andthc
ccctricityo|citics. lnathcsccascs,whicthccndso|modcmitymaybc
undcrstood (andcontcstcd) variousyaswordpcacc, nationa ski, indi-
vidua |amc, and tcamviriityor mobi i, thc mcans o| modcrnity con-
taincdi ncrickcti nvovcacon|ucncc o|ivcdintcrcsts,whcrc thcproduc
l n i g u i t b o o r r r !
~ I I 2
crsandconsumcrso|crickctcan sharc thccxcitcmcnto|lndianncsswith-
out its many, divisivc scars. inay, athough pcrhaps cast consciousy,
crickctgivcs a thcsc groups and actors thc scnsc o|havinghi|ackcdthc
gamc |rom its Lngishhabis intothc coonics atthc cvc o|anguagc
bodyandagcncyaswcascompctition,hnancc, andspcctacc. l|cickct
didnotcxistinlndia,somcthingikcitwoudccrtainyhavcccninvcntcd
|orthcconducto|pubiccxpcrimcntswiththcmcaso|modcrni.
| n t r g u i ! b o o t r i t
~ I I 3 ~
0
Num06| | U 6 L00U|8 m8| U8|0U
I nIhclaIIcrparIotI 0, i nIhcIasImonIhs IhcrcgimcotV . 5ingh
and in Ihc IurbulcnI IransiIion Io Ihc rulc ot Ihc counIry by 5. Lhan-
drasckhar,I ndia,cspccialyIhcindi-pcakinglorIh)wasrockcdbyIwo
ma|orsociaIcxpIosions.JhchrsI, associaIcdwiIhIhcandaLommission
KcporI,piIIcdmcmbcrsotdittcrcnIcasIcsagainsIcachoIhcrin amanncr
IhaI many tcarcdwouI d dcsIroy Ihc poliIy. Jhc sccond, associaIcdwiIh
IhcholyciIyot^yodhya, piIIcdindus andusIimsagainsI cach oIhcr
ovcr Ihc conIroI ota sacrcd siIc Jhcsc cosscuIIing issucs whosc inIcr-
rclaIionship has bccn noIcdand anaIyzcdagrcaIdcal inrcccnI monIhs,
boIhinvoIvcdqucsIionsotcnIiIIcmcnI,whaIarcyourrighIs)andclassih-
caIion,whaIgroup doyoubclongIoandwhcrcdocsiIhIinIhcpoliIical
landscapc) . JhischapIcrcxpIorcs Ihc colonial rooIs otonc dimcnsion ot
Ihc volaIilc poIiIics ot communiIy and classihcaIion in conIcmporary
lndia. In so ding, iI toows Ihc Icad ot many rcccnI auIhors who havc
Iraccd casIc and communiIarian poliIicsIo IhcpoliIicsot group rcprcscn-
IaIioninIhcIwcnIicIhccnIury, loIhari I 8a, I 8b,5hah I 8) aswcll
asIoIhcrolcotIhccoloniaIccnsus,Jhapar I buIIhcprcciscanddis-
IincIivc links bcIwccn cnumcraIion and classihcaIion in coloniaI India
havc noIbccn spccihcdand IhaIiswhaIl proposc IodoinIhischapIcr.
ldward 5aids tamous book , I 78) is ccnIralIy conccrncd wiIh Ihc
I I
tormsotknowlcdgcIaIconsIiIuIcwhaIhcdchncdasoricnIaIism,buIhc
docs noI spcci howcxacIly Ihc oricnIaisI knowlcdgc pro| ccIandIhc
colonial pro|ccIotdominaIionandcxIracIionwcrc connccIcd. cvcrIhc-
lcss, in Iwo ways hc docs scI hc sIagc tor Ihc argumcnI ot Ihis chapIcr
iscussingIhcvariouswaysIhcdiscourscotoricnIaIismcrcaIcdavisIaot
sIrangcncss, anddittcrcncc,hcsaysIhaIrhcIoricalIyspcaking,
oricnIaIism isabsoIuIcIyanaIomicaland:r:ct|o:. Iousc isvocabulais
Iocngagc inIhcparIicular zinganddividingotIhingsLricnIalinIoman-
agcabIcparIs , I 78, 72cmphasisminc) .^liIIIcIaIcrinIhcbookhcsug
gcsIsIhaIincxhumingdcadLricnIaI Ianguagcs, oricnIalsIswcrcinvolvcd
in a proccss in which "rcconsIrucIivc prccision, sccncc, cvcn oq|rot|er
couIdprcparcIhcwaytorwhaIarmics,adminisIraIions,andburcaucracics
wouldIaIcrdoonIhcground,i nIhcLricnI , I 2, cmphasisminc)
InIhischapIcrI wanIIoshowIhaIIhc cxcrciscotburcaucraIic powcr
involvcdIhccolonial imaginaIionandIhaI in IhisimaginaIionnum-
bcrpIaycdacruciaIrolc y argumcnI isIhaI cxoIicizaIion and
cnumcraIionwcrccomplicaIcdsIrandsotasinglccolonial andIhaI
inIhcirinIcracIionlicsacrucialparIotIhccxpIanaIionotgroupviolcncc
andcommunaIIcrrorin conIcmporar India. InmakingIhis argumcnI, iI
mighI bc noIcd IhaI I buil don avid luddcns conccrn wiIh orcnIalisI
cmpiricism, I )
yccnIral qucsIionissimplc IsIhcrcanyspccial torccI oIhcsysIcm-
aIiccounIingotbodicsundcrcolonialsIaIcsinIndia,^trica, and5ouIhcasI
oris iIsimplyalogicalcxIcnsionotIhcprcoccupaIionwiIhnumbcrs
inIhcmcIropolis,IhaIis in inIhcsixIccnIhandscvcnIccnIhccn-
Iurics InaskingIhisqucsIion,andinscckingIoanswcriI, Ihavcbccnin-
spircd by Iwo cssays onc by bcncdicI ^ndcrson , I I ) and onc by
5udipIa lavira| , I 4), whichIogcIhcrsuggcsIan imporIanIncwagcnda
toracriIiqucotluropcancoIoniaI rulc. JakingIhclndiancoIoniaIcxpcri
cncc asmycasc, I shaII IryIoclaboraIc IhcidcaIhaIwc havc paid a good
dcal otaIIcnIionIoIhccIassihcaIorylogicotcolonialrcgi mcs,buIlcssaI-
IcnIion Io Ihc ways in which Ihcy cmploy quanIihcaIion in ccnsuscs as
wcllasinvariousoIhcrinsIrumcnIslikc maps,agrariansurvcysracialsIud-
andavaicIyotoIhcrproducIionsotIhccoIonialarchivc.
lcImc bricy anIicipaIc myargumcnI. I bclicvcIhaI Ihc briIishcoIo-
niaIsIaIccmploycd quanIihcaIion iniIsrulcotIhclndiansubconIincnIin
away IhaIwas dittcrcnI trom iIsdomcsIic counIcrpa inIhccighIccnIh
ccnIur ,brcwcr I 8) and trom iIs prcdcccssorsIaIcs in India, including
Ihcughals,whoccrIainIyhadclaboraIcapparaIuscstorcouning,cassi-
andconIroIIingIhc populaIionsundcrIhcirconIrol. Jo makc
I v w b : r i it t b : C l u n i a | w o j i n a I i c n
I I 5
Ihiscasc, buildIwoargmcnIsandraiscanumbcrotqucsIionstorturIhcr
rcscarch. Jhc hrsI,morccxIcnsivcargumcnIwiIlscck IoidcnIityIhc
ot quanIihcaIion and cnumcraIion in briIish classihcaIion acIiviIics i n
coloniaI ndia Jhcsccond onlyadumbraIcdhcrc,wilIsuggcsIwhy, con
IrapIoappcarancc,IhisvaricIyotdynami cnominalism,ackingI 8)
wasdittcrcnI trom carlicrsIaIc-supporIcdnumcricalcxcrciscs inboIhIhc
mcIropoI i sandIhccolonics.
Lra:atio: Stat:)i:s
uch has bccn wriIIcn abouI Ihc virIuaI obscssion ot Ihc briIish sIaIc in
ndiawiIhcIassityingiIsndian populaIionJhcIocuscIassicusotIhisIiI-
craIurci sbcardLohnscssayhcLcnsus,5ociaI5IrucIurcandLb|ccIi-
hcaIion in 5ouIh^sia , I 87), whcrc hc shows IhaI Ihc ndian ccnsus,
raIhcr Ihan bcing a passivc i nsIrumcnI ot daIa gaIhcring, crcaIcs by iIs
pracIicallogicandtormancwscnscotcaIcgoryidcnIiIyi nndia,whichin
turn crcaIcs Ihc condiIionstorncwsIraIcgics otmobiIiIy, sIaIus poliIics,
and clccIoral sIrugglc in ndia. Jhc classihcaIory dimcnsion ot Lohns
workhasbccncarricdtorwardbymanyscholarsincIudinglicholasirks
, I 87)aidluddcn , I J) , yanrakash, I 0andscvcralhisIorians
ot Ihc subalIcrn school including Kana|i I uha , I avid ^rnold
, I 88) , and ipcsh LhakrabarIy , I 8) . Jhis clcmcnI has also rcccnIly
bccn rcsiIuaIcd in a ma|or sIudy ot Ihc oricnIal isI imaginaIion in l ndia
ndcn I 0) . LohnsconccrnwiIhIhcccnsushasalsobccncarricdtorIh
in ani mporIanIcdiIcdcollccIion ,barricr I 8 I ) .^lI Ihcsc hisIorianshavc
shown in variousways IhaIcoIonial classihcaIionshad Ihc cttccI otrcdi -
rccIing imporIanI indigcnous pracIiccs in ncw dirccIions,bypuIIingdit-
tcrcnIwcighIsandvalucsoncxisIingconccpIionsotgroupidcnIiIy,bodily
disIincIions, andagrarian producIivi Iy. buI lcssaIIcnIion hasbccn paidIo
Ihci ssuc otnumbcrs,mcasurcmcnI, andquanIihcaIion in IhiscnIcrprisc.
JhcvasIoccanotnumbcrsrcgardingland, hclds,crops,torcsIs,casIcs
Iribcs, and so torIh, collccIcdundcr colonial ruIc tromvc carly in Ihc
nincIccnIhccnIury, wasnoIauIiliIariancnIcrprisci na simplc, rctcrcnIiaI
manncr. Is uIiliIarianismwasparIota complcx incIuding intormaIional,
|usIihcaIory, andpcdagogical Icchniqucs arIicuIar tuncIionarics aI par-
Ii cularlcvcIsotIhcsysIcm, hllingburcaucraIictormsIhaIwcrcdcigncdIo
providc rawnumcrical daIa, did sccIhcirIasks asuIiliIarian in acommon-
scnsc, burcaucraIicway. 5IaIc- gcncraIcd numbcrs wcrc otIcn puI Io i m-
porIanIpragmaIicuscs,includingscIIingagrarianIax rcsolvingIand
dispuIcs, asscssingvariousmiliIary opIions and laIcrin IhcccnIu, Ip-
N u m r c i n f b r C c n i a | a i r u I i r
I I
ingI

ad|udicaIc indigcnousclaimstorpoliIiaIrcprcscnIaIionandpoIicy
changc.lumbcrssurclywcrcusctuli nallIhcscways.buIIhclcssobvious
poinIisIhaIsIaIisIicswcrcgcncraIcdinamounIsIhaItardctcaIcdanyuni -
hcdburcaucraIic purposc ^grarian sIaIisIics, torcxampIc, wcrc noI onIy
hllcdwiIh cIaihcaIory and Icchnical cors Ihcyalso cncouragcd ncw
tormsotagrarian pracIicc andsclt-rcprcscnIaIion,5miIh 85) .
Jhus,alIhough carIycolonial policicsotquanIi hcaIionwcrcuIiliIarian
in dcsign, l would suggcsIIhaI numbcrs gradually bccamc morc impor
IanIlyparIot Ihc i llusion otburcaucraIic conIrol anda kcyIo a coIonial
imaginary in whih counIabIc absIracIions, ot pcoplc and rcsourccs aI
cvcry imaginablc lcvcl and tor cvcry conccivablc purposc, caIcd Ihc
scnscotacontrollablcindigcnous lumbcrswcrcparIotIhcrcccnI
hisIorical cxpcricncc ot tor Ihc colonial cIiIc , oncy I 8
Jhomas I 87) whohadIhuscomcIobclicvc IhaIquanIihcaIionwasso-
cially usctul Jhcrc i samplccvidcnccIhaIIhcsignihcanccotIhcscnum-
bcrswasotIcnci IhcrnoncxisIcnIorscIt-tuIhlIing raIhcrIhan principalIy
rctcrcnIial Io a compIcxrcaliIy cxIcrnaI Io Ihc acIiviIics ot Ihc colonial
sIaIc nIhc longrun,IhcsccnumcraIivc sIraIcgics hclpcd Io igniIccom-
muniIarianandnaIionalisIidcnIiIicsIhaIintacIundcrmincdcoloniallc.
LncmusIIhcrctorcaskhowIhcidcaotnumbcras ani nsIrumcnIotcolo-
nialcontrolmighIhavccnIcrcdIhcimaginaIionotIhcsIaIc.
l n rcg

rd Io lngland, Ihc answcr Io Ihis qucsIion musI go back Io

IhcsIopotnumcracy,l iIcracysIaIchscalism,andacIuarialIhinkinginIhc
scvcnIccnIh and cighIccnIh ccnIurics ,acking I 75, chap. I 2 I 82
I 8brcwcr I 8). Jhi sisavcrycomplcxsIoryindccd,buIbyIhccndot
IhccighIccnIh ccnIup, numbcr, l ikclandscapc, hcriIagc,andIhcpcoplc,
hadbccomcpart Ihc otIhcbriIish poliIicaIimaginaIion, lud-
dcn I ) , andIhcidcahadbccomchrmlyi mplanIcdIhaIapowcr|uIsIaIc
could noIsuivcwiIhouImaking cnumcraIionaccnIralIcchniquc ot so-
cial conIrol Jhus, Ihc ccnsus in briIain madc rapid Icchnical sIridcs
IhroughouIIhcnincIccnIhccnIuryanddoubIlcssproidcdIhcbroadscat-
toIding torIhclaIcni ncIccnIh-ccnIuryccnsusi n lndia. Lnc ovcrvicwot
maIcriaI on Ihc nincIccnIh-ccnIury ccnsus i nbriIain , lawIon I 78) sug-
gcsIsIhaI,opcraIingasiIdidwiIhinatramcworkotcommonscnsccIassi h-
caIionssharcdbyothcialdomwi Ihordinappcoplc,IhcbriIishccnsusdid
noIhavcIhcrctracIivcandgcncraIivccttccIsIhaIi Ididi nndia.
Whilcl cannoIdccisivclyshowhcrcIhaIIhcopcraIions otIhcbriIish
ccnsusaI homcwcrc dittcrcnItromIhosc in ndia, IhcrcarcIhrcc sound
rcasonsIosupposcIhaIIhcrcwcrcimpoanIdittcrcnccs.lirsIIhcbasisot
IhcbriIishccnsuswas ovcrwhcIminglyIcrriIoriaI andoccupaIionalraIhcr
N o | r r i r t b c C c | r | u | u j i r a t i c r
I 7 =
than cthnic orraci al . ' 5ccond, inso|ar as itsconccrnswcrcsociological i n
LngIand, thcccnsustcndcdtobcdircctlyticdtothcpoliticsolrcprcscn-
tation,asi nthcissuco|rottcnboroughs.inally,andmostimportant,both
britishandrcnchccnsuspro|ccts(aswclIasthccmbryonicsociaIscicnccs
withwhichthcywcrcasociatcd),tcndcdtorcscrvcthcirmostinvasivcin
vcstigations |orthcirsocial margins. thcpoor,thcscxuallyprolligatc, thc
Iunatic, and thccriminal. In thc coIonics, by contrast, thc cntirc popuIa-
tionwassccn as di llcrcntin problcmaticways,thisshiltlyingatthcvcry
hcart o|oricntalism (igam I 0, 287) . urthcrorc, in I ndi athis oricn-
talistinclinationwasprcordaincdtomcctitsindigcnouscountcrparti nthc
apparcntcardinalityoldi llcrcncci nthci ndigcnousidcologyo|castc,asit
appcarcd to Wcstcrn cycs. Jhc similaritics and di llcrcnccs bctwccn thc
britishandrcnchcolonial pro|ccts i nthisrcgardhavcycttobcworkcd
out,butitisclcarthatthcconccrn withdcvianccandmarginalityathomc
was cxtcndcd to thc managcmcnt o| cntirc populations i n thc Lricnt
(Armstrong ! 0, Kabinow I 8) Whilcthcrcwcrc clcarandimportant
connctions bctwccn thc cntcrpriscs o|classihcation, photogra-
phy,criminology, andsoon, in thcmctropolis andi nthccolonicsitdocs
notappcarthatcnumcrativcactiviticstookthcsamcculturallorm in
Iand and in I ndi a, i| lor no othcrrcason bccausc thc Lnglish did not scc
thcmsclvcs as a vast cdihcc o| cxotic communitics, dcvoid o| a polity
worththcnamc.
I nacolonialscttingsuchasthclndianonc, thccncountcrwithahighly
di ||crcntiatcd, rcligiouslyLthcrsctolgroupsmusthavcbuiltonthcmct-
ropolitanconccrnwithoccupation, class, andrcIigion, aIlo|whichwcrca
promincnt part olthc british ccnsus in thc nnctccnth ccntury. Jhiscrc-
atcd a situation in which thc hunt |or inlormation and archivcs lor this
i n|ormation took on cnormous proportions, and numcrical databccamc
crucial to this cmpiricist drivc. by this timc, statistical thinking had bc-
comcaIlicdtothcpro|cct o|civiccontroI,bothi nLnglandandrancc,in
pro|ccts ol sanitation, urban pIanning, criminal l aw, and dcmography
(Languilhcim ! 8, Lwald I 8, lacking ! 75, I 82, I 8) . It would
thushavc bccn tcmpting lor Luropcan burcaucrats to imaginc that good
numcricaI datawouldmakc it casicr to cmbark on pro|ccts olsocialcon
troI orrc|ormi nthccolonics.
Jhisargumcntraiscstwoscparatcbutrclatcdissucs.WasI ndi aasj:c|l
casc ora l||t|r} casc in rcgard to thc rolc o|cnumcration, xoticization,
and doination i n thc tcchniqucs o| thc modc nation-statc I would
arguc that it was a spccial casc bccausc i n Indi athc oricntalistgazc cn-
countcrcdani ndigcnoussystcmolcIassihcationthatsccmcdvirtuallyi n-
N u m r r r i n I b r C c | c n i u | m u n u | c n
= ! I8 =
vcntcdbysomccarlicr, indigcnous|orm oricntalism. | do notsubscribc
tothcvicwthatcarlyl indutcxtsconsti tutca variationonlatcror
cntalst tcxts, thus|ustilying thc tcndcncics o|, |or cxamplc,
thc coonial lcgal digcsts. Naking this casc mlly would takc mc too |ar
ahcld in this contcxt, but lct mc simply notc that csscnti alism, too, i s a
mattcr o|contcxt and that thc rcIationship bctwccn li ndu stcrcotypi ng
andbritishcsscntiaIismi nthcmattcrol castccannotbcconsidcrcdapart
lromathoroughgoingcomparisonolstatandrcligious|ormationsi nvcy
di|lcrcnthistoricalcontcxts.
cvcrthclcss,itwouldbc looIishtoprctcndthatbritishoricntaIismdid
not cncountcr in lndia an indigcnous social imaginaj that appcarcd to
vaIorizcgroupdi l|crcnccin arcmarkabI cway.Lastci nI ndi a, cvcn i|i t was
itscl|a vcry compIicatcd part o| thc I ndian social imaginay andwas rc-
lractcdandrcihcdi nmanywaysthroughbritishtcchniqucsolobscrvati on
andcontrol,wasncvcrthcIcss nota hgmcnto|thcbritish politicalimagi-
nation Inthisrcgard,LricntaIcsscntializingi nlndiacarricdasocial|orcc
that can comc only whcn two thcorics ol di l|crcncc sharc a critical as-
sumptionthatthcbodicso|ccrtai ngroupsarcthcbcarcrso|socialdi l|cr-
cncc andmoral status. Jhis iswhcrc lndiais a spcciaI casc. butIookcdat
|rom thcvantagcpointo|thcprcscnt, Indi amayalso bcrcgardcdasalim
itingcasco|thctcndcncyo|thcmodcrn nation-statctodraw oncxisting
idcaso|I i nguistic,rcligious,andtcrritoriaIdi llcrcncctoproduccthcpco-
plc( balibar! 0)
Jhc rolc o| numbcrs in complcx i nlormationgathcring apparatuscs
suchasthccoloni al onc in lndiahadtwosidcsthatinrctrospcctnccdtobc
distinguiscd.Jhconcsidcmaybcdcscribcdas|ustihcatoryandthcothcr
asdisciplinary. Avcry partolthcstatistical i nlormationgathcrcdby
british|unctionaricsin lndiadid not|ust |acilitatclcarningordiscovcryi n
rcgard to ruling I ndian tcrritorics Jhcsc statistical data also assistcd i n
argui ngandtcachingi nthccontcxto|burcaucraticdiscourscandpracticc,
hrstbctwccnthcLastlndiaLompany andthcLnglishparliamcntandIatcr
bctwccn thc o|hcials thccrown in l ndia and thcirbosscs in ondon
(5mith I 85 isa cIassicstatcmcnto|thcgcncrallogicthatknitstogcthcr
rcports,manuals, andrccords in ninctccnth-ccntury| ndi a. ) umbcrswcrc
acriticalparto|thcdiscoursco|thccoIonialstatcbccauscitsmctropoIitan
intcrlocutors had comc to dcpcnd on numcricaI data, howcvcr dubious
thcir accuracy andrclcvancc, lorma|or sociaI or rcsourcc-rclatcd policy
initiativcs. Jhis|ustihcatory dimcnsion olthc usc olnumbcrsin colonial
poI icy, olcoursc, aIso rclatcs to thcdi l|crcntlcvclsolthc britishstatcin
I ndia, whcrcnumbcrswcrcthc|ucllorascricso|ncstcdstruggIcsbctwccn
N u m r r r i | b C u l u n i u | l m u i n u f i u r
~ I I =
ndlan othclalsaIIhclowcsIIcvcIs otIhcburcaucracy,upIhcsysIcmIoIhc
govcrnor-gcncraI ot ndla, Ihrough a scrlcs ot crosscuIIlng commlIIccs,
boards, and l ndlvlduaI othcchoIdcrs, who conducIcd a consIanI lnIcrnal
dcbaIc abouI Ihc pIauslblIly andrclcvancc otvarlous cIasslhcaIlons and
Ihc numbcrs aIIachcd Io Ihcm (lrks I 87, chaps. I 0 and I I uIchlns
I 7, I 8 I rcsIcr I 87,chap. 2)
lumbcrs rcgardlngcasIcs vlllagcs, rcllglousgroups, ylcIds dlsIanccs,
andwcIlswcrcparIotalanguagc otpoIlcydcbaIc, lnwhlchIhclrrctcrcn-
Ilal sIaIus qulcklybccamc tarlcss lmporIanI Ihan Ihclrdlscurslvc lmpor-
Ianccn supporIlngorsubvcrIlngvarlousclasslhcaIorymovcsandIhcpol-
lcyargumcnIs bascd on Ihcm Ils lmporIanI Io noIchcrc IhaI numbcrs
pcrmlIIcdcomparlsonbcIwccn klnds otplaccs andpcopIcIhaIwcrcoIh-
crwlscdlttcrcnI,IhaIIhcywcrcconclscwaysotconvcylnglargcbodlcsot
lntormaIlon, andIhaIIhcyscrvcdasashorItormtorcapIurlngandappro
prlaIlngoIhcrwlscrccalclIranItcaIurcsotIhcsoclaIandhumanIandscapc
otndla. IlsnoIsomuchIhaInumcrsdldnoIsccasIralghItorwardrct-
crcnIlalpurposclncolonlal pragmaIlcs,scrvlngIol ndlcaIctcaIurcsotIhc
ndlan soclalworIdIoburcaucraIsandpoIlIlclans,buIIhaIIhlsrctcrcnIlaI
purposcwas otIcn noI as lmporIanI as Ihc rhcIorlcal purposc. Jhls ls ln
parIduc Io Ihc tacI IhaI Ihc shccr vasIncss ot Ihc numbcrs lnvoIvcd ln
ma|or pollcy dcbaIcs ln Ihc nlncIccnIh ccnIury otIcn madc IhclrsIrlcIly
rctcrcnIlalorl ntormaIlonaI dlmcnslonunmanagcabIc.
1cI Ihc |usIlhcaIop ncIlons ot Ihcsc numcrlcaI sIraIcglcs sccm Io
havc no morc lmporIanI Ihan Ihclr pcdagoglcal and dlsclpIlnary
oncs.WlIhrcgardIoIhls laIIcrtuncIlon,loucaulIs ldcasabouIblopoIlIlcs
ccrIalnlyarcmosIrcIcvanI,glvcnIhaIIhccolonlalsIaIcsawlIscltasparIot
Ihc ndlanbody poIlIlcwhllc l Iwas slmulIancousIycngagcd l nrclnscrlb-
lngIhcpoI lIlcsotIhcndlanbody, cspcclaIIyl nlIslnvoIvcmcnIwlIhsaIl,
hook posscsslon rlIcs, and oIhcr torms otbody manlpulaIlon
(lrks I 8anl I 0) . wllIrcIurnIoIhlspolnIlaIcr. buIIhcnumcrlcal
lssuccompIlcaIcsmaIIcrssomcwhaI.lorwhaIlslnvoIvcdhcrcarcnoIslm-
plyIhcIoglsIlcaI nccds otIhcsIaIcbuIaIsolIsdlscurslvcnccdsconsIrucd
ccnIralIyassIaIlsIlcalnccds.
orcovcr,IhlswasnoI|usIamaIIcrotprovldlngIhcnumcrlcalgrlsItor
apollcyapparaIuswhoscdlscurslvctormhadbccnconsIrucIcdIhrougha
complcxluropcandcvcIopmcnIlnvolvlngprobablllsIlcIhlnklngandclvlc
pollcy. IwasaIsoamaIIcrotdlsclpIlnlngIhcvasIothclaldomotIhccolo-
nlal sIaIc also5mlIh I 85andohn I 87) aswclIasIhcpopulaIlon
IhaI Ihcsc othclals wlshcd Io conIrol andrctorm, so IhaI numbcrscouId
bccomcan lndlspcnsabIcparIotlIsburcaucraIlcpracIlccsandsIylc.
NIm rt r h I b t C o | o iiia l u j |iiaf i o
I 2 0
Nl:r orJ CoJosiroi Pa'iiics
Jhc lnsIancc otrupIurcbcIwccn Ihc cmplrlclsIand dlsclpIlnarymomcnIs
otcolonalnumcrologycanbcsccnlnIhcmanyIcchnlcaldocumcnIspro-
duccd ln Ihc mlddlc otIhc nlncIccnIh ccnIury Jhcrc arc manyways ln
whlchIhlsshltIcanbcconccpIuallzcd, lncludlngIhconcIhaIsccs lIasa
IranstormaIlon ot Ihc ccnsus as an l nsIrumcnI ot Iax Io an lnsIrumcnI ot
knowIcdgclnIhcwordsotKlchard5mlIh( I 85, I ) , wholdcnIlhcsIhls
shltI as occurrlng ln Ihc un|ab around I 850. n Ihc dlscusslon IhaI tol-
Iows, usca documcnItromroughlyIhc samcpcrlodtromwcsIcrnndla
IolllusIraIcIhctormaIlonotIhcncwsorIotnumcrlcalgazcotIhccoIonlal
sIaIcl nIhcmlddlcotIhcnlncIccnIhccnIury
JhlsdocumcnIpubllshcdundcrIhc IlIlcTo: 'e|rt P:jet e] I 8 1 7, wasac-
IualIypubllshcdasabookln I 75byIhclandKccordscparImcnIotIhc
sIaIcotaharashIralnwcsIcrnndla( LovcrnmcnIotaharashIra I 75) .
IssubIlIlc l s M:s::rt rJ Clss(jct|er Rl:s e] to: D:ccr. C)t, Ker|r
rJ Irr So:,s IbcIongs Io a class ot documcnIs IhaI showIhc lasI
ndla ompany sccklng Io sIandardlzc lIs land-rcvcnuc pracIlccs across
IhctulIcxIcnIotlIsIcrrlIorlcsandIoraIlonallzcpracIlccsgcncraIcdlnIhc
laIIcrparIotIhcclghIccnIhandlnIhccarlyparIotIhcnlncIccnIhccnIury
ln Ihc hcaI ot conqucsI I ls, par cxcclIcncc, a documcnI ot burcaucraIlc
raIlonallzaIlon, whlch sccksIocrcaIc and sIandardlzc rcvcnuc rulcs toraIl
IhcIandundcrlasIndlaompany|urlsdlcIlonlnIhccccanrcglon.buI
lI aIso conIalns a scrlcs ot lcIIcrs and rcporIs trom Ihc carly parI ot Ihc
I 840s IhaI rcvcal a scrlous dcbaIc bcIwccn locaI and ccnIraI otclaldom
abouI Ihc mlnuIlac ot mapplng Ihc agrlculIural Icrraln otwcsIcrn ndla,
andlIslargcr purposcs, such asasscssmcnI anddlspuIc scIIlcmcnI. Ilsa
qulnIcsscnIlaldocumcnIotcadasIral pollIlcs.
lollowlng Kana|l Iuhas characIcrlzaIlon otIhcprosc otcounIcrln-
surgcncy(uha I 8) , wcmaycallIhc'e|rt P:jet aclasslccxamplcotIhc
prosc ot cadasIral domlnaIlon. Jhls l s prosc composcd parIly ot rulcs,
parIIy otordcrs parIly otappcndlccs, andparIly ot I cIIcrs andpcIlIlons,
whlchmusIbcrcadIogcIhcr. nIhlsproscIhclnIcrnaIdcbaIcsotIhcrcv-
cnuc burcaucracy, Ihc pragmaIlcs ot rulc tormaIlon, and Ihc rhcIorlc ot
uIlIlIy always accompanlcd Ihc hnal rccommcndaIlons byauIhorlIlcs aI
varlous lcvcls ot ncw IcchnlcaI pracIlccs. Jhcsc arc documcnIs whosc
manltcsI rhcIorlcls Icchnlcal (IhaI ls, poslIlvlsI IransparcnI, and ncuIraI)
buIwhoscsubIcxIlsconIcsIaIory( ln rcgardIosupcrlors) anddlsclpIlnary
(lnrcgadIolntcrlors)
JhcbulkotIhcdocumcnI,llkcmosIoIhcrsotl Isl l k lsIruIyborgcslan
N t r i n f b t C o o i a a i a f i c n
I 2 I
sirugglingiohndicxiuaImcihodsandrcprcscniaiionsadcquaiciocapiur-
ingboihihcscopcandihcminuiiacoIihc|ndianagriicrrain.Jhcanalogy
io)orgcLuisborgcssclassicsioryoIihc mapihaihadiobcaslargcasihc
domainiiiconicizcdisnoiIancil, asiscvidcnccdbyihcIollowingcom-
plainibyoncoIhcialabouiancarlicricchniqucoImapping.
I IC ItmC C ^t. ttngC8 8UtVCy C IC LCCCn ICtC WCtC 8CmC VCty OC
ItCO nO t nItCIC tCCCtO8 tCtCO, UnOCt IC nmC C KtHI8 WtC WC
VC 8C CUnO tI CXCOtCnI IC OC Wy WtI 8 U8CC88, nO ICnOtng Dy
ICtt gtCI CngI nO CCmCXt\y IC tnVCVC tn CD8CUttIy, tICt In CUCt
OIC, IC 8UD|CCI8 C WtC ICy IrCI, nO Dy ICtt VCty DUK IC tCnOCt IC
OCICCItCn C CtrCt8 mIICt C tmC88tDtt\y , I 975 CCInCIC. IC KtII8 tC-
tCO Ct mny C IC VtgC8 88C88CO Oy ^t. ttngC WCtC UWtO8 C UU
ytO8 n CngI). (Jc|rt 55)
oiwiihsiandingihiscomplainiin! 840abouiihcborgcsianabsurdiiics
oI carIicr mappingcIIoris, ihcicnsionbciwccnrcprcscniaiionaIcconomy
anddciaildocsnoidisappcar. Jhroughouiihc! 840s,abaiiIcconiinucsbc
iwccn ihc survcy auihoriiics oI ihc cccan and ihc board oI Kcvcnuc,
which has somcwhai morc synopiic and panopiic aspiraiions Ior iis sur-
vcys lirsi, ihcrc is ihc rclaiionship bciwccn mcasurcmcni and classihca-
ion,whichisiiscIIancxpliciisub]ccioI discussionin many oI ihclciicrs
andrcporisIcadingupioihc1cintKrjcrt, whichhxcdihcbasicruIcsoI sur-
vcy Ior ihis rcgion Ior scvcraI subscqucni dccadcs. As rcgards mcasurc
mcniihcbriiishoIhcialsdircciIyrcsponsiblcIorihcasscssmcnipcrccivcd
ii as a problcm oI adapiingcxisiingirigonomciric iopographic, and pro
iraciionmcihodsiocrcaic mapsihaiihcysawasboihaccuraicandIunc-
iionaJhcywcrcconccrncdiomuliiplycopicsoIihcscmapsinihcmosi
cconomicaI and accuraic manncr as wclI as io guard againsiany Iuiurc
Iraudulcniaiicmpiaialicraiion, andihcrcIorcihcsc oIhccrssuggcsicdihai
"ihcyshould bc liihographcd 1cirtK:jcr|, 9! 0) JhcirconccrnIor accu
racy in mcasurcmcniaIrcady incorporaicd cxisiing siaiisiicaI idcas aboui
pcrccniagcsoIcrrorand crror,whichihcywanicdiorcducc.
Jhcsc oIhccrs rccognizcdihai classihcaiionwas a much irickicrissuc
ihan mcasurcmcni rcgarding mcasurcmcni, howcvcr, ihcy wcrc naivcIy
posiiivisi: Jhcsc rcsulisarcoIanabsoIuicand invarablccharacicr, capa-
blcoIbcingarrivcdaiwiihcquaIccriainiybymanymodcs, ! 0) . Jhcclas-
sihcaiionoI hcldsIorpurposcsoIa IairasscssmcniposcdahosioIprob-
IcmsinvolvingihciypihcaiionoI variaiionIorpurposcs oI classihcaiion,
so ihai ihc classihcaiion could bc gcncral cnoug io apply io a largc
'
rcgion, yci spccihccnough ioaccommodaic imporani variaiions on ihc
u H h r r n I b t L o o n | c l H c j t r c ! | o n
! 2 2 =
ground. JhcrcsuIiingsoIuiioninvolvcdanincIoldclassihcaiionoI soilsa
complc sysicmoInoiaiionIorhcId asscssors, and aniniricaicaIgoriihm
Ior iranslaiing such qualiiaiivc variaiioninioquaniiiaiivc valucs rclcvani
io rcvcnucasscssmcni.
luianoihcrway, ihcdciailcddiscipIincsoImcasurcmcniandclassihca
tion,ihconc rclying on ihciconicpraciiccsoIirigonomciry and survcy-
ing in gcncral andihc oihcr onnumcricaIand siaiisiical idcas oIavcragc
and pcrccniagc crror), wcrc ihc iwin icchniqucs ihrough which ancqui-
iablc policy oI rcvcnuc was cnvisioncd, bascd on principIcs oI ihc mosi
gcncralapplicabiliiyihaiwould simulancousIybcasscnsiiivc aspossiblc
iolocal variaiion. Jhis mcniality~gcncraliiy oI applicaiionandscnsiiiv
iiyiominuicvariaiions-wasihcccniralicnsion noi usi oI cadasiraIsur
vcysbuioIlIihcinIormaiional aspiraions oIihccolonialsiaic.As lcx-
plainbcIow, ihis mcniaIity is aIso ihc crucial linkbciwccn ihc cadasiral
Iogic oI ihc hrsi halI oI ihc ccnIuryandihchumanccnsuscsoIihclaiicr
parioIihcccniury, inicrmsoIcnumcraiionand cxoiicizaiion
Jhc cxchangcs surrounding ihc I 847rcpori also rcvcal ihccmcrgcni
tcnsion bciwccn ihc variciics oI knowIcdgc ihai consiiuicd oricnialisi
cmpiricismlishouldnoibcvcrysurprisingihaioIhcialsmorcclosclycon-
ccrncdwiihlocalvariaiionandonihcoundaccuracyandIairncsswcrc
rcscnIl oIihcobscssivc panopiicaI nccds oI ihc highcr lcvcls oI ihcbu-
rcaucracy lllusiraiing liicraIly ihc powcr oIihcicxiual supplcmcni" ,in
ihcdcconsiruciionisiusagc,numcricaliablcs, hgurcs,andcharisallowcd
ihc coniingcncy~ihc shccr narraiivccIuiicr oI proscdcscripiionsoI ihc
colonial Iandscapc-io bc domcsiicaicd inio ihc absiraci, prccisc, com
plcic,andcoolidiomoInumbcr.CIcoursc,numbcrscouldbcIoughiovcr,
bui ihis baiilc had aninsirumcniaI quaIity, Iar rcmovcd Iromihc hcai oI
ihcnovcI,ihclighioIihccamcra, and ihccolonialrcalism oI adminisira
iivccihnographics.
JhcscpropcriicswcrcoIpariicular valucioihoscwhosoughiioiamc
ihc vcry divcrsiiics oIihcIand and ihc pcoplc ihai oihcr aspccis oI ihc
Cricnialcpisicmcsuchasphoiography,iravclogs, cngravings,andcxhibi-
iionsdidsomuchiocrcaic. |n ! 840, LicuicnaniVingaic,ihcoIhcialmosi
rcsponsiblcIoriranslaiingihcasscssmcni nccds oIihccoloniaIsiaicinio
IocaIlyIcasibIcicchnicalandburcaucraiicpraciiccsinihccccan, wroic
ioihcrcvcnuccommissioncrinloona, hisimmcdiaicsupcrior clcarlycx-
prcssingIrusiraiionwiihihcchanginginicrcsisoIihcccniralburcaucracy.
''Jhcprcscnisurvcy, morcovcr,wasinsiiiuicdIorpurclyrcvcnucpurposcs,
and ihc qucsiionoIrcndcringiisubscrvicni io ihosc oI Lcographyand
Jopographyisnowmooicd Iorihchrsiiimc. licanhardlyihcrcIorcbcin
u H h r r l b t L o l o Ii u | H c j t n ! o n
= I 2 3 =
airncss Ob]ccIcd IO Ihc pan O OpcraIiOns IhaI iI dOcs nOI incudc Ihc
accOmpishmcnI O Ob]ccIs IhaI wcrc nOI cOnIcmpaIcd aI Ihc Iimc O iIs
OrmaIiOn ,69)
+hc Ohcia aI Ihc ncxI cvc up i nIhc rcvcnuc burcaucracy, aIhOugh
cssOrIhrighIIhanNingaIc, ncvcrIhccss makcsiIccarIhaIhcis puzzcd
byIhc rcaIiOn bcIwccnIhcrcvcnuc nccdsandIhcscicnIihcnccdsOhis
supcriOrs. ^cdiaIingbcIwcnIwOimpOrIanI cvcs OIhc burcaucracy, hc
adds, aI IhccOncusiOn O animpOrIanI cIIcr IhaI Or cvcry purpOscOr
whicha Kcvcnuc Lhccrcan dcsirc amap, IhOscarcady urnishcd byIhc
aIc survcy undcr^a]OrOpp,and IhOsc nOwmakingOuI jsic} byIhc cc-
can Kcvcnuc Owhich a isanncxcd, sccm IOmc ampy
suhcicnI and i anyIhing mOrc accuraIc Or dcIaicd bc rcquircd, iI musI
bc, lcOncudcOrsOmc purpOsc OspccuaIivcscicncc,OnIhcncccssiIyOr
OIhcrwisc Owhich am nOI rcquircd IOcxprcssanOpiniOn ,8 I82) .
OcumcnIs such asIhc Jcinl :cr| wcrc crucia inIhc discipining O
Owcr-cvc, cspcciay naIivc ucIiOnarics in Ihc cmpiricisI pracIiccs O
cOOnia ruc. n Ihc cOccIiOn O maps mcasurcs, and sIaIisIics O cvcry
sOrI, Ihcsc dOcumcnIs, and Ihc rucs cOnIaincd and dcbaIcd wiIhin Ihcm,
shOwIhaI]uniOrurOpcan OhciaswcrccriIicaycOnccrncdwiIh making
surc IhaI Ihc sIandards O cOOnia adminisIraIivc pracIicc wcrc dricd
nIO Ihc miuIcsI bOdiy Icchniqucs OIhcsc mcasurcrs. +csc Icchniqucs
cOud bc sccnasdiscipinaryIcchniqucs appicdbOIh IO Owcr-cvcurO-
pcan OhciadOmandIOIhcirndian subOrdinaIcs. buI Ihcrc wasanimpOr-
IanI dicrcncc. Nhcrcas Ihc Ormcr mighI nOI rccOgnizc Ihcir Own sub-
]ccIiOn IO Ihc rcgimc Onumbcrin IhcidiOms O scicncc, paIrlOIism, and
impcria hcgcmOny (wiIh whlch Ihcy wcrc raciay idcnIihcd), Or ndian
OhciadOm Ihcsc pracIiccs wcrca dirccI inscripIiOn OnIOIhcir bOdics and
minds O assOciaIcd wiIh Ihc pOwcr and Orcignncss O Ihcir
ncrs. n Ihis, as n OIhcr aspccIs O Ihc cOnIrO O cOOnia abOr and rc-
sOurccs, nOIa subaIcrniIicsarcidcnIica.
+hcvasIapparaIus O rcvcnuc asscssmcnI was in acI parI O acOmpcx
sysIcm O discipinc and survciancc in and IhrOugh which naIivc unc-
IiOnaricswcrcinsIicd wiIhawhOcscricsOnumcricahabiIs(IicdIOOIhcr
habiIs OdcscripIiOn,icOnOgraphy, anddisIincIiOn)IschabiIs inIurnin-
vOvcdnumbcrIhrOughacOmpcx scIOrOcs, incuding IhOscOcassihca-
IiOn, Ordcring, apprOximaIiOn, and idcnIihcaIiOn. +hc pOiIica ariIhmcIic
OcOOniaism was IaughIquiIc iIcrayOn IhcgrOundand IransaIcdinIO
agOriIhms IhaI cOud makc uIurc numcrica acIiviIicshabiIua and insIi
burcaucraIicdcscripIiOn wiIh anumcrOOgica inrasIrucIurc.
n cach O Ihcsc impOrIanI ways, Ihc prOsc O cadasIra cOnIrO scI Ihc
H h r r r l b t L c n i c l H n j c f o ti
= I 24 =
grOunds,andcOnsIiIuIcdarchcarsa, OraIcrdiscOursccOnccrninghuman
cOmmuniIicsandIhcircnumcraIiOn.+hisrchcarsahadIhrcccOmpOncnIs
iI scIIhc sIagc OrIhc widcsprcad usc OsIandardizingcnumcraIivc Icch
niqucsIO cOnIrOOn-Ihc-grOund maIcriavariaIiOns iIIrcaIcdIhc physca
caIurcs O Ihc andscapc, as wc as iIs prOducIiviIy and ccOOgicavari
abiiIy, as scparabc (IO sOmc rOm Ihc cOmpcx sOcia righIs n
vOvcd in iIsusc and mcaning Ornra ndians and iI cOnsIiIuIcda pcda-
gOgica prcparaIiOn Or Ihc kind OdiscipinaryrcgimcIhaIwOudaIcrbc
rcquircd Orhuman ccnsusIakcrsandIabuaIOrs aIacvcs.
umbcr(and Ihc sIaIisIica idcOOgyndcryingnumbcr) wasIhcga-
Iurc OIhcsccadasIraIcxIsand prOvidcdIhckcyinksbcIwccnIhcscIcxIs
and Ihc dcbaIcs IhaI Ihcy rcpOrIcd and Ihc pracIiccs Ihcy wcrc dcsigncd
IO dscipinc. +hus, IhrOugh a carcu rcading O Ihcsc apparcnIy simpy
IcchnicadOcumcnIs,OncanuncarIhidcOOgicaIcnsiOnsand racIurcsas
wc as pracIiccsO Icaching and suciancc, in which iI is nOI OnyIhc
casc IhaI "and is IO ruc (cac I 969) . OOnia ruchada pcdagOgica
and discipinary uncIiOn, sO IhaI "andis IO Icach Ihc mcasurcmcnI and
cassihcaIiOn O and was Ihc Iraining grOund Or IhccuIurc Onumbcr in
which sIaIisIics bccamcIhcauIhOrizing discOursc OIhc appcndix(gving
indirccI wcighI IO Ihc vcrba pOrIiOn O Ihc aI Ihc samc Iimc IhaI iI
gavchighcr-cvcOhCiasa pcdagOgica and discipinary scnsc OcOnIrO-
ingnOI ]usI Ihc IcrriIOry Ovcr which Ihcy sOughI IO nc, buI asO Ihc na-
Iivc ncIiOnarics IhrOugh which such ruc nccdcd IO bccccIcd. Psaras
Ihc naIivc is cOnccrncd, Ihcrcgimc O numbcr, as cvcry pagc O such dOc-
umcnIs makcs is parIyIhcrcIO cOunIcracI Ihc mcndaciIy IhaIis sccn
as cOnsIiIuIiOnaIOmOsI naIivcs, bOIh armcrs andmcasurcrs.
Nc Ihus havc Onc parI O an answcr IO Ihc qucsIiOn wiIh which wc
bcgan, namcy, whaI rOc dOcs Ihc cnumcraIiOn O bOdics havc
undcrcOOniaruc lhavcsuggcsIcdIhaInumbcrswcrcachanging parI O
IhccOOniaimaginary and ncIiOn in ]usIihcaIOryand pcdagOgicaways
as wc as in mOrc narrOwy rccrcnIia Oncs. +hc hisIOry O briIish ruc in
Ihc nincIccnIh ccnIury may bc rcad in parI as a shiI rOm a mOrc unc-
IiOna usc O numbcr in whaI has bccn cacd Ihc sca miiIarism O Ihc
briIish sIaIcaIhOmc (brcwcr I 989)IO amOrc pcdagOgica anddiscipinary
rOc. ndian bOdics wcrc graduaynOI OnycaIcgOrizcd buI givcnquanIi-
IaIivc vaucs (bayy I 988, 8889) , incrcasingy assOciaIcd wiIh whaI an
acking has cacd dynamic nOminaism , 986), IhaI is, Ihc crcaIiOn O
ncw kinds O scby OhciaycnOrccd abcingacIiviIics.
umbcrpaycdacriIicarOcinsuchdynamic nOminaismin IhccOO-
nia scIIing, parIy bccausc iI prOvidcda sharcdanguagc OrinOrmaIiOn
u H h r r r I b r L o o | c l H n j t r u I i o r
= I 25 ~
Iranstcr dispuIaIion, and IlnguisIic commcnsuraIion bcIwccn ccnIcr and
pcriphcry, andtordcbaIcsamongahugcarmyotmcdiaIlngburcaucraIsln
lndla.lumbcrwasIhusparIotIhccnIcrprlscotttonslot|nq IhccoIonlaIcx-
pcricnccinIoIcrmsgraspabIcinIhcmcIropoIis,IcrmsIhaIcouIdcncom-
passIhccIhnologicaI pccuIiarlIicsIhaIvarious orlcnIalisIdiscourscs pro
vidcd. lumcricaI consIiIuIcda klnd ot mcIaIanguagc tor coIonial
burcaucraIic discourscwiIhlnwhichmorccxoIicundcrsIandingscouIdbc
packagcd, aI a Ilmc whcn cnumcraIing popuIaIlons and conIroIl ngand
rctormi ngsocicIy hadcomcIogcIhcrln luropc JhcscnumcricaIgIosscs
IhaIappcarasaccompanyingdaIatordiscursivc dcscripIionsandrccom-
mcndaIionsarcbcsIrcgardcdas a normaIlzingamctorIhcsIrangcrdls-
curslvcrcaIiIicsIhaIIhcvcrbaI porIlonsotmanycoIoniaIIcxIsnccdcdIo
consIrucI. Jhls normallzlng tramc tuncIions aI Ihrcc ot Ihc Icvcls d s-
cusscd by loucauII, Ihosc ot knowIcdgc and powcr, IcxI and pracIicc,
adl ngandruI ing. loIloingKichard5mlIhs disIincIion , I 85) bcIwccn
Ic-by-rccord and ruIc-by-rcporI lI can bc sccn IhaI numbcrs in :ceJs
prvidcd Ihc cmplrical balIasI tor Ihc dcscrlpIlvlsI IhrusI ot Ihc coIonlaI
gazc, whcrcas numbcrs in :jets provldcd morc ot a normalizing tramc,
balancingIhcconIcsIaIory and poIyphonic aspccIs otIhcnarraIivc por-
IionsotIhcscrcporIs,whichsharcdsomcotIhcIcnsionsotIhcproscot
counIcrinsurgcncy ,Luha I 8J)
Celerol 8eJy Cearts
JhcsccnumcraIivcpracIiccs, in Ihc scIIingotalargcIyagrlcuIIuralsocicIy
IhaIwasalrcadyIoaIargcdcgrccpracIlcallyprcparcdtorcadasIraIconIrol
by Ihc ughal sIaIc, had anoIhcr ma|or conscqucncc. Jhcy wcrc noI
mcrcIyarchcarsal torIhccounIing pracIlccsotIhclndlan naIionaIccnsus
atIcrI 870.JhcyaIsoaccomplishcdama|orandhlIhcrIolargcIyunnoIccd
Iask. Jhc hugc apparaIus orcvcnuc scIIIcmcnIs, land andIcgal
andburcaucraIic changcs ln Ihc hrsI haIt ot Ihc nlncIccnIh ccnIury dld
somcIhingbcyondcommodiIizingIand,Lohn I )IranstormingIords
inIo IandIords and pcasanIs inIo IcnanIs ,rakash I 0), and changlng
rcciprocasIrucIurcsotgitIandhonorinIosaIabIcIlIlcs,whichwcrcscml-
oIlcaly tracIurcdandwcrc rcndcrcd markcIablc, whiIcrcIalnlngsomc ot
IhcmcIonymictorccIhaIIicdIhcmIonamcdpcrsons. JhcyaIsounyokcd
sociaI groupstromIhc compIcx andIocallzcdgroupsIrucIurcsandagrar-
lanpracIiccsinwhlchIhcyhadprcvlousIybccncmbcddcd,whcIhcrinIhc
conIcotIhcsiIcnIscIIIcmcnIot|nos in5ouIhlndia ,lrykcnbcrg I 77
lrks I 87), ot |nos inaharashIra , rcsIon I 8), otbondcdlaborcrs
N u r r i n f b r C o | o r i o l o j i r o t i o r
I 2
lnblhar,rakash I 0),orotuIahasinLIIarradcsh,andcy I 0). Jhc
hugc dlvcrslIy otcasIcs, sccIs, Irlbcs, andoIhcrpracIlcal grouplngsotIhc
lndlan Iandscapcwcrc Ihus rcndcrcdinIoavasIcaIcgoricalI andscapcun-
IcIhcrcdIoIhcspccihciIicsotIhcagrarianIcrrain
Jhisunyokingoccurs in Iwo ma|orsIcps, oncassociaIcdwiIh Ihc pc-
riodbctorc I 870, duringwhlch issucsotIandscIIIcmcnI andIaxaIlonarc
domlnanI coIonlaI pro|ccIs, and Ihc oIhcr wlIh Ihc pcriodtrom I 870 Io
I J I , Ihccra otIhcgrcaI^II-l ndla Lcnsus, otwhich Ihc cnumcraIlon ot
humanpopuIaIlonslsIhcdominanIpro|ccIJhcycarstrom abouI I 840 Io
I 870markIhcIransiIlontromoncma|ororicnIaIionIoIhcoIhcrJhcrsI
pcrlodscIsIhcsIagctorIhcsccondin IhaIiIisdominaIcdbaconccrntor
Ihc physical and ccological basis ot Iand producIlviIy and rcvcnuc as
havcalrcadysuggcsIcd,IhchrsIcraIo somccxIcnIunyokcs IhlsvariablIiIy
trom Ihc sociaI andhumanworId assoclaIcdwlIh iI inIhc conIcxI ot ct-
torIsIowagc a baIIIc otsIandardlzaIion againsIon-Ihc-groundvariaIion.
nIhcsccondpcriod, souscIly cxpIorcdbyKashml anI, I 87) ln Ihc
conIcxIotIhclorIh-WcsIrovinccsandLudh, Ihcrcvcrscmovcoccurs,
and human groups ,casIcs) arc IrcaIcd Io a considcrablc cxIcnI as ab-
trom Ihc rcglonaI and IcrriIorlal conIcxIs ln which Ihcy tunc
Ilon. lIlsotcourscimporIanIIonoIcIhaIIhcsccoloniaIpro|ccIswcrccon-
currcnIIy plagucd by inIcrnal conIradicIions ,Ihc gc Io spcciciIy and
gcncraI lzablllIy inIhcnamcsotcasIcstorIhc^II - lndla Lcnsus, torcxam-
pIc) , by inconsisIcncics among dittcrcnI colonlaI pro|ccIs, and, mosI lm-
porIanI,byIhctacIIhaIcoIonlaIburcaucraIlcopcraIionsdldnoIncccssar
ily Iranstorm pracIlccs ormcnIallIlcsonIhcground. shaIl rcIurnIoIhis
issucIowardIhccndotIhlschapIcrlnadlscusslonotIhccoIonlaIsub|ccI.
anIs scmlnaIcssaydiscusscsIhcwaylnwhlch casIcbccamc acruciaI
slIctorIhcacIiviIicsotIhcnaIionalccnsuscsatIcrI 870agalnsIoIhcrsiIcs.
^IongwlIh Ihccssayby 5mIh , I 85) , anIs argumcnI aIIows us Io scc
IhaIcoIonialburcaucraIlcpracIicc,asaconIingcnIandhlsIoriallyshapcd
IocusotagcncyinlIsownrlghI, hclpcdIocrcaIcaspcclalandpowcrtuIrc-
laIlonship among csscnIlalizaIion, disclpIinc, sucilIancc, ob|ccIlhcaIion,
and group consciousncss by Ihc IasI dccadcs otIhc nlncIccnIh ccnIury
lumbcrs pIaycdacruclaI roIc inIhiscon|uncIurc, andIhccarlicrsIaIls-
IicaI panopIlconwasa crlIicaI tacIorinIhc graviIaIlon otIhc ccnsus Io-
wardcasIcasakcyslIcotsoclaIcassiaIlon, ascasIcappcarcdIobcIhc
kcyIolndlansociaIvarlablIlIyaswclIasIoIhcndianmcnIaI lIy.anI,who
bulIdsonIhccarIlcrworkot5mlIh, poinIsouIIhaIIhcuscotcasIctordit-
tcrcnIlaIingasIrcamotdaIawas hrsIapplicdinIhcrcaImotscxsIaIlsIls
tromIhlsrcglon , I 7, I 48). 5pccihcal Iy, iIwasargucdinIhc I 872rcporI
N u r r i r f b r C o l o n u | o j i r o r i o
I 27
olthcAll -l ndia Ccnsus lorthcorthWcstlrovinccsandCudthatccr-
tain hypothcscs about scx ratios i n rcation to lcma|c inlanticidc could
onlybc cxpaincdbyrclcrcncctocastc.Jhisconccrnwithcxplai ni ngand
controllingcxotbchaviorsi sacrucial picccolcvidcnccthatcmpiricism
andcxoticizationwcrcnotdisconncctcdaspcctsolthccoloniaimaginary
inndia.Jhislinkagcolcmpirical statisticsandthcmanagcmcntolthccx-
otic was thc basis lor a morc gcncral poicy oricntation-that much ol
what nccdcd to bc known about thc lndian population would bccomc
intclligiblc ony by thc dctaicdcnumcration ol thc population in tcrms
olcastc.
AlthoughthcsubscqucnthistoryolthcAl -lndi aCcnsusshowsthati n
practiccthcrcwcrccnorousdilculticsandanomal|csinvolvcdwiththc
clortto constructan all-lndiagridol namcdandcnumcratcdcastcs thc
principlcwas notabandoncduntil thc I 30s.Aslant shows,bythcturn
olthcccntury, thccpistcmologicalstatusolcastc asa localc lorrccogniz-
ingqualihcdandsociallycllcctivcuni ts olthcl ndianpopuationwas wcl
cstablishcd-asourCcnsusKcportsol\ I I I 3 I conhrm, I ) . lutitis
aso worth noting thatbccausc thc hunt lordata about castc crcatcd a
hugc and unmanagcablc llowol inlormation, cvcn as carly as thc I 860s,
onlynumcrical ma)oriticswcrcgivcnpromincncci nthc ccnsusrcports.
Jhus,thcconccwithnumcricalma)oriticscmcrgcdasapri nciplcloror-
ganizing ccnsus inlormation. Jhis apparcnty innocuous burcaucratic
principlc,olcoursc,isalogicalbasislorthcidcasolma)or|tyandminority
groupsthatsubscqucntyallcctcdlindu-lusimpoiticsincoloniall ndia
andcastcpoliticsinlndiaringthctwcnticthccnturyuptothcprcscnt.
Whilcitistructhatcastcast|:mastcrtropcwithwhichtotaxonomizc
thc lndian landscapc is a rclativcly latc product ol colonial ruc ,lant
I 87), thc morc gcncral csscntialization ol lndian groups gocs back at
casttothcbcginnings olthc ninctccnthccntury, il not carlicr, as Lyan
landcy has shown with thc wcaving castcs ol Ottar lradcsh ,landcy
I 0). Onti thc ast dccadcs ol thc ni nctccnthccntury, howcvcr, thc cs-
scntialization ol groups i n or|cntalist and adinistrativc discoursc was
largclyscparatclromthccnumcrativcpracticcsoltcstatc,cxccpti nsolar
asthcywcrcdircctyl inkcdtolocalizcdrcvcnuc purposcs. Ananaysis ol
an I 823coloniaccnsusi nSouthl ndi a,Luddcn I 88) showsthattclatc-
ninctccnth-ccnturyprcoccupationwithsocialclassihcationandcnumcra-
tion isantic|patcdvcrycary lut this carlyccnsus sccms, on thc wholc,
pragmatic, localistic,andrclationalin itstrcatmcntolgroups,rathcrthan
abstract,un lormitarian,orcncyclopcdicin itsaspirations.Jhiswasstilla
ccnsus oricntcdto taxaticr rathcr than to kncurJr, to usc Smiths tcrms.
u m n r r i ! b r L o l o r c | H c j i c t i o r
I 2 8
Altcr I 870,howcvcr, not onlyhadnumbcrsbccomcan intcgral partol
thc colonial imaginary andthcpractical idcoogics olits low-cvclunc-
tionarics,but lndian social groups hadbccomcbothlunctionallyanddis-
cursivcly unyokcdlromlocal agrarian landscapcs andsct adrilt in a vast
pan-lndiansocialcncyclopcdia. Jhisrclcascwasalunctionolthcgrowing
scnscthat thcsocia morphoogolcastc could providc an ovcral grid
throughthcccnsuslororganizingknowlcdgc aboutthclndianpopuation.
Jhcsc arc thcconditions lor thc spccial lorcc olthc lndianccnsus altcr
I 870, whichwas intcndcdto quantilyprcviouslysctclasshcationsbut in
lacthad)ustthcrcvcrsccllccttostimuatcthcscll-mobilizationolthcsc
groups intoavarictyolargcrtransloca politicalorms.
lcrcalso is thcplaccto notcthckcydillcrcncc bctwccn thclritish
andthcirlughalprcdcccssors whilcthclughalsdidagrcatdcatomap
and mcasurc thc land undcr thcir control lor rcvcnuc purposcs ,labib
I63), thusgcncratingalargcpartolthcrcvcnucvocabularyaivcinlndia
andlakistancvcntoday, thcyconductcd noknownccnsus olpcrsons a
lact notcdby lrlan labib as thc ccntral rcason why it is dilhcutto csti-
matcthc population ollughalndia ,labib I 82, \ 63). Lnumcration ol
variousthingswasccrtainlypartolthclughalstatcimaginaryaswasthc
acknowlcdgmcn ol roup idcntitics, but not thc cnumcration ol group
idcntitics. As lor thc othcr ma)or prccolonial poitical lormations ol thc
subcontincnt, such as thc Vi)ayanagara kingdom, do notappcarto
havcsharcdthcli ncar, ccntralizing,rccord-kccpingmodcsolthclughals
andwcrc oricntcd tonumbcrasalarmorcsubtlc cosmopoliticsolnamcs,
tcrritorics, honors, sharcs, and rclations ,lrcckcnridgc I 83) ln thisrc-
gard, non-lugha statcs in thc lndiansubcontincnt bclorc colonia ruc,
includingthosclikcthclarathaswhoran claboratclymonctizcdpolitical
domains ,lcrin I 8) , donotsccmtohavcbccnconccrncdwithnumbcr
as adircctinstrumcntolsocia control ln thcsc prccolonialrcgimcs, cnu-
mcrativcactiviticswcrcticdtotaxation, accounting,andandrcvcnuc,but
thc linkagc ol cnumcration to group idcntity sccms vcry wcak indccd
Whcrcitdidcxist,itsccmsto havcbccnconncctcdtovcryspccihcsocia
lormations,suchasak|aras ,wrcst ingandgmnasticsodalitics),andnotto
thccnumcrationolthcpopulationatargc,rcitag I 0).
orthisast, totaizingthrust tocntcrthc imaginary olthcstatc, thc
crucial i ntcrcningstcpwasthccsscntializingandtaxonomizinggazc ol
carly oricntaism ,olthcuropcan varicty)

loowcdbythccnumcrativc
habitapplicdtothclandin thc hrstha lolthc ninctccnthccntury, andh-
na|lythci dcaolpoiticalrcprcscntationasticd, nottocsscntialysimilar
citizcns and individuals but to communitics conccivcd as i nhcrcntly spc-
u m b r r r f b r L o | o r c | H c j c ! t o r
cial.hccsscntiaizingandcxoticizinggazco|oricntaismin l ndia inthc
cightccnth and ninctccnth ccnturics providcs thc crucia ink bctwccn
ccnsus cassihcations and castc and community poitics. lcrc, wc arc h
nayatthchcarto|thcargumcnt,bothrcgardingthcdi||crcnccsbctwccn
thccoonial rcgimc in l ndia ( and its mctropoitan countcrparts aswc as
its indigcnous prcdcccssors) and thc ink bctwccn colonial casihcatory
politics and contcmporary dcmocratic politics. hc cnumcration o| thc
socia body, conccivcd as aggrcgations o| individuas whoscbodics wcrc
inhcrcntyboth cocctivcand sctsthcstagc|orgroupdi||crcnccto
bcthc ccntral principc o| politics Linkingthc idca o|rcprcscntation to
thc idca o|communitics charactcrizcdbybioracial commonaitics (i ntcr
nay) andbioracialdi||crcnccs (cxtcrnay)sccmstobcthccriticamarkcr
o|thccoonia twist inthc poiticso|thcmodcrnnationstatc.
Whatoccucdinthccoonywasacon|uncturcthatncvcroccurrcdat
homc thc idcathattcchniqucso|mcasurcmcntwcrcacrucialwaytonor-
malizcthcvariation insoi andand,con|oincdwiththc idcathatnumcri-
ca rcprcscntation was a kcy to normalizingthc pathoogy o| di||crcncc
throughwhich thc lndian socia bodywas rcprcscntcd. hus thc idca o|
thcavcragc man ,| ocmm:mcyo o|[uctcct), smugglcdinthroughstatis-
tics (asits cpistcmoogica undcrbcy), was brought into thc domain o|
group di||crcncc.hissctsupanoricntaistcxtcnsiono|thcmctropoitan
idcao|thc numcricarcprcscntationo|groups (conccivcdascomposcdo|
avcragcindividuas)andthcidcao|scparatcccctoratcs,whichis anatura
outgrowth o|thc scnscthat lndiawas a lando|gups (both |orcivil and
poitica purposcs) and that lndian socia groupi ngs wcrc inhcrcntly spc-
cial . hus, undcr colonia ruc, atcast in ritish l ndia, thc numcrica di-
mcnsion o|cassihcationcarricsthcsccds o| a spcciacontradiction as it
was brought to bcar on a word conccivcd as onc o| incommcnsurabc
groupdi||crcnccs.
ufionult:m,Krrr:rnfufion,unJum|rr
hc communitarian approach, which atcr(i nthchrstpart o| thc twcnti-
cthccntury) hasitsmostdramaticmani|cstationin scparatcclcctoratcs|or
lindusandNusims (lasan I 7, andcy I 0,Kobinson I74),wasby
nomcansrcstrictcdtothcm. ltwasbuiltoncaricridcasaboutcastcasthc
critica principc o| a gcncra morphoogy o| thc lndian popuation (as
knownthroughthcccnsus) andstil caricridcasaboutthcpowcrso|cnu-
mcration ingraspingthcvariabiityandthc tractabilityo|l ndias landand
rcsourccs. his communitari an approach was asocrucia in dchning thc
u H h r r i n ! b c L o | o ti c | H c j r n c ! o n
I J0
dynamics o| idcas o| macri| and mincr|( as cuturay codcd tcrms |or
dominant and discn|ranchiscd groups in South l ndia ( rykcnbcrg I 87
Saraswathi I74 Washbrook I7chap. ) andcscwhcrc. lti sthusvcry
pausibcto arguc as Ka|ni Kothari ( I8a, I8b) andothcrs havc donc,
thatthcvcry |abrico|l ndiandcmocracyrcmainsadvcrscya||cctcdbythc
idca o|numcricalydominatcdbocvoting, asopposcdtomorc cassically
ibcral idcas o|thcbourgcois individuas castinghisvotcas a dcmocratic
citizcn.
lthough it isbcyondthc scopco|thischaptcrto showin a dctaicd
way howhc cognitivc importancc o|castc inthc ccnsus o|l ndi ain thc
I870 anticipatcs thccommunitarian poitics o|thisccntury, itshoudbc
notcdthatcvcn a|tcr IJ I , whcn castc ccascdto bc a ccntra concco|
thc l ndian ccnsus, thc idca o|poitics as thccontcst o| csscntiaizcd and
cnumcratcd communitics (thc attcr bcing a conccpt l owc to Kavira
I4) had arcady takcn hrm hodo| oca and rcgiona poitics and thus
nolongcrrcquircdthcstimuationo|thc ccnsustomaintainitshodonl n-
dianpoitics.sShah( I8) hasnotcd,thcrchasbccnastcady (andsuc-
ccss|u ) c||ort in thc past |cw dccadcs torcvcrsc thc post- I J I policy o|
ciminatingcastccounts|romthcccnsus.
lannah itkin ( I7) and othcrs havc writtcn coqucnty about thc
compcx rcationships among rcprcscntation in its mora, acsthctic, and
poitical scnscs. l nccdnotrcpcatthisWcstcrngcncaogyhcrc, cxccptto
notc that |airy cary in thc history o| thc Lnightcnmcnt thc ida o|
dcmocracy bccamc ticdto an idca o| thc rcprcscntativc sovcrcignty o|
sub|ccts.hus, asKobcrtrykcnbcrg( I haspointcdout|orthcl ndian
contct, clcctoral politics bccamc both a poitics | r:jr:s:ntaucn (o| thc
pcopctothcpcopcagamco|mirrors inwhichthc statcis madcvirtu-
ayinvisibc)andapoiticso|r:jr::ntut|n:n:ss,thatis, apoliticso|statistics,
inwhichsomcbodicscoudbchcdto stand|orothcrbodicsbccausco|
thcnumcricaprincipco|mctonymyrathcrthanthcvaricdcosmopoiti-
caprinciplcso|rcprcscntationthathadcharactcrizcdidcaso|divincrulc
inmany prcmodcrn poitics
Luringthcninctccnth andcarytwcnticthccntury thc coonia statc
|ound itsc| in an intcrcsting contradiction in l ndia as it sought to usc
idcas o| rcprcscntation and rcprcscntativcncss at owcr cvcs o| |ndias
politica ordcr, with patcrnaist, monarchic, andquaitativc principcs at
thctop.hcstoryo|l ndiansc|-govcrnmcnt(whichwasconhncdtoava-
ricty o|viagc- and district-cvc bodics during thc buk o| thc sccond
ha| o| thc ninctccnth ccntury) bccamc trans|ormcd stcadiy into thc
ogic o|l ndian nationaism, which co optcd thc coonia ogic o|rcprc
u H h c r i n ! b r L o | o n i c H c j i n c ! t o
I J I
sCn!a!ivCnCss and UsCd i! !OannCX !hC dCmOCra!iC idCa OrCprCsCn!a!iOn
assC-rCprCsCn!a!iOn.
hUs, !hCCOun!ingOOOdiCs !ha!had sCrCd !hCpUrpOsCs OCOOnia
DCa!OwCrCvCsin !hCas!haO !hCninC!CCn!hCCn!Ury!urnCdgradU-
ay in!O !hC idCa O !hC rCprCsCn!a!iOn O ndian sCvCs (sC-ruC) as na-
!iOnaism OCCamC a mass mOvCmCn!. | COUrsC, in hindsigh!, as ar!ha
\ha!!Cr)CC has hCpCd Us sCC, na!iOnaism suCrCd rOm sharing !hC OasiC
!hCma!iCO COOniais!!hOugh! and !hUs COud nO! gCnCra!C a !hOrOUgh-
gOing Cri!iqUC O i! (\ha!!Cr)CC I 8) bO, !hC pOi!iCs O numOCrs, CspC-
CiayinrCgard!OCas!CandCOmmUni!y, isnO!Ony!hCOanCO dCmOCra!iC
pOi!iCs in ndia, OU!!hCsCOdCr idCn!i!iCshavCOCCOmCpOi!iCizCdinways
!ha!arCradiCayOiCrCn!rOmO!hCrOCa COnCCp!iOnsO!hCrCa!iOnship
OC!wCCn!hCOrdCrO)t|s and!hCOgiCO!hCs!a!c. hCprOCCssOywhiCh
sCpara!C indU and Usim idCn!i!iCs wCrC COns!IDC!Cd a! a maCrO CvC
and !ransOrmCd nO!)Us!in!O imaginCd COmmUni!iCs Ou!asOin!OCnUmCr-
a!CdCOmmUni!iCs isOny !hC mOs! visiOC pa!hOOQy O !hC !ransCr O !hC
pOi!iCs O numCriCa rCprCsCn!a!iOn !O a sOCiC!y in whiCh rCprCsCn!a!iOn
andgrOupidCn!i!yhadnOspCCianUmCriCa rCa!iOnship!O!hCpOi!y.
bu! i! COUds!i OC said!ha! COOnia rUC, Ci!hCrO !hCbri!ish in ndia
Or O O!hCr UrOpCan rCgimCs CsCwhCrC in !hC wOrd, was nO! aOnC in
gCnCra!ing CnUmCra!Cd COmmUni!iCs. any argC nOn-UrOpCan s!a!Cs,
inCuding!hC|!!Omans,Ughas,andvariOus\hinCsCdynas!iCs,hadnU
mCriCa COnCCrns. N hCrC iCs!hCceler|l diCrCnCC Or!hC ma!UrC COO-
nias!a!C, nUmOCrswCrCpar!OaCOmpCXimaginaIin whiCh!hCu!ii!ar-
ian nCCds O sCa mii!arism in!hCwOrd sys!Cm, !hC Cas>iCa!Ory OgiCs
OOriCn!ais!C!hnOOy,!hCshadOwprCsCnCCONCs!CrndCmOCra!iCidCas
OnUmCriCarCprCsCn!a!iOn,and!hCgCnCrashi!rOmaCassiCa!Ory!Oa
numCriCaOiOpOi!iCsCrCa!CdanCvOving OgiC!ha!rCaChCda Cri!iCa COn-
)unC!ura pOin! in !hCas!!hrCc dCCadCs O!hCninC!CCn!h CCn!UI and!hC
Is!!wOdCCadCs O!hC!wCn!iC!h.
hnC!rCsU!wassOmC!ingCri!iCaydiCrCn!rOmaO!hCrCOmpCX
s!a!Cappara!UsCsinrCgard!O!hCpOi!iCsO!hCOOdyand!hCCOns!rUC!iOn
O COmmUni!iCs as OOdiCs. U! vCry simpy, O!hCr rCgimCs may havC had
nUmCriCa COnCCrns and !hCy may asO havC had CassiCa!Ory COnCCrns.
bu! !hCsC rCmainCd argCy sCpara!C, and i! was Ony in !hC COmpCX COn-
)UnC!urC O variaOCs !ha! COns!i!U!Cd !hC prO)CC! O !hC ma!UrC COOnia
s!a!C!ha!!hCsC!wOOrmsOdynamiCnOminaismCamC !OCrCa!C
apOi!yCCn!CrCdarOUndsC-COnsCiOUsyCnUmCra!CdCOmmUni!iCs.NhCn
!hCsC COmmUni!iCs wCrC asO CmOCddCd in a widCr OCia disCOUrsC O
spaCC, !imC, rCsOUrCCs, and rCa!iOns !ha! was asO nUmCrCa in Cri!iCa
N u r t i r t b t L o | o r a m a j r a i o r
F I 2 =
ways, a spCCiCay COOnia pOi!iCa ari!hmC!iC was gCnCra!Cd, in whiCh
CssCn!iaizingandCnumCra!inghUmanCOmmuni!iCsOCCamCnO!OnyCOn-
CUrrCn!aC!ivi!iCs Ou!UnimaginaOC wi!hOU!OnCanO!hCr.
hisari!hmC!iC isaCri!iCapar! OCOOniaOiOpOi!iCs (a!Cas!in!Crms
O !hC bri!ish inndia)nO!OnyOCCaUsC i!invOvCdaOs!raC!iOnsOnUmOCr
whCrCas O!hCr s!a!C rCgimCshad mOrCCOnCrC!CnUmCriCa pUrpOsCs (suCh
as !aXCs, COCaOOr, and!hC ikC) hCmOdC COOnia s!a!COrings!O-
gC!hCr !hC CXO!iCizing visiOn O OriCn!aism wi!h !hC amiiarizing dis-
COUrsCOs!a!is!iCs. n!hCprOCCss,!hCOOdyO!hCCOOniasuO)CC!ismadC
simU!anCOUsy s!rangC and dOCiC. !s s!rangCnCss iCs in !hC aC! !ha! i!
COmCs !O OCsCCnas!hCsi!CO CruC andUnUsUa praC!iCCs and OizarrC sUO-
)CC!ivi!iCs. bu! COOnia OOdy COUn!s CrCa!CnO!Ony !ypCs and CassCs (!hC
rs! mOvC !Oward dOmCs!iCa!ing diCrCnCCs) OU! asO hOmOgCnCOUs OOd-
iCs (wi!hin Ca!CgOriCs) OCCaUsC nUmOCr, Oy i!s na!UrC, Ua!!Cns idiOsyn-
CrasiCsandCrCa!CsOOUndariCsarOUnd!hCsChOmOgCnCOusOOdiCsasi!pCr-
Orma!ivCy imi!s !hCirCX!Cn!. n!his rCgard, s!a!is!iCsarC!OOOdiCs
andsOCia!ypCswha!mapsarC!O!Crri!OriCs.!hCya!!CnandCnCOsC. hC
ink OC!wCCnCOOniaismandOriCn!aism,!hCrCOrC, is mOs! s!rOngyrCin
OrCCd nO! a!!hC OCi O CassiCa!iOn and!ypiCa!iOn (as has O!Cn OCCn
sUggCs!Cd)Ou! a! !hC OCi O CnUmCra!iOn, whCrCOOdiCs arCCOUn!Cd, hO-
mOgCnizCd, and OOUndCd in !hCir CX!Cn!. hus, !hC unruy OOdy O !hC
COOnia suO)CC! (as!ing, Cas!ing, hOOk swinging, aOU!ing, OUrning, and
OCCding) is rCCUpCra!Cd !hrOUgh !hC anguagC O numOCrs !ha! aOws
!hCsCvCry OOdiCs !OOCOIOugh!OaCk, nOwCOUn!CdandaCCOUn!Cd, Or!hC
humdrUm prO)CC!sO !aXa!iOn, sani!a!iOn, CdUCa!iOn, wararC, andOya!y.
yargUmCn!!hUs armigh!OC rCadas impying !ha! !hC COOnia prO
)CC!OCssCn!iaizing,CnUmCra!ing, andapprOpria!ing!hCsOCiaandsCapC
was whOy suCCCssu. n aC!, !ha!isnO!!hCCasC, and!hCrC is ampCCvi-
dCnCC OmavariC!yOsOurCCs !ha!!hCprO)CC!sO!hCCOOnias!a!C wCrC
OynOmCans COmpC!Cy CCC!ivC, CspCCiayinrCgard!O!hCCOOnizingO
!hC ndian COnsCiOUsnCss. n variOUs kinds O pCasan! andUrOan rCvO!, in
variOus kinds O aU!OOiOgraphiC and C!iOna wri!ing, in many diCrCn!
sOr!s OdOmCs!iCOrma!iOn andCXprCssiOn, and invariOUs kinds O OOdiy
andrCigiOUspraC!iCCsndiansOmanyCassCsCOn!inuCdpraC!iCCsandrC-
prOdUCCdUndCrs!andings!ha!arprCda!CdCOOniaIDC OrCOvCr, ndian
mCn and wOmCn dCiOCra!Cy rCCas! !hCir COnCCp!iOns O OOdy, >OCiC!y,
COUn!ry, and dCs!iny in mOvCmCn!s O prO!Cs!, in!Crna Cri!iquC, and OU!
righ! rCvO! agains! COOnia aU!hOri!iCs. ! is indCCd rOm !hCsC variOUs
sOUrCCs !ha! !hC CnCrgiCs O OCa rCsis!anCC wCrC drawn-nCrgiCs and
spaCCs (rangingrOmprayCrgrOupsanda!hC!iCassOCia!iOns!OasCC!iCOr-
N u m r t r i f b t C o o r i a | m a j r a f o r
F I J
dcrsandmcrcanIllcordcrs)haIprovldcdIhcsoclalbaslsotIhcnaIlonaIlsI
movcmcnI. Jhcsc cncrglcs pcrmlIIcd somconc llkc Landhl, and many
oIhcrlcsscrknowngurcs IorccapIurcsoclalandmoralgroundom Ihc
brlIlsh ,and om Ihc dlscoursc ot orlcnIallsm lIscl t) Jhcsc rchccIlons
brlngusbackIoaproblcmralscdcarl lcr, IhaIotIhccolonlalsub|ccIl nrc
IaIlon IoIhccnumcraIlvcandc|asslcaIorypro|ccIsotIhcsIaIc.
Jhcrclsotcoursc nocasygcncraIlzaIionIobcmadc abouIIhcdcgrcc
IowhlchIhc cttorIIoorganlzc Ihccolonlal pro|ccIaroundIhc ldcaotcs
scnIlallzcdandcnumcraIcdcommunlIlcs madcl nroads lnIo Ihc pracIlcal
consclousncssotcolonlalsub|ccIs lnl ndia. lI lscasy cnough, howcvcr, Io
say IhaI Ihc rcsulIs musI havc varicdaccordlngIovarious dlmcnslons ot
Ihc poslIlon otIhc colonlal sub|ccI hcr hcr closcncss Io or dls
Iancc om Ihc colonlal gazc, hcr l nvolvcmcnIwlIh or dcIachmcnI tom
colonlalpollIlcs,hcrparIlclpaIlonlnordlsIancctrom Ihc burcaucraIlcap
paraIuslIsclt. lIlsalsoIcIhaIvarlousl ndlanpcrsonsandgroupsdldrc-
maln ,ln mcmory lt noI ln cmplrical IlcdIolocallty, whaIcvcrIhc
panopIlcon saw orsald. whllc ccrIaln componcnIs ot Ihc colonlal
sIaIcwcrcacIlvcpropagaIors otIhc dlscourscs otoupldcnIlty, oIhcrs,
suchas Ihoscl nvolvcdwIh law, and moral rctorm,wcrc lmpll-
caIcdlnIhccrcaIlonotwhaImlghIbccallcdacolonlalbourgcolssub|ccI,
concclvcd as an lndlvldual . Jhls problcm ls noI rcsolvablc hcrc, buI lI
nccdsIobcrcmarkcdasan lssucIhaIanylnIcrprcIaIlonotcnu-
mcraIcdcommunlIlcswlllcvcnIuallyhavcIocngagc
buI cvcn lt varlous spaccs rcmalncd trcc ot Ihc colonlal panopIlcon
,whcIhcrIhroughIhcagcncyotrcslsIlngcolonlalsub|ccIsorIhclncapac-
lIlcs andconIradlcIlons ot Ihc colonlal |uggcrnauI, Ihc tacI ls IhaI Ihc
colonlalgazcandlIsassoclaIcdIcchnlqucs,havclctIan lndcllblcmarkon
lndlanpollIlcalconsclousncss.arIotIhlslndcllblchcrlIagcls Iobcsccn
lnIhcmaIIcrotnumbcrs. lIlscnumcraIlon,l nassoclaIlonwlIhncwtorms
otcaIcgorlzaIlon,IhaIcrcaIcsIhcl lnkbcIwccnIhcorlcnIallzlngIhrusIot
Ihcbrllsh sIaIc, whlch saw lndlaasa muscum orzoo otdlttcrcncc and
ot dittercnccs, and Ihc pro|ccI ot rctorm, which lnvolvcd clcaning up
Ihcslcazy, abby, trall, tcmlnlnc, obscqulous bodlcs otnaIlvcs lnIo clcan,
vlrllc,muscular, moral,andloyalbodlcsIhaIcouldbcmovcdlnIoIhcsub-
|ccIlvlIlcs propcrIocolonlallsm ,^rnold 'dd) . WlIhLandhl, wchavca
rcvolI ot Ihc l ndlanbody, arcawakcnlngot l ndlansclvcs, and arcconsIl-
IuIlonotIhcloyalbodylnIoIhcunrulyandslgn-rlddcn bodyotmassna-
IlonallsIproIcsI ,^mln I 'd^, bonduranI ! ';d) . buIIhc tacIIhaI Landhl
had Io dlc atIcr waIchlng bodlcs dchncd as lndu and usllm burn
and dchlc onc anoIhcr rcmlnds us IhaI hls succcss agalnsI Ihc coIonlaI
N v l : t | r t n e C o l o r | a l | o n a t | o n
I 3 4 ~
pro|ccI otcnumcraIlon, andlIs ldca otIhcbodypollIlcwas noI andlsnoI
complcIc.
Jhc burnlng body ot Koop lanwar (assoclaIcd wlIh Ihc rcnasccnI
Ka|puI consclousncss oturban malcs ln small-Iown Ka|asIhan), Ihc sclt
lmmolaIlons ot young, mlddlc-class mcn and womcn atIcr Ihc anda
Lommlsslon KcporI was rcvlIallzcd, and Ihc bodlcs ot Ihc sr s:m|: ln
^yodhyaandot usllms ln lucknowandcIscwhcrc suggcsIIhaIlndlgc-
nousldcasotdlttcrcncchavcbccomcIranstormcdlnIoadcadlypollIlcsot
communlty, a proccssIhaI has many hlsIorlcaI sourccs. buI Ihls cuIIural
andhlsIorlcalIlndcrwouldnoIburnwlIhIhcinIcnslIywcnowscc,buItor
conIacI wlIh Ihc Icchnlqucs ot Ihc modcrn naIlon sIaIc, Ihosc
havlngIo do wlIh numbcr. Jhcklnds otsub|ccIlvlIy IhaIl ndlansowc Io
IhcconIradlcIlonsotcolonlallsmrcmalnboIh and
N l : t | r t o : C o l o : | a l a | n a | o n
= 3 ; =
l A K l l l
| c s | n a | | c n a |
L c c a | | c n s
7
L|6 86| || m0|0| 8 | Sm
Jhc conIcmporap worldi s hllcd wiIh cxampIcs otcIhnic consciousncss
IhaIarccIosc|ylinkcdIo naIionalismandviolcncc lIwilI noIongcrscrc
Io look aI cIhniciIy as|usIanoIhcrprincipIc otgroup idcnIiIy, as|usI an-
oIhcrcuIIuraldcvicctorIhcpursuiIotgroupinIcrcsIs,orassomcdialccIi
ca|combinaIionotIhcIwo.WcnccdanaccounIotcIhniciIyIhaIcxplorcs
iIsmodcrniIy crhaps IhcmosIclcarindcxotmodcrncIhniciIyisIhaIiI
draws IogcIhcr oups IhaI by Ihcir shccr spaIial sprcad and numcricaI
sIrcngIharcvasIly| argcrIhan IhccIhnicgroupsotIradiIionaI anIhropol
ogy.JamiIs,crbs,ikhs,aIaians,basqucs,andoIhcrsarcallvcryIargc
groups, arc all cIaimanIs Io naIionhood, and arc aIl involvcd in vioIcnI
contronIaIions wiIh cxisIing sIaIc sIrucIurcs and oIhcr largc-scalc cIhnic
groupings. Jhis maIrix otlargc sizc, naIionalisI aspiraIion, andvoIcncc
characIcrizcs Ihcsc ncw cIhniciIics. Iis IoIhismaIrixIhaIIhischapIcris
addrcsscd,alIhoughrccognizcIhaIIhcIcrm:tor|c| mayaIsobcrc|cvanI
IosmalIcr IcssvolaIilcmorcinsIrumcnIally groupings.
: 8|ccl 8ex ej P|eJici|s
Jhc primordialisI Ihcsis in virIuaIly aIl ot iIs many torms (^pIcr I 5
saacs I 75,hils I 57)isotliIIlcusci naccounIingtorIhccIhniciIics ot
I J
IhcIwcnIicIhccnIury. JhisIhcsisdisIracIsustromccrtainimporIanI
cspcciallyabouIIhcncwcIhniciIicsot^siaandluropcinIhcpasIdccadc.
nhcshingouIIhisclaim,shallproposcIhcskclcIonotancwapproachIo
cIhnic movcmcnIs, cspccially in Ihcir violcnI and dcsIrucIivc momcnIs.
boIhinarguingIhaIIhcprimordialisIIhcsisisdccplyhawcdandin
in cIhniciy a hisIorally consIiIuIcd torm otsocial classihcaIion IhaIis
rcgularly misrccognizcd and naIuralizcdas aprimc movcrinsocial I i tc,
buildon imporIanIcarlicrwork in anIhropology,LomarottandLomarott
I2b, barIh I LccrIz I J)
Jhc rsI sIcp Iowardmycasc isIoouIlincIhc primordialisIargumcnI.
ncsscncc,iIsaysIhctollowingallgroupscnIimcnIsIhaIi nvolvcasIrong
scnscotgroup idcnIiIy, otwc-ncss,drawonIhosc aIIachmcnIs IhaIbind
smalinIimaIc collccIiviIics usually Ihosc bascd onkinship oriIscxIcn-
sions.dcasotcollccIivc idcnIitybascdonsharcdclaimsIoblood, soil, or
lanagc draw IhcirattccIivc torcc trom Ihc scnIimcnIs IhaI bind small
groups.JhisdcccpIivclysimplcIhcsishasccrtainspccialqualiIicsIhaIdc-
scrvcIobcnoIcd. I isusuallyciIcdIoaccounItorccrIain aspccIs otpoli-
Iics,noIabIyIhoscIhaIshowgroupscngaginginvarioustormsotbchavior
IhaIinIcrmsotIhcmodclarcconsidcrcdirraIiona
crc,wovcrydi ttcrcnIpolcs ot irraIionaliIyarc Lncpolc,
whichholdsIhcgrcaIcsIappcalsIoourcommonscnsc,isIhcpolcotgroup
vioIcncc, cIhnocidc, andIcrror. Jhc oIhcr polc isconsIiIuIcdbyanytorm
otbchaviorIhaIappcarsanIimodcrn, whcIhcr iI involvcs parIici-
paIioninclccIions,corrupIioninburcaucracy,rcsisIanccIomodcrncduca-
Iional Icchniqucs,orrctusalIocomplywiIhmodcrnsIaIcpolicics,ranging
trombirIh conIrol Iomonolingualism. odcrnizaIionIhcory, cspccialIyas
iIwasapplicdIoIhcncw,posIcolonialnaIionsby^mcricanpoliIicaIscicn-
IisIs,waslargclyrcsponsiblctordchningIhisanIimodcsympIomotpri-
mordialism. nrcccnI cttorIs Io cxplaincIhncviolcncc,IhcIwocxplana-
IoryIargcIs otprimordialisIIhcohavcbccomcsubIlyscd soIhaI Ihc
primordialism ot rcsisIancc Io modcrnizaIion and Ihc primordialism ot
cIhnicviolcncchavcbccomcloosclyidcnIihcd.Jhclinkagc otccrIainrc-
li oustundamcnIalismsIoacIsotpoliIicalviolcncchaslcnIrcncwcdcrcd-
ibiliyIoIhcsc twovcrydittcrcnIsympIoms otprimordialism. Jhcbomb-
ingsaIIhcWorldJradc LcnIcri nlcw1orkbroughIouIvariouspopular
tormsotIhisprimordialisIIhcoriingintull torcc.
Jhc primordialisIpcrspccIivconmaIIcrs otgroupmobilizaIionbrings
IogcIhcronIogcncIic and phylogcncIic idcas abouI human dcvclopmcnI.
JhaIis, |usIasIhcindividual inWcsIcpsychology issccnIocarrydccp
wiIhin him o

hcranattccIivccorcIhaIcanrarclybcIranstormcdandcan
L ; : c; i : r I- a -J c |
I 40
always bc igniIcd, so social collccIiviIics arc sccn Io posscss a collccIivc
conscicnccwhoscisIoricalrooIsarcinsomcdisIanIpasIandarcnoIcas-
ilychangcablcbuIarcpoIcnIiallyavailablcIo igniIionby ncwhisIorical
andpol iIicaIconIingcncics I isnoIsurprisingIhaI Ihis linkagc otIhc i n-
tancyotindividualsandIhcimmaIuriIyotgroups ismadcwiIhIhcgrcaI-
csIcomtorIabouIIhc naIions otIhcnonWcsIcrnworld, alIhoughIhccx-
plosion ot cIhnic conhicIs in lasIcrn ,and cvcn in WcsIcrn) luropc is
blurringIhclincbcIwccnIhcWcsIandIhcnonWcsIi nrcgardIoIhcpri-
mordialisI Ihcsis. Jhc tacIIhaI Ihc old languagc ot modcrnizaIion has
bccnrcplaccdbyncwIalkotIhcobsIaclcsIocivilsocicIyandsusIainablc
dcmocracyshouIdnoIobscurcIhcpcrsisIcnccotIhcprimordialisI Ihcsis.
^ quick word scarch tor tr|l: and tt|ll|s in Ihc ^mcrican prcss should
clinchIhccasc.
WhaI iswrongwiIh Ihc primordialisIIhcsisLncproblcmisaI ogica
oncand lics buricdinIhcunivcrsalisIassumpIionsotIhcprimordialisIar-
gumcnI, cspccially iniIs morcradical lnlighIcnmcnIdcrivcdtorms. II all
socicIics andnaIions arc composcd otsmaIlcruniIsbascdonprmordial
Iics,anditIhcrcarccIhnicanimosiIicsburicdincvcrynaIionaI cIoscI,why
do only somccxplodc inIo cxpliciI primordialisI tury Jhis isa compara-
Iivc qucsIion, and a largc parI otIhc liIcraIurc otcomparaIivc poliIics i n
Ihc pasI Ihrcc dccadcs has IricdIoanswcrIhis qucsIion, somcIimcs wiIh
rctcrcnccIosIrucIuraltacIorsandsomcIimcsIoculIuraltacIors.Jhcscan-
swcrshavc gcncrallyprovcnbankrupIbccauscIhcrc isgrowingcvidcncc
IhaIIhcproblcm andIhcsoluIionarcuncomtorIablycompliciI.lcImcbc
morcconcrcIcIhcrcisi ncrcasingcvidcnccIhaIWcsIcrnmodclsotpoliIi-
cal parIicipaIion, mobilizaIion, and cconomic growIh, which
wcrccalculaIcdIo disIancc Ihc ncw naIions trom Ihcir mosI rcIrogradc
primordiaIisms,havchad|usI IhcopposiIccttccI. Jhcsc mcdicincsappcar
incrcasingIy Io crcaIc iaIrogcnic disordcrs Jhis laIIcr argumcnI, which
has much mcriI, has Iakcn somc modcraIc torms ,brass I 4 Jambiah
I 8) , buI also somc radical torms (loIhari I 8c landy I 8a). buI
howcvcrmuchoncmaywishIoblamcIhcpoIiIicalconIcxItorIhctailurcs
otwhaIuscdIo bc callcd poIiIicaldcvcIopmcnI ,IhaI is maIuraIion away
trom Ihc dangcrs ot primordialism) , Ihcrc is Ioomuch cvidcncc IhaI Ihc
curc and Ihc discasc arc dithculI IodisaggrcgaIc. crhaps Ihc singIcbcsI
cxamplc ot Ihis is Ihc way in which armcd torccs IhroughouI Ihc Jhird
WorldhavcIurncdouIIobcbruIal , corrupI,anIicivil, andsclt- cxpanding.
Lnc way Io handlc Ihis cmbarrassmcnI tor IhcorisIs who hoId ,cvcn
impliciIly) Io Ihc primordialisI Ihcsis is Ihc pcriod-ot-hardship Ihcory
,such aswas hcldbyvarious^mcricancconomisIs in Ihc hrsI tlush ot lib-
L ; c ; i : - I r : -J o | | s
I 4 I
cralization i nIhc tormcr 5ovicI Lni on). lI was aIso cvidcnccd in Vclav
avclsspccch glvcn at Ihc cndo|Ihc hrsIycaro|hls l cadcrshlp o| Ihc
thcn-uniIcdLzcchoslovakia,whlchsuggcsIcdIhaIIhcsoclcIicso|lasIcrn
luropcmusI goIhroughapain|ul pcriodo|dcIoxlhcaIlonIhaIcan inIurn
causc prlmordiaIlsI tcvcrs Io rccur Jhls argumcnI bcars somc curlous
athnlticsIoarxlsIvlcwsotIhcIribulaIionsotIhcdicIaIorshipo|Ihcpro
IctariaI, Ihc pcrlodbctorc Ihc sIaIc wlIhcrs away and sociallsI humaniIy
bccomcsscltgovcrnlng. JhccomparaIivcargumcnIaIsorunsinIodihcul
tlcsbccausccIhnlccxplosionsIodaycharacIcrlzcsuchavarlcIyo|politics,
torcxampIc,inndia,LzcchosIovakla, ndoncsla,lrancc,IhcLnlIcd5IaIcs,
lgypt, 5ouIh^trlca. WhaIcomparaIivcIhcorycan showuswhaIiscom
monlnsuchdi ttcrcnIcascsotcIhnlcIurbulcncc
LncvarlaIlononthccomparaIlvisIanswcrishlsIorlcaI, andlIhIwith
thc dcvclopmcnIalisI IhrusI otIhc prlmordlalisI casc. Jhlsvcrslon otIhc
argumcnI wouldsuggcsI IhaI IhosccounIrlcs IhaI havchadIlmc Io work
out thc lnli ghIcnmcnI pro|ccI ot polltlcaI parIlclpaIlonbascd on Ihc
dca ot an cducaIcd, posIcIhnic, calcuIaIing i ndivlduaI, subsisIlng on Ihc
workingsotIhc trccmarkcI andparIlclpaIingin a gcnulnc civilsoclcIy
arc indccdablc IosIavc ott IhcdisordcrsotprlmordiaIlsm arcxcclIcncc,
hcrc, arcIhosc socicIics IhaIhcwcdcIoscsI andlongcsI Iodl|tcrcnIvcr-
slonsotIhc civll-socicIymodcI, namcIy, Ihc socicIics o|WcsIcrn luropc
(thc prc- I 8IAJC socicIlcs) andIhc LnlIcd5IaIcs. oIcnIlal mcmbcrs
ot this club arc Ihc aggrcssivcIy procapiIallsI soclcIlcs o|^sla and laIln
^mcrica,suchasapan,5ingaporc,Jaiwan,lorca,Lhilc,^rgcnIlna,brazll,
andatcwoIhcrs. Ltcoursc, aqulckgIanccaIIhisgroupovcrIhcpaIIwo
dccadcs suggcsIs IhaIIhccxpcrimcnIishardlyunconIamlnaIcdbyIhc ac-
tlvclnvoIvcmcnIotIhcLnlIcd5IaIcs invarious |ormso|cconomlc, pollI-
cal, and ldcologlcal subsldy IoIhcscsocicIics, soIhaIIhclrcxpcrlcnccs
withovcrcomlngprmordlaIlsmcanhardIybcsccnasasucccss|orIhccn-
dogcnousvlIaliIyotIhclnllghIcnmcnI program. l nanycasc, inmanyo|
thcscsocicIlcsasIrongdoscotsIaIcauIhoriIarlanlsmsccmsIobcrcqulrcd
(tolIowingcannc llrkpaIrlcks |amous andsubIIcdlstncIlonbcIwccnau-
thorltarlan and IoIaliIarian sIaIcs) . Jhus, l|you cannoI cducaIc socicIlcs
outotprlmordlalism,youcanccrIainlybcaIlIouI otIhcm. ^IIhispolnI,
thcroadIodcmocracylspavcdwiIhIhcbodlcsotdcmocraIsardsIaIcs
canhardIybcuscdIoshowcascIhcroadtromprlmordlallsmIomodcrnlIy.
lvcn Ihosc soclcIics IhaI havc had Ihc longcsIundlsIurbcdpcrlods ot
cthnlcharmony, or, IopuIlIanoIhcrway, otsucccss|ul culIuraI pluraI lsm,
sccmoncwayoranoIhcrIobccomingaparIaIIhc scams consldcrndia,
thc tormcr 5ovicI Lnion, 5ri lanka, Ihc LnlIcd llngdom, and lgypI.

L [ r a [ f r r r i m o r J i a l i : m
I 42 ~
Jhcsc arc scicIlcs IhaIdi ttcr ln many rcgards. lach ot Ihcm hadccrtain
lincso|cIhnlc clcavagc bullI inIo Ihcm, buIalI o|Ihcm arc now spliI noI
|usI along Ihcsc prcdlcIabIc lincsbuI along othcrs as wclI Jhc c||orIs in
lnglandIopromoIcmuIIiculIuralismandIoimprovcwhaIarcIcrmcdtoc:
t:lot|ers arc clcarly|aillng, parIIyin Ihc conIcxIo| whaI now lookslikcIhc
carlcaIurc o| aJhirdWorldcconomy. n ndia, Ihc lndu-usllm dividc
ls now onc among scvcral cIhnic and scparaIisI movcmcnIs, crosscuIby
Ihc largcst casIc wars cvcr sccn ln Ihc hlsIory o| Ihc subconIincnI, un
lcashcdbyIhcrcvlvaIo|thcandaLommlssionKcportinthccarIyycars
o|Ihc I 0s. I n5ri lanka, IhcJamll- 5inhalawarshavcyicIdcdani ncrcas-
ing harvcst o|oIhcr llncs o|clcavagc among 5inhala spcakcrs andJamiI
spcakcrs, dlvlslonsIhaIappcarIogcncraIcncwprlmordiaIlsms (oorsh,
burghcr, buddhist, andoIhcr) . ^s hnlshIhlsbook, buddhlstmonkstrom
aIl ovcr5rl lanka havc paradcdIhrough IhcsIrccIs ot Lolombo, proIcsI
lng Ihc bold ncw plans |or dcccnIrallzaIlon ot Ihc ncw prcsldcnt o| 5ri
lanka, LhandrlkalumaraIunga.
^Il Ihat thls lcavcs ls a |cwluropcan caplIaIlsIdcmocraclcs (such as
Lcrmany andlrancc), Ihc LnlIcd5IaIcs, andapan as sIaIcs IhaIappcar
noIIobcIhrcaIcncdbycIhnlcsIrltc.1cIIhcprospccIscvcninIhcsccascs
arcnoIclcarwiIncssIhcproblcmo|lorcanslnapan,o|^trlcan-^mcrlcans
andispanic-^mcrlcanslnIhcLniIcd5taIcs,otranians,cws,Jurks,and
oIhcr gucsI-workcr populaIions in lrancc and Lcrmany. Jhcsc suggcsI
thaIcvcn Ihc mosI sIaunchly caplIallsIdcmocraclcs arc not ctcrnaIlysa|c
trom whaIls sccn as Ihc prlmordiallsIbug. KlghI-wlngracist, |ascisI, and
|undamcnIalisImovcmcnIs inluropcandIhc LnlIcd5IaIcsccrIainIyap-
pcarIobcmorcprlmordlallnIhclrbchavlorIhanIhcraclalmlnoriIicsIhcy
opcnIy abhor. Jhc LnlIcd 5IaIcs, Lcrmany,apan, andlrancc arc ln any
casc cnormousIydivcrsc ln Ihcir hisIorics as modcrn naIion-sIaIcs andin
IhclrcommlImcnIs IopoIiIical pIurallIyasa ccnIral principlc o|poliIlcal
parIiclpaIion. Jhcsc tacIs makc lIcrucialIo ldcntityIhc limlIso|Ihc pri
mordialisI approach Io cIhnlc sIritc, as Ihc Ihcsls rcsIs crucialIy on Ihc
vlcwotccrIanpopulatlonsandpoliticsasntanIilcandrclcslmpIiciIIyon
somcsorIo|gcrmIhcoryotcIhnisIritcinWcsIcrn dcmocracicsJhaIis,
Ihcsc dcmocraclcs arc sccn as |undamcnIaIly maIurc buI now as aI rlsk
bccauscIhcyhavcbccomchosIIopopulaIlons(IypcallytromIhcJhird
World) IhaIcarryIhc primordial bugIhc bug, IhaI ls, IhaImakcs Ihcm
aIIachcd ln lntanIllcwaysIo blood, languagc, rcliglon, andmcmory and
makcs thcm vloIcncc-pronc and l- cqlppcd tor parIlclpation ln maIurc
clvlc soclcIics.
lcIus summarizc Ihc ccnIral cmbarrassmcnIo|Ihc prlmordalisIpcr-
L i [ r a [ f r r r m o r J i a i : m
I 4 ~
spccIivc. Llvcnthcwidcsprcadcommltmcnttothcldcaotdcmocracylna
vcrylargc numbcr otsocictics sinccWorldWarl , lncludlngthosc lnthc
sociaIlsIbloc, which pIaccdhcavy cmphasls onthc pro|cct otmodcrnity
,Icchnology, modcrn sclcncc, mass partlclpatlon ln poIltlcs, masslvc i n-
vcsImcnIs in hlghcr cducatlon, and lmmcnsc propaganda tor ncw ldcas
abouIclIizcnshlp, bothlncapltaIlstandsoclaIlstrcglmcs),whyarccthnlc
primordlalisms morc allvcthan cvcr ^part |rom argulng that thc opcra-
Ilonwas succcsstul aIthough thc patlcnt dlcd, itappcars thatthc prlmor-
diallsI Ihcsis cannot account tor thc lntcnslhcatlon andsprcad otcthnlc
scnIlmcnI in a world dcvotcd to varlous vcrslons o| thc lnllghtcmcnt
pro|ccI.JhlsIcavcsuswlthIwooptlonsbIamlngthcrcciplcntso|thcthc-
ory ,whorccclvcdltundcrthcgulscotavarlcty otnaIionaI andlnIcrna-
Ilonal dlscourscsotdcvcIopmcnIandmodcrnlzatlon,usuallyaggrcsslvcly
sponsorcdbyIhcapparatusotthcmodcrn natlon- statc), orrcthlnklngthc
primordlaisIpcrspcctlvc ltsclt. l hopc thatwhat havc saldsotar|ustlhcs
IhclaIIcrproposaI.
: Pal|i|cs a|A:ci
LndcrncaIhmostprlmordiallstmodcIsarcnotonIythc assumptionslhavc
discusscdabovc,butaIsoaIhcory o|at|ccIlnrclatlontopolitlcs,whichwc
now havc scvcral cxccllcnI rcasons to qucstlon. Jhc hrst sct ot rcasons,
whlch l havc adumbratcd aIrcady andwhlch wlll not dcvclop atIcngth
hcrc,hasbccnldcntlhcdbymanyarxistandnatlonallstcrltlcsotcapltal-
lsIdcvclopmcnI.lIconslstsotthcvicwthatthcpro|cctotdcvclopmcnI,as
lIhasbccn imposcdonIhcnon-WcstcrnworId,hastypicaIIylnvolvcdthc
crcaIlonotncwclltcsandncwgapsbctwccncastcsandclasscs,whlchmay
noIhavcarlscncxccpt|orvarlousncocoIonlallstpro|ccIslnthcncwstatcs.
odcrnizaIlon is hcldrcsponslblc |orvarlous |rictions ot rlslng cxpccta-
Ilonsandtorkcycontradlctlonsbctwccncconomlcandpolltlcalpartlclpa-
Ilon. Jhcsc tucI mass |rustration that can caslly bc translatcd by dcma-
gogucs o|allvarlctics lnIocIhnlcizcddlscourscandacIlon l subscrlbc to
IhisargumcnIinagcncralway, aIthoughl donotbcllcvclIlshnc-gralncd
cnough Io account tor thc spcclhc con|uncturcs thaI triggcr cthnlc vlo-
lcncclnparIlcularsocicIlcs.lorarcthcscthcoricscntlrcly|rccotthcldca
IhaIIhcrcisaIwaysarcal substratc otprlmordlallsta|tcctthatlspcrpctuaI
IlndcrwalIlngIobc cxplolIcdby spcclhc pollIlcal lnIcrcsts ataglvcn mo-
mcnIinIhchisIoryotanygivcn natlon-statc.
Jhcsccondscto|rcasonstordoubtlngIhcprimordlallsIpcrspcctlvcon
Ihcrolco|attcctinpolitlcscomcsoutotabroadbodyotlltcraIurcthatdc-
L ] r o ] l r r r i m o r J i o l i : m
I 44
rlvcs |romcontlncntaIpoIltlcaIthcoryandsomcotlts^mcrlcanvarlanIsln
Ihc past Iw dccadcs. Jhls is Ihc llIcraIurc that mphasizcs not thc mc-
chanlcaIworkingsotthcprlmordlaIhomuncuIusthatdrivcsgrouppoIitlcs,
cspcclallylnIhcJhlrdWord,buIthaIsIrandotsoclaandpollticalIhcory
IhaI strcsscs Ihc rolc o| Ihc lmaglnatlon ln politlcs. Jhis strand, which ls
widclyassoclatcdwiththcwork otbcncdlct^ndcrson , I 8J) , aIsohaslIs
roots ln thc vcncrablc tradltlon o|works thathlghllght thc autonomy ot
idcology lnpoIitlcalIltc ,golngbackto anothcrotIhcstrands lnIhcpro-
tcan thought otax Wcbcr, as opposcdto hls cvoIuIlonlst, prlmordlallst
idcas) . tis aIso assoclatcdwith thcworkotLorncllus Lastorladis on thc
imaglnary , I 87), otLlaudclctorton ldcoIogy , I 8), otlrncsto lacIau
and LhanIa outtc on hcgcmony , I 85). Jhcsc works lnturn draw on
andcomplicatcthcworkot^ntonioLramscl,KaymondWlllams,andoth-
crs whowcrc conccrncdwlth thc transtormaIlon ot ldcoIoglcs lnIo com-
mon scnsc. l havccmphasizcd Ihc valuc otIhls pcrspcctivc and my own
rcIlancconltln chaptcr I . 5trcsslngncgotlatlonandcontcstatlonlnthclic
o| all complcx poIitlcs, thcsc Ihlnkcrs ,as wcll as thclr assoclaIcs ln Ihc
blrmingham 5chool ln lngIand and thc subaltcrn schooI o| hlstorians in
ndla) bcgan to showusancwwayto scc subaItcrn consclousncss. nthis
vlcw,cnrlchcdbyrcccntworkonthcstraIcglcsotcvcrydaylltc,dcLcrtcau
I 84), popularconsciousncsswas shown tobclcss akncc-|crksymptom ot
burlcd and scmlconsclous idcoIogics ot i dcntity and morc a consciousIy
workcd-ouI sIraIcgy ot lrony and satirc, whlch couId crltiquc thc ruI lng
ordcrwhiIccxpcrlmcntlngwlthstyIcsotidcntitypolltlcs ,cbdigc I 7) .
^t thc samc timc, thc rathcr dittcrcntwork otamcs 5cott , I 85) on
Ihc"wcaponsotIhcwcak,drawlngonthccarllcrmoral cconomyworkot
l. Jhompson and othcrs, bcgan to showthatthosc soclal ordcrs and
grouplngs thatwcrc apparcntlypasslvcvlctlms otIargcr torccs otconIroI
and dominatlon wcrc ncvcrthcIcss capabIc ot subtlc |orms ot rcslstancc
and"cxit ,ln ^Ibcrtlrschmanstcrms I 70)thatsccmcdnottobcprl-
mordlaIlst ln anyway. Lommon to agooddcaI otthlswork,whlch ls dl-
vcrscln oIhcrrcgards, lsthc ldcathatconccptionsotIhc tuturc play atar
Iargcr roIc than i dcasotthcpastin group poIitlcstoday, althoughprimor-
dlallst pro|cctlons onto thc past arc not lrrclcvanIIo Ihc conIcmporary
polltlcsotthcimaglnation.
Wlththcrccognitlonthatlmaginationandagcncyarctarmorcvltalto
groupmoblIlzaIlonIhanwchadhiIhcrIolmagincd,wccanmorccasllyln-
Icrposcthclnvcntionottraditioncritlqucotlricobsbawm andJcrcncc
Kangcr, I 8 J), whlchdrovcanothcr nalI lnto thc cothn otthcprlmordlal-
lstpcrspccIlvc.^lIhoughIhcrchavcbccnscrlouscrlIlcismsotthislnhucn-
L i ] r o ] f r r r o r J i o | i :
I 45
IlaI Ihcsls , noIlcasIlIs Icndcncy Ioscc somc IradlIlonsas auIhcnIlcbuI
oIhcrs aslnvcnIcd), lI has alcrIcd us IoIhc ldca IhaI bcIwccn Ihc land-
scapc otdlscourscsabouIIradlIlonandIhcscnslblllIlcsandmoIlvcsotl n-
dlvldual acIors ls ahlsIorlcal dlscoursc IhaIlssucsnoItrom Ihc dcpIhs ot
IhclndlvlduaI psychc or trom Ihchoary mlsIs otIradlIlon buI trom Ihc
spcclhc, hlsIorlcaIIy slIuaIcdplayotpubllcandgroupoplnlonsabouIIhc
pasI.Lncma|orconIrlbuIlonotIhlsworklsIopolnIIoIhctacIIhaImuch
ot naIlonaI and group pollIlcs ln Ihc conIcmporary world has Io do noI
wlIhIhc mcchanlcs otprlmordlal scnIlmcnI buIwlIhwhaI am caIllng
Ihcwork otIhclmaglnaIlon. shall rcIurn IoIhcIhcmcotIhclmaglna
Ilonbclow.
Jhc grcaI lrony ln much ot Ihlswork ls IhaI lI shows bcyonda doubI
IhaIvcp otIcn Ihc crcaIlon ot prlmordlaI scnIlmcnIs tar trom bclng an
obsIaclc IoIhc modcrnlzlng sIaIc, ls closc Io Ihc ccnIcr otIhc pro|ccI ot
Ihc modrn naIlonsIaIc.Jhus, manyracal,rcllglous, andculIural nda-
mcnIallsms arc dcllbcraIcly tosI

rcd by varlous naIlon -sIaIcs, or parIlcs

wlIhln Ihcm, ln IhclrcttorIs IosupprcsslnIcrnal dlsscnI, IoconsIrucI ho-
mogcncous sub|ccIs otIhc sIaIc, and Io maxlmlzc Ihc survcllIancc and
conIrol otIhc dlvcrsc populaIlonsundcrIhclrconIrol. n IhcscconIcxIs,
modcrnnaIlon-sIaIcsotIcndrawonclalhcaIoryanddlsclpllnaryappara-
scs IhaIIhcy l nhcrlIcdtromcoIonalIcrs andIhaIlnIhc posIcolonlal
conIcxI havc subsIanIlal lnammaIo cttccIs. ^n cxccllcnI ot
Ihls l sIhc pollIlcsotnumbcrl ncoIonal ndlaandIhc pollIlcsotcasIc ln
IhcrcccnIconIrovcrsyovcrIhcanda ommlsslonKcporIln ndia
chap. ). llkcwlsc,rcccnIwork on pollIlcaI culIurc lnapan , lclly I 0
vyI 5) showsIhaIIhcsIaIcandma|orcommcrclallnIcrcsIshavcdonca
grcaI dcaI IoconsIrcI and cncrglzc Ihc dlscoursc otapancscncssandot
IradlIlon, )sote) lnancttorIIocxplolIIhcldcaotapanasIhcrcposlIory
otaunlquc,homogcncous torm otcuIIuraIdlttcrcncc nlngland, Ihchcr
lIagclndusIry hasworkcdIocrcaIca landscapcothcrlIagc,conscrvaIlon,
monumcnIs, and lngllsh hlsIorlcaI spacc, |usI as IhcroIc ot brlIal n as a
worldpowcrhastadcdconsldcrabIy Jhls dlscoursc otlngllshncsslsonly
IhcmosIrcccnIphasclnIhc"lnIcrnalcolonlallsm,cchIcrI 75)Ihrough
whlch a hcgcmonlc l dca ot lngllshncss was crcaIcd Jhls ldca, rcgnanI
Ioday, makcs Ihc dlscoursc ot mulIlculIurallsm lnlnglandsIrangclyhol
lowandsupporIsIhclmpllclIandcxpllclIraclsmsIhaIcouIdbcpIaycdon
byargarcIJhaIchcrl nIhclaIklands,byohna|orlnIhcLultWar, as
wcllasbytasclsI andraclsIhaIcgroupslnlngIand.
IlsIhlssorIotmoblllzaIlonIhaIcharacIcrzcdl nchapIcr I asculIur-
aIlsI,whlchlsIosay,aslnvoIvlngcIhnlclIlcsmoblllzcdbyorln rcIaIlon Io
L | ] : o [ | r r i m o r J i o l i m
I 4
Ihc pracIlccs ot Ihc modcrn naIlon-sIaIc. Cltol|s suggcsIs somcIhlng
morchanclIhcrctor|c|( orclt:, boIotwhlchIcrmsparIakcotIhcscnsc
ot Ihc naIural, Ihc unconsclous, and Ihc IaclI ln group ldcnIlIy. Whcn
ldcnIlIlcs arc produccdln a hcld ot classlhcaIlon, mass mcdlaIlon, mobl-
IlzaIlon, andcnIlIlcmcnIdomlnaIcdbypollIlcsaIIhcIcvclotIhcnaIlon
sIaIc, howcvcr, Ihcy Iakc culIuraI dl ttcrcnccs as Ihclr cersc|es ob|ccI.
JhcscmovcmcnIscan Iakca varlcIy ot torms Ihcy can bc dlrccIcd prl-
marllyIowardsclt-cxprcsslon, auIonomy,andcttosaIculIuralsurvlval ,or
Ihcy can bc prlnclpally ln torm characIcrlzcd largcIyby haIc
raclsm andIhcdcslrcIodolnaIcorcllmlnaIcoIhcrgroups.Jhlslsakcy
dlsIlncIlon bccausc culIuraIlsI movcmcnIs tor auIonomy and dlgnlIy ln-
voIvlnglong-domlnaIcdgroups, such as^trlcan-^mcrlcanslnIhcLnlIcd
5IaIcs andals ln ndla) arc otIcn IcndcnIlously Iarrcd wlIh Ihc samc
brush as Ihosc Ihcy opposc, as bclng somchow raclsI oranIldcmocraIlc.
^lIhough modcrn cIhnlclIy ls ln Ihls scnsc culIurallsI and lnIlmaIcly
IlnkcdIo IhcpracIlccsotIhc naIlon- sIaIc, lI ls aIso worIh noIlng IhaI an
lmporIanI groupotculIuraIlsImovcmcnIslsIodaytcrsrot|erol, glvcn IhaI
many moblllzcd naIlonal cIhnlclIlcs, bccausc ot lnIcrnaIlona mlgraIlon,
opcraIc bcyondIhc conhncs ota slnglc naIlonsIaIc. Jhcsc IransnaIlonal
culIurallsI movcmcnIs arc lnIlmaIcIy connccIcd wlIh whaI rctcr Io as
dlasporlcpubIlcsphcrcs.
Jhc hnal andpcrhapslcasIobvousrcccnI dcvclopmcnIIhaI makcs lI
dlthculIIosusIalnIhcprlmordlalsIIhcslsaslIappllcs IocIhnlc poIlIlcs s
Ic noIlon, largclydcvclopcdlnIhc pasIdccadcbycuIIural anIhropolo-
glsIs,IhaIIhccmoIlonsarcnoIraw, prccuIIuralmaIcrlalsIhaIconsIlIuIc a
unlvcrsal,IranssoclalsubsIraIc. WhllclIlsnoIposslblcwlIhlnIhcscopcot
IhlschapIcrIo ouIIhctullconIoursotIhlsargmcnI,lIsmalnlnslghIl s
IhaIattccI lsln many lmportanI ays lcarncd whaIIotccl sadorhappy
abouI, howIocxprcss lIln dlttcrcnI conIcxIs, andhcIhcrornoI Ihccx
prcsslon ot attccIs ls a slmplc playlng ouI ot lnncrscnIlmcnIs ,otIcn as-
sumcdIobcunlvcrsal )arcalllssucs IhaI havcbccnrlchly problcmaIlzcd
, luIz and^bulughod I 0). Jhls body otwork has gonc tarIo show
IhaI cmoIlon ls culIurally consIrucIcd and soclally slIuaIcdandIhaIunl-
vcrsal aspccIsotattccIdonoIIcllusanyIhlngvcryrcvcallng.
JhlsworkIsvcrywcllwlIhanoIhcrsIrandotworklnrcccnIculIuralan-
IhropoIogy,^sadI 8J vandcrVccr I 8), whlchshowsIhaIvarioustorms
otscnsory cxpcrlcncc andbodly Icchnlquccmcrgc as parIs ot hlsIorlcally
consIltuIcdrcglmcsotknowIcdgc andpowcr. JhlssIrand,whlch lsalsoln
ucnccdbylchcIloucaulIsvlcwsotIhc hlsIorlcallyconsIlIuIcdrcaIlons
bcIwccnknwIcdgcandpowcrbulldsonIhccIasslcworkotarccIauss
L . ] : o ) t : r P t i o t J | u l i s
' I 7
( I 7J)onthctcchnlqucso|thcbodyandthcsuggcstlonso|lcrrcbourdlcu
( I 77) and othcrs on cmbodlcd cxpcrlcncc and lts cmcrgcncc wlthln spc
clhccuIturaI |ramcworkso|habltandcxpcrlcncc.Jhcthrusto|thlsworkls
that, |ar |rom rcprcscntlngthcpro|cctlon o|bodlIystatcs andcxpcrlcnccs
ontolargcrcanvascso|actlonandrcprcscntatlon,bodllytcchnlqucsanda|
|cctlvcdlsposltlonso|tcnrcprcscnt|ustthcopposltcnamcly,thclnscrlptlon
uponbodllyhablto|dlsclpllncso|scl|-controlandpractlccso|oupdlscl
pllnc, o|tcntlcdupwlththcstatcandltslntcrcsts.Jhcdlscusslono|lndlan
crlckctlnchaptcr5 htsdlrcctlylnthlstradltlon.
l nturn,thlsworkl ssupportcdnotonlybythclnslghtso|loucaultand
othcrsonthchlstorlcalproccssbywhlchthcbodylstrans|ormcd,appro-
prlatcd,andmoblllzcd,butalsobythcworko|orbcrtlllasndhls |ol-
lowcrsthatshowsthatpartlcular,andpowcr|ul ,scnscso|bodllycomport-
mcntandclvllltyarcthcdlrcctproduct o|courtlyandbourgcolsl dcaso|
dlgnltyanddlstlnctlon. Jhlsgcncraloricntatlon ls notwhollyproblcm-
|rcc thc qucstlon o|howcultural and polltlcal schcmata lmprlnt thcm-
scIvcsuponbodllycxpcrlcnccandthusmotlvatcagcntsl npowcr|ulways
ls stlllbclngworkcdon. Whatdocs sccm clcarls that thcrc ls llttlcpayo||
lnscparatlngthcworld o|cmotlon anda||cct|romthcworldo|languagc
andscI| -rcprcscntatlonandthatthcsc lnturnarcrcmarkablyrcsponslvcto
macroconccptlons o| clvlIlty and dlgnlty asconstructcdby l ntcrcstsand
ldcologucsthatcxcrclscpowcrovcrwholcsoclalordcrs.
Jhc causal chaln ls, l|not atlcastproblcmatlzcd. lnstcado|
movlng |rom lnncr scntlmcnts to outcr dlsplays that aggrcgatc upward
lnto largcr |orms o| actlon and rcprcscntatlon, thls body o| work works
omthctop down, or|romthcmacrotothcmlcro, suggcstlngthatpowcr
ls largcly a mattcr o| thc lmprlntlng o| largc-scaIc dlsclpIlncs o| clvlllty,
dlgnlty, and bodlIy control onto thc lntlmatc lcvcl o| cmbodlcd agcnts.
Jhlsanthropologlcal lltcraturcwhlIcnotyctconcluslvc andbynomcans
probIcm |rcc, suggcsts that thc |ccllngs and scntlmcnts o| actors arc
Iargcly comprchcnslbIc only wlthln spclhc cultural |ramcs o| mcanlng
andstylcandIargcrhlstorlcal |ramcs o|powcranddlsclpllnc.l tthuscalls
lntoscrlousqucstlonthcldcao|alaycro|prlmordlal scntlmcntthatmay
bcsccntolurkbcncaththcsur|acc o|cultural|orms,soclaIordcrs,andhls-
torlcalmomcnts.
ctcrowds andthc lndlvldualswhoconstltutc thcmccrtalnIysccmto
dlsplaythcparadoxo|unplanncdangcrandcoordlnatcdtargctlngo|vlc-
tlms.Jhlsmlxturco|combustlbllltyandcoordlnatlonlsatthchcart|thc
mystcryo| thccrowdandthcrlot and hascxcrclscdobscrcrs |rom us-
tavclc bon onward. ltlsobvlouslya crltlcal parto|cthnlcvlolcncc. lnthc
L [ r o [ | r r r i m o J o l : m
I 48
scrlpts that sccm toundcrllc much cthnlcvlolcncc(|orrarcly lssuchvlo
lcncc cntlrclychaotlc)thcrc l sclcarlya sort o|ordcr whlch l twouldbc
toocastoattrlbutc tothccontlngcnclcs o|sccrctplans, outsldcagcnts,
and hlddcn calculatlons bcncath thc sur|acc o|group |rcnzy (Jamblah
I 0). Jhcchallcngc lstocapturc thc o|cthnlcvlolcnccwlthout
rcduclnglttothcbanal andunlvcrsalcorco|l nncr, prlmordlalscntlmcnts
Wcnccdtomalntalnthcscnsc o|psychlc, andcmbodlcd, ragcaswcllas
thc lntultlon that thcscntlmcnts o|cthnlcvlolcncc (I lkc any othcrsort
o| scntlmcnt makc scnsc onlywlthln largc-scalc |ormatlons o| ldcology,
lmaglnatlon,anddlsclpllnc.Jhlssccmsanlmposslblctask, but l shallsug-
gcstlnthc|olIolngscctlonthatthctropco|lmploslon lsatcntatlvcway
outo|thcprlmordlallsttrap.
Ltrc lj|esiers
l|thcprlmordlallstpcrspcctlvclsso|rcqucntlymlslcadlng,ltsccmslmpor-
tanttohndancualIygcncral pcrspcctlvcwlthwhlchtomovcbcyondlt.
JhcaItcrnatlvclsamodclo|cthnlclmploslon,atropcdcIlbcratcIyput|or-
ward agalnst thc connotatlons o| cxploslon so o|tcn assoclatcdwlth thc
prlmordlallstvlcw. ^s |araslknow, thcldcao|lmploslonhasbccnuscdln
thccontcxto|soclalmovcmcntsonlyrcccntlyandrathcrcryptlcaIlyl nthc
contcxto|statcvl olcnccand |ormatlonslnwcakstatcs(oIbcrgct
al. I 8, 2557). llnklngldcasomamcs5cottand^lbcrtlrschman,
^rlstldcolbcrgandcollcagucsclalmthatpcasantswhotptododgcthc
prctoryactlons o| thcstatcmay hndthcmsclvcscorncrcdbythc statc
and thus |orccd lnto vlolcncc ln thls manncr, wlthdrawal |rom thc statc
may trlggcr a vlolcnt lmploslon, a dlvlslon o| both lcrs and rulcd lnto
prlmarysollrltygroupsvylngwlthcachothcrlnadcspcratccarch |or
sccurlty (257. Jhls cpptlc usc o| lmagc o| lmploslon ls suggcstlvc
andlsrclatcdtothcmorcdcl lbcratcuscl shamakco|lt.
bc|orcl goonto howthcmodclo|lmplosloncanpro-
vldcamorcusc|ulapproachtocthnlccon|rontatlonsthanthcprlmordlal-
lst modcl, l nccdtosctthcstagc|orthlsapproachlnabroadcrway. l am
gcncrallycommlttcdtothcvlcwthat worldwcllvclntodayl sglobaI
andtransnatlonallnawaynotantlclpatcd carllcrmodclslnthcstudyo|
lntcrnatlonal polltlcs, as l havc madc clcar ln thc hrst part o| thlsbook
otonlyam l convlnccdo|thc vlrtucs o|thcncorcallsm o|Kobcrtlco-
hancandothcrs,andltsstrongcrltlquco|thccarIlcr,statc-ccntcrcdrcaIlst
vlcw (lcohanc I 8, but l am also convlnccd that cvcn thc ncorcallst
vlcwdocsnotgo|arcnoughtoaccommodatcthcmanyproccsscscvcnts,
L i [ r a [ t r r i m o r J i a | i : m
I 4 =
and sIrucIurcs IhaI appcar Io work largcly ouIsidc Ihc sIaIcgic inIcrac-
Iions otnaIion-sIaIcs. Jhus, am sympaIhcIic Io Ihc broad approach ot
amcs Koscnau I 0), which appcals tor an cnIircly ncwvicw ot global
poliIicsandsIrcsscsIhcimagcotIurbulcncc,cspcciallyasiIhasbccn dc-
vclopcdbyphysicisIsandmaIhcmaIicians.buildingonIhcidcaotbi turca
Iion and rclaIcd idcas ot complcxiIy, chaos and Iurbulcncc in complcx
sysIcms,KoscnauargucsIhaIIhcdynamicsotconIcmporaworldpoliIics
cannoIbcaccounIcdtorcxccpIbysccingIhaIIhcrcarcIwosysIcmsinbi
|urcaIcdplayinconIcmporaryworldpoliIicsIhcmulIiccnIricsysIcmand
IhcsIaIcccnIricsysIcm.
Koscnausmai nmcssagcisIhaIsIrucIurcandproccssi nIodayspoliIics
arc arIitacIs otIhc IurbulcnI inIcrplayotIhcscIwobi |urcaIcd sysIcms,
cachotwhich attccIsIhc oIhcrs in mulIiplc ways, aImulIiplclcvcls, and
in ways IhaI makc cvcnIs cnormously hard Io prcdicI. Jo accounI tor
cvcnIsIrucIurcs in Ihc mulIiccnIr worldhcdcscribcs, KoscnausuggcsIs
IhaIwcrcplacc IhcidcaotcvcnIswiIhIhcimagcotcascadcs acIionsc-
qucnccs i nIhcmulIiccnIricworld IhaI gaIhcrmomcnIum, sIall rcvcrsc
coursc andrcsumcancw as Ihcirrcpcrussionssprcadamongwholc sys-
IcmsandsubsysIcms Jhc sorIsotcascadcIhaIKoscnauidcnIitics
arcacrucialcomponcnIotwhaImighIbccallcdIhcsIrucIurcotcxIcrnal-
iIicsIhaIparIlyaccounItorIhc andIimingotparIicularcIhniccon-
tlagraIions. bccausc noIall microcvcnIs associaIcdwiIhdailyl i tc incIh
nically scnsiIivc localiIics lcadIo cIhnicviolcncc, Ihccascadc conccpI
mayhclp us undcrsIand oncparIicularacIotrcligious dcsccraIion,
oroncparticularIcrrorisIkilling, oroncparIicularintlammaIoryspccch
igniIcs cIhnic violcncc. Jhc idca ot global Iurbulcncc as a
modcl otworld sccmsalsoIotiIavaricIyotoIhcrmodcls,suchas
lash andLrrys idca ot capiIalism , lash and Lrry I 87),
KobcrIsonsand^asonsrcccnIcssaysonglobalizaIion,KobcrIson I 0
^ason I 0) and my own cttorIs Io rcsiIuaIc Ihc poliIics ot culIural
dittcrcncc a otdis|uncIurcsin IhcglobalculIuralcconomy
sccchap. 2 ) .
buIi I sccmsalong| ourncytrom idcaso t globalIurbulcnccandimagcs
ot cascadc and tow Io Ihc acIualiIics ot cIhnic violcncc and concrcIc
humanbruIaliIy Jo oscIhisgap, drawonIwoIcrmsrcccnIlyproposcd
byJambiah I 0inancttorIIoidcnIi|yIhcdynamicsotcrowdbchavior
inIhcconIcxIotcIhnicviolcncceLoUr andicorsoolot|er. lcdcvcl-
opsIhcscIcrmsinIhcconIcxIotacloscrcadingotIhcrioIs inlarachi in
I 85bcIwccn aIhansandoha|irs biharis), Ihc laIIcrbcingakisIanis
whooriginalym graIcdtromlasIcrnndia
L | ] : c ] t : r P t | o t J | o l | :
I 50

by OClZIlOn I mCn IhC prOCCss O prOgrCsslVC CCnuCIlOn O OC lnCI

CCnIs nC ClspuICs O IhClr prIlCurs O COnICXI nC ggrCgIlng IhCm,
nrrOWlng IhClr COnCrCIC rlChnCss. rnsVuIlOn rCCrs IO IC pr
C prOCCss O sslmlIlng prIlCurs IO rgCr, COCCIlVC, mOrC CnCur
lng, nC ICrCOrC Css COnICXI-OOunC, CusC Or l nICrCsI. hC prOCCssCs O
OClZIlOn nC IrnsVuIlOn IhCrCOy COnIrOuIC IO prOgrCsslVC pOr-
lZIlOn nC ClChOIOmlZIlOn O lssuCs nC prIlsns, suC IhI IC ClmCIC
CIs O VlOCnCC grOups nC mOOs OCCOmC ln shOrI IlmC sCuhlng
mnl CsIIlOns, lnCrnIlOns nC rClnCrnIlOns, O CgCCy lrrCsOVO!C
COmmun splIs OCIWCCn Ins nC blrls, b|hs nC lnCus, blnhCsC
nC mls, Or ^ys nC 'lnCsC. (mOl I JJU, JU)
Jhcproccsscs ottocalizaIion and IransvaluaIion IhaIJambiahidcnIi-
csarccvcnmorc whcn placcdwiIhinwhaIcan bcsccn as Ihc
cvcnIcascadcs ,in Koscnaus scnsc) IhaIlinkcdlarachi andiIs ncighbor
hoodsIodcvclopmcnIsinrcgionalandnaIionalpoliIicsinakisIanandin
worldpoliIicsaspcrccivcdbyakisIanis.5uchcascadcsincludcdIhcvic-
Io otbcnair bhuIIo in Ihc clccIions torIhc primc mi nisIcrship, Ihc
rcadingotIhisvicIoryinlarachi and clscwhcrcasavicIorytor 5indovcr
un|abinrcgionalpoliIics,Ihcpro|ccIionbyvariouspro-iaparIicsotIhc
wcakncssotbhuIIoasawomanandasacorupI dcsccndanIothcrtaIhcr,
andIhc parallcl cmcrgcncc ot Ihc NN ,oha|iraumi ovcmcnI) asa
ma|or parIy torIhc tormaIion ot oha| ir idcnIiIy. Jhcsc rcadings in Iurn
could i ntamc aIhan social and cconomic sIrcngIh in larachi and tccd
inIo Ihc gcncralizcd angcr wiIh bhuIIos parIy in larachi, cspccially
amongIhosc, likcIhcaIhans,whodidnoIhavasIrongpoliIicalvoicci n
rcgi onalpoliIicsin5ind.Jhus,IhcdclicaIcanddcadlyinIcrprcIaIion,and
inIcrpcncIraIion)otcvcnIsonIhcsIrccIsotlarachi,whichuntoldcdinIo
a drama rapidly rcad in maco Irms, could noI havc Iakcn Ihc various
Iurns iIdidwcrc iI noItorIhc implosivccttccIsotwidcracIionscqucnccs
onIhcsIrccIpoliIicsotlarachi.Ltcoursc,IhcscvcrycvcnIsrcvcrbcraIcd
ouIward and upward Ihrough oIhcr cascadcs ot cvcnIs IhaI crcaIcd Ihc
scnsc IhaI bhuIIo could noI mainIain civil ordcr. Jhis pcrccpIion, mobi-
lizcdalongwiIhoIhcrpoliIical andmanipulaIions,wasparIothcr
cvcnIual downtall in I 0, a downtall associaIcdwiIh ma|orshittsin Ihc
poliIicsotIhcsubconIincnIandinIhcpcrccpIionotndiaandIhcLniIcd
5IaIcsinIhcatIcrmaIhotIhcLultWar.
Jhisis obviouslyaimplihcd inIowhichoncwouldwanIIoi n-
Iroducc a grcaI many oIhcr such asIhc sIridcnI anIi lndian
andanIi -lindunoIcIhaIbhuIIoinIroduccdinIohcrspccchcs abouI^zad
L | ] e c ] : : t P t | e t J t c i | s
I 5 I
lashmir, in ancllort todc|usc hcr i magcasa wcakwomananda pcrson
who had bccn solt on thc ^oha|irs in thc contcxt ol thc I985 larachi
riots Jhc situation in larachi has grown boIh morc inviolatc and morc
implosivc in thc pcriodsincc I985, andin I995 larachi isa sccnc olcivi
warandcthnicviolcncconaparwith^ogadishu,bcirutolthc I980s, and
oncstcpshortollabul inthcpastdccadc. bhuttorcturncdtopowcraltcr
bcingdclcatcdinancarlicrclcctionandonccagainlaccsavolaIilclarachi
anda hi ghly insccurc national mandatc. ^uch has happcncd in larachi
sincc I985, and a scrics olvioIcntbattlcs bctwccn thc lorccsolthc statc
andthc acdyoutholthctt hasbroughtthcdcathtol in larachi to
morcthancighthundrcdpcrsonsbctwccn)anuaryand)unc I995.
^uchcouldbcsaidaboutthchistoryolviolcnccinlarachii nthcpast
dccadcthati ssalicnItothcgcncralargumcntsolthisbookandthcspccihc
conccrnsolthischaptcr.^ acity, larachi isadcprcssinglylorccmlcxam -
plc ol thc sort olurbanwarlarc l discuss in chaptcr9, which produccs Io-
undcrcondiionsolcvcrydaytcrrorandarmcdbatIlc. 5inccthcmid-
I980s, thctt, whichbcganasa lruitolthcscnscolsharcd gricvancc
among mi grants toakistan |rom Lastcrn ndia, has itsclbccomc dccpy
dividcd, and itsl cadcrshi pnow|unctionsincxilci nngand. lti sthusan
cxccllcntcxamplcolamovcmcntthati sdiaspori, transnational,andanti-
staIcwithoutdcmandingnational autonomy. bhutto hcrscllhasdcploycd
thclanguagcoltcrrorismand|ihadagainstthctt,thusblurringthclincs
bctwccnsubcontincntalpoliIics(thc.'\toltcnbcingsccnasticdIolndia,
thclandoloriginolthc^ohairs)andakistaninationalpolitics.
All sidcs i nIhccon|ictthc statc,thcdi llcrcntlactionsolthctt,
and thc rul ing party, thc akistan coplcs movcd lrom rc-
l iancc on pctty arms to thc usc ol rockct launchcrs, armorcd cars, and
bunkcn.Jhcrcisnosharpcrindicationolthcimplosion olgobalandna-
tionalpolitics intothcurbanworldollarachi thanIhclolloing quota-
tionlrom onc larachiwarlord,wholcadsa dissidcnttt lacIion in thc
Landhi ncighborhood. Lct thcm makc a scparatc provincc orcountry or
whatcvcrthcywant.JhisarcawillrcmainmystaIc ,lani l I995, 40)
Jhcurbanwarlarc ollarachi isl inkcdtorcgional, statc, national, and
globalpoliticsthroughthcdrugtralc,thccriminalizationolpoitics,thc
cllorts tocnumcratcthcma]orcthnic popuationsbythcstatc (sccchap.
), and Ihc hall-million migrants who comc cvcry ycar to this alrcady
ovcrstrctchcdcity oltwclvcmi lli on.
but thi si snotthcplaccloradctailcdstudyolcthnicviolcnccinlarachi.
Jhckcypointi sthatbothlocalizationandtransvaluationtakcthcircncrgy
lrom macrocvcnts and proccsscs ,cascadcs) thatlinkgIobal poicsto thc
L ; : c ; i : r I a J c ! s
I 5 2 ~
micropoiticsolstrccts andncighborhoods. 5ynchronicalIy, thcsccascadcs
providcthcmatcrial lorlinkingproccsscsollocaizationandtransvaluation.
Jhatis,thcyprovidcmatcriallorthcimaginaIionolactorsatvariouslcvcls
lorrcadinggcncramcaningsintolocalandcontingcntcvcnts,|ustasthcy
providcthcalibilorinscribinglongstandingscriptsaboutcthnicmanipuIa-
tionsandconspiracicsontoapparcntlytriviastrcctcvcnts
butthcrcisa diachronicdimcnsiontothis inkagcaswcl .Altcralthc
primordialistpcrspcctivcwasstrongcst(cvcn ilwrongcst)inaccountinglor
thcpoliticsolallccI andthus thcviocnti ntcnsityolcthnicconlronta-
tions.AncwpcrspcctivcolIhcsorIproposcdhcrcmustprovidcanaltcrna-
tivcctiologyolwhataymondWilliamswoudhavccalcdthcstruturcol
lcclingi ncthnicviolcncc. ^acrocvcnts,orcascadcs,workthcirwayinIo
highlylocaizcdstrucIurcsollcclingbybcingdrawninIoIhcdiscourscand
narrativcsolthclocaity, i ncasualconvcrsationsandlowkcycditorializing
olthcsortthatoltcn accompanicsthccollcctivcrcadingolncwspapcrsin
many ncighborhoods and on many |ront stoops ol Ihc worl Loncur-
rcntly,thclocal narrativcs and plots in tcrms olwhichordinarylilcandi ts
con|ictsarcrcadandi ntcrprctcdbccomcshotthroughwithasubtcxtoli n-
tcrprctivcpossibiiticsthati sthcdircctproductolthcworkingsolthclecol
imaginingolbroadcrrcgional,nationaandglobaIcvcnts.
JhctroublcwithsuchlocalrcadingsisthatthcyarcoltcnsiIcntandl i t-
crayunobscrvablc, cxccpt in thcsmalcstolpassingcommcnts onworld
ornationacvcntsthatoccur inthc cvancsccnt smal taIkoltca stalls, cin-
cma houscs, andurban gathcringplaccs. Jhcy arc part olthc inccssant
murmur urban discourscanditsconstant,undramaticcadcnccs
butpcrsonsandgroupsatthismostlocallcvclgcncratcthoscstrucIurcsol
lcclingIhatovcrtimcprovidcthcdiscursivchcldwithinwhichthccxpo-
sivcrumors,dramasandspccchcsolthcriotcantakchold.
Jhispcrspcctivc docs notrcquirca primordialistassumptioni nordcr
to accountlorthcocalstructurcsollccingthatgivccthnicriots andcol-
cctivcactionthcirbrutal andincxpicablc lorcc. Jhcsc ocallcclingsarc
thc product ol long-Icrm i ntcractions ol local and global cascadcs ol
cvcntsthatbuildupstructurcsollccing,whicharcbothsocialandhistor-
ical and arc part ol thc cnvironmcntwithinwhich, gradualy, itbccomcs
possiblctocnvisagcancighborasahcnd,ashopkccpcrasalorcigntraitor,
and aloca tradcrasaruthlcss capitalistcxpoitcr. LnccIhisanthologyol
imagcsisctivatcd, thcproccsscsolwhichJambiahspcakstakcovcr, and
wcarcassurcdthatthcrcwillbclrcsh cpisodcsolrccolIcction,i ntcrprcta-
tion, and sullcring, whichaltcrthcriotsubsidcs will workthcirwayoncc
again intoncwloca structurcsollccling.
l ; : . ; i r I . o J . l s
= I 5 3 =
DU! !hCrC snOdCnyng !ha! sUCh COnCCp!s as CasCadC, !ransvaUa!On,
OCaza!On, and mpOsOn sCCm !OO aOs!raC!, !OO mCChans!C, !OO gCn-
Cra!O Cap!UrC!hCOrU!CCOn!ngCnCy, !hCrawvOCnCC, !hCCCC!rCOOOd
Us!, !hCns!nC! !OdCgrada!On!ha!sCCm !OaCCOmpany!hCC!hnC!CrrOr
sUChpaCCs astwandaand DOsna, araChand\OOmOO. N hCnrapC,
!Or!UrC, CannOasm, and !hC OrU!a UsC O OOOd, CCCs, and OOdy par!s
Cn!Cr!hCsCCnarOOC!hnCCCansng,wCarCaCCdw!h!hCm!snO!]Us!
sOCasCCnCCOU!OangUagC!sC. \anOnCsay any!hngUsCUaOOU!
!hssOr! OvOCnCCn!hCgOOazCdwOrd !ha!!hsOOOkdCsCrOCs2
l vCn!UrC OnC hypO!hCss n !hC aCC O my Own n!CrprC!vC parayss
whCn aCCd w!h !hC gOry grOUp vOCnCC O !Odays C!hnC wars. hC
wOrs! kndsOvOCnCCn!hCsCwarsappCar!OhavCsOmC!hng!OdOw!h
!hC ds!Or!Cd rCa!Onshp OC!wCCn day, aCC-!O-aCC rCa!Ons and !hC
argCsCaC dCn!!CsprOdUCCdOy mOOCrn na!Ons!a!Cs and COmpCa!Cd
Oy argC-sCaC daspOras. OrC CxaC!y, !hC mOs! hOrrOC aC! aOOU! !hC
rapC, dCgrada!On, !Or!UrC, andmUrdCrO !hCnCwC!hnC warss!ha!!hCy
happCn n many CasCs OC!wCCn aC!Ors whO knOw, Or !hOUgh!
OnCanO!hCr. |Ur hOrrOr s sparkCd Oy!hCshCCr n!maCy!ha!
ramCs!hC nCwC!hnCvOCnCC. !s hOrrOr a! !hCnCghOOr rnCd kCr
!Or!UrCrraps!. Nha! dOCs !hs n!maCy havC !O dO w!h mCda, s!a!C-
pO!Cs, andgOOamaCrOCvCn!s2
hC ragCO !hOsCwhO k, mam, and rapCsCCms!O OC !CdUpw!ha
prOOUndsCnsCOOC!raya!ha!sOCUsCdOn!hCvC!ms, and!hCOC!raya
s!CdUpw!h!hCrCa!OnshpOC!wCCn appCaranCCandrCa!y. N hCn!hC
nCghOOrhOOd mCrChan!srCvCaCd !O OC, nhshCar!, a \rOa!, whCn!hC
sChOO!CaChCr !urns OU! !O OCsympa!hC!C !O !hC U!U, whCn yOUr OCs!
Cnd rns OU! !O OC a Usm ra!hCr !han a bCrO, whCn yOUr UnCCs
nCghOOr !Urns OU!!OOCaha!CdandOrdwha!sCCms!O OOwsasCnsC
OdCCpCa!CgOrCa!rCaChCry,!ha!s, !rCaChCryaOOU!grOUpdCn!!y as dC
nCdOys!a!Cs, CCnsUsCs, !hC mCda, andO!hCrargC-sCaC OrCCs.
! hCar!, !hs sCnsC O OC!raya s aOOU! m!akCn dCn!!y n a wOrd
whCrC!hCs!akCsassOCa!COw!h!hCsCdCn!!CshavCOCCOmCCnOrmOUsy
hgh hC ragC !ha! sUCh OC!raya sCCms !O nsprC Can O COUrsC OC Cx-
!CndCd!OmassCs O pCrsOnswhOmaynO!havC OCCnn!ma!Cs, and!hUs!
CananddOCsOCCOmCnCrCasngy mCChanCaandmpCrsOna,OU!Ud
prOpOsC !ha! !rCmansanma!Cd Oya pCrCCvCdvOa!On O!hCsCnsC O
knOwngwhO!hC|!hCrwasandOragCaOOU!whO!hCyrCy!UrnOU!!O
OC.hssCnsCO!rCaChCry,OOC!raya,and!hUsOviOa!Cd!rUs!,ragC,and
ha!rCd has !O dO w!h a wOrd n whCh argC-sCaCdCn!!Cs
OrCy Cn!Cr!hCOCa magna!OnandOCCOmC dOmnan!vOCC-OvCrsn
[ r o [ t r r r i u r J i o l i s
I 54 ~
J
!hC!raCOOrdnaryC. hCprmary!Cra!UrCCOsCs!!O!hCmOs!OrU!a
CpsOdCs O COn!CmpOrary C!hnC vOCnCC s shO! !hrOUgh w!h !hC an-
UagC O !hCmpOs!Or, !hC sCCrC! agCn!, and !hC COUn!CrC! pCrsOn hs
dsCOUrsC Orngs !OgC!hCr UnCCr!an!y aOOU! Ca!CgOrCs and n!maC
amOng pCrsOns!hC kCyCa!UrC O!hCnCwvOCnCC.
hCrC arC many CxampCs O COn!CmpOrary pO!Ca vOCnCC !ha!sUs-
!an !hspOn! O vCw. ! has a pCdgrCC nsUCh wC-knOwnns!anCCsas
!hC markng O CrmanCws as mpOs!Ors Oy!hC azs (ndCrsOn I 8J
I 4) . wCCxamnCCvdCnCCCOsC!O!hCaC!UamOmCn!sO grCa!Cs!OrU-
!a!ynrCCCn!CpsOdCsOgrOUpvOCnCC(as I 5 a I bU!!On
I 5) , ! shOws !ha!!hC rCvCa!On Oha!Cd and ha!C OCa dCn!!Cs
OChnd !hC OOdy OrCa (and knOwn) pCrsOns sCCms CrUCa !O!hC
pCrpC!ra!OnO!hCwOrs!Orms O mU!a!OnanddamagC. \OnvCrsCy, !hC
CxpOsUrCO!hC ndvdUa namCs, hs!OrCs, and mCmOrCs OspCCC pCr-
sOnsOChnd !hC COrpsCs !hCvC!ms OadvCrsC Ca!CgOrza!On sUsCd!O
prOvOkC!hCs!rOngCs!OsCn!mCn!s. hCsCDCprOCaprOCCssCsxpOsng
mpOs!Ors and rCs!Orng rCa pCrsOns !hrOUgh pCrsOnazCd mCmOras
sCCm!O C a! !hC COrC O !hC CmOOdCd vOCnCC O!Odays C!hnCOa!!Cs.
tCmCmOCrngandOrgC!!ngarCv!a!Ona!Onasm(ndCrsOn I 8J) , OU!
!hCy arC CvCn mOrC v!a !O !s OrU!a CmOOdCd pO!Cs. hs vCw O !hC
pCCUar and s!Unnng OrU!a!y O C!hnC and raCa wararC dOCs nO!
CxCUdCO!hCr aC!Ors !ha! UsUay gUrC n!hCOrCs O C!hnC vOCnCC
CCOnOmCrUs!ra!Ons,manpUa!OnOypO!Cans, CarsOrCgOUsChangC,
aspra!OnsOr C!hnCsC-gOvCrnanCC, sCapCgOa!ngn !mCs O Crss and
!hCkC. !hCsCaC!OrssUrCy aCCOUn!Or!hCOvCra dynamCsOC!hnC
s!rC n many sOCa and hs!OrCa sC!!ngs DU! !hCy sCCm UnaOC !O aC-
COUn! Or !hC shCCr OrU!a!y O mOdCrn C!hnOCdC and C!hnC war, and
!hCr sCnsC O rUnaway COn!ngCnCy hs hypO!hCss aOOU! vOCnCC n
rCa!iOn !O n!maCy, and dCn!!y s mCan! !O aCCOUn! Or !hC
!ransOrma!On O Ordnary pCOpC n!O kCrs, !Or!UrCrs, and raps!s and
!hC rC-prCsCn!a!On O Cnds, nCghOOrs, andCOwOrkCrs asOO]CC!sO!hC
dCCpCs!ha!rCdandragC
!hC hypO!hCss O!rCaChCry spaUsOC, !has mUCh!OdO w!h !hC
argC-sCaCdCn!!Cs !ransOrmCd,andrCCdOymOdCrns!a!Cap
para!UsCs (O!Cn n a !ransna!Ona and daspOrC Cd) and CrCUa!Cd
!hrOUgh !hC mCda. NhCn !hCsC dCn!!Cs arC COnvnCngy pOr!rayCd as
prmary (ndCCd as prmOrda) Oya!Cs Oy pO!Cans, rCgOUs CadCrs,
and!hC mCda, !hCn Ordnary pCOpCsC-UngysCCm !O aC! as Ony
!hs kndO dCn!!y ma!!CrCdandas!hCywCrCsUrrOUnOCdOyawOrdO
prC!CndCrs. bUChrCprCsCn!a!OnsOdCn!!y(anddCn!Ca!On)sCCmCvCn
L i [ t a [ t r r r i m u r J i a i s
F I 55 =
morc plauslblc in aworldolmlgrants and mass mcdla which can subvcrt
thc cvcryday ccrtalntlcs that comc lrom laccto-lacc knowlcdgc ol thc
cthnicLthcr.
otalcuIturallstmovcmcntsIcadtovlolcncc bctwccn cthnlc groups,
butcuIturallsmlnsolaras it lnvolvcs ldcntltlcs mobiIicdat thc Icvcl ol
thc nation statchas hlgh potcntlal lor vlolcncc, cspcciaIly ln an cra
whcnthc cultural spacc olthc natlonstatcissub|ccttothccxtcrnalltlcsol
mgraton andmass mcdla. 5uch cxtcrnaIltlcs would not ncccssarlly l n
crcascthcpotcntiallorvlolcncccxccptloroncmorccontradictlonthatal-
lcctsaIlnation-statcs lnprlnclpIcandmostnation-statcsin Jhls
isthccontradictlonbctwccnthcidcathatcachnation- statccantIyrcp-
rcscntonIyonccthnosandthcrcaIltythatallnatlonstatcshlstoricallyl n-
voIvc thc amalgamatlon ol many ldcnttics. lvcn whcrc long-standlng
idcntitics havc bccn lorgottcn or buricd, thc comblnation ol mlgration
and mass mcdlatlon assurcs thclr rcconstctlon on a ncw scalc and at
largcrcvcls. lnci dcntally,thislswhythcpolitlcsolrcmcmbcringandlor-
,andthusolhistoryandhlstorlography) is soccntraltothccthni-
clstbattlcstlcdupwlthnatlonallsm,vandcrVccr LuIturallstmovc-
mcnts among mlnorltlcs andhlstorlcally domlnatcd groups tcndtocntcr
intoaconscious dlalogucwlththccuIturaI ismsolnumcrlcal ^s
thcsccuIturallsms compctc lora plccc olthc natlon ,andolthcrcsourccs
ol thc statc) , thcy lncvltably cntcr l nto thc spacc ol vloIcncc.
JhisproposaldillcrslundamcntallylromthcprlmordlaIist1f'1Pr\F
t docs not rcgardasubsIratum ol cthnicscntlmcntas thc bcdrock ol thc
cxplanation olcthnlccxploslons.Kathcr, ltsuggcststhatcthnlcstrcturcs
ol lccllng arc thcmscIvcs compIcxproducts ol thc IocaI lmaginatlon
diatingabcwlldcrlngvarictyolglobaIcascadcsasthcymovcthroughthc
locality).lpisodcsolcthnlcvlolcnccmaythusbc aslmploslvcin
two scnscs in thc stctural scnsc, thcy rcprcscnt thc loldlng lnto local
poIitics olprcssurcsandrlpplcs lrom incrcaslngIywidcr politlcal arcna
andinthc hlstorlcal scnsc, thc locaI poIlticaI lmagination is incrcaslngIy
sub|ccttothc low olargccvcnts ,cascadcs) ovcr timc, cvcntsthat lnu-
cncc thc intcrprctation ol mundanc occurrcnccs and graduaIly crcatc a
rcpcrtlrc ol advcrsarial cthnic scntlmcnts. Jhcsc can sccm primordial at
hst slght but arc surcly thc product ol longcr-tcrm proccsscs ol action,
communlcatlon, lntcrprctation, andcommcnt Lncc thcsc cvcntsoccur,
howcvcr it ls lar caslcr toscc thclr cxplosivc dlmcnslons, as thcy sprcad
outward, inhamlngothcrscctors and drawlngothcr isucs lntothcvortcx
ol cthniclury. but thls cxploslvc dlmcnslon, by,andcmpowcr-
ing)thc proccsscs ollocallzatlon andtransvaluation, shouId not blindus
L | ] c ] t : t t e t J | c | i
! ;c =

tolts lnltlaIcondltlons.Jhcsccondltlonsarcbcttcraccountcdlorlntcrms
olthc ldca ol lmpIosionproposcd in thls chaptcr than by thc manyvcr-
sions ol thc prlmordlallst that satlsly our thirst lor hnal, and
ahistorlcal, cxplanations cspcclaIlyolapparcntlylrratlonaIbchavlor.
MaJ:o Firciy
ctmcundcrlinc, cvcn ll whatlsmodcrn, ln myusagc, cultur-
allst)aboutcontcmporary cthnlcmovcmcnts JodaysIargc-scaIcand lrc-
qucntlyviocntcthnlcmovcmcntscaIllorancwundcrstandingolthcrcla-
tlonshlp bctwccn hlstory and agcncy, allcct and poIltics, Iargc-scalc and
locaI lactors.l havc throughoutthlschaptcrthatoncwaytocn-
gagcthcscrcqulrcmcntslstorcslstthclnncr-outcrdlalcctlcimposcdonus
bythcprlmordlaIistwayolthinkingand thlnklnstcadl ntcrmsolthcdl-
alccticsollmploslonandcxpIoslonovcrtlmcasthckcytothcpccullardy-
namlcs olmodc cthnlciIy
ookcd at ln thlsway, modcrncthnicmovcmcnts ,cuIturalisms)canbc
ticd to thc crlsis olthc natlon statc through a scrlcs ol i ntcrcstlngIlnks.
llrst, allmodc natlon- statcs havc subscrlbcd toandcontrlbutcd tothc
idca that lcgitimatc polltlcs mustbcthcoutgrowth ol natural alhnitlcs ol
somcsort. Jhus, cvcn asmany nation-statcscntcracrlsls olIcgitlmation
and lacc thc dcmands ol mlgrant groups, thcy work wlthln a lcgacy ln
whlchnatlonalscIlIcmustrcstonsomcsortoltraditionolnaturaI alhn-
lIy. 5ccond, thc pro|ccts ,howcvcrsucccssll) ol thc modcrn na-
tlon-statc ranglnglromsanitation tothcccnsus, lrom lamlIyplanningto
discasc control, and lrom lmmlgration control to Ianguagc policy, havc
tlcd concrctc ,spccch, clcanllncss, movcmcnt, hcalth) to
|cc}:-sco|: group thuslncrcaslngthcpotcntlalscopcolcmbodlcd
cxpcrlcnccsolgoupalnlty linally,whcthcrindcmocratlcornondcmo-
cratstatcscIups, thc ol rlghtsandcntltlcmcntmorc gcncralIy
hasbccomclncxtrlcabIyl lnkcdtohcsc largcscalc ldcntltlcsJodascth
nlpro|ccts arc dchncdby thcsc thrcc lcaturcs ol thc culturc
o l thc modcrn natlon-statc. lthnlc groups may lmaglnc thclr luturcs, but
cvcn hcrc ,as with arxs obscratlons about mcn maklng thclrhlstoy)
thcymaynotdo|ustasthcyplcasc^sstatcslosc thclrmonopolyovcrthc
idca olnatlon, lt isundcrstandabIc thatall sorts olgoupswllltcndtousc
thcloglcolthc nationtocapturc somc oraIIolthc statc, orsomc oraII ol
thclr cntltlcmcnts lrom thc statc. Jhls loglc hnds ltsmaxlmum powcrto
mobillzcwhcrcthcbody mccts thc statc thatis, ln thosc pro|cctsthatwc
callcthnicandoltcnmisrccognlzcasatavlstlc.
L | ] : a ]t : t . o t J | c l s
= } ;7 =
O
8lf 0l 5m 8n0 l5 uluf65
Wcnccdtothinkoursclvcsbcyondthcnation.` Jhisi snottosuggcstthat
thoughtaloncwillcarusbcyondthcnationorthatthcnationisargcy
athoughtoranimagincdth ng Kathcr, itisto suggcstthatthcrolcoli n-
tcllcctua practiccs is to idcntily thc cucnt crisis olthc nation andi n
idcntilying i t to providc pa ol thc apparatus ol rccognition lor post
nationalsociallorms.Althoughthcidcathatwcarccntcringapostnational
worldsccmstohavcrcccivcditshrstairings i nl itcrarystudics, it is nowa
rccurrcnt ,i lunscllconscious) thcmc in studics ol postcoloniaism, global
politics, and i ntcrnational wcl larc policy lutmost writcrs who havc as-
scrtcdor implicd that wc nccd to think postnationally havc not askcd
cxactlywhatcmcrgcntsocial lorms compclus to do so, or in what way.
Jhislattcrtaskis thc principallocusolthischaptcr.
o:fi:cur:irr Lo|onir:
orthosc olus whogrcwupmalc in thc clitcscctors olthcpostcolonial
world, nationalism wasourcommon scnsc and thc principaljusthcation
lorourambitions,ourstratcgics,andourscnscolmoralwcl-bcing.ow,
almost hall a ccntury altcr i ndcpcndcnccwas achicvcd lor many ol thc
ncw nations thc nation lorm is undcr attack and that too, lrom many
~ I 58
.
points olvicw. As thc idcological alibiolthc tcrritorialstatc, it is thc last
rc|ugc olcthnictotalitarianism. ln importantcritiqucs olthc postcolony
,lbcmbc I 2) , itsdiscourscs havc bccn shown tobc dccpyimplicatcd
i nthcdiscourscsolcoloniaism itscll |thaslrcqucntlybccn avchiclclor
thcstagcd scll-doubts olthc hcrocs olthc ncwnationsSukarno,omo
Kcnyatta,awaharlalchru,Lama Abdcl asscrwho hddlcdwith na
tionalism whilc thc pubic sphcrcs ol thcir socictics wcrc bcginning to
burn. So,lorpostcoloniali ntcllcctuassuchasmyscll,thcqucstionis,docs
patriotism havc a luturc And towhatraccs andgcndcrs shallthat|uturc
bclong
Jo answcrthisqucstionrcquisnotjustancngagcmcntwith thcprob-
cmatics olthc nation lorm, thc imagincdcommunity ,Andcrson I I ),
thcproductionolpcopc,lalibarI I ) ,thcnaativityolnations,lhabha
I 0),andthccooniallogicsolnationalistdiscoursc, Chattcrjcc I 86) lt
also rcquircs a closc cxamination ol thc discourscs olthc statc andthc
discourscsthat arccontaincdwithinthchyphcnthatinksnationtostatc
,chap. 2lbcmbcct al I 2). What lollows is an cxploration ol onc di-
mcnsionolthishyphcn.
Jhcrc i s a disturbingtcndcncy i n thc Wcstcrn acadcmy toy to di
vorccthc studyoldiscursivc lorms lrom thc studyolothcr institutional
lorms,andthcstudyollitcrarydiscourscslromthcmundancdiscourscsol
burcaucracics, armics, privatccorporations, andnonstatc social organiza-
tionsJhischaptcri sinpartaplcalorawidcningolthc hcdoldiscoursc
studicsilthcpostcoonyis inpartadiscursivclormation,itisalsotcthat
discursivity has bccomctoo cxclusivcly thc signandspaccolthc colony
and thcpostcolonyi ncontcmporary cuturalstudics. Jo widcnthcscsc
ol what counts as discoursc dcmands a corrcsponding idcning ol thc
sphcrc olthc postcolony,to cxtcnd itbcyondthcgcographical spaccs ol
thclormcrcolonial world ln raisingthc issucolthcjcrnaricnal, l wilsug-
gcstthatthcjourncylromthcspaccolthclormcrcolony,acolorlulspacc,
aspaccolcolor)tothcspaccolthcpostcolonyis ajourncythattakcsus
intothchcartolwhitcncss.ltmovcsusthatis toAmcrica,apostnational
spaccmarkcdby its whitcncss but markcdtoo by its uncasycngagcmcnt
withdiasporicpcoplcs, mobilc tcchnologics andquccrnationalitics
brroro]fbrrnr
|n spitcol all thc cvidcncctothc contrary thcscarc hardtimcslorpatrio-
tismlaimcdbodicsandbarbcdwirci nLastcuropc, xcnophobicvio-
cnccinrancc,agwavingi nthcpoliticalritualsolthcclcctionycarhcrc
I u I r i o I i : u n d I : v t u r t :
I 5 ~
ih thc Lhitcdbtatcs-all sccm to suggcst that thc wili nghcss to dic lor
ohcs country is stil a global lashion . but patriotism is an unstablc schti-
mcntwhichthrivcsonyatthclcvclolthchation-statc.bcowthatlcvcl it
i scasiy supplantcd by morc ihtimatc loyaltics abovc that lcvcl it givcs
way to cmpty slogahs rarcly backcd by thc will to sacrihcc or ki bo,
whchthihkihgaboutthcluturcolpatriotism, iti shcccssaryhrsttoinquirc
into thc hcath olthc nation-statc.
ydoubtsaboutpatriotism , patri a-tism) arctcd up with mylathcrs
biography, in which patriotism and nationalism wcrc alrcady divcrgi ng
tcrms.Psa warcorrcspohdchtlor Kcutcrsi hbahgkoki h I 40, hcmct an
cxpatriatc| ndiannatiohalistbubhasLhahdraboscwhosplitwithLahdhi
ahdchruohthcissucolviolchcc. boschadcscapcdom british survci l-
lancc ih | ndia, wi ththcactivc supportolthc|apancsc, andcstablishcd a
govcrnmcnt-ih-cxilc ih bouthcast Psia. Jhc army that bosc lormcd lrom
| ndian olhccrs ahdcnlistcd mch hom thc|apancsc had takcn prisoncr
callcditscllthc | hdiahatiohalPrmy. JhislhdianPrmywasroundlydc-
lcatcdbythc britsh lhdiah Prmy i n Pssam ,on lhdian soi as my lathcr
ncvcr tircd ol notihg) in I 44, and thc provisiohal govcrnmcnt olPzad
lihd,rcc | hdia)in which mylathcrwas mihistcrolpublicityahdpropa-
gahdasoohcrumbcdwiththcdclcatolthcPxispowcrs.
Whcn mylathcrrcturncdto lhdia i h I 4,hc and hiscomradcswcrc
uhwclcomc hcrocs, poorcousihsin thcstoryolthcnationaliststrugglclor
| ndiahindcpchdcncc. Jhcywcrc patriots butboscs ahti -britishschti mcht
ahd his links with thc is powcrs madc him ah cmbarrassmcnt both to
Landhishonviolchcc andchms abian Phglophilia.Jo thc chdolthcir
ivcs my lathcrandhiscomradcsrcmaihcdpariah patriots, roguc natioh-
alists. ysistcr brothcrs, ahdl grcwupin bombaywcdgcdbctwccn lor
mcr patriotism boscstylc, and bourgcois nationaism, chru-stylc. Lur
| hdia, with its|apahcsc cohncctiohs and ahtiWcstcrn ways, carricd thc
namccss aroma ol trcasoh, ih rcspcct to thc cozy alli ancc ol thc chrus
ahd ountbattchs, and thc bourgcois compact bctwcch Lahdhian hon-
violchcc ahd chruviah socialism. y lathcrs disust olthc chrudy-
nastyprcdisposcdustoimagincastrangc,dctcrritori alizcdlndia,i hvchtcd
ih Jaiwanahdbi ngaporc, bahgkokahd ualalumpurquitc indcpcndcht
olcwLclhi andthcchrus,thcLohgrcssartyahdmainstrcamnatioh-
alisms. bo,thcrcisa spccial appcal lormc inthcpossibilitythatthc mar-
bctwccn nations and statcs was aways a marriagc ol cohvcnichcc
ahdthatpatriotism hccdsto hhdhcwob]cctsoldcsirc.
Lncma]orlactthataccountslorstrainsi hthcunioholnatonandstatc
isthatthcnationalistgcnic, hcvcr pcrlcctlycontaihcdi hthcbottlcolthc
u l r i | i s m u n J l l s l r r s
I 0 ~
tcrritoria statc, is how itscll diasporic. Larricd ih thc rcpcrtoircs ol
ihcrcasihglymobicpopuatiohsolrclugccs, tourists gucstworkcrs, trahs
hatioha intcllcctuals, scichtists, ahd i l lcgal aicns, it i s ihcrcasihglyuhrc-
straincdbyidcasolspatiabouhdaryandtcrritorialsovcrcighty. Jhisrcvo-
lutioh ih thc louhdatiohs ol natiohalism has crcpt up oh us virtually
unnoticcd. Whcrcsoiahdplaccwcrconccthckcytothcl i hkagcoltcrri-
torialalhliationwithstacmohopolyolthc mcahsolviochcc,kcyidcnti-
ticsahdidchtihcationsnowohlypartiayrcvovcaroundthcrcaliticsahd
imagcs olplacc. ln thc bikh dcmahd lor |halistah, in rcnch-Lanadiah
lcclingsabout[ucbcc, in alcstiniah dcmahdslorscll-dctcrminatioh,i m-
agcs ol a homcland arc onlypart olthcrhctoric olpopularsovcrcignty
and do hot hcccssarily rccct a tcrritorial bottom lihc Jhc violchcc ahd
tcrror surroundihgthcbrcakdowh ol many cxistinghatioh-statcs arc not
signs ol rcvcrsioh to ahythi ng biological or inhatc, dark or primordial
, Lomaroll ahd Lomaroll I 2b). What thcn arc wc to makc ol this rc-
hcwcdbloodusti nthcnamcolthchation
odcrn hationaisms i hvolvc commuhitics olcitizcns i hthctcrritori-
ally dchhcd hation statcwhosharcthc collcctivccxpcrchcc, hot ollacc-
to-lacc contactorcommonsubordinatiohtoaroyal pcrsoh, butolrcading
books, pamphlcts ncwspapcrs , maps, ahd othcr modcrn tcxts togcthcr
,labcrmas I 8 Lalhoun I 2. ln and through thcsccolcctivccxpcri-
cnccsolwhatbchcdictPhdcrson , I I ) cals''prihtcapitalismandwhat
othcrs ihcrcasingly scc as clcctronic capitalism, such as tclcvisioh and
ci hcma, Warhcr I 2lcc I J) , citizchsimainr thcmsclvcstobclong to
a hationalsocicty. Jhc modcrnnatioh-statc in this vicwgrows css out ol
hatural lacts-such aslahguagc,blood, soi, ahdracc-andmorcoutola
quintcsschtial cultural product, a product ol thc colcctivc imagihation
Jhisvicwdistanccsitscll,butnotquitccnough,lromthcdomihantthco-
ricsolhationalism, lrom thoscol) L. lcrdcrahdLuiscppcazzihiahd
sihcc thcn lrom all sorts ol right-wihg hatiohalists, who scc natiohs as
products olthcnaturadcstinicsol pcoplcs, whcthcrrootcd i hl ahguagc,
racc,soi l , orrcigion. | n mahyolthcsc thcoricsolthc hatioh asimagincd,
thcrc i salwaysa suggcstion thatbood, kihship racc, and soil arcsomc-
howlcssimagincdandmorchaturalthahthcimagihation olcollcctivci n
tcrcstorsolidarity.Jhctropcolthctribcrcactivatcsthishiddcnbiologism
largclybccausclorcclul altcrhativcs to i thavc yct to bc articuatcd. Jhc
historia coh]uncturcs cohccrnihgrcadingahd pubicity, tcxts and thcir
l i hguisticmcdiatiohs, nationsahd thcirnarrativcsarconyhowbcing]ux-
taposcd to lormulatc thc spcial ahd spccihc diacritics ol thc hational
imagiharyahditspublicsphcrcs,lcc I J)
u l r i o l t : m u J | t : l r r s
~ I I

hc lcadcrs o| thc ncw nations that wcrc |ormcd i n Psia andP|rica

a|tcrWorldWarl l-asscr,chru, bukarno-wouldhavcbccndistrcsscd
to sccthc |rcqucncywi thwhich thc idcas o|tribalism andnationaismarc
condatcd i n rcccnt public discoursc in thc Wcst. Jhcsc l cadcrs spcnt a
grcat dca o| thcirrhctorica cncrgics in urging thcir sub|ccts to givc up
what thcy saw as primordial loyatics-to |amily ibc castc and rc- ,
1 ,
gion-in tc i ntcrcsts o| thc |ragilc abstractions thcy callcd "Lgypt,
"lndiaanddoncsi a. Jhcyundcrstoodthat thc ncwnationsnccdcdo
subvcrt and anncxthc primary loyalticsattachcdto morc intimatccolcc-
tivitics. Jhcyrcstcdthciri dcaso|thcirncwnations onthcvcrycdgcso|
thcparadoxthatmodcnatonswcrcintcndcdtobcsomchowopcn,uni-
vcrsal, and cmancipatory by virtuc o|thcirspccial commitmcnt to citi-
zcnlyvirtucbutthatfbr|r nationswcrcnoncthclcss, i nsomccsscntiaway,
di||crcnt om andcvcn bcttcr than othcr nations l n many ways thcsc
lcadcrs kncw what wc havc tcndcd to |orgct, namcy, that nations, cspc-
cially i n multicthnicscttings,arctcnuous collcctivc pro|ccts, not ctcrna
natural |acts. \ctthcytoo hcpcdtocrcatca |alscdividcbctwccnthcarti-
hcialityo|thcnationandthosc|actsthcy|alsclypro|cctcdasprmordia
tribc, |amily, rcgion
l nitsprcoccupationwiththccontrol , classihcation,andsurvcillancco|
i ts subccts, thc nationstatc has o|tcn crcatcd, rcvitalizcd, or |racturcd
cthnic idcntitics that wcrc prciously did, ncgotiablc or nasccnt L|
coursc,thctcrmsuscdtomobilizccthnic violcncc todaymayhavc ong
historcs. butthcrcaiticsto whichthcyrc|cr-bcrboLroatianl anguagc,
basquc customs lithuaniancuisincwcrc most o|tcn crystallizcdin thc
nnctccnth and carlytwcnticth ccnturics. ationalism and cthnicity thus
|ccd cach othcr, as nationalists construct cthnic catcgorics that in turn
drivcothcrsto constructcountcrcthnicitics,andthcn in timcs o|politica
crisisthcsc othcrs dcmandcountcrstatcs bascd on ncw|undcountcrna
tionalsms. orcvcry nationalism that appcars to bc naturally dcstincd,
thcrisanothcrthati sa rcactivcbyproduct.
Whilc viocncc in thc namc o|crbs andouccans |hmcr and lat-
vians,Lcrmansand)cwstcmptsusto thinkthatall suchidcntiticsrundark
anddccp,wc nccdonyturntothcrcccnt riotsi nl ndi aocasioncdby thc
rcport o| a govcrnmcntcommission that rccommcndcd rcscrving a argc
pcrccntagco|govcrnmcnt|obs|orccrtaincastcsdchncdbythcccnsusand
thcconstitutionas"backward.Kiotingandcarnagc,andnota |cwkilings
andsicidcs,tookplacci northl ndiaovcrsuchlabclsas"othcrbackward
castc which comc out o|thc tcrminologica distinctions o| thc lndian
ccnsus and its spccializcdprotocol s andschcdulcs. low astonishing it
n l r 0 l : m n 1 l : ! u l u r r :
~ I 2
sccms thatanyoncwoulddicorkil|orcntitlcmcntsassociatcdwith bcing
thcmcmbcro|anothcrbackwardcastc.\ctthiscasci snotancxccption
i n its macabrc burcaucraticbanality i tshows howthctcchnical nccds o|
ccnsuscsandwcl |arclcgislation,combincdwiththccynicaltacticso|clcc-
tora pol itics, can drawgroups into quasi-racial idcntihcations and|cars.
Jhcmattcr is not so di||crcnt as itmay appcar |orsuchapparcntynatural
labcls as)cw, Prab, Lcrman, and li ndu, cach o|whichi nvolvcs pcoplc
whochooscthcscabcls,othcrswhoarc|orccdintothcm, andyctothcrs
whothrough thcirphilologicalscholarshipshorup thc historicso|thcsc
namcsorhndthcmhandywaso|tidyingupmcssyproblcms o|languagc
and history, racc andbclic|. L| coursc, not al nationstatc policics arc
hcgcmonic, nor arc all subaltcrn |orms o| agcncy impotcnt to rcsist thcsc
prcssurcs and scductions. but it docs sccm |air to say that thcrc arc |cw
|orms o|popularconsciousncssandsubaltcrnagcncythat arc, i nrcgardto
cthnic mobiization, |rcc o| thc thought |orms and political hclds pro-
duccdbythcactionsanddiscourscso|nation-statcs.
Jhus, minoritics in manyparts o|thc worldarcas artihcial asthc ma-
|oritics thcyarcsccn to thrcatcn. Whitcs inthc Lnitcd lindus in
lndia, Lnglishmcn in Lrcat britainall arc cxampcs o| how thc political
andadmini strativc dcsignation o| somc groups as mi noritcs ,blacksand
lispanics i n thc Lnitcd btatcs, Lcltsandakistanis i nthc Lnitcd |ing
dom, uslims andLhristians i n l ndi a) hcps to pul ma|oritics silcnt or
vocal) togcthcrundcrlabcs with shortlivcsbut long hi storics. Jhc ncw
cthniciticsarco|tcnnoodcrthanthcnation-statcsthatthcyhavccomcto
rcsist. Jhc usims o| bosnia arc bcing rcluctantly ghcttoizcdalthough
thcrc is |car among both bcrbi ans and Lroats o| thc possibity o| an
lslamicstatci nLuropc. inoriticsarcaso|tcn madc asthcyarc born.
Kcccntcthnicmovcmcnts o|tcni nvovcthousands,somctimcsmilions
o|pcoplcwhoarcsprcadacrossvasttcrritoricsando|tcnscparatcd vast
distanccs. Whcthcr wc considcr thc l inkagc o| bcrbs dividcd by l argc
chunks o|bosnia lcrzcgovina, or |urds dispcrscd across l ran, lraq, and
Jurkcy, orbikhs sprcad through london, ancouvcr, and Lali|ornia, as
wclasthclndianun| ab, thc ncwcthnonationalismsarc complcx, largc-
scalc hi ghycoordinatcdacts o|mobilization, rcliant on ncws, logistical
dows, andpropagandaacrossstatc bordcrs. Jhcycan hardybc consid
crcd triba, i | by this wc mcan that thcy arc spontancous uprisings o|
closclybondcd, spatiallyscgrcgatcd,naturallyalicdgroupings. lnthccasc
wc hndmost|rightcningtoday, whatcouldbc callcd bcrbian tribalism i s
hardlyasimpcthinggivcnthatthcrcarcatlcast2 8milion\ugosav|am-
ilicswhohavcproduccdabout ! . 4 millionmixcdmarriagcsbctwccnbcrbs
n l r i o l i : m n n 1 l s ! u l u r t :
~ ! 3 ~
andCroats,lobsbawm I 2) . Jo whichtribccouldthcsc lamilicsbcsaid
tobclong lnourhorrihcdprcoccupationwiththcshocktroops olcthno-
nationalism,wchavclostsightolthccon|uscdscntimcntsolcivilians,thc
tomloyalticsollamilicsthathavcmcmbcrsolwarri nggroups withinthc
samchouschold,andthcurgingsolthoscwhoholdtothcvicwthatScrbs,
Nuslims,andCroatsi nlosnia-lcrzcgovinahavcnolundamcntal cnmity.
ltishardcrtocxplainhowprinciplcsolcthnicalhliation,howcvcrdubious
thcirprovcnanccand|ragilcthcirpcdigrcc,canvcryrapidlymobilizclargc
group

intoviolcntaction.
Wat docs sccm clcar is that thc tribal modcl, insolaras it suggcsts
prcpackagcd passionswaitingtocxplodc,Hicsinthc|accolthccontingcn-
cicsthatsparkcthnicpassion. JhcSikhs,untilrcccntlythcbulwarkolthc
lndian armyandhistoricallythc hghtingarmollindu lndiaagainst Nus-
l i m rulc, today rcgard thcmsclvcs as thrcatcncd by linduism and sccm
willing to acccpt aid and succor lm lakistan. Jhc Nuslims ol losnia-
lcrzcgovinahavcbccnlorccdrcluctantlytorcvitalizcthcirlslamicalhlia-
tionsar|romctivatinglong-standingtribalscntimcnts,losnianNuslims
arctombctwccnthcirownconccptionolthcmsclvcsasLrcj:anMslims,a
tcrm rcccntlyuscdbyLub Lanic,viccpsidcnto|losnia)andthcvicw
that thcy arc part ol a transnational lslam, which isalrcadyactivcly in-
volvcdi nlosnianwarlarc.Wcalthylosnianswholivc abroad incountrics
suchasJurkcyarcalrcadybuyingwcaponslor thcdclcnsc olNuslims i n
losnia.Jo lrccuslrom thc tropc olthc ibc,asthcprimordial sourccol
thosc nationalisms that wc hnd lcss civic than our own in thc Onitcd
Statcs, wc nccd to construct a thcory ollargc-scalc cthnic mobilization
thatcxplicitlyrccognizcsandintcrprctsitspostnationalpropcrtics.
o:frufioru|onu|or:
Nanyrcccntandviolcntcthnonationalismsarc not so much cxplosivc as
implosivc.Jhat is, rathcrthanbcingrootcd in somc primordial substratc
olallcctdccpwithincacholusthatisbroughtup andoutintowidcrsorts
ol social cngagcmcnt and groupaction,thc rcvcrsc is oltcn thc casc. Jhc
c||ccts ol largc-scalci ntcractionsbctwccn and within nation-statcs, oltcn
stimulatcdbyncwsolcvcnts incvcnmorcdistantlocations,scrvctocas-
cadc , Koscnau I 0) through thc complcxitics ol rcgiona, local, and
ncighborhood potics until thcy cncrgizc local issucs and implodc into
variouslormsoliolcncc,includingthcmostbrutal oncs. Whatwcrcprc
iouslyccclcthnicidcntitics,Si kh andlindu, ArmcnianandAzcrbai) ani
Scrb and Croat) thustumoc|, aslocaliticsimplodcundcrthcprcssurc ol
u t r i l i s w u n d l s u l u r r s
I =

cvcnts and proccsscs distantin spacc andtimc hom thc sitc olthcimplo-
sion. Amonglosnias Nuslimsit is possiblc to watch thc tcmpcraturc ol
thcsc idcntitics changc bclorc our vcry cycs as thcy hnd thcmsclvcs
pushcdaway |rom asccular, Luropcanistidca ol thcmsclvcs into amorc
lundamcntalistposturc.Jhcyarcbcingpushcdnotonlybythcthrcatsto
thcirsurvival|romScrbsbutalsobyprcssurclrom thcirlcllowNuslimsin
Saudi Arabia, Lgypt, and Sudan, whosuggcst that losnian Nuslims arc
now payingthcpricc lorplayingdown thcirlslamicidcntityundcrCom-
munistrulc.losnian Nusliml cadcrshavcbcgun tocxplicitlystatcthatil
thcydo not rcccivc hclp quickly lrom thc Wcstcrn powcrs, thcy might
havctotumto lalcstinianmodclsoltcrrorandcxtrcmism
Cncimportantwaytoaccountlorthosccascsi nwhichcoolidcntitics
turnhotandimplosions|romoncplaccgcncratccxplosions inothcrsisto
rcmindoursclvcs that thc nation-statc is byno mcans thc onlygamc in
town as laras translocal loyaltics arc concccd. Jhcviolcncc thatsur-
rounds idcntitypolitic around thcworld today rcllccts thc anxictics at-
tcndantonthcscarch lornontcrritorialprinciplcsolsol idrity.Jhcmovc-
mcnts wc now scc in Scrbia and Sri Lanka, Nountain Karabakh and
amibia, lun)ab and ucbcc arc whatmight bc callcd tro)an nation-
alisms.Suchnationalismsactuallycontaintransnational,subnational links
and,morcgcncrally, nonnational idcntiticsandaspirations lccausc thcy
asooltcnthcproductollorccdaswcllasvoluntarydiasporasolmobilc
intcllcctualsaswcllasmanualworkcrs,oldialogucswithhostilcaswcllas
hospitablcstatcs,vcrylcwolthcncwnationalismscanbcscparatcdlrom
thc anguish ol displaccmcnt, thc nostalgia ol cxilc, thc rcpatriation ol
lunds, orthcbrutalitics olasylum sccking. laitians i nNiami, Jamils i n
loston, Noroccans i n rancc, Noluccans i n lolland arc thc carricrs ol
thcscncwtransnationalandpostnational loyaltics
Jcrritorial nationalism isthc alibi olthcscmovcmcnts andnotncccs-
sarilythcirbasicmotivcorhnalgoal. lncontrast,thcscbasicmotivcsand
goalscan bclardarkcr than anythi ng havingto do with nationalsovcr-
cignty, aswhcnthcysccmdrivcnbythcmotivcsolcthnicpurihcationand
gcnocidcthus Scrbiannationalism sccms to opcratc on thclcarandha-
I ,
trcdolitscthnic Cthcrs larmorcthanonthc scnscolasacrcdtcrritorial
patrimony. Crthcycanbcsimplyidiomsandsymbolsaroundwhichmany
groups comc to articulatc thcir dcsirc to cscapcthc spccihcstatc rcgimc
that is sccn as thrcatcningthcir own survival.lalcstinians arc morc-
ricd aboutgcttinglsraclollthcirbacksthan aboutthc spccial gcographi-
calmagicolthcWcstlank
Whilcthcrc arcmanyscparatist movcmcnts i nthcworldtoythc
u l r o l i s H u n J l : ! u | u r t :
I 5
basqucs, thcJamils, thc [ubccois, thc bcrbs-that sccm dctcrmihcdto
lock natiohhood and statchood togcthcr undcr a singlc cthnic rubric,
morc imprcssivcstillarcthcmahyopprcsscdmihoriticswhohavcsu||crcd
displaccmchtahd |orccd diaspora withoutarticulatihga strohg wish |ora
nation-statc o| thcir owh Prmchiahs ih Jurkcy, lutu rc|ugccs |rom bu
mhdi who ivc in urbah Jahzahia, and |ashmiri lihdus in cxilc ih Lclhi
arca|cwcxamplcso|howdispaccmcntdocsnotalways gcncratcthc|ah
tasyo|statc buildihg. Plthoughmahyantistatcmovcmchtsrcvovcaround
imagcso|homcandsoil, placc,ahdrcturn|romcxilc, thcscimagcsrcUcct
thcpovcrtyo|thcir,ahdour)politicalanguagcsrathcrthanthchcgcmohy
o|tcrritorial hatiohaism. ut ahothcr way, ho idiom hasyctcmcrgcd to
capturc thc collcctivc i ntcrcsts o| manygroups ih translocal soli daritics,
cross-bordcrmobilizatiohs, ahdpostnatiohal idcntitics. buchi htcrcsts arc
mahyandvocal,butthcy arcstillcntrappcdih thcl i hguistic imagiharyo|
thc tcrritorial statc. Jhis ihcapacity o|many dctcrritorializcd groups to
thinkthcirway out o|thcimaginry o| thc natioh- statc i sitscl|thc causc
o| much global violcncc bccausc many movcmcnts o| cmahcipatioh ahd
idcntityarc |orccd,i hthcirstrugglcs agaihstcxistingnatioh-statcs,tocm-
braccthcvcpimagihapthcyscckto cscapc. osthationalornohhatiohal
movcmchts arc|orccdby thcvcp logo|actually cxistinghatiohstatcs
tobccomcahtihatiohalorahtistatcahdthustoihspircthcvcrystatcpowcr
that |orccs thcm to rcspond in thc lahguagc o|couhtcrnationalism. Jhis
vcious circlc cah onlybc cscapcd whcn a languagc is |oundto capturc
complcx, nohtcrritori al , posthational |orms o|allcgiahcc.
uchhasbcchsaidihrccchtycarsaboutthc spccdwithwhich ih|or-
mationtravcsarouhthcworld,thcihtchsitywithwhichthchcwso|ohc
cityUashcsoh thc tclcvisioh scrcchs o|ahothcr, o|howmoncymanipula
tions in onc stock cxchahgc a||cct hhahcc ministrics a cohtihcnt away.
uch has bccnsaid,too, aboutthc hccdtoattackglobalproblcms,suchas
A|LS, polution,andtcrrorism,withcohccrtcd|orm o|i ntcrhatiohalaction.
Jhcdcmocracywavc ahdthcAIL5 pahdcmicarc to somccxtchtcauscdby
thcsamckihdso|i ntcrsocictalcontactandtrahsnatiohalhumah tra|hc.
rom thc pcrspcctivc o|thc Lold ar, thc world may havc bccomc
uhipolar. but it has also bccomc ou|ficrrfr|c, to uscamcs Koschaus tcrm
, I 0). Paptihgmctaphors |rom chaos thcory, Koscnauhas showh how
thc cgitimacy o| hatioh- statcs has stcadily wcakchcd, how intcrhational
andtransnatiohal orgahizatiohs o|cvc typchavcproli |cratcd, ahdhow
local politics ahdglobal proccssa||cctcach othcrih chaotic butnot un
prcdicblcways,o|tcnoutsidcthc ihtcractiohso|hatioh- statcs.
Jo apprcciatcthcsccomplcxitics,wcnccdtodomorcthahwhatsocial
c t r i o t i m a n J t : u t u r
I =
scicntists likcto call comparisoh, puttihg onc countp orculturc ncxt to
ahothcr as i| thcywcrc as ihdcpcndchti nl i |c as ihthougt. cnccdto
takc a |rcsh lookatavarictyo|orgahizations,movcmcnts, idcologics, ahd
nctworks o|which thc traditiohal multinatiohal corporatioh i s ony onc
cxampc.Lonsidcrsuchtranshationalphlanthropicmovcmcntsaslabitat
|orlumahity,whoscvoluntccrssccktobuildncwchvirohmcntswith|cl-
lowvoluhtccrs in |ar-|luhglocati ohs . Jakc thc various i ntcrhatonl tcr-
roristorgahizatiohs,whichmobilizcmcn,ahdsomctimcswomcn,mohcy,
cquipmcht, trai hing camps, ahd passioh i n a bcwildcring cross-hatchihg
o| idcological and cthhic combihatiohs. Lohsidcr ihtcrhatiohal |ashioh,
whichi shot|ustamattcro|globalmarkctsandcrossnational-stylccanni -
balismbuti sihcrcasihglyamattcro|systcmatictrahshatiohalasscmblagcs
o|production, tastc trahs|cr, pricing, ahdcxhibiti on. Jakc thc varictyo|
Lrccnmovcmcntsthathavcbcguntoorganizcthcmsclvcstrahsnatiohay
arouhd spccihc sorts o| biopolitics. Lohsidcr thc world o| rc|ugccs. or
ongwchavctakchrc|ugcci ssucsandorganizationstobcparto|thc|lot-
samahd|ctsam o|politicall i |c, Uoatihgbctwcchthcccrtaihticsandstabi i -
ticso|hatioh-statcs hatwccahhotscc thcrc|orci s thatrc|ugcccamps,
rc|ugccburcaucracics, rc|ugcc-rclic|movcmchts,|ugcc-oricntcddcpart-
mchts o|hation-statcs, ahdrc|ugccoricntcd transhatiohal phi l ahthropics
all cohstitutc onc part o|thc rrourrrf |ramcwork o|thc cmcrgcht, post-
hationalordcr.Pnothcrcxccllchtcxamplc closcrto homcpcrhaps, isthc
l argc humbcr o| orgahizatiohs, movcmchts, and hctworks o| Lhristiah
philahthropy, suchasorldisioh,thathavcohgblurrcdthcbouhdarics
bctwccncvahgclical,dcvclopmchtalahdpcacckccpihg|unctionsihmany
parts o| thc world. crhaps thc bcst studicd o| thcsc cxampcs is thc
|lympicmovcmchtccrtaihlythcl argcstmodcrni nstahcco|amovcmcht
borh in thc contcxto|Luropcah conccrhswith world pcacc in thc lattcr
part o| thc hihctccnth cchtury. Jhis movcmcht, wi th its spccial |orm o|
dialccticalplaybctwcchhationalahdtrahsnatiohalalcgianccs,acPlooh
I 8 I |ang, acPlooh, ahd Laatta I 88) rcprcscnts ohly thc most
spcctacularamonga scricso|sitcsahd|ormationsohwhichthcunccrtaih
|uturc o|thcnatiohstatcwill turh.
n allthcsccascs, whatwcarclookingatarcnot|ustihtcrhationaslo-
gans,orihtcrcstgroups, orimagctrans|crs.c arclookihgatthcbirtho|
avarictyo|complcx,posthatiohalsocial|ormatiohs.Jhcsc|ormationsarc
how organizcd arouhd prihciplcs o| hahcc, rccruitmcnt, coordinatioh,
commuhicatiohandrcproductionthatarchdmcntallyposthationalahd
not|ust multihatiohal or intcrnatiohal Jhc classicmodcrh multihational
corporation i s a slightly miscadihg cxamplc o| what i s most importaht
c t r i o t i n a J t : u t u r t s
I 7
about thcsc ncw |orms prccscly bccausc t rclcs cucay on thc cga,
hscal, cnvronmcnta, andhuman organzaton o|thc naton-statc, whlc
maxmzngthcpossbtcso|opcratngboth wthn andacrossnatonal
stmcturcs, aways cxpotng thcr cgitmacy. Jhc ncw organzatonal
|ormsarc morc dvcrsc, morc Uud morc ad hoc morc provsona, lcss
cohcrcnt, css organzcd and smply css mpcatcd n thc comparatvc
advantagcs o|thcnat on-statc. any o|thcmarccxplctyconsttutcdto
montorthc actvtcs o|thcnatonstatc Pmncstylntcrnatonal sancx-
cclcntcxampl c. |thcrs argcyassocatcdwththcLn tcdatons,work
tocontanthccxccsscso|naton-statcs,|orcxampc,byassstngrc|ugccs,
montorngpcacc-kccpngaangcmcntsorganzngrcc|n |amncs,and
dong thc ungamorous work assocatcd wth occans and tar||s, ntcr-
natonahcalthandabor.
\ctothcrs, l kc |x|am,arccxamplcs o|gobaorganzatonsthatwork
outsdcthcquas-o|hcalLntcdatonsnctwork andrclyon thcgrowth
o| nongovcrnmcnta organzatons NCOs) n manyparts o| thc dcvcop-
ng world Jhcsc NCOs, whch opcratc n a host o|arcasrangng |rom
tcchnoogy and thc cnvronmcnt to hcath and thc arts grcw |rom lcss
thantwohundrcd n I 0tomorcthantwo thousandnthccarly I 70s.
Jhcy o|tcn consttutc maor grassroots organzatons |or scl|hcp that
growouto|andcontrbutctoa scnsco|thclmtcdcapabtyo|natonal
govcrnmcnts todcvcrthcbascso| |c nsuchsocctcsaslnda.
btllothcr organzations whch wc o|tcn cal |undamcntast, such as
thcusmbrothcrhoodnthcddlcLast, thcLn hcaton Lhurch,and
any numbcr o| Lhrst an, lndu, and usm organzatons, consttutc
|u-scrcc goba movcmcnts that scck to acvatc su||crng across na-
tonaboundarcswhcmobnghrst-ordcrloyatcsacrossstatcbound-
arcs. bomc o| thcsc cvangclca movcmcnts (such as thc radca lndu
group known as thc Pnanda arg, whch has bccn hcld rcsponsbc |or
thcassassnaton o|lndandpomatsabroadarcaggrcssvcy opposcdto
spccihc naton-statcsandarc |rcqucntytrcatcdasscdtous. |thcrs, such
asthcLn hcatonLhurch, smpywork thcrwayaroundthcnatonstatc
wthoutdrcctyqucstonngtsursdcton.buchcxampcswhchwcst
tcnd to scc as cxccptona or parah organzatona |orms, arc both n-
stanccsand ncubatorso|a postnatonagobaordcr
T: H:ari aw i::ss
Jhc tcrm o:fnuftonu|, so |ar uscd wthout commcnt, has scvcral mpca-
tonsthatcannowbcmorccosclycxamncd.Jhchrst stcmporaandhs-
n I r o I t : m u 1 I s u I u r r :
I 8
torcal andsuggcsts thatwcarc n thcproccss o|movngtoa gobal ordcr
nwhchthcnaton- statchasbccomcobsolctcandothcr |ormatons|ora-
lcgancc anddcnttyhavctakcntspacc.Jhcsccondsthc dcathatwhat
arc cmcrgng arc strong altcrnatvc |orms |or thc organ zaton o|globa
tra|hc n rcsourccs magcs, and dcas-|orms that cthcrcontcstthc na-
tonstatcactvcyorconsttutc pcacclulatcrnatvcs |orargc-scalcpot-
ca oyatcs. Jhc thrdmpcaton s thc possbty that, whc natons
mght contnuc tocxst, thcstcadycroson o| thc capabtcs o|thc na-
ton statc to monopolzc oyalty w cncouragc thc sprcad o| natonal
|orms thatarclargclydvorccd |rom tcrrtora statcs. Jhcsc arc rccvant
scnscs o| thc tcrmo:fnuftonu|, but nonc o| thcm mplcs that thc naton-
statc ntscasscaltcrrtoral|orm sasyctouto|busncss.l t sccrtanyn
crss, andparto|thccrss sanncrcasnglyvolcntrcatonshpbctwccn
thc naton-statc andtspostnatona |thcrs.
Jhc Lntcdbtatcs s a partcuary salcnt pacc n whch to consdcr
thcscpropostonsbccausc,onthc|acco|t,thasmanagcdtorctanmost
succcss|uy thc magc o| a natona ordcr that s s mutancously cv,
puralandprospcrous. l tappcars to nurturc avbrantandcompcxscto|
publc sphcrcs, ncludngsomcthat havc bccncacd a tcrnatvc, par-
ta,orcountcr publcs(bcrlantandrccman I 2rascr I 2,lanscn
I 3, Kobbns I 3 bac ubc bphcrc Locctvc I ). lt rcmans
cnormousywcathybyglobalstandards, andalthoughts |orms o|pubc
volcncc arcmany andworrsomc, ts statc apparatus s notgcncraydc-
pcndcnton |ormso|torturc,mprsonmcnt,andvocntrcprcssonhcn
thssaddcdto thc |actthatmutcuturalsmnthc Lntcdbtatcssccmsto
takc prcdomnantynonvocnt|orms, wc appcartobc |accdwtha grcat,
uncontcstcdpowcrthat domnatcsthc ncwwordordcr thtdraws n m
mgrants n thcthousands, andthatsccmsto bc atrumphantcxampc o|
thccassc, tcrrtor alnaton-statc. Pnyargumcntaboutthccmcrgcncc o|
a postnatonagobalordcrwhavctocnggctsgrcatcstapparcnt|as h-
caton,thccontcmporaryLntcdbtatcs.Jhsastscctonlaysthc ground
work|orsuchan cngagcmcnt.
Lnt a|cwycarsago,lwascontcnttovcnthatspccaspaccalottcd
to |orcgncrs, cspccay Pngophonc, cducatcd oncs kc mysc|, wth
|anttraccs o|a brtshacccnt. Ps a blackwoman atabus stopn Lhcago
onccsadtomcwthapprova | wasanLastlndanJhatwas n I 72 but
sncc that happy convcrsaton morc than two dccadcs ago, t has bccomc
stcady css casy toscc mysc|, armcd wth my lndan passport and my
Pngophoncways,assomchowmmunc|romthcpotcso|racadcntty
nthc Lntcdbtatcs.otony stthata|tcrncarlythrccdccadcso|bcng
u I r c I m u n 1 I v I u r r s
I
arcsidcntalicnin thcOnitcdStatcs,marricdtoanAnglo-SaxonAmcrican
woman,thc|athcro|abiculturaltccnagcr,mylndianpassportsccmslikca
rathcrslightbadgc o|i dcntity.Jhc nct o|racial politicsisnowcastwidcr
thancvcrbc|orconthcstrcctso|thcurban OnitcdStatcs.
lyowncomplcxionanditsrolcinmi noritypolitics,aswcllasinstrcct
cncountcrs with racial hatrcd, prompt mc to rcopcn thc links bctwccn
AmcricaandthcOni tcdStatcs,bcccnbicul turalismandpatriotism,bc
twccndiasporic idcntiticsandthc ,in)stabiliticsprovidcdbypassportsand
grccncardslostnational loyalticsarcnoti rrclcvanttothcproblcmo|di-
vcrsityinthc OnitcdStatcs.l|,indccd,apostnationalordcri snthcmak-
ing, andAmcricanncsschangcsitsmcanings,thcwholcproblcmo|divcr-
sity in Amcrican li|c will havc to bc rcthought. lt is not]ust thc |orcc o|
ccrtain dcductions that movcs mcto this rccommcndation. As l oscillatc
bctwccn thc dctachmcnt o| a postcolonial, diasporic, acadcmic idcntity
,takingadvantagco|thcmoodo|cxicandthcspacco|displaccmcntand
thc ugly rcalitics o| bcing racializcd, minoritizcd, and tribalizcd in my
cvcrydaycncountcrs,thcocncountcrspracticc.
A book rcccntly publishcdbyKandom lousc isri|:sHcu Kac:, K:l|-
|cn, anJJ:nt|(D:t:rm|n: 5cc:ss |n to:N:u Clc|a|Lccncmy ,Kotkin ! 993) .
Writtcnby)oclKotki n, anintcrnationallyrccognizcdauthorityonglobal,
cconomic, political andsocial trcnds, as thc dustackctboasts, ittraccs
thc conncctions bctwccn cthnicity and busincss succcss Kotkins hvc
tribcsthc)cws,thcChincsc,thc)apancsc,thclritish,andthc l ndians
arcanoddgroup,butthcyrcprcscntprimordialsmwithahigh-tcch|acc.
Jhcyarc laxWcbcrs pariahcapitalists in latc-twcnticth-ccntu trans-
national drag looks l i kc this arc rcmindcrs that Last lndians arc still a
tribc,asarcthccwsandothcrsworki ngthcprimordiallodctomakcthcir
way to global dominancc. So, thctropco|thctribccan turnon its own
prcmiscs,andwccanhavcvastglobaltribcs,animagcthatscckstohavcit
bothways,withprimordiali ntimacyanJhightcchstratcgics.lowcvcrdi-
asporicwc gct,likcthc)cws, SouthAsiansarcdoomcdto rcmaina tribc
|orcvcrhxcrs anddcalcrsinaworldo|opcnmarkts,|airdcals,andoppor-
tunity|orall .
or thosc o| uswho havc movcd into thc national |antasy ,lcrlant
! 99! )o|Amcrica|romthc|ormcrcolonics,thcrcisthusthcscductivcncss
o|apluralbclonging,o|bccomingAmcricanwhilcstayingsomchowdias-
poric, o| an cxpansivc attachmcnt to an unboundcd |antasy spacc. lut
whilcwccanmakcouridcntiticswccannotdosocxactlyaswcplcasc.As
manyo|ushndoursclvcsracializcd,biologizcd,minoritizcd,somchowrc-
duccdrathcrthancnablcdbyourbodicsandourhistorics,ourspccialdia-
n t r i o t i : H u n J I : u t u r r :
I 70 ~
critics bccomcourprisons, and thc tropco|thc tribc scts us o|||rom an-
othcr, unspccihcd Amcrica, |ar |rom thc clamor o| thc tribc, dccorous,
civil, anwhitc, a land inwhichwcarcnotyctwclcomc.
Jhisbringsusbackto thcpcrvasivcidiomandimagco|tribalism.Ap-
plicd to cw 1ork, liami and Los Angclcs ,as opposcd to Sara]cvo,
Sowcto, orColombo),thctropco|tribalismbothconccalsandi ndulgcsa
di ||usc racism about thosc Cthcrs ,|or cxamplc, lispanics, lranians, and
A|rican-Amcricans) who havc insinuatcd thcmsclvcs into thc Amcrican
bodypolitic.ltallowsustomaintain thcidcao|anAmcricanncssthatprc-
ccdcs , andsubsists in spitc o|) thc hyphcns that contributc to it and to
maintain a distinction bctwccn tribal Amcricans ,thc black, thc brown
and thc ycllow) and othcr Amcricans Jhis tropc |aci litatcs thc |antasy
that civil soccty in thc Onitcd Statcs has a spccial dcstiny in rcgard to
pcacc|ul multicul tural ism-intclligcntmulticulturalism|orus,bloodycth-
nicityormindlcsstribalism|orthcm
Jhcrchas dcvclopcd a spccial scto|links bctwccn dcmocracy, divcr-
sity, and prospcrity in Amcrican social thought. luilt on a complcx dia-
logucbctwccnpoliticalscicncc,thconlygcnuincmadc i n-Amcricasocial
scicnccwithoutobviousLuropcancountcrparts orantcccdcnts) and vcr-
nacular constitutionalism, acom|ortablc cquilibrium was cstablishcdbc-
twccn thc idcas o| cultural dvcrsity and onc or anothcr vcrsion o|thc
mclting pot SwingingbctwccnNat|cna| C:crajo|c and K:aJ:r:D|:st, this
anodyncpolarity has provcd rcmarkably durablc and com|orting lt ac-
commodatcs, somctimcsonthc samcpagcori nthc samcbrcath, a scnsc
thatpluralityisthcAmcricangcniusanJthatthcrc isanAmcricanncssthat
somchowcontains andtransccnds pl ural ity. Jhis sccond, post-CivilWar
accommodation with di||crcncc is nowon its last lcgs, andthc political
corrcctncss-multiculturalism dcbatc is its pcculiar, parochial Watcoo
larochial bccausc itinsistcntlyrc|uscsto rccognizc thatthc challcngc o|
diasporic pluralism isnow global and thatAmcrican solutionscannotbc
sccn i nisolation.lcculiarbccausc thcrchasbccn no systcmaticrccogni -
tionthatthcpolitico| multiculturalismi snow part and parccl o|thccx-
tratcrritorial nationalismo|populationswholovcAmcricabutarcnotncc-
cssarily attachcdtothc OnitcdStatcs. lorc bluntly, ncithcrpopularnor
acadcmic thought i nthiscountryhascomctotcrmswith thcdi||crcncc
bctwccnbcinga lando|immigrants andbcingoncnodcinapostnational
nctworko|diasporas.
lnthcpostnationalworldthatwcscccmcrgi ng,diasporarunswith, and
notagainst, thc grain o|idcntity, movcmcnt, andrcproduction. Lvcryonc
hasrclativcsworkingabad lanypcoplchndthcmsclvcs cxilcswithout
u t r i o t : H u t : u t u r t >
= ! 7! ~
rcally havi ngmovcdvclar-Lroats |n boshia,lihdus |h |ashm|r, us-
lims|n lhd|a.\ctothcrs ndthcmscvcs|h pattcrhsol rcpcatm|grat|oh. ln-
dianswhowcnt toLastPlrica | n thcn|hctccnth andcarly twcht|cth cch-
turicsloundthcmsclvcspushcdoutolLgahda,|chya,andJanzah|ainthc
80s to nd lrcshtvails and opportuh|tics in Lngland and thc Lh|tcd
btatcs, ahd thcy arc how considcr|ng rcturhi hgto Last Plrica bim|larly,
Lhihcsclrom lohg|ong who arc buy|ngrcal cstatc |n ancouvcr, \ua
rati tradcrs lrom Lganda opch|hg motcs i n cw|crscy ahd ncwspapcr
k|osksicw\orkL|ty, andbikhcabdrivcrs ih Lhicagoahdh|ladclph|a
arc all cxamplcs ola ncwsorol world ih which diaspo |s thc ordcr ol
thihgs ahd scttlcd ways ol lilc arc i hcrcasingly hard to hhd. hc Ln|tcd
btatcs,always i nitsscll pcrcptioha landol|mmigrants, hnds|tscllawash
|n thcsc global d|asporas, no longcra closcd spacc lorthc mctingpot to
work |ts magic, but yct anothcr diaspor|c sitch| ngpoint. coplc comc
hcrc to scck thcir lortuncs, but thcy arc no longcr contcnt to lcavc thcir
homclandsbchind.\obal dcmocracylcvcrandthcbrcakdown olthcbo
v| ctcmpirchavcmcantthatmostgroupsthatwi shtorcncgot|atcthc|rlihks
tothcirdiasporicidcntiticslromthc|rPmcricanvahtagcpointsarc nowlrcc
todoso thus,Pmcr|can|cwsolol|shor|g| n undcrakc lolocausttoursi n
Lastc Luropc, lnd|an doctors lrom ichigan sct upcyc clihics i hcw
Lclh|,alcstinians| nLctro|tpart|cipatc| hthcpoliticsolthccstbank
To: ler e|to: Trasate
Jhc lormula ol hyphcnat|on | as in ltalian-Pmcr|cans, Ps|anPmcricans,
ahdPicah-Pmcricans) |srcach|ngthc pointolsaturat|oh, andthcr|ght-
hahd s|dc olthc hyphchcanbarclycohtainthcunrul|ncssolthclclt-hand
sidc. Lvcn as thccg|t|macy ol nationstatcs i n thc|r owh tcrritor|a con-
tcxtsisincrcasinglyuhdcrthrcatthcidcaohcnatiohlour|shcstransna-
tional ly. balclromthcdcprcdat|ons olthc|rhomcstatcs, d|aspor|ccom-
muhitics bccomc doubly loya to thc|r natiohs ol orig|n ahd thus
ambivacntaboutthcirloyalt|cstoPmcrica.Jhcpo|t|csolcthn|c| dcntty
|nthc Lnitcdbtatcsis inscparalyli nkcdtothcgloba sprcadolorig|hally
ocal natiohal idchtit|cs. orcvcry hatioh- statc that has cxportcdsighih
cahtnumbcrs olitspopulations tothc Lhi tcd btatcs asrclugccs, tourists,
orstudcnts, thcrc ishow a dclocalizcdfrun:nufion, which rcta|hs a spcc|al
|dcoog|call i nktoaputativcplaccolor|g|nbutisothcrwisca thoroughly
diaspor|ccollcct|v|ty. o cx|stingconccpt|on olPmcricahncss cah coh-
ta|n th|s largcvarictyoltransnat|ons.
lh this sccnario, thc hyphcnatcd Pmcr|can might havc to bc tw|cc
u ! r i o I i m a J t u t u r c
I 72
hyphchatcd (Ps|ah-Pmcrican-|apancsc or at|vc-Pmcrican-bcncca or
Plricah-Pmcr|can-|amaican or l ispahic-Pmcricah-bo|v|an) as diasporic
|dcntit|csstaymobic ahdgrowmorc protcan |rpcrhaps thcsidcsolthc
hyphcnwillhavc tobcrcvcrscd, andwc can bccomca lcdcrat|oh old|as-
poras Pmcricah-ltaliahs, Pmcrican-la|tians, Pmcricanlr|sh, Pmcr|can-
Plricahs. Lua cit|zcnsh|ps mi ght|ncrcasc i lthc soc|ct|cs lrom wh|chwc
camcrcmainorbccomcmorcopcn. cmightrccognizcthatdiasporicd|-
vcrsity actualyputs loyalty toa nontcrr|torialtrahshation hrst,wh|crcc
ogh|z|ngthat thcrc is a spccial Pmcricanway to conncct to thcsc globa
d|asporas. Pmcr|ca, as acutural spacc, w|ll not nccd to compctc with a
host ol global idchtiticsahd d|asporic loyat|cs. lt m| ghtcomc tobc sccn
as a modcl ol how to arrangc ohc tcrr|torial ocus |amohg othcrs) lor a
cross-hatchihg ol d|asporic comuhitics. l n this rcgard, thc Pmcrican
problcm rcscmblcsthosc olothcrwcathyindustrial dcmocrac|cs |suchas
bwcdch, \crmany, lolland, and rancc), all olwhich lacc thc challcngc
olsquaringLn ightchmcntunivcrsal|smsahddiasporicpluralism
Jhcqucst|on|s,canaposthat|onalpol|t|csbcbuiltaroundth|scultural
lact ahysoc|cticshow lacc |nuxcsolimmigrahtsahdrclugccswantcd
ahduhwahtcd. |thcrsarc pushingoutgroupsih ac olcthhic clcansing
intchdcdtoproducc thc vcrypcoplcwhosc prcc|stcncc thc hation was
supposcd to rat|ly. but Pmcr|ca may bc alohc in having organ|zcd |tscll
around a modcrh poltical idcology i n which plalism | s cchtral to thc
conductoldcmocratic lilc. |utolad| llcrchtstrahdolitscxpcricncc,this
socictyhasalsogchcratcdapowcrlullabcolitscllasalandolimmigrants.
l ntodays postnatiohal, d|asporic word,Pmcricai sbc|hg inv|tcdtowcld
thcsctwodoctrincstogcthcr, toconlrontthchccdsolpural|smunJ olim-
migrat|on,toconstructasoci ctyurounJ diasporicd|vcrsity.
but such|magcsasthc mosa|,thcrainbow, thc quilt, ahd othcrtropcs
olcompcx|ty-ind|vcrs|tycannot supplythcimagnat|vcrcsourccslorth|s
task, cspcc| allyas lcarsoltribalismmultiply. Jribcsdohotmakc qilts, al
thoughthcysomctimcs makc conlcdcracics. hcthcr |h dcbatcs ovcrim-
migration, b|lihgua cducation, thc acadcmic canoh, or thc undcrclass,
thcsc libcral |magcshavcsoughtto contain thc tcns|oh bctwccnthc cch-
tripctal pull olPmcricahhcssahdthc ccntrilugalpull oldiaspor|cdivcrs|ty
|h Pmcrican lilcJhc battlcs ovcr alhrmativc actioh quotas, wcllarc, ahd
abortion| nPmcr|catodaysuggcstthatthc mctaphorolthc mosaic cannot
conta|nthccontrad|ctionbctwccngroup |dcnt|t|cs,wh|chPmcr|canswil
tolcratc|upto a po|nt) incutura l |lc and|nd|vidua |dcntitics, whicharc
still thc nonhcgotiablc prihc|plc bch|ndPmcr|can |dcas ol achicvcmcnt,
mob|i, andusticc
u I r i o t i s m u r d t s u ! u r c s
I 73
Vhat is tobc doncJhcrccouIdbcaspccaIpIaccIorAmcrican thc
ncw,postnationaIordcr, andoncthat docsnotrcIyon cithcrisoIatonism
or gIobaI domnaton as its aItcrnatvc bass. Jhc Onitcd Statcs s cm-
ncntIysutcdtobca sort oI cuIturaIIaborato andaIrcc-tradc zoncIor
thcgcncraton,crcuIaton,mportaton,andtcstingoI thc matcraIs Iora
worId organzcdaround dasporcdvcrsty. |n a scnsc, ths cxpcrimcnt s
aIrcadyundcrwayJhcOntcdStatcssaIrcadyahugc,Iascinatnggaragc
saIc Iorthc rcst oIthc worId. |tprovidcsgoII vacatonsandrcaIcstatcIor
thcapancsc, busncss-managcmcntidcoIogcsandtcchnqucsIoruropc
and |ndia,soap-opcradcasIorbrazIandthc^ddIcIast primcminstcrs
Ior 1ugosIava, suppIysdc cconomcs Ior loIand, Kussia, and whocvcr
cIscwII ti, Chrstan IundamcntaIismIor borca and postmodcrn arch-
tccturc Ior |ong bong. by aIso providng a sct oI imagcsKambo in
AIghanstan, Vc Arcthc Vod, Lcorgc bcrnard Shaw n baghdad,
Cokc gocs to barccIona, lcrot gocs to Vashington-that Iink human
rights, consumcrstyIc, antistatsm, and mcda gIitz, it mightbc sad that
thc Ontcd Statcs s partIy accountabIc Iorthc idosyncrascsthat attcnd
struggIcs Ior scIIdctcrminaton n othcsc vc dIIcrcnt parts oI thc
worId JhsswhyaOnvcrstyoI|owaswcatshrtisnotustasiIIysymboI
n thc JungIcs oI^ozambquc or on thcbatcadcs oI bcirut. |t capturcs
thc Ircc-doatng ycamng Ior Amcrican styIc, cvcn n thc most ntcnsc
contcxtsoIoppostontothc OntcdStatcs.JhccuIturaIpoItcsoI quccr
natonaIity s an cxampIc oI ths contradctory ycarnng n thc Ontcd
Statcs(bcantandlrccman Jhc rcst oI this ycarnng isprovokcd
byauthoritaranstatcpoIcics,massivcarmsndustrics,thcinsstcntIyhun-
grycycoI thccIcctronc mcda, andtc dcsparoIbankruptcconomcs.
CIcoursc, thcsc products and dcas arc not thc mmacuIatc conccp-
tonsoI somcmystcrousAmcricanknow-howbutarcprcciscIythcrcsuIt
oIa compIcx cnvironmcntnwhch dcas and ntcIIcctuaIs mccti navar-
cty oI spccaI scttngs (such as Iabs, Ibrarcs, cIassrooms, musc studios,
busncssscmnars, andpoItcaI campagns) togcncratc,rcIormuIatc,and
rccrcuIatc cuIturaI Iorms that arc IundamcntaIIy postnationaI and dias-
porc. JhcroIcoIAmcrcan muscians, studios, and rccord compancsn
thc crcaton oIworId bcat san cxccIIcnt cxampIcoIths sort oIdown
homc but oIIshorc cntrcprcncuraI mcntaIity. Amcrcans arc Ioathc to
admt thc picccmcaI, pragmatic, haphazard, dcxbIc, and opportunstc
ways n which thcscAmcrcanproductsand rcproducts crcuIatcaround
thc worId. Amcrcans Ikc tothnk thatthc Chncsc havc simpIy bought
thc virtucsoIIrcccntcrpriscthc loIcs, thcsuppIy sidc,thc |atians and
lIpnos, dcmocracyandcvcryonc, human rghts. VcrarcIypayattcn-
u I r o I : H u J I : u I u r c :
= I 7
ton to thc compIcatcd tcrms, traditons, and cuIturaI styIcs into whch
thcscdcasarcIoIdcdandthustransIormcdbcyondourrccogniton.Jhus,
durngthchistoriccvcntsoIananmcnSquarcin 8, whcnitsccmcdas
iIthcChincscpcopIchadbccomcdcmocraticovcrnght, thcrcwascon
sdcrabIc cvidcnccthatthcways n which diIIcrcntroups inChnaun
dcrstood thcr probIcms wcrc both intcrnaIIy varcd and ticd to various
spcccticsoIChinashi storyandcuIturaIstyIc.
Vhcn Amcrcans scc transIormations and cuIturaI compIicatons oI
thcir dcmocraticvocabuIary and styIc,I thcy noticc thcmataII, thcyarc
annoycdand dismaycd |nthismsrcadingoIhowothcrshandIcwhatwc
stiII sccasVl nationaIrccpcIorsucccss AmcricanspcrIormaIurthcract
oInarcssstcdstorton.wcmagncthatthcscpccuIiarIyAmcrcannvcn-
tons (dcmocracy capitaIsm, Ircccntcrprsc,human rights) arcautomat
caIIy andnhcrcntIyntcrconncctcdandthat ournatonaI sagahoIds thc
kcytothccombnation. |nthcmigratonoIourwords, wcsccthcvictory
oIourmythsVcarcbcIcvcrsn tcrmnaIconvcrson
Jhc mcrcan vcto" i n thc CoId Var nccd not ncccssariIy turn
pyrrhc.JhcIactisthatthcOntcd Statcs,IromacuIturaIpointoIvicwi s
aIrcadya vastIrcc-tradc zonc, IuII oI idcas, tcchnoIogics, styIcs, and d
oms ,Irom^clonaIds and thc |arvard busncssSchooI to thc lrcam
Jcamandrcvcrsc mortgagcs) thatthc rcstoIthcworId hndsIascnating.
Jhis Ircc-tradc zoncrcstson a voIatIccconomy, thc maJorcticsoI thc
Amcrcan bordcrIand ,los AngcIcs ^iami, cw 1ork, lctrot) arc now
hcavIy mIitarizcd. but thcsc Iacts arc oI IttIc rcIcvancc to thosc who
comc, cthcrbrcIIy orIor morc cxtcndcd stays, to this Ircctradc zonc.
Somc, ccingvastIy grcatcr urban voIcncc, statc pcrsccution, and cco-
nomichardship, comcaspcancnt mgrants, IcgaIorIIcgaI.Cthcrsarc
short-tcrmshoppcrsIorcIothcs,cntcrtanmcnt,Ioans,armamcnts,orquck
IcssonsnIrccmarkctcconomicsorcviI-socictypoIti cs.JhcvciunruI
ncss, thcrankunprcdictabIty,thcquirkyinvcntivcncss,thcshccrcuIturaI
vtaIityoIthisIrcc-tradczoncarcwhatattractaIIsortsoIdasporastothc
OntcdStatcs
lorthcOnitcdStatcs, topIay a maJorroIcin thccuIturaIpoIitics oI a
postnationaI worId has vci compIcx domcsticcntaImcnts. lt maymcan
makngroomIorthcIcgitimacyoIcuIturaIrights rights tothcpursuitoI
cuIturaIdIIcrcnccundcrpubIcprotcctionsandguarantccs. |tmaymcana
panIuIbrcakIromaIundamcntaIIylordst,manuIacturc-ccntcrcdconccp-
ton oIthcAmcricancconomyaswcIcarntobcgIobaInIormatonbro-
kcrs,scrviccprovdcrs,styIcdoctors.|tmaymcancmbracngaspartoIour
IvcIhoodwhatwchavcsoIarconhncdtothcworIdoIbroadway, loIIy-
u I r o I t : r u r J I : u I u r r :
I 7
wood, andLisncyland.thcimporto|cxpcrimcnts, thc production |an-
tasics,thc|abricationo|idcntitics,thccxporto|stylcs,thchammcringout
o|puralitics. lt maymcandistinguishingourattachmcnttomcrica|rom
our wiingncs to dic |or thc Lnitcd Statcs. his suggcstion convcrgcs
withthc |olowingproposalby Laurcn bcrant.
C 8uD]CCI WC Wn\8 IC VCiO IC mCnCCy t n8nIIy C Ic sc-D-
8ItCI|CD II t8 CIItZCn8| , nO IC tC8t8I IC utC C 8C-CVCICCmng Ic
mICItl CtItC CCnICXI tn WtC 8C tVC8, mu8I OCVCC ICIC8 Ct ICu8-
tng IC t nICttItCuI|Cn, nCW Cut unOtCO yCI8 CO, DCIWCCn IC Ln|ICO
bIIC8 nO mCIIC, IC nICD nO uIC|. | I VV I , 2 ! )
hat is, it maybctimc torcthinkmonopatriotism, patriotismdircctcd
cxclusivcly to thchyphcnbctwccn nation andstatc, andtoaowthcma-
tcrial probcms wc |accthc dchcit, thc cnvironmcnt, abortion, racc,
drugs, and |obs-to dchnc thosc socia groups and idcas |or which wc
woudbcwili ngtoivc,anddic. hc quccrnationmayonlybcthc rsto|
a scricso|ncw patriotisms, in whichothcrscoudbc thc rctircd, thc un-
cmpoycd, andthcdisablcd, as wc asscicntists, womcn, andlispanics.
Somc o| us may sti want to ivcand dic|or thc Lnitcd Statcs but
manyo|thcscncwsovcrcignticsarcinhcrcntlypostnational . Surcy, thcy
rcprcscnt morc humancmotivcs|ora|hiationthan statchoodorpartya|-
hliationandmorcintcrcstingbascs |or dcbatc and crosscuttingalianccs.
Koss|crotsvountccrsi n I 2givcusabric|,intcnscglimpsco|thcpow-
crso|patriotismtotalydivorccd|romparty, govcmcnt,orstatc.mcr-
icamayyctconstrct anothcrnarrativco|cnduringsignihcancc, a narra-
tivc about thc uscs o| oyaty acr t cnd o| thc nation-statc. ln this
narrativc, boundcd tcrritorics coud givcway to diasporicnctworks, na-
tionstotransnations,andpatriotism itsc|coudbccomcplurascria,con-
tcxtuaI,andmobilc. lcrcicsoncdircction|orthc|uturc o| patriotism in
a postcooniaworld. |atriotismikc historyi sunikclytocnd, butits
ob|ccts maybc susccptibc to trans|ormation, in thcory andi n practicc.
lt rcmains nowto askwht transnations and transnationaism havc to
do with postnationaity and its prospccts his rcationship rcquircs dc-
taicdcngagcmcnti nitsown right,buta|cwobscrationsarci nordcr.s
popuations bccomc dctcrritorializcd and incompctcly nationaizcd, as
nationssplintcrandrccombinc,asstatcs|accintractabcdi|hcultics inthc
tasko|producingthcpcopc,"transnationsarcthcmostimportantsocia
sitcsinwhichthccriscso| patriotism arcplaycdout.
hcrcsultsarcsurclycontradictory. Lispaccmcntandcxicmigration
and tcrror crcatc powcr|ul attachmcnts to idcas o| homcand that sccm
a t r i o t i : m a + t : u t u r t :
= I 76 =
morcdccplytcrritoriathancvcr butitisasopossiblctodctcctinmanyo|
thcsctransnations(somccthnic,somcrclgioussomcphianthropic,somc
mi litaristic)thc clcmcntso|a postnationaimaginary. hcsccIcmcnts |or
thoscwhowishto hastcnthcdcmisc o|thc nation-statc, |or a thcircon-
tradictions,rcquircbothnurturcandcritiquc.l nthisway, transnationaso-
cia|ormsmaygcncratc notonypostnationaycarningsbutasoactualy
cxistingpostnationaImovcmcnts,organizations,and spaccs. ln thcscpost-
nationalspaccs,thcincapacityo|thcnation-statc to tocratc divcrsity(as
itsccksthchomogcncity o|itscitizcns, thc simutancity o|its prcscncc,
thcconscnsualityo|itsnarrativc,andthcstabiityo|itscitizcns)may, pcr-
haps,bcovcrcomc.
a t t i o t i s m a + d t : u t u rx:
I 77

18 ||OduCt|On O! LOC8||ty
ts CpICt CCtCssCs tCICC quCsItCns II VC ttsCn n n CnCtn sC
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jCCI) II l sCCK IC CXpCtC. n CCnItsI, usC IC ICtm nrigb|orbooJ IC tClCt
~ ! 7d
IC IC CIUy CXtsItn sCCt lCtms t n NtC CCt Iy, s CtmCnstCn Ct
VUC, ts VttOy tCtZCC. COCtCCCs, tn Its usC, tC stIuICC CCm
mUntICs CtCICtZCC Oy ICtt CIUIy, wCICt spI Ct VttIU, nC
ICt pCICnIt lCt sCCt tCptCCUCItCn.
s ptI Cl Is CXpCtItCn, CCtCss IwC utICt qUCsItCns. Cw CCCs
|ocu|if, s n spCCI Cl sCC lC, tCIC IC rigb|orbooJ: s sUOsInItVC sCCI
lCtms2 s IC tCICnstp Cl CCIy IC nCtOCtCCCs suOsInIty -
ICtCC Oy tCCCnI tsICty, CspCCy Oy IC CO CtIsts Cl IC nItCnsIIC2
stmpCt wy IC CtCICtZC ICsC mUItpC Cs ts ItCu Its quCs-
IICn. NI Cn CCtIy mCn n wCtC wCtC spI CCIZItCn, qUCIC-
tn t nICtCItCn, nC sCCt sCC tC nCI wys tsCmCtpIC2
lacat|aj |o: S|):ct
I ts CnC Cl IC tnC CCCs Cl sCCt ICCty (Ctn OCK IC CCnnICs,
NCOCt, nC UtKCtm) II CCIy s ptCpCtIy Ct CCtIC Cl sCCt t lC
CCmCs UnCCt stCC n mCCCtn sCCtCItCs. buI CCtIy ts n tnCtCnIy lt C
sCCt CtCVCmCnI. VCn t n IC mCsI tnItmIC, spIIy CCnhnCC, CC-
tptCy tsCICC stIuItCns, CCtIy musI OC mnItnCC CtClUy
tnsI VttCUs KtnCs Cl CCCs. CsC CCCs VC I VtICUs ItmCs nC pCCs
OCCn CCnCCpIUZCC CtllCtCnIy. n mny sCCtCItCs, OCunCttCs tC ZCnCs
Cl CnCt tCqutn spCCt tIu mt nICnnCC, n CICt sCtIs Cl sCCCItCs,
sCCt tCItCns tC t nCtCnIy hssVC, CtCItn pCtssICnI ICnCCnCy lCt
sCmC nCtOCtCCCs IC CtssCVC. n yCI CICt sIUItCns, CCCCy nC ICC-
nCCy CtCIIC II CUsCs nC I nOICC spCCs tC lCtCVCt stlItn, Ius
CCnItOuItn n CnCCmtC sCnsC Cl nXICIy nC nsIOttIy IC sCCt lC.
^UC Cl wI wC C I C CInCtptC tCCCtC Cn OC tCwtIICn nC
tCtCC tCm Its pCtnI Cl VtCw. n IC htsI nsInCC, tCI CC Cl wI
VC OCCn ICtmCC rifr: o]u::ugr t s CCnCCtnCC wtI IC ptCCuCICn Cl wI
wC mI C |ocu| :u|rcf:, CICts wC ptCpCry OCCn IC st IuICC CCm
muntIy Cl KI n, nCOCts, ltCnCs, nC CnCmtCs. \CtCmCnCs Cl nmIn nC
ICnsutC, sCtthCItCn nC sCgtCItCn, CtCUmCsCn nC CCptVItCn tC
CCmpCX sCCt ICCnqUCs lCt IC tnsCrtpIICn Cl CCtIy CnIC OCCICs.
CCKCC I sIy CtllCtCnIy, ICy tC wys IC CmOCCy CCtIy s wC s
IC CCIC OCCCs tn sCCy nC spIty CChnCC CCmmUntICs. C spII
symOCtsm Cl ttICs Cl pssC s ptCOOy OCCn ptC Css IICnICn In Is
OCCty nC sCCt symOCtsm. buC ttICs tC nCI stmpy mCCntC ICC
nt quCs lCt sCC tCItCn OUI sCCt ICCnqUCs lCt IC ptCCuCICn Cl
nItVCs, CICCty VC CsCussCC CsCwCtC (ppCut I Vdd) .
NI I s ItUC Cl IC ptCCuCItCn Cl CC sUOjCCIs t n IC CInCrptC
h t c a - c | c - c| I : c | | ,
" ! 7V =
rccordisastuc otthcproccsscs bywhich localityis matcriallyproduccd.
Jhc buildingot houscs, thcorganizationotpaths andpassagcs thcmak-
ing and rcmaking ot hclds and gardcns thc mapping and ncgotiation ot
transhuman spaccs and huntcr-gathcrcr tcrrains is thc inccssant, ottcn
humdrum prcoccupation otmany small communitics studicd by anthro-
pologists.Jhcsctcchniqucstorthcs|i productionotlocalityhavcbccn
copiouslydocumcntcd. butthcyhavcnotusuallybccnvicwcdasinstanccs
otthcproductionotlocality, bothasagcncralpropcrtyotsociall i tcandas
a particular valuation ot that propcrty. brokcn down dcscriptivcly into
tcchnologics tor housc building, gardcn cultivation, and thc likc thcsc
matcrial outcomcs havc bccn takcn as cnds in thcmsclvcs rathcrthan as
momcnts inagcncraItcchnolo ,andtcIcology) otlocaIization.
Jhc production otIocality in thc socicticshistoricalIystudicdbyan
thropologists ,on islands and in torcsts, agricultural vil lagcs andhunting
camps) is not simply a mattcrot producinglocal subccts as wclI asthc
vcpncighborhoodsthatcontcxtualizcthcscsub|cctivitics^ssomcotthc
bcst work in thc social logic ot ritual in thc past tcw dccadcs so amply
shows ,lcwis I 8 unn I 8 chicttclin I 85) , spacc and timc arc
thcmsclvcssocializcdandlocaIizcdthroughcomplcxanddclibcratcprac-
ticcs ot pcrtormancc, rcprcscntation, and action.Wchavc tcndcdto call
thcscpracticcscomoogic| ortcrmsthatbydistractingustromthcir
activc, intcntional, and productivc charactcr crcatc thc dubious imprcs
sionotmcchanicalrcproduction
Lncotthcmostrcmarkablcgcncral tcaturcsotthcritual proccssisits
highlyspccihcwayotlocalizing duration andcxtcnsion, otgivingthcsc
catcgoricsnamcsandpropcrtics,valucsandmcanings symptomsand
ibili ty ^vastamountotwhatwcknowotritualinsmallscalcsocicticscan
bcrcvisitcdomthispointotvicw Jhclargcboyotlitcraturc ontcch-
niqucs tor naming placcs torprotccting hclds, animals, and othcrrcpro-
ductivcspaccsandrcsourccstormarkingscasonalchangcandagricultural
rhythms, tor propcrly situating ncw houscs and wclls tor appropriatcly
dcmarcating boundarics ,both domcstic and communal) is substantially
l itcraturcdocumcntingthcsocializationotspaccandtimcorcprcciscly,
it isa rccord otthc spatiotcmporal production ot locali ty. lookcdatthis
way ^rnoldvan Lcnncpscxtraordinaryandvitalstudyotritcsotpassagc
( I 5), much otamcs Llrazcrsbizarrc cncyclopcdia , I ), and bron-
islaw alinowskis monumcntal study otJrobriandgardcn magic , I I )
arc substantiallyrccordso t thcmyriadwaysi n whichsmaIl scaIcsocictics
do not and cannot takclocality asa givcn. athcr thcy sccm toassumc
that Iocality is cphcmcral unIcss hard and rcgular work is undcrtakcn to
T | : r o J u c f i o n e ] L c c o i f
I
produccandmaintainitsmatcriality. 1ctthisvcrymatcrialityissomctimcs
mistakcn torthctcrminusotsuchwork,thusobscuringthcmorcabstract
cttccts ot this workonthcproduction otlocality asastucturcot tccIing.
uchthathasbccnconsidcrcdlocalknowlcdgcisactualIyknowlcdgc
othowto produccandrcproducclocalityundcrconditionsotanxicand
cntropy, socialwcaranduxccologicalunccrtaintyandcosmicvolati lity,
andthcalwaysprcscntquirkincss ot kinsmcn,cncmics,spirits,andquarks
ot all sorts.Jhc Iocalityotlocalknowlcdgc is notonly, or cvcnmainly its
cmbcddcdncssinanonncgotiablchcrcandnoworitssbbodisintcrcst
inthingsatlargc,althoughthcscarcccrtainlycucialpropcrticsasLlittord
Lccrtz has rcmindcdus in much ot his work I 5, I 8 J ) . local
knowlcdgc is substantiallyabout producing local sub|ccts as wcll
as about producingrcliably local ncighborhoodswithinwhich such sub
|ccts can bcrccognizcd and organizcd. ln this scnsc, local knowlcdgc is
whatitisnotprincipallybycontrastwithothcrknowlcdgcs-which,trom
somcnonlocalpointotvicw) thcobsccr aslcsslocalizcd
but by virtuc ot its local tclcolo and cthos. Wc might say, adapting
arx, that localknowlcdgc is notonly local in itscltbut, cvcn morc im
portant, toritsclt
lvcninthcsmallcstotsocictics,withthchumblcstottcchnologicsand
inthcmostdcsolatcotccologicalcontcxts, thcrclationship bctwccn thc
productionotlocalsub|cctsandthcncighborhoodsinwhichsuchsub|ccts
canbcproduccd, namcd,andcmpowcrcdtoact socially isa istorical and
dialcctical rclationship. Withoutrcliably local subccts, thc constuction
otalocaltcrrainothabitation,production,andmoral sccuritywouldhavc
no intcrcsts attachcdto it. butbythc samc tokcn, withoutsuchaknown,
namcd and ncgotiabIc tcrrainalrcady availablc, thc ritual tcchniqucs tor
crcating local sub|ccts wouldbc abstract, thus stcrilc. Jhc Iong- tcrm rc-
productionotancighborhoodthatissimultancouslypracticalvalucd,and
takcntorgrantcddcpcndsonthcscamlcss intcraction otlocaIizcdspaccs
and timcs with local sub|ccts posscsscd ot thc knowIcdgc to rcproducc
locality. roblcms that arc propcrIy historical arisc whcncvcr this scam-
lcssncss isthrcatcncd. uch problcms do notarrivc onlywithmodcrnity,
coloniaIism or cthnography l strcss thispointnowbccausc l willdiscuss
bclowthcspccialpropcrticsotthcproductionotlocaityundcrthccondi-
tions ot contcmporay urban l i tc which involvc national mass
mcdiation,andintcnscandi rrcgularcommoditization.
ltalargcpartotthccthnographicrccordcanbcrcrcadandrcwrittcnas
arccordotthcmultitariousmodcstorthcproductionotlocality, ittollows
thatcthnographyhasbccnunwittinglycomplicitinthisactivity. Jhisisa
T | r r u J u c t i o n a] | a : o | . i y
I 8 I
pointabouI knowIcdgc andrcprcscnIaIlonrathcrIhan about guiIt orvio-
lcncc. JhccIhnographlc pro|cct ls in apccullarway lsomorphicwlthIhc
vcryknowIcdgcs lI sccks to discovcr and documcnI, as boIh Ihc cIhno-
graphlcpro|ccIandIhc sociaI pro|ccIslIsccksIo dcscrlbc havcthc pro-
ductlon ot locallIy as Ihclr govcrning IcIos. Jhc misrccogniIion otIhls
tact ln both pro|ccts, as lnvolving onIy morc humdrum and discrcIc ac-
Iions andscIIlngs ,housc building, child namlng, boundary rituals, grcct-
lng rltuals, spaIlal purlhcaIlons) , is thc constlIutivc mlsrccognlIion IhaI
guarantccs boIh thc spcclaI appropriaIcncss ot cthnography to ccrtain
kinds ot dcscrlption and iIs pccuIlar lack ot rctIcxlvlty as a pro|ccI ot
knowlcdgc andrcproducIlon. rawn lnIoIhcvcryIocaIizaIlonIhcyscck
Io documcnI, mosI cthnographlc dcscrlptlons havc takcn IocaIiIy as
ground not gurc, rccognizingnclIhcrlIstragiliIynor lIscIhosos o jej:
e]sec|ol l(j: Jhls produccsanunproblcmaIizcdcoIIaboraIlonwiIhIhcscnsc
otincrIlaonwhlchlocallIy, asastructurc ottccIing, ccnIralIyrcIics.
JhcvalucotrcconcclvlngcIhnography,andrcrcadlngcarIicrcthnog-
raphy) trom Ihis pcrspccIlvc ls thrcctoId ( ) iI shitIs Ihc hlsIory ot
cIhnography trom a hisIory ot ncighborhoods Io a hisIory otIhc tcch
nlqucs tor Ihc productlon otIocaIlIy , 2) iIopcnsup a ncwway Iothlnk
about Ihc compIcxcoproducIlon otlndigcnous catcgoricsby organic ln-
IcllccIuals, admlnlstrators, Iingulsts, mlsslonarlcs,andcIhnoIogisIs,which
undcrglrds largc portlons ot Ihc monographic hlstory ot anthropology
, J) lI cnabIcs Ihc cIhnography ot Ihc modcrn, and ot Ihc producIlon ot
IocallIyundcr modcrn condlIions, to bc parI ota morc gcncral conIribu-
Ion Io thc cthnographic rccord tet cet Jogcthcr, Ihcsc cttccIs would
hcIp guard agalnsI Ihc Ioo-casy usc ot various opposltlonaI Iropcs ,thcn
andnow,bctorcandattcr,smalIandlargc,boundcdandunboundcd, sIabIc
andtIuld, hoIandcoId) thaIimpllciIlyopposc cthnographlcsotandinthc
prcscnIIocIhnographlcsotandinIhc pasI.
T: Ceri:xts ej Leccity
I havcsotartocuscdonlocaIityas aphcnomcnologlcal propcrIyot social
Iltc,asIrucIurcottccIlngIhaIisproduccdbyparticuIartormsotintcnIlonaI
acIivlIyandIhatylclds partlcularsortsotmaIcriaI cttccIs. 1cI Ihls dlmcn-
sionaIaspccIotIocallIycannotbcscparatcdtromIhcactuaIsctIlnglnand
IhroughwhlchsoclaIIltcisrcproduccd.Jo makcthc linkbcIwccnocaIiIy
as a propcrIy ot soclaI Iltc and ncighborhoods as social tormsrcquircs a
morc carctuI cxposition ot Ihc probIcm ot conIcxt. Jhc production ot
ncghborhoods isaIways hlsIoricalIy groundcdandIhus conIcxIual. Jhat
r r o J u c f i o r u ] L u c a | i f
8 2
is, nclghborhoodsarcinhcrcntIywhaI thcyarc bccausc Ihcy arc opposcd
tosomcthingcIscanddcrivctromothcr,alrcadyproduccdnclghborhoods.
n Ihc pracIicaI consciousncss ot many human communitlcs, Ihls somc-
Ihlng clsc ls ottcn conccptuaIlzcd ccologlcaIIy as torcst or wasIcIand,
occan ordcscrt, swamp orrlvcr. 5uch ccoIogical slgns ottcn markbound-
arlcs that slmuIIancousIy slgnal Ihc bcglnnlngs ot nonhuman torccs and
catcgorlcs or rccognlzably human buIbarbarlan or dcmonlc torccs. lrc-
qucnIIy, thcsc conIcxts, against whlch nclghborhoods arc produccd and
gurcd, arc at oncc sccn as ccoIoglcaI, sociaI, andcosmologlcaI Icalns.
I may bc usctul hcrc Io notc IhaI Ihc social parI ot Ihc contcxI ot
ncighborhoodsIhc tact, IhaI is, ot othcr nclghborhoodsrccaIls thc
idca ot:torescoj: ,chap. J), a tcrm uscd to gcI awaytrom Ihc idca that
groupidcntlticsncccssarlIylmpIyIhaIcuIturcsnccdIobcsccnasspatialIy
boundcd, hisIorlcaIlyunscltconsclous, orcIhnlcaIlyhomogcncoustorms.
nIhlscarIlcrusagc, impllcdthatthcidcaotcthnoscapcmighIbcsallcnt
cspcciaIIyIoIhclatcIwcnIicIhccnIury,whcnhumanmotlon, thc voIaIlI-
iIy otimagcs, and thc conscious idcnIlIy- produclng acIlviIics otnatlon
sIaIcslcndatundamcntaIIyunsIabIcandpcrspccIlvaI quaIityIosoclalIltc.
1cI ncighborhoods arcaIways Io somccxtcnIcIhnoscapcs, lnsotar as
thcylnvoIvcIhccthnlcpro|cctsotLthcrsaswclIasconsciousncssotsuch
proccIs.JhaIls, partlcularnclghborhoodssomcIlmcsrccognlzcIhaIIhcir
ownloglclsagcncralIogicbywhichLthcrsaIsoconsIrucIrccognizablc,
social, human,slIuatcdlltc-worlds.5uchknowlcdgccanbccncodcdlnthc
pragmatlcs ot rituaIs associaIcd wlIh cIcarlng torcsIs, maklng gardcns,
bulldlng houscs, whlch aIways carry an lmpliclIscnsc ot Ihc Iclcologyot
IocaIiIybulIding. nmorccomplcxsocictics, IyplcallyassoclatcdwiIhIlI-
cracy, pricsIlycIasscs,andmacro- ordcrstorIhccontrolanddisscmlnatlon
otpowcrtuI ldcas, suchknowlcdgcsarccodlhcd, as lnIhccascotthcritu-
aIs assoclaIcdwith Ihc coIonlzaIion otncwvlllagcs bybrahmans ln prc-
colonlalndla.
IllocaliIybuildinghasamomcnIotcoIonlzaIlon,amomcnIboIhhls-
Iorlcal andchronoIypic,whcnthcrc lsatormalrccognlIlonIhaIIhcpro-
ducIion ota ncighborhoodrcquircs dcllbcratc,rlsky, cvcn vloIcnIactlon
ln rcspccI to thc soiI, torcsIs, anlmaIs, and othcr human bcings good
dcal otIhc violcncc associatcdwiIh toundational rltual (bIoch I 8) ls a
rccogniIlonotIhctorccIhaIis rcquircdtowrcsIalocaI lIytrom prcvlousIy
unconIrolIcd pcopIcs and placcs. ut in oIhcr tcrms ,dc LcrIcau I 84),
Ihc IranstormaIlon ot spaccs inIo placcs rcqulrcs a consclous momcnI,
which may subscqucntIy bc rcmcmbcrcd as rclaIlvcly rouIinc. Jhc pro-
ductlonotanclghborhoodlslnhcrcnIIycolonlzlng, inthcscnscIhatltln
b r r o J v c f i o r u ] L o c a | i f
I 8 J
volvcs Ihc asscrIion ot sociaIIy ottcn riIuaIIy) organizcd powcr ovcr
placcs and IhaI arc vicwcd as poIcnIiallychaoIic or rcbcIIious.
JhcanxicIyIhaIaIIcndsmanyriIualsothabiIaIion,occupaIion, orscIIlc-
mcIisarccogniIionotIhcimpliciIviolcnccotalIsuchacIsotcoloniza-
Iion. 5omc otIhis anxicIyrcmains in Ihc riIual rcpcIiIion otIhcsc mo-
mcnIs,longatIcrIhctoundaIionaIcvcnIotcolonizaIion. nIhisscnscIhc
producIion ot a ncighborhood is inhcrcnIly an cxcrcisc ot powcr ovcr
somcsorIothosIilcorrccalciIranIcnvironmcnI,whichmayIakcIhctorm
otanoIhcrncighborhood.
uchotIhcnarraIivcmaIcriaIuncarIhcdbycIhnographcrsworkingin
small communiIics, as wcIl as much otIhcirdcscripIionotriIuals otagri-
culIurc, housc building and social passagc, sIrcsscs Ihc shccr maIcrial
tragiliIyassociaIcdwiIhproducingandmainIaininglocaliI. lcvcrIhclcss,
howcvcr dccply such dcscripIion is cmbcddcd in Ihc paiculariIics ot
pIacc soil, andrial Icchniquc,iIinvariablyconIainsorimplicsaIhcory
otconIcxIaIhcory inoIhcrwords, otwhaIancighborhoodisproduccd
trom, againsI, in spiIc ot andinrclaIion Io. Jhcproblcm otIhcrclaIion-
ship bcIwccn ncighborhood andconIcxI rcquircs much tulIcr aIIcnIion
Ihan can bc attordcd hcrc lcImcskcIch Ihc gcncral dimcnsions ot Ihis
problcm Jhc ccnIral diIcmma is IhaI ncighborhoods boIh arc conIcxIs
and aI Ihc samc Iimc rcquirc and producc conIcxIs. lcighborhoods arc
conIcxIs in IhcscnscIhaIIhcyprovidcIhctramcorscIIing wiIhin which
variouskinds othumanacIion rcproducIivc,inIcrprcIivc,pcr-
tormaIivc)canbciniIiaIcdandconducIcdmcaningtuIly.bccauscmcaning-
tul l i tc-worldsrcquirc andrcproduciblcpaIIcrnsot acIion, Ihcyarc
IcxI-likc andIhus rcquirc onc or manyconIcxIs. lrom anoIhcr poinI ot
vicw, a ncighborhood is a conIcxI, or a scI ot conIcxIs, wiIhin which
mcaningtul social acIion can bc boIh gcncraIcd and i nIcrprcIcd. n Ihis
scnsc, ncighborhoods arc conIcxIs, and conIcxIs arc ncighborhoods. ^
ncighborhoodis amuIIiplcxinIcrprcIivcsiIc
nsotar as ncighborhoods arc imagincd, produccd and mainIaincd
againsIsomcsorIotgroundcial,maIcrialcnvironmcnIal ) , Ihcyalsorc-
qui and producc conIcxIs againsI which Ihcir own inIclligibiI iIy Iakcs
shapc. Jhis conIcxIgcncraIivc dimcnsion otncighborhoods is an impor-
IanImaIIcrbccausciIprovidcsIhcbcginnings otaIhcorcIicalanglconIhc
rclaIionshipbcIwccn locaI andglobaIrcaliIics.owsoJhcwayinwhich
ncighborhoods arc produccd and rcproduccd rcquircs Ihc conIinuous
consIrucIion, boIhpracIicaIanddiscursivc otancIhnoscapc ncccssariIy
nonIocaI) againsIwhich locl pracIiccs and pro|ccIsarc imagincdIoIakc
placc.
1 | : r u d v c f i o n o [ L u c a i f
I 8
n onc dimcnsion aI onc momcnI, and trom onc pcrspccIivc, ncigh-
borhoods as conIcxIsarcprcrcquisiIcstorIhcproducIionotlocal
pIaccsandspaccs,wiIhinahisIoricaIIyproduccd
spaIioIcmporal ncighborhoodandwiIha scrics otIocaIizcdriIuals, sociaI
caIcgrics, cxpcrt pracIiIioncrs, andintormcdaudicnccs arc rcquircd in
ordcrtorncwmcmbcrs prisoncrs, gucsIsathncs)
IobcmadcIcmporaryorpcrmancnIlocalsub|ccIs.crc,wcsccIocaIiIyi n
iIsIakcn-tor-granIcd, commonscnsical,habiIus dimcnsion. nIhisdimcn-
sion, a ncighborhoodappcars Iobc simply a scI otconIcxIshisIoricaIIy
rcccivcd,maIcriaIlycmbcddcd,sociallyappropriaIc,naIuralIyunproblcm-
aIic taIhcsyicldsons, yicIdyams,sorccryyicIdssickncss,hunI-
crs yicId mcaI, womcn yicId babics, blood yicIds scmcn, shamans yicld
visions, andsotorth.JhcscconIcxIs inconccrIappcarIoprovidcIhcun-
probIcmaIizcdscIIingtorIhcIcchnical producIion otIocaI sub|ccIs in a
rcgularand rcgulaIcdmanncr.
buIas Ihcsc IocaI sub|ccIscngagc in IhcsocialacIiviIicsotproducIion
rcprcscnIaIion, and rcproducIion as in Ihc work ot culIurc), Ihcy con-
IribuIc, gcncraIly uniIIingIy, Io IhccrcaIion otconIcxIs IhaI mighI cx
cccd Ihc cxisIing maIcrial and conccpIual boundarics ot Ihc ncighbor-
hood.^thnaIaspiraIionscxIcndmariagcncIworksIoncwviIIagcshshing
cxpcdiIionsyicIdrchncmcnIsotwhaIarcundcrsIoodIobc navigablc and
hsh-richwaIcrshunIingcxpcdiIionscxIcndIhcscnscotIhctorcsIasarc-
sponsivcccoIogicaItramcsocialcontIicIs torccncwsIraIcgicsotcxiIand
rccoIonizaIion Irading acIiviIics yicId ncw commodiIy-worlds and Ihus
ncw parIncrshipswiIh as-ycI-uncncounIcrcd rcgional groupi ngs wartarc
yicldsncwdiplomaIicaIIianccswiIh prcviousIyhosIilcncighbors.^ndalI
otIhcsc possibiliIicsconIribuIcIo subIIcshitIsin IanguagcworIdvicwriI-
uaIpracIicc,andcoIlccIivcscIt-undcrsIanding.uIsummarily,aslocalsub-
|ccIscarryonIhcconIinuingIaskotrcproducingIhcirncighborhood,Ihc
conIingcncics othisIo, cnvironmcnI, andimaginaIion conIain Ihc po
IcnIiltorncwconIcxIs maIcralsociaI, andimaginaIivc)Iobcproduccd.
n Ihis way, IhoughIhcvagarics otsocial acIionby local sub|ccIs, ncigh-
borhoodas conIcxI produccs Ihc conIc ot ncighborhoods. LvcrIimc,
IhisdiaIccIicchangcsIhccondiIionsotIhcproducIion otlocaliIyassuch.
uIanoIhcrway, IhisishowIhcsub|ccIsothisIorybccomchi sIoricaIsub-
|ccIs, so IhaI no human communiIy, howcvcr apparcnIly sIablc, sIaIic,
boundcd orisolaIcd, canuscllybcrcgardcdascoolorouIsidchisIory
Jhis obscraIion convcrgcs wiIh arshaIl 5ahlinss vicwotIhc dnamics
otconuncIural changc , I 85.
LonsidcrIhcgcncraI rclaIionshipamongvariousanomami groupsi n
1 | : r u J v c f i o n L o c a | i f
I 85
thc rain torcsts ot brazil and Vcnczucla. hc rcIationship amongscttlc
mcnts,populationshitts,prcdatorywartarc,andscxualcompctitioncanbc
vicwcdasaproccssinwhichspccic1anomamivillagcs ,ncighborhoods),
inandthroughthciractions, prcoccupations and actuallypro-
duccawidcrsctotcontcxts torthcmsclvcsandcachothcr. hiscrcatcsa
gcncraltcrritoryot1anomamimovcmcnt,intcraction,andcolonizationin
which any givcn villagc rcsponds toa matcrial contcxt widcr than itscIt
whilcsimultancouslycontributingtothccrcationotthatwidcrcontcxt.n
alargcrscalcpcrspcctivcthcovcrallnctworkotspaccandtimc,inwhich
thc1anomami produccandgcncratc rcciprocal contcxts tor spccic acts
ot localization ,villagc building), also producs somc ot thc contcxts in
whichthc1anomamiasawholccncountcrthcbrazilianandVcnczuclan
nationstatcs n this scnsc, 1anomami local ityproducing activitics arc
not onlycontcxt-drivcnbutarcalso hisistrucotaIl
locality-producingactivitics.
hus ncighborhoods sccm paradoxical bccausc both constitutc
and rcuirc contcxts ^scthnoscapcs incvitably imply a
rclationalconsciousncss ot othcr ncighborhoodsbut actatthc samc
timcasautonomousncighborhoods oti ntcrprctation, valuc, andmatcrial
practicc.hus,l ocaltyasarclationalachicvcmcntisnotthcsamcasalo
caltyasapracticalvalucinthcquotidianproductionot sub|cctsandcolo-
nization otspacc. locality productionisincvitablycontcxt-gcncrativc to
somc cxtcnt. hatdcncs thiscxtcnt isvcry substantially a qucstion ot
thc rclationships bcccn thc contcxts that ncighborhoods crcatc and
thoscthcycncountcr.hisisamattcrotsocial powcrandotthcdittcrcnt
scalcs ot organization and control within which particular spaccs ,and
placcs)arccmbcddcd
^Ithoughthcpracticcsandpro|cctsotthc1anomamiarccontcxt-pro-
ducing tor thc brazlian statc, it is cvcn tucr that thc practiccs ot thc
brazilian nation-statcinvolvcharsh, cvcnovcwhclmingtorccs otmilitary
intcrcntion largc-scaIccnvironmcntal cxploitation andstatc-sponsorcd
migration and colonization that thc 1anomami conront on hugcly un-
cqual tcrms. l nthisscnsc, which l will pursuc inthcncxtscctiononthc
conditions ot locality production in thc cra ot thc nation-statc, thc
1anomami arcbcingstcadilylccl|z:J, inthcscnscotcncIavcd, cxploitcd,
pcrhapscvcn clcanscd in thccontcxtotthc braziIian polity. hus, whiIc
thcyarcstillinapositiontogcncratccontcxtsasthcyproducc andrcpro-
duccthcirown ncighborhoodsthcyarcincrcasinglyprisoncrsinthccon
tcxt-producing activitics ot thc nation-statc, which makcs thcirown ct
tortstoproducclocalityscc cvcndoomcd.
1 b P : c i .- :] l a c a | | t ,
I 8 =
hiscxamplc haswidc gcncral applicabil ity hc capabiliot ncigh-
borhoodstoproducccontcxts ,withinwhichthcirvcrylocalizingactivi-
ticsacquircmcaningandhistoricalpotcntia)andtoproducclocalsub|ccts
isprotoundIyattcctcdbythclocality-producingcapabiliticsotIargcr-scalc
social tormations , nation-statcs, kingdoms missiona andtra-
ing cartcIs) to dctcrminc thc gcncral shapc ot aIl thc ncighborhoods
within thc rcach ot thcirpowcrs. hus powcr is a tcaturc ot
thccontcxtuaIrclationsotncighborhoodsandcvcn contactalways
invoIvcs dittcrcntnarrativcs ot trom thctwo sidcs involvcdinit.
hc political cconomy that I i ns ncighborhoods to contcxts is thus
both mcthodologialIyandhistoricallycomplcx. Luridcasotcontcxtdc-
rivcIargcIytrom lingistics. LntiIrcccntlycontcxthasbccnopportunisti-
calIy dcncd to makc scnsc ot scntcnccs rituals pcrtormanccs
and othcrsorts ot tcxt. hilc thc production ottcxts has bccn carctully
considcrcdtromscvcraldi ttcrcntpoi ntsotvicw,baumanand I 0
anks I 8), thcstucrcandmorphologyotcontcxtshasonlylatclybc-
comcthctocusotanysystcmaticattcntion ,urantiandLoodwin I 2) .
bcyondanthropologicalIingistics,contcxtrcmainsapoorlydcncdidca,
anincrtconccptindcxinganincrt cnvironmcnt. hcnsociaI anthropolo-
gistsappcaltocontcxt, itisgcncraIIytoaloosclyundcrstoodscnscotthc
socialtramcwithinwhichspccihcactions or rcprcscntations canbcstbc
undcrstood. 5ociolinguistics, cspcciallyasdcrivcdtromthc cthnography
ot spcaking , ymcs I 7) , has bccn thc main sourcc tor this gcncraI
approach.
hc structurc ot contcxts cannot and should not bc dcrivcd cntircIy
tromthclogicandmorpholoottcxts.cxtproductionandcontcxtpro-
duction havc dittcrcnt logics and mctapragmatic tcaturcs. Lontcxts arc
produccdinthccomplcx imbrication otdiscursivcandnondiscursivcprac-
ticcs,andsothcscnscinwhichcontcxtsimplyothcrcontcxts,sothatcach
contcxt implicsaglobalnctworkocontcxts isdittcrcntomthcscnsc in
which tcxts implyothcrtcxts andcvcntually alltcxts. ntcrtcxtuaI rcla-
tionsaboutwhichwcnownowa tairamount,arcnotl i cly toworin
thc samcway as |rt:cert:xtl rclations. andmostdaunting is thc
prospcctthatwcshallhavcto ndwaystoconncctthcoricsoti ntcrtcxtu-
ality to thcorics ot intcrcontcxtuali ty. ^ strong thcory ot globalization
trom a soci ocultural point otvicw isIikcly to rcuirc somcthing wc ccr-
tainIydonotnowhavcathcoryotintcrcontcxtualrclationsthatincorpo-
ratcsourcxistingscnscotintcrtcxts.butthatistrulyanothcrpro|cct.
hcrclationshipbctwccnncighborhoodascontcxtandthccontcxtot
ncighborhoods, mcdiatcdbythc actions otlocaI historical sub|ccts ac-
1 b t P . c t . . .] l .: c | i ,
" I 8 7
uircs ncwcompIcxiticsin thcsort o|worIdlnwhichwc nowIivc. nthis
ncwsortotworld, thc production otncighborhoods incrcasingIyoccurs
undcrconditionswhcrcthcsystcm o|nation-statcsisIhcnormativc hingc
torthcproductionotbothlocaIandtranslocalactivltlcs.Jhissltuation,ln
whlchthcpowcrrclationsthata||cctthcproductiono|localltyarc|unda-
mcntallytranslocaI, isthcccntraI conccrn otthc ncxtscction.
: Clelcl PeJciier e|Leccliiy
hat has bccn discusscdIhus |ar as a scIo|sIrucIural problcms ,locaIlIy
andncighborhoods, tcxt andcontcxt, cthnoscapcs andIltc-worIds) nccds
now to bc cxpIicitly historicizcd. havc indicatcd alrcady that th rcIa-
tionship o|Iocality (andncighborhoods) to conIcxIs ishistorcaI anddi-
alcctical,andthatthccontcxI-gcncratlvcdimcnsionotpIaccs ,in thcirca-
pacltyascthnoscapcs) isdistlnct|romthcircontcxt-provldlng|caturcs ,ln
thcircapacityasncighborhoods) . owdothcscclaimshcIptoundcrstand
what happcns to thc production ot locaIity in thc contcmporary world
Lontcmporaryundcrstandingso|globalization (balibarandalIrstcln
I I , lcathcrstonc I 0, ling I I , obcrtson I 2, oscnau I 0)
sccmtoindicatcashltt|rom ancmphasisonthcgIobaI|ourncys o|capi-
tallstmodcsotthoughtandorganizatlontoasomcwhat di||crcntcmpha-
sis on thc sprcad o|thcnation|orm, cspccialIy as dictatcdby thc con-
currcnt sprcado|coIoniaIism and print capitallsm. | onc probIcm now
appcarstobcthcdominantconccrno|thchumanscicnccs,itlsthatotna-
tionaIismandthcnation statc (^ndcrson I I , bhabha I 0, Lhattcr|cc
I 8, I J, cllncr I 8J, obsbawm I 0).
hiIconlytlmcwiIltclIwhcthcrourcurrcntprcoccupatlonswiththc
natlon- statc arc |ustlhcd, thc bcgi nni ngs ot an anthropoIoglcaI cngagc-
mcntwithIhis issucarccvidcnIinthc incrcasingcontrlbuton o|anIhro-
poIogiststothc probIcmatlcsotthc nation- statc (borncman I 2,oorc
I J, andlcr I 88, crz|cIdI 82, lap|crcr I 88, Jamblah I 8,Lrban
and5hcrzcr I I , van dcrVccr I ) . 5omco|thlsworkcxpIlcitIycon-
sidcrs thcgIobalcontcxt ot nationaI cuIturaI tormatlons ,anncrz I 2,
baschctaI. I ,lostcr I I , lricdman I 0,uptaandlcrguson I 2,
ousc I I 5ahlins I 2) . 1ct a |ramcwork |or rclating thc gIobaI, thc
national, andthclocal hasycttocmcrgc.
n this scction, hopctocxtcndmythoughtsabout IocaI sub|ccIsand
IocallzcdcontcxtstoskctchthcoutI incsotanargumcntaboutthc pcclaI
problcmsthatbcsctthcproductiono|localltyinaworIdthathasbccomc
dctcrritoriaIizcd(clcuzcanduattari I 87), dlasporic,andtransnatlonal.
1 | : P t o J c t | o r o] L o c a l | t y
I 8 8
Jhls lsaworIdwhcrc clcctronlc mcdla arc trans|ormlngthcrcIatlonships
bctwccn in|ormation and mcdlatlon, and whcrc natlon-statcs arc stg-
gIlngtorctain controI ovcrthclrpopuIatlons in thc |acc ot a host ot sub-
natlonaIandtransnatlonaImovcmcnts andorganlzations.^tullconsldcra-
tion|thcchaIIcngcstothcproductlon o|Iocalitylnsuch aworldwould
rcuirc cxtcndcd trcatmcnt bcyond thc scopc ot thls chaptcr. but somc
cIcmcnts otanapproachtothlsproblcmcanbcoutllncd.
ut slmpIy, thc task otproduclnglocaIity ,as a stcturc ottccIing, a
propcrty o| soclalli|c, andan ldcoIogyotsltuatcdcommunlty) is incrcas-
lngly a sIrugglc. Jhcrcarc many dimcnsions Io Ihis sIggIc, and shaI
|ocushcrconthrcc , I ) thcstcadylncrcascinthcc|tortso|thcmodcrnna-
tlon-statc to dchnc alI nclghborhoodsundcrthc slgn otits tormsotaIIc
glancc anda|hIiation, , 2) thc growingdls|uncIurcbcIwccntcrrtory, sub-
|cctivlty, and coIlcctlvc sociaI movcmcnt, and , J) thc stcady croslon,
principallyduc tothctorcc and|ormo|cIcctronlcmcdiation,o|thcrcIa-
tlonshlp bctwccn spatial andvirtuaI nclghborhoods. Jomakc thlngs yct
morc complcx, thcscthrccdlmcnslonsarcthcmsclvcslntcractivc.
Jhc natlon-statc rcIlcs tor its IcglIimacy on thc intcnsity o|its mcan
ingtul prcscncc ln a conIinuous body otboundcd tcrrltory. t works by
pollcing lts bordcrs, producinglts pcopIc ,baIlbar I I ), constructing its
cltlzcns, dchnlngltscapitaIs, monumcnIs, citlcs, watcrs, andsolls, andby
constructlng its IocaIcs otmcmory and commcmoratlon, such as gravc-
yardsandccnotaphs, mausoIcums andmuscums.Jhcnation-statcconducts
throughout lts tcrrltorlcs thcbizarrcIy contradictory pro|cct o| crcatlng a
at, contiguous,andhomogcncousspacc otnatlonncssandslmultancously
asctotpIaccsandspaccs ,prisons,barracks,airports,radlo sIations, sccrc
tarlats, parks, marchinggrounds, proccsslonal routcs) calculatcd tocrcatc
thcintcrnaI distlnctionsanddlvlsionsncccssary|orstatcccrcmony,survciI-
Iancc, disclpIinc, and mobillzaIion. Jhcsc IatIcr arc also Ihc spaccs and
pIaccsthatcrcatcandpcrpctuatcthc distinctlonsbctwccnrulcrsandcd,
crlmlnaIsan othcias,crowdsandIcadcrs,actorsandobscrvcrs.
Jhrough apparaIuscs as dvcrsc as muscums and vlIlagc dispcnsarlcs,
postothccs andpolicc stations, toIlbooths andtclcphonc booths, thc na
tlon-statccrcatcsavastnctworko||ormaIandi ntormaltcchnlucstorthc
natlonaIizatlon otall spacc consldcrcdtobcundcrltssovcrcignauthorlty.
5tatcsvary, ot coursc, in Ihcirabilltytopcnctratc thc nooks andcrannlcs
o|cvcrydaylltc. 5ubvcrlon,cvaslon,andrcslstancc, somctimcsscatoIogl-
cal ,bcmbc I 2) , somctlmcs ironlc , Lomarott and Lomarott I 2a),
somctlmcs covcrt (5cott I 0), somctlmcs spontancous and somctlmcs
pIanncd, arcvcrywi dcsprcad. ndccd, thc|allurcsotnation-statcstocon-
1 | : I t o J c t o r o ] L o c a | t y
I 8
taln and dchnc thc llvcs ot thclr cltlzcns arc wrlt Iargc ln thc growth ot
shadow cconomlcs, prlvatc and quasl prlvatc armlcs and constabularlcs,
scccsslonary natlonallsms, and a varlcty ot nongovcrnmcntaI organlza-
tlonsthatprovldcaItcrnatlvcstothcnatlonalcontrolotthcmcansotsub-
slstcnccand|ustlcc.
5tatcsvary aswcll lnthcnaturcandcxtcntotthclrlntcrcstlnlocallltc
andthccultural tormsln whlchthcylncstthclr dccpcstparanolasotsov-
crclgntyandcontrol. 5pltlngonthcstrcctlsvcrydangcrousln5lngaporc
and apua lcw Lulnca publlc gathcrlngs arc a probIcm ln altl and
amcroon dlsrcspcct to thc cmpcrorls not good lnapan and lnltlng
pro-usllmscntlmcntslsbadncwslncontcmporary ndla. JhcIlstcouId
bcmultlpllcdnatlon-statcshavcthclr sltcsotsacrcdncss,thclrspc-
clal tcstsotloyaltyand thclrspcclaI mcasurcs otcompIlancc
anddlsordcr.Jhcscarc llnkcd to rcal andpcrcclvcdproblcms otlawlcss-
ncss,rclgnlngldcologlcsotllbcrallzatlonorltsopposltc,rclatlvccommlt-
mcntstolntcrnatlonaIrcspcctablllty, rcvulslonsaboutlmmc-
dlatc prcdcccssor and ot cthnlc antagonlsm or
colIaboratlon. Whatcvcrclscl strucotthcworldattcr I 8, thcrc do not
sccmtobcanyvcryrcIlablcllnksbctwccnstatcldcoIoglcsotwcItarc,mar-
kctcconomlcs,mllltarypowcr,andcthnlcpurltyctwhcthcroncconsld-
crsthcturbulcntpostommunlstsoclctlcsotlastcrnluropc,thcaggrcs-
slvc cltystatcs ot thc lar last as Jalwan, 5lngaporc, and ong
long, thc complcx postmlIltary poIltlcs otlatln ^mcrlca, thcbankrupt
statc cconomlcs otmuch otsub-5aharan ^trlca, or thc turbulcnt tunda-
mcntaIlststatcsotmuchotthclddlclastand5outh^sla,thcyappcarto
posc arathcrslmllarsctot tothc productlonotnclghborhood
bylocaIsub|ccts.
lrom thc plnt otvlcw ot modcrn natlonallsm, nclghborhoods cxlst
prlnclpaIIy to lncubatc and rcpducc compllant natlonaI cltlzcnsand
not tor thc productlon otlocal sub|ccts. locallty tor thc modcrn natlon-
statclsclthcrasltcotnatlonallyapproprlatcdnostaIglas,cclratlons,and
commcmoratlonsorancccssarycondltlon otthcproductlonotnatlonaIs.
hclghborhoods as soclaI tormatlons rcprcscnt anxlctlcs tor thc natlon-
statc, asthcyusualIycontalnlargcorrcslduaIspaccswhcrcthctcchnlqucs
ot natlonhood ,blrth controI l lngulstlc unltormlIy, cconomlc dlsclpllnc,
communlcatlons cthclcncy, and polltlcal loyalty) arc llkcly to bc clthcr
wcakorcontcstcd^tthcsamctlmc, nclghborhoodsarcthcsourccotpo-
Iltlcalworkcrs andpartyothclaIs, tcachcrs andsoldlcrs, tcIcvlslontcchnl
clansandproductlvc tarmcrs. hclghborhoodsarcnotdlspcnsabIc,ccn lt
thcyarcpotcntlaIlytrcachcrouslorthcprocctotthcnatlon-statc,nclgh-
1 b c r u J c f o r o[ u c a i
= I 0 =
borhoodsrcprcscntapcrcnnlalsourcco|cntropyandsllppagcJhcynccd
tobcpollccdalmostasthoroughlyasbordcrs.
Jhc work ot prodclng nclghborhoodsll tc-worIds constltutcd by
rcIatlvcly stablc assoclatlons, by rclatlvcly known and sharcd hlstorlcs,
and by collcctlvcIy travcrscd and lcglbIc spaccs and pIaccl ottcn at
oddswththcpro|cctsotthcnatlon-statc Jhlslspartlybccauscthccom-
mltmcntsandattachmcnts,somctlmcmlslabcIcdprlmordlal")thatchar-
actcrlzclocalsub|cctlvltlcsarcmorcprcsslng,morccontlnuous, andsomc-
tlmcsmorc dlstractlngthanthc natlon-statccanattord. lt l salsobccausc
thcmcmorlcsandattachmcntsthatIocalsub|cctshavcotandtothclrshop
slgns and strcct namcs thclr |avorltc walkways and strcctscapcs, thclr
tlmcsandplaccs torcongrcgatlngandcscaplngarcottcnatodswlththc
nccds otthc natlon-statctorrcguIatcdpubllc lltc. urthcr, ltlsthc naturc
otlocal Iltc to dcvclop partly ln contrastto othcr nclghborhoodsbypro-
duclngltsowncontcxtsotaItcrlty(spatlal,soclal,andtcchnlcal ) , contcxts
thatmay notmcctthc nccds torspatlal andsoclal standardlzatlonthat ls
prcrcqulsltctorthcdlsclpIlncd natlonalcltlzcn.
hclghborhoods arc ldcaIly stagcs tor thclr own sclt-rcproductlon, a
proccss that ls tundamcntally opposcd to thc lmagl nary ot thc natlon-
statc,whcrc nclghborhoodsarcdcslgncdtobclnstanccsandcxcmplarsot
a gcncraIlzabIc modc otbclonglngtoa wldcr tcrrltorlaI lmaglnary Jhc
modcs ot Iocallzatlon most congcnlaI to thc natlon-statc havc a dlsclpll-
nary qualltyaboutthcm ln sanltatlon andstrcct cIcanlng, lnprlsonsand
sIumcIcarancc,lnrctugcccampsandothccsotcvcryklnd,thcnatlon-statc
locallzcsbyat,bydccrcc andsomctlmcsbythc ovcrtuscot torcc. Jhls
sortotlocallzatloncrcatcsscvcrcconstralnts,cvcndlrcctobstaclcs,tothc
survlvaI ot Iocallty as a contcxt-gcncratlvc rathcr than a contcxt-drlcn
proccss.
ct thc lsomorphlsm ot pcoplc, tcrrltory, and Icgltlmatc sovcrclgnty
thatconstltutcs thc normatlvc chartcr ot thc modcrn natlon-statclsltsclt
undcrthrcatom thc tormsotclrcuIatlon otpcoplccharactcrlstlc ot thc
contcmporaryworld t lsnowldclyconccdcdthathumanmotlonls dc-
hnltlvcotsoclal lltc morc ottcnthan ltlscxccptlonal lnourcontcmporary
world. Work, both otthc most sophlstlcatcd lntcllcctual sort andotthc
most humbIc prolctarlan sort, drlvcs ottcn morc than
oncc ln thclr ll tctlmcs. c pollclcs o partlcularly toward
populatlonsrcgardcdaspotcntlaIly crcatca pcrpctualmotlon
machlnc,whcrc rctugccs trom oncnatlonmovctoanothcr crcatlngncw
lnstabllltlcs thcrc thatcausc turthcr unrcst andthus turthcr soclaI
cxlts Jhus, thc pcopIc-productlon nccds ot onc natlon-statc can mcan
1 b r o J c i o r o[ L o c u | i t
* I I =
cIhnlc and soclaI unrcsI tor lIs nclghbors, crcaIlng opcn-cndcd cyclcs o|
cIhnlc cIcanslng, torccd mlgraIion, xcnophobla, sIaIc paranola, and |ur
Ihcr cIhnlc cIcanslng. lasIcrn luropc in gcncral and bosnla- lcrzcgovlna
ln parIlcuIararc pcrhaps Ihc mosI Iraglc and complcx cxampIcs o| such
sIaIc-rc|ugcc domlno proccsscs. n many such cascs, pcopIc and wholc
communiIlcsarcIurncdlnIoghcIIos,rc|ugcccamps,conccnIraIloncamps,
orrcscraIions,somcIimcswiIhouIanyoncmovlngaIaIl.
LIhcr torms othuman movcmcnI arc crcaIcdbyIhcrcallIyorIurc ot
cconomlcopporIunlIy,IhlsisIruc otmuch^slanmlgraIlonIoIhcoI-rlch
parIsotIhclddIcasI.cIoIhcrtormsotmovcmcnIarccrcaIcdbypcr
mancnIlymobllcgroups ot spciallzcdworkcrs ,LnlIcdaIlons soldicrs,
ollIcchnoIogisIs, dcvclopmcnI spcciallsIs, andagriculIural laborcrs. 5IlI
oIhcr torms ot movcmcnI, parIlcularIy in sub-5aharan ^|lca, l nvoIvc
ma|ordroughIsandtamincs,otIcnIlcdIodisasIrous alllanccsbcIwccncor-
rupI sIaIcs and opporIunlsIlc inIcrnaIionaI and global agcnclcs. n ycI
oIhcrcommunlIlcs, Ihc loglc otmovcmcnI ls provldcdbyIhc Icisurc i n
dusIrlcs, whlch crcaIc IourlsI slIcs andlocaIlons around Ihc world. Jhc
cIhnography ot Ihcsc IourlsI IocaIlons ls|usI bcglnnlng Io bc wrlIIcn ln
dcIall, buIwhaIIlIIIcwcdoknowsuggcsIsIhaImanysuchlocaIlonscrcaIc
complcx condlIions tor Ihc producIlon and rcproducIlon ot locallIy, ln
whlchIlcsotmarrlagc,work,buslncss, andlclsurc wcavcIogcIhcrvarlous
clrculaIlng populaIionswiIh klnds ot locals Io crcaIc nclghborhoods IhaI
bclong ln onc scnsc Io parIlcuIar naIion-sIaIcs, buI IhaIarc |rom anoIhcr
polnIotvlcwwhaIwcmlghIcalltors lecl|t|:s JhcchaIIcngcIoproduclng
a nclghborhood ln Ihcsc scIIlngs dcrivcs |rom Ihc lnhcrcnI lnsIabllIy ot
soclaI rclaIlonshlps, Ihc powcrtul Icndcncy tor local subccIlvlIy lIsclt Io
bccommodiIizcd, andIhc Icndcnclcs tor naIlon-sIaIcs, whlchsomcIlmcs
obIalnslgnihcanIrcvcnucstromsuchsiIcs,Iocrasc lnIcrnal, localdynam
lcsIhroughcxIcrnallylmposcdmodcsotrcgulaIlon,crcdcnIiallzaIlon, and
lmagcproducIlon.
^much darkcrvcrslon otIhcprobIcmotprodcinga nclghborhood
can bc sccn lnIhc quasl-pcrmancnIrc|ugcc camps IhaI nowcharacIcrizc
many cmbaIIlcd parIs ot Ihc worId, such as Ihc Lccuplcd JcrrlIorlcs ln
alcsIlnc,IhccampsonIhcJhalIand-Lambodlabordcr, IhcmanyLnlIcd
aIlons organlzcdcamps ln 5omalla, and Ihc ^tghan rc|ugcc camps ln
orIhwcsI aklsIan. Lomblnlng IhcworsI tcaIurcs oturban sIus, con-
ccnIraIloncamps, prisons, andghcIIos, Ihcsc arc placcswhcrc, noncIhc
lcss, marrlagcs arcconIracIcd andcclcbraIcd, llvcsarcbcgunandcndcd,
soclalconIracIs madc andhonorcd, carccrs Iaunchcdandbrokcn, moncy
madcandspcnI,goodsproduccdandcxchangcd. 5uchrc|ugcc campsarc
b r P t e J c t | e r e ] L e c c l | t y
= I 2
Ihc sIarkcsI cxamplcs o| Ihc condlIions o| unccrIalnIy, povcrIy, dlsplacc-
mcnI,anddcspalrundcrwhichlocallIycanbcproduccd.JhcscarcIhccx-
Ircmc cxampIcs o|nclghborhoods IhaI arc conIcxI produccdraIhcrIhan
conIcxIgcncraIlvc. Jhcsc arc ncighborhoods whosc ll|c-worlds arc pro-
duccdin IhcdarkcsIcircumsIanccs,wlIh prlsons andconccnIraIloncamps
bclngIhclrmosIbarbarlccxamplcs.
cIcvcnIhcscbruIal cxamplcs onlypush Io an cxIrcmcIhcquoIldlan
cIhoso|manyclIics. n Ihc condlIlonso|cIhnicunrcsIandurbanwar|arc
IhaI characIcrlzc ciIics such as bcItasI and los ^ngclcs, ^hmcdabad and
5ara|cvo,ogadlshuandohanncsburg,urbanzoncsarcbccomingarmcd
camps, drivcnwholIyby|jles|o: |orccs ,chap. 7)IhaI |oldlnIonclghbor-
hoods Ihc mosIvloIcnI and problcmaIic rcpcrcusslons o|wldcr rcglonaI,
naIlonaI, andgIobaI proccsscs. Jhcrcarc, o|coursc, many lmporIanI dlt
|crcnccsbcIwccn Ihcsc clIlcs, Ihclr hisIorics, IhclrpopulaIlons, andIhclr
cuIIuraI poIlIlcs cI IogcIhcr Ihcy rcprcscnI a ncw phasc in Ihc I i |c o|
clIlcs, whcrc Ihc conccnIraIlon o|cIhnlc populaIlons, Ihc avalIablIlIy ot
hcavy wcaponry, andIhc crowdcd condlIlons o|clvlc Il|c crcaIc |uIurisI
|orms o|war|arc ,rcmlnlsccnI o|hIms IlkcReoJ wo|e lJ: Rrr:. and
many oIhcrs) , andwhcrc a gcncral dcsolaIlon o|Ihc naIionaI andglobal
Iandscapchas Iransposcdmanyblzarrc racial,rcllglous, andIlngulsIiccn-
mlIlcsinIosccnarioso|unrcllcvcdurbanIcrror.
Jhcsc ncwurbanwarshavcbccomcIosomccxIcnIdlvorccd|romIhclr
rcglona andnaIionalccoIogics andIurncdlnIoscI|-propclllng, lmpIoslvc
wars bcIwccn crimlnal, paramiIlIary, andclviIlan millIlas, Ilcd ln obscurc
ways IoIransnaIionaIrcllglous, cconomic, andpoIlIlcaI |orccs. Jhcrc arc,
o|coursc, manycauscstorIhcsctorms oturbanbrcakdowninIhcllrsIand
JhlrdWorlds, buI inparIIhcy arc duc Io Ihc sIcadycroslon o|Ihc capa-
blllIyo|suchclIlcsIoconIroIIhcmcanso|Ihclrownsclt-rcproducIlon. I
ls d|hcuII noI Io assoclaIc a slgnlhcanI parI o|Ihcsc problcms wlIh Ihc
shccr clrcuIaIion o| pcrsons, o|Icn as a rcsulI o|war|arc, sIaraIlon, and
cIhnlc clcanslng, IhaIdrlvcs pcopIc lnIosuchclIlcsinIhc hrsIpIacc. Jhc
producIlon o|locallIylnIhcscurban |ormaIlons|accsIhcrcIaIcdproblcms
o|dlspIaccdanddcIcrrlIorlaIlzcdpopuIaIlons,o|sIaIcpollclcsIhaIrcsIrlcI
nclghborhoodsasonIcxIproduccrs, ando|localsub|ccIswho cannoIbc
anyIhlngoIhcrIhannaIlonalciIlzcns. nIhcmosIharshcascs,suchnclgh-
borhoods hardIydcscrc Ihc namc anymorc, glvcn IhaI Ihcy arcbarcly
morc Ihan sIagcs, hoIding companlcs, slIcs, andbarracks |or popuIaIions
wlIhadangcrousIyIhlncommlImcnIIoIhcproducIlono|locaIiIy.
lcsI Ihlssccm Ioo darkavilon, lImlghIbcnoIcdIhaIIhc vcrynaIurc
o| Ihcsc lcss plcasanIurban dramas drlvcs lndividuaIs and groups Iomorc
b r P t e J c t | e r e ] L e c a l i t y
I J
pcacctullocaIlonswhcrcIhcyarcwlIIlngIobrlngIhclr wlI, sklIls,andpas-
slontorpcacc. Jhc bcsImomcnIsoturban lltc lnIhc LnlIcd 5IaIcs and
uropcarcowcdIoIhcscmlgranIswho arc lIcclngpIaccs tarworsc Ihan
hlcago, cIrolI, los^ngcIcs, andlaml1cI wcknowIhaIIhcproduc-
Ilon otlocallIyln5ouIhcnIrallos^ngcIcsonhlcagosWcsI5ldcand
lnslmllarparIsotIargc^mcrlcanclIlcslsahlghIycmbaIIIcdproccss.
Jhc Ihlrd and nal tacIor Io bc addrcsscd hcrc l s Ihc rolc ot mass
mcdla, cspcclalIy lnlIscIccIronlc torms, ln crcaIlngncwsorIs otdls|unc
IurcbcIwccnspaIlaIandvlralnclghborhoods.Jhlsdls|uncIurchasboIh
uIoplan and dysIoplan poIcnIlals, and Ihcrc ls no casyway Io IcIl how
IhcscmlghIplay IhcmscIvcsouIl nrcgardIoIhctuIurcotIhc producIlon
otlocaIlIy. loroncIhlng IhcclccIronlc mcdla IhcmsclvcsnowvarylnIcr-
nalIyandconsIlIuIc acomplcxtamllyotIcchnoIoglcaImcanstorproduc-
lng and dlsscmlnaIlng ncws and cnIcrIalnmcnI. llIm Icnds Io bc doml-
naIcdbyma|orcommcrclal lnIcrcsIs lnatcwworIdccnIcrs (loIlywood,
lcw1ork, longlong,bombay), aIIhough ma|orsccondaryslIcs torcom
mcrclal clncma arc ln oIhcr parIs ot luropc, ^la, and ^trlca
(suchascxlco lIy bangkok, andadras) ^rIclncma (parIlybullIona
growlngIransnaIlonal ncIworkot Im tcsIlvals,cxhlblIlons, andcommcr
clal aucIlons) l s sprcad boIh morc broadly and morc IhlnIy across Ihc
world,buIcrossovcrlms( suchasR:s:rre| Deqs, To: Cy|rq Co:, aswcIIas
Soloo eloy andl Mo|oco|) arconIhclncrcasc
JcIcvlslon,boIhlnlIsconvcnIlonaIbroadcasItormsaswcllasIhrough
ncw torms ot saIclllIchookup, lncrcasnglyl captrogs Ihc pubIlcspaccs ot
clncmavlcwlngandcomcslnIotorcsIs otanIcnnac, otIcn lnIhcpoorcsI
slums ot Ihc world such as Ihosc otlo dc anclro and 5o aulo Jhc
rclaIlonshlp bcIwccn Im vlcwlng ln IhcaIcrs and on vldcocasscIIcs ln
domcsIlcscIIlngs lIscItcrcaIcsvcp lmporIanIchangcs, whlchhavcbccn
argucdIoslgnal IhccndotclncmavlcwlngasaclasslcaItormotspccIaIor-
shlp( lanscn I I ) ^IIhcsamcIlmc,IhcavallablllIyotvldcoproducIlon
Icchnologlcs Io smalI communlIlcs, somcIlmcs l nIhc lourIh WorId, has
madc lI posslblc tor Ihcsc communlIlcs IocrcaIc morc cttccIlvc naIlonaI
andgIobalsIraIcglcsotscltrcprcscnIaIlonandculIuraIsurlval (Ll nsburg
I J Jucr I) lax machl ncs, cIccIronlc mall, and oIhcr torms ot
compuIcr-mcdlaIcd communlcaIlon havc crcaIcd ncw posslblllIlcs tor
IransnaIlonal torms ot communlcaIlon, otIcn bypasslng Ihc lnIcrcdlaIc
survclllanccotIhcnaIlon-sIaIcandotma|ormcdlaconglomcraIcslachot
IhcscdcvcIopmcnIs, otcoursc, lnIcracIswlIh Ihc oIhcrscrcaIlngcompll
caIcdncwconnccIlonsbcIwccn produccrs, audlcnccs, andpubllcsIocal
andnaIlonaI,sIablcanddlasporlc.
T o J u c | i c n o[ L c c o l i
I 4 =

I lslmposslbIcIosorIIhroughIhlsbcwlldcrlngplcIhoraot changcs ln
Ihc mcdla cnvlronmcnIs IhaIsuoundIhc producIlon ot nclghborhoods.
buIIhcrcarcnumcrousncwtormsotcommunlIyandcommunlcaIlon IhaI
currcnIlyattccIIhccapablIlIy otnclghborhoodsIo bc conIcxI-produclng
raIhcr Ihan Iargcly conIcxI- drlvcn. Jhc much- dlscusscd lmpacI ot ncws
trom CII and oIhcrslmllarglobal andlnsIanIancous torms otmcdlaIlon,
as wcIl as Ihc roIc ot tax IcchnoIoglcs ln Ihc dcmocraIlc uphcavals ln
hlna, asIcrn uropc, andIhc 5ovlcI Lnlon ln I 8 (andslncc) havc
madc lIposslblc oIh torlcadcrs and naIlon-sIaIcs,aswclI asIhclrvarlous
opposlIlonal IocommunlcaIcvcryrapldlyacrosslocaIandcvcnna-
Ilonal IlncsJhcspccdotsuch communlcaIlon ls turIhcrcompIlcaIcdby
Ihc growIh otclccIronlc blllboard communlIlcs such as Ihosc cnabIcd
by Ihc InIcrncI, whlch allow dcbaIc, dlaloguc, and rcIaIlonshlp blldlng
amongvarlousIcrrlIorlallydlvldcdl ndlldualswhoncvchclcssarctorm-
lngcommunlIlcs otlmaglnaIlon andlnIcrcsIIhaIarc IoIhclrdlas
porposlIlonsandvolccs.
JhcscncwtormsotcIccIronlcalIymcdlaIcdcommunlcaIlonarcbcgln-
nlng Io crcaIc r|tol r:qoleoeeJs. no longcr boundcd by IcrrlIory, pass-
porIs,Iaxcs,clccIlons, and oIhcrconvcnIlonal pollIlcaI dlacrlIlcs, buIby
acccssIoboIh IhcsotIwarc andhardwarc IhaIarcrcqulrcdIoconnccIIo
Ihcsc lnIcrnaIlonaIcompuIcrncIworks.Jhustar, acccssIoIhcscvlr-
Iual (cIccIronlc) nclghborhoods Icnds Io bc conncdIo mcmbcrs otIhc
IransnaIlonaI lnIcIllgcnIsla, who, Ihrough Ihclr acccss IocompuIcr Icch-
noIoglcs aIunlvcrslIlcs, Iabs and l lbrarlcs, can basc soclal and pollIlcal
pro|ccIsonIcchnologlcsconsIrucIcdIosoIvclntormaIlon lowprobIcms.
I ntormaIlon and oplnlon ow concucnIIy Ihrough Ihcsc clrculIs, and
whllcIhcsoclalmorphologyotIhcsccIccIronlcnclghborhoodslshardIo
classltyandIhclrIongclIydlthculIIoprcdlcI, Ihcyarccommunl-
Ilcs otsocsorI,IradlnglntormaIlon andblldlngllnksIhaIattccImany
arcasotIltc,tromphlIanIhropyIomarrlagc.
JhcscvlrIual nclghborhoods sccm on Ihc tacc ot lI IorcprcscnI|usI
IhaI abscncc ot tacc-Io-tacc llnks, spaIlal conIlgulIy, andmulIlpIcx soclal
lnIcracIlonIhaIIhc ldcaota nclghborhoodsccmsccnIrallyIo lmply. 1cI
wc musI noI bcIoo qulck Io opposchlghlyspaIlaIlzcdnclghborhoodsIo
Ihcsc vlrIuaI nclghborhoods ot lnIcrnaIlonal clccIronlc communlcaIlon.
Jhc rcIaIlonshlpbcIwccnIhcsc Iwo tormsot nclghborhood ls consldcr-
abIymorccomplcx. In Ihc rsI lnsIancc IhcscvlrIual nclghborhoodsarc
abIcIomoblllzcldcas,oplnlons,moncys,andsoclalllnkagcsIhaIotIcndl
rccIIytowbacklnIo Ilvcdnclghborhoods l nIhctormotcurrcncy ows,
armstorlocalnaIlonallsms,andsupporItorvarlousposlIlonslnhlghIyIo-
T . r o J u c t i u n o [ L u c o l f
I 5
calizcdpubllcsphcrcs.Jhus,lnIhc conIcxt o|thcdcsIrucIlono|thcbabrl
as|ldin^yodhya by llndu cxtrcmlsIs on cccmbcr I 2, thcrcwas
an inIcnscmobilizaIlono|computcr, tax,andrclatcdclccIronlcncIworks,
whlch crcaIcdvcryrapid loops o| dcbatc and ln|ormaIion cxchangc bc-
IwccnlnIcrcsIcdpcrsonsinthcLnlIcd5tatcs, Lanada,lngland, andvarl-
ous parIs o| lndia. Jhcsc cIcctronic loops havcbccncxpIoiIcdcquallyby
ndlans in Ihc LnlIcd 5IaIcs sIandlng on both sldcs o| Ihc grcaI dcbatc
ovcr|undamcnIallsmandcommunal harmony lnconIcmporaryndla.
^IIhcsamcIimc, conIinulngwlIhIhccxampIc o|Ihc l ndlancommu-
nltyovcrscas,boIhIhcprogrcsslvc,sccuIarlstgrouplngsandthclrcounIcr-
parIsonIhcllndurcvlvalisIsldc, mcmbcrso|thcVlshwallnduarishad
andsympaIhizcrso|Ihcbharatlyaanataartyandthcba|rangal, somc-
IlmcsrctcrrcdIoasIhc5angh;|o or|amiIy)armobllizlngIhcscvlrtual
nclghborhoods lnIhclnIcrcsto|poliIicalpro|ccIsthatarcinIcnsclyIocal-
lzlng ln ndla. JhcrloIsIhaIshookmany ndlanciIicsa|tcr cccmbcr
2 can no longcrbcvlcwcdln lsoIaIlon tromthc clcctronlc moblIlza-
Iion otIhcndlan dlaspora,whoscmcmbcrscannowbclnvolvcddlrccIly
in Ihcsc dcvclopmcnIs in ndia through clccIronicmcans. Jhls is not cn-
Ilrclya maIIcro|Iong-disIancc natlonaIlsm o|thcsortIhatbcncdlct^n-
dcrsonhasrcccnIlybcmoancd,^ndcrson I 4) .Ilspartandparcclo|thc
ncwandotIcn contllcIlngrclatlons amongnclghborhoods, translocalalIc-
glanccs, andIhcIoglcotIhcnatlon-statc.
JhcscncwpaIrloIlsms,chap. 8)arcnot|ustthccxIcnslonso|natlon-
alisIandcounIcrnaIlonallsIdcbaIcsbyothcrmcans, aIIhoughIhcrclsccr-
Ialnly a good dcal o|prosthctlc naIlonalism andpolltlcs by nostalgia ln-
volvcdinIhcdcaIingsotcxllcswlIhthclrcrstwhllchomclands.Jhcyals
involvc varlous raIhcrpuzzIing ncw |orms o|Ilnkagc bcIwccn dlasporlc
naIlonalisms, dcIocallzcdpoliIlcal communicaIlons, andrcvlIaIlzcdpollIl-
calcommlImcnIsaIboIhcndso|thcdlasporlcproccss.
Jhis IasI tacIor rctlccIs Ihc ways ln which diasporas arc changlng ln
IlghI otncw |orms o|clccIronlc mcdiatlon. ndlans in thc LniIcd5IaIcs
arc indlrccI conIacIwlIh dcvcIopmcnIs ln ndia IhaI lnvoIvc cIhnlc vio
Icncc,sIaIcIcgiIlmacy, andpartypollIlcs,andthcscvcry diaIogucscrcaIc
ncwtorms o|assoclaIlon,convcrsation, andmoblllzatlonlnIhclr"minorl-
Iarlan poliIlcs ln Ihc LnlIcd5IaIcs. Jhus, many o| thosc most aggrcs-
slvcIy lnvolvcd Ihrough clccIronlc mcans wiIh ndian pollIlcs, arc also
Ihosc mosI commiIIcdIo c||orts to rcorganizcvarlous kinds o|dlaporlc
poliIlcs lnIhc clIlcs andrcgions o|thc LnlIcd5IaIcs. urIhcr, Ihc mobl-
llzaIlonotlndianwomcnagalnsIdomcsticabusc,andIhccollaboraIiono|
progrcssivc ndlan groupswlthIhcircounIcrpars involvcdwlIh alcstlnc
1 | : r o J v c t i o n c ] L c c a | i t
I

and5ouIh^|rica, suggcsIIhaIIhcscvirtuaIcIcctronlcnclghborhoodso||cr
ncwways |or ndlanstoIakcpartlnthcproductlono|localltylnthccitics
andsuburbs lnwhichthcyrcsldcas^mcrlcan Icachcrs, cabdrlvcrs, cngi-
nccrs,andcnIrcprcncurs.
ndianslnthcLnlIcd5Iatcsarcnowcngagcdlnavarlctyo|wayslnIhc
poIiIicsotmultlculIurallsmlnIhcLnltcd5IaIcs,bhaItachar|cc 2). Jhis
cngagcmcnI ls dccpIy i ntIccIcd and a||ccIcdby thclr lnvoIvcmcnt inIhc
lnccndlarypollticso|thclrhomcs, cltlcs, andrclatlvcsln ndla, andalsoin
oIhcrlocaIionswhcrcthcirl ndlan trlcndsandrclativcsIivcandworkin
lngland,^trlca, longlong, andIhclddclast. Jhus, thcpoliticsotdl-
aspora, at IcasI wiIhin thc pasI dccadc, havc bccn dcclsivcIy a||cctcd by
gIobal clcctronlc trans|ormaIions. athcr than a simplc opposlIlon bc
twccnspatlaIandvirtuaI nclghborhoods,whathascmcrgcdlsaslgnlhcant
ncw clcmcnI in Ihc producIlon o| locaIity. Jhc globaI tIow o| lmagcs,
ncws, andoplnlonnowprovldcsparIo|IhccngagcdcuIturaIandpoIiticaI
liIcracy IhaI dlasporic pcrsons bring Io thclr spatiaI nclghborhoods. n
somc ways, Ihcsc globaI tlows add Io thc lntcnsc, andlmpIoslvc, |orcc
undcrwhlch spatlalncighborhoods arc produccd.
Lnllkc Ihc Iargcly ncgativc prcssurcs Ihat thc naIlonstatc pIaccs on
thc producIlon o| conIcxI by IocaI sub|ccIs, Ihc cIcctronlc mcdiaIion o|
communlty in thc dlasporlc world crcaIcs a morc compIicaIcd, dls|unct,
hybrld scnsc o| local sub|cctlviIy. bccausc Ihcsc cIcctronlc communitics
typicallylnvoIvcIhcmorc cducaIcdandclltcmcmbcrso|diasporlccom-
munltlcs,Ihcydo noI dlrccIlya|tcctthc local prcoccupaIions o|lcsscdu-
catcd and prlviIcgcd mlgranIs. css cntranchiscd migrants arc gcncralIy
prcoccupicd wlIh thc pracIlcalitics ot livclihood and rcsldcncc in Ihcir
ncwscItlngs,butthcyarcnoIisolaIcd|romthcscglobaltIows.^5ikhcab
drlvcrlnLhicagomaynotbcabIctopartlcipaIcinIhcpollIlcso|Ihcun-
|ab by using thc ntcrncI, buI hc mighI Ilstcn Io cassctIcs ot cry dcvo-
tlonaI songs and scrmons dcllvcrcd aI Ihc LoIdcn Jcmplc in Ih un|ab.
llscounIcrparts |rom lalIl,akistan,andrancanuscIhcradlo andIhc
casscItcplaycrtoIlstcnIowhatthcychooscIopicktrom thchugcgIobaI
tIowo|audlocssctIcs,cspcclaIlydcvotcdIopopularanddcvoIlonImuslc
andspccchcs.
lt|crcntgroupso|ndlansinIhcLnlIcd5IaIcsalsohcarspccchcsand
scrmonstrom cvcryknownvarlcty otlIlncranIpolitlclan, acadcmlc,hoIy
man, and cnIrcprcncur |rom thc subconIlncnI, whllc Ihcsc makc thcir
^mcrican Iours. Jhcy aIso rcadlrJ| w:st, lrJ| leJ, andothcrm|or
ncwspapcrs thaI lmbrlcaIc ncws o| ^mcrlcan and ndlan poIlIics ln Ihc
samc pagcs. Jhcy participaIc, throughcabIc IcIcvlslon, vidco, andothcr
1 | : r o J u c t i o n o ] L o c a | t
I 7
tcchnologics in thc stcady noisc ol homc cntcrtainmcntproduccd in and
lorthcOnitcdStatcs.Jhusthcworkolthcimagination,chap I through
whichlocal sub)cctiviisproduccd andnurturcdisabcwildcringpaimp-
scstolhi ghlylocaandhighytranslocalconsidcrations
Jhcthrcclactorsthatmostdircctlyallcctthcproductionollocaityi n
thcworldol thcprcscntthcnation-statc, diasporicHows, andclcctronic
andvirtualcommuniticsarc thcmsclvcsarticulatcdi nvariablc,puzzl ing,
somctimcscontradictoryways that dcpcnd onthcculiural , class, histori-
cal,andccologica scttingwithin whichthcycomc togcthcr. lnpart, this
variabilityisitsclaproductolthcwaythattodayscthnoscapcsintcractir-
rcgular|y with nancc mcdia, and tcchnologica imaginarics ,chap. 2) .
owthcsclorccsarcarticulatcdi nlortlorcsbyi sdillcrcntlrom thcirar-
ticulation i n lcshawar, and this in turn lrom crlin or Los ngccs. ut
thcscarcallplaccswhcrcthcbattlcbctwccnthcimaginaricsolthcnation-
statc, olunscttlcdcommunitics, andolgoba clcctronic mcdia is i n lul
progrcss.
What thcy add up to, with al thcircon)unctural variations, is an i m
mcnscncwsctolchallcngcslorthcproductionolocalityi nallthcscnscs
suggcstcdinthischaptcr.Jhcproblcmsolculturarcproductioninaglob-
alizcdworldarconlyparty dcscribablc i ntcrmsolproblcmsolraccand
gcndcrandpowcr, although thcscarcsurcycrucialyinvolvcd.n
cvcnmorclundamcntalacti sthatthcproductionollocalityaways,asl
havc a lragilc and dilhcutachicvcmcntis morc than cvcrshot
through with contradictions, dcstabilizcd by human motion, and dis-
placcdbythclormationolncwkindsolvirtualncighborhoods.
Locality is thus lragilc in two scnscs. Jhc hrst scnsc, with which l
bcganthischaptcr lollows lromthclactthatthcmatcrialrcproductionol
actual ncighborhoods is invariablyup against thc corrosion olcontcxt, il
nothingclsc,in thctcndcncyolthcmatcrialworldtorcsistthcdclaultdc-
signs olhuman agcncy. Jhc sccond scnsc cmcrgcs whcn ncighborhoods
arcsub)cctto thccontcxt-producingdrivcs olmorc complcx hicrarchical
organizations, cspccially thosc ol thc modcrn nationstatc.Jhc rclation-
ship bctwccn thcscdistinct lorms ollragility is itsclhistorical, i n thati
i sthclong-tcrm i ntcraction olncighborhoods that crcatcs such compcx
hicrarchical rclations, a proccss wc havc usualy discusscd undcr such
rubricsasstatclormation. Jhishi storicaldialccticisarcmindcrthatlocal-
ity as a dimcnsion olsocial lilc, andas an articuatcdvaluc ol particuar
nc ghborhoods, isnotatransccndcntstandardlromwhich particularsoci-
cticslallordcviatc Kathcrlocali ty isawayscmcrgcnthomthcpracticcs
ollocalsub)cctsin spccicncighborhoods.Jhcpossibi iticsloritsrcaliza-
1 b t r o J u c I i o o ] L o c n l | I
= I 98
tion as a stcturc ol lccli ng arc thus as variabc and i ncompctc as thc
rcations amongthcncighborhoodsthatconstitutcitspractical instanccs
Jhc many displaccd, dctcrritori alizcd, andtransicnt populations that
constitutctodayscthnoscapcsarccngagcd inthcconstructionollocali,
as astructurc ol lccingoltcni nthclacc ol thccrosion, dispcrsal,andim-
posionol ncighborhoodsascohcrcntsoc|al lormations.Jhisdis)uncturc
bctwccn ncighborhoods as social lormationsandlocalityas apropcyol
socia ilc is not without historical prcccdcnt, givcn that long-distancc
iradc,lorccdmigrations,andpoliticalcxitsarcvcrywidcsprcadi nthc his
toricalrccord.atisncwisthcdis)uncturcbctwccnthcscproccsscsand
thcmass-mcdiatcddiscourscsandpracticcs, i ncludingthosc olcconomic
libcralization, muticulturalism, human righis, and rclugcc claims) that
now surround thc nation-statc. Jhis dis)uncturc ikc cvcry othcr onc,
pointstosomcthingcon)unctural. Jhctaskolthcorizingthcrclationship
bctwccnsuchdis)uncturcs ,chap. 2)andcon)uncturcsthataccountlothc
gobalizcd production ol dillcrcncc now sccms both morc prcssing and
morcdaunting. | nsucha thcory, iti sunikclythatthcrcwill bcanything
mcrcaboutthclocal
1 b t r o J u I o o ] L o c n l I
= I 99
N0l6S
L | J|1V 1 . | 1VL J LV
JhC aOsCnCC C spCCUC CtIaICns tn IhC ICXI C Ihts Cssay shCud nCI CCnvCy IhC m
prCsstCn IhaI I Was tmmaCuaICy CCnCCtvCd. Jhs nIrCduCICry ChapICr kC IhC
OCCk IhaI CCWs I, Ouds Cn many CurtCnIs tn IhC sCCIa and human sCtCnCCs CvC:
IhC pasI IWC dCCadCs. Pany C IhCsC dCOIs W OC apparCnI tn IhC nCICs IC IhC Chap
ICrs IhaI CCW.
2 Cr a uCt IrCaImCnI C Ihts tdCa, sCC IhC tnItCduCICty Cssay Oy Pppadutat and
rCCkCnrdgC Cn uO!C PCdCrnIy n ndta tn Lon:uug oJm[. u0|c LuIurc c
ouI :cn WorJ, Cd. LarC P. tCCkCntdgC (PnnCapCs: LnvCtstIy C PnnCsCIa
rCss, I-2U. Jhs CCCCItCn C Cssays CXCmptUCs CnC sItaICgy Cr Cngagng
IhC gCOa mCdCtn n a spCCUC sIC.
L | J|LV < . 1oJ L LLV1 J 111V1 L1 1 |1 \1L J1
L L1LVJ1 1L L L7
lnC ma|Ct CXCCpItCn s tCdtC ]amCsCn, WhCsC WCrk Cn IhC rCaICnshp OCIWCCn
pCsImCdCtnsm and aIC CapIasm has tn many Ways nsptrCd Ihts Cssay. JhC dCOaIC
OCIWCCn )amCsCn and P]az Phmad tn ocic| Jx, hCWCvCr, shCWs IhaI IhC CtCaICn
C a gCOatZtng ParXsI nartaItvC n CuIura maIICrs ts dtUCuI ICrtICty ndCCd
()amCsCn ! Vb, Phmad I Vb). Py CWn CCrI n Ihs CCnICXI s IC OCgIn a rCsIruC-
Uttng C IhC ParXsI naHaItvC (Oy sIrCssng ags and dsjunCIutCs) IhaI many ParX-
sIs mtghI Und aOhC::CnI. buCh a rCsIruCIurng has IC avCd IhC dangCts C COICraI-
ng dCtCnCC WtIhn IhC Jhtd NCrd, Ctdtng IhC sCCta rCCrCnI (as sCmC :CnCh
pCsImCdCtntsIs sCCm tnCnCd IC dC), and rCIanng IhC nattaIvC auIhCtIIy C IhC
ParXsI ItadICn, t avC: C gtCaICr aIICnICn IC gCOa tagmCnIaICn, unCCtIanIy,
and dCrCnCC.
2 JhC dCa C tIno:cct s mCtC uy CngagCd tn Chap. 3.
~ 2 0
L M P L K 3 . L | L b P | L M N L b L P | L b . N L L b P N L L L L K | L b | L K
P K PN b N P | L N P | P N M K L | L | L L 1
JhcscdcasaboutthccuIturaIcconomyo|aworId nmoton,as wcIIasthcIog|co|
tcrmssuchasrtrno:cur, arcorc|uIIydcvclopcd nchap. 7.
2 JhssnotthcpIacc|orancxtcndcdrcvcwo|thccmcrgcnt hcIdo|cuIturaIstudcs.
tsBrtshI ncagcsarccarc|uIIycxpIorcd naIl ! 986)andohnson, ! 986) Butt
s cIcarthatthsBrtshtradton, assocatcdIargcIywththcnow-dasporc B-
ngham SchooI, stakng ncw |orms n thc Lntcd Statcs, ast comcs nto contact
wthAmcrcancuIturaIanthropoIogy, thcncwhstorcsm, andIanguagcandmcda
studcsnthcAmcrcantradton.
J Jhc |oIIowngdscussondrawshcav|IyonAppaduraandBrcckcnrdgc ! 99 ! a).
L M P | L K 5 . | | P1 | N L V | M N L L L K N | 1 ' M c L L L L | L N | P | L N
L | | N L | P N L K | L K L
Jhcsc matcraIs ncIudc thc arathIaguagc magazncs Lruukur, :rtuui|u, rkrt
bhurut, andorutkur, whch havc thcr countcrparts n Jam I, |nd, and BcngaI.
Jhcscmagazncsprovdc gossp oncrckctstars, rcvcws o|crckctbooks Lng-
lsh,ncwsandaaIysso|crckctnLngIandandclscwhcrc| nthcCommonwcalth,
andsomctmcsaIsocovcragco|othcrsports, as wcII as cncmaandothcr|ormso|
popuIarcntcrtancnt. ln thcm, thcrc|orc, both nthc tcxts and nthcadvcrtsc-
mcnts, crckctstcxtualIysmuItancousIyvcrnacuIarzcdanddrawnntothcgIam-
our o|cosmopoItan I||c. A dctaIcdanaIyss o|thcsc matcraIswarrants a scparatc
study. Jhcsc magazncs, aIong wth books bycrckctcrssuch as orutuk uun orutkur
,ghostwrttcn arath autobogaphcso|Kav Shastr andSandplatI), |orm thc
basso|thcIngustcandrcadcrIydccoIonzatono|crckct.lamdccpIygratc|uIto
LccSchIcsngcrwhohuntcddown somco|thcscmatcraIs |ormcnthcbookstorcs
andbywayso|loona.
L M P L K 6 . N O N b c K | N M L L L | L N | P | | NPL | N P L N
Byfrrriforiu|, l mcanthcconccrno|thcccsuswthboroughs,countcs, andrcgons
,Luddcn I 99 I ) .
2 I owc ths contrast bctwccn spccaI andItngcascs to Lpcsh Chakrabarty, to
whoml aIso owcthcrcmndcrthat ths probIcmscrtcaItomyargumcnt.
L M P | L K 7 . | | | L P L K | K | N L K L | P | l b N
LarIcrvcrs|onso|thschaptcrwcrcprcscntcdatthcCcntcr|orl ntcrnatonaIA||ars
ataardLnvcrsty, thc lrogam nthc ComparatvcStudyo| SocaI Jrans|or
matonsatthcLnvcrstyo|chgan,andthcCcntcr|orAs|an StudcsatthcLn-
vcrstyo|Amstcrdam. lamgratc|uItothcaudcnccsoncacho|thcscoccasons|or
thcrprobngqucstonsandusc|uIcrtcsms.
2 |crc, l am dcIghtcd to hccd a caIl by Ircdrk Barth, whosc own work on cthnc
groupsandboudarcs I 969)rcmansacIasscstudyo|thcsocaIcontcxto|cthnc
proccsscs,|ormorcstud|cso|thcrcIatonshpbctwccngIobazatonandthcmob
Izatono|cthnc|dcnttyBarth I 995). orancarIyandprcsccntc||orttoInkcth
nctytothcntcrnatonaordcr, sccLnIoc I 986.
J ln many ways, ths chaptcr s a daIoguc wth thc mportant coIIccton cdtcdby
CI ||ord Cccrtz, L oocrtr: un Mru otutr:. rr gur:t ]or ornq n :u un ]rcu
M o f r : t o C u u j t t r : J 7
202
I 96J) . lroduccdundcrthc auspccs o|thc Commttcc |orthcComparatvcStudy
o|lcwlatonsat thcLnvcrstyo| Chcago, thsvoIumccontansssaysbysoc-
oIogsts,anthropoIogsts,andpoI|tcaIsccntstsandrcprcscntsama)ormomcnto|
crossdscpIna ntcracton on thcsub]cct o| modcrn|zaton. LccpIyn|Iucnccd
bythchcrtagco|axVcbcrandthcsubscqucntc||orso|LdwardShIsandJal-
cottlarsons to ntcrprct Vcbcr nthcLntcdStatcs, thc cssays | nthccoIIcct|on
gcncraIlyrcprcscntapostvc cnthusasmaboutmodcrnzatonthatI do notsharc.
Somco|thc cssaysaIsosubscrbc tothcscnsco|aprmordaIstsubstratc nAsan
andA|rcansocctcsthatsthcdrccttargcto|mycrtcalrcmarksnth|schaptcr.
Lthcr contrbut|ons, notabIythc onc by CI ||ord Cccrtz, arc carc|uI t notc that
what appcar to bc thc prmorda o| socaI I|cIanguagc, racc, knshparc )ust
that,appcaranccs. Cccrtzsccsthcmasparto|thcrhctor|co|naturc, o|hstoand
rootstowhchmanypoIt|cansnthcncwstatcsappcaIcd. Jhc prmordaIstvcw
st|II has wdcsprcadcurrcncy. Lnc cxampIc amongmany, morc than two dccadcs
a|tcrthc appcarancc o|thcCccrtz voIumc, srr rmorul Lrullrngr. trnciq n fhr
Lontrmjoru Wor I 986), cdtcdbyohnStack. ltshowsthcsturd|ncsso| hc dca
o|thcprmord|aIasa|act,not)ustanappcaranccoratropc,nthcsocalIco|cth-
ncgroups.
4 Jhs thcoo|thc cxtrcmcvoIcnccnow|rcqucntIyassocatcdwth cthncclashcs
sadumbratcd|nthcmostprcImnao||ormshcrc. ndcvcIopngt, IhavcrcIcd
onavarctyo|sourccs andntcrprctatons.lotablcamongthcschavcbccnBcnc-
dctAndcrson'sspcchc|ouIatonsaboutracsmandvoIcnccnmugnrd Lommun-
tr: I 98J). Jhc work o| Ashs landy and Vccna Las on communaI voIcncc | n
SouthAsa nthcpast dccadc nLas ! 990)andLas's most rcccnt workonSkh
mItant dscoursc n Inda sncc thc Iatc ! 970s ! 995) havc gvcn mcvaIuabIc n-
sghts ntothcways nwh|chvoIcnccsIocaIzcd, narratvzcd, andpcrsonaIzcd.
InaIIy, achIIngcssayby LonaId Sutton I 995) on cannbalsm amongcountcr
rcvoIutona pcasants n Chna n I 968 o||crs a powcr|uI gImpsc nto thcways
n whch thc mostcxtrcmc |orms o|poItcaI voIcncc can bc lnkcd to statc-IcvcI
poItcs and poIccs. Ls al's brIIant cthnography about|utu rc|ugccs n
Janzana I 995)hasbccna pan|uI nspraton. Jakcn togcthcr, thcscworks and
manyothcrs) Icndsupport to thc dcathatbtaI damagc to thc cmbodcdLthcr
as nstanccdnthcbodcso|Lthcrs) scIoscIytcdupwththclnkbctwccnnd-
vduaI dcnttcsandcxtraIocaIIabcIsandcatcgor|cs. Jhc|ulldcvclopmcnto|ths
argumcntaboutragc,bctrayal,statcsponsorcdcatcgorcs, and|ntmatcknowlcdgc
o|pcrsonsmustawatanothcroccason. ShcrryLrtncr|srcsponsbIcorpcrsuadng
mcthatthschaptcraswcIIasthsbooknccdcdsomcscrouscngagcmcntwththc
topco|cthncvoIcncc.
5 I shouId notc hcrc that my vcw shouId not bc strctIy dcnthcd wth a statc-
ccntcrcd pcrspcctvc on contcmpora cthnc voIcncc. l am sympathctc to thc
gcncraIargumcnto|KobcrtLcs)arIa|s andAIbcrt|Icnman, ! 99)thatnotaIIcon-
tcmporav|olcncccanbc attrbutcdto thcvoIcnt dscpInatcchn|qucso|thc
modcrnnaton-statc. Jhcrc sccrtanIyagrcatdcao|unccrtanyandanomcthat
|ccdsthcworstsccncso|cthn|cvoIcnccnthcworId. Jhs notonounccrtanty,
rthcrthanknowIcdgc, as charactcrngthcmoraI cconomyo| voIcnccccrtanly
nccdssystcmatccxpIoraton. orthc momcnt, t|sworthnotngthatcvcn|nthosc
stuatons n whch moraI dsordcr, cpstcmoIogcaIbrcakdown, andsocaI unccr-
M o t r : t o C h u j f r r 7
2 0 J ~
tainarcrampant,thc|actso|vioIcncco|tcnshowthcrcmarkabIcsaI|cnccostatc
sponsorcdtcchniqucso||dcnticationandpoIit|caIIystagcddramaso|unccrtainty,
scapcgoat|ng, and cxposurc (scc, |or cxampIc, dc VaaI I 994 on thc gcnoc|dc in
Kwanda)
L M P | 1 b K 8 | P1 K | L1 | b N P P L b L | K b b
LarI|crvcr|onso|thiscssaywcrc prcscntcdatthcCcntcr|or thc CriticaIAnaIysis
o| Contcmporary CuIurc at utgcrs Lnivcrsity, at thc Ccntcr |or JranscuIturaI
Stud|cs(Ch|cago), andatthcOnivcrsityo|Chicago.
2 Scc thc convcrgcncc bctwccn this proposaI and thc argumcnt om thc Ch|cago
CuIturaIStudicsCroup( I 992,5 J7) .
lamgratc|uItohiI|pSchcr,who|ntroduccdmctothctcrmIrun:nuIon.
L M P | b K 9 . M b | K L L L L 1 | L P L L L P | 11
Jhcrc is no idcaI way to dcs|gnatc Ioca|t|cs as acaI soc|aI |orms. Jcrms such as
|ucr, :Ir, loculr aII havcthc|rstrcngths and wcakncsscsJhctcrmnrgrorroo (apart
|romitsusc| navoidngthccon|sionbctwccnIocaIityas thcsinguIar|ormo|IocaI
iticsandIocaI|as propcrordimcnsiono|sociaII||c)aIsohasthcvirtucthatit
suggcsts ciaI |ty, mmcd|acy, andrcproducibiIitywithoutany cccssay |mpI|ca
t|ons |or scaIc, modcs o| conncctiv|ty, intcaI homogcncity or sharp
boundarics.Jh|sscnsco|nc|ghborhoodcanaIsoaccommodatc|magcssuchascir-
cuit andbordcronc,whhhavc bccnargucdtobc prc|crabIc tosuch |magcs as
community and cspcciaIIy whcrc transnationaI migration is in
voIvcd(Kousc I 99 I ) . itcarr|csthcburdcn o|co-optinga coIIoquiaI
tcrm|ortcchnicaIusc
2 Jhis critiquc is consistcnt w|th (andpartIy insp|rcdby)ohanncsIabians
crit|quc o|thc dcniaI o|cocvaIncss incthnography and thc rcsuIt|ng crcationo|a
ct|vc timc o| and |orthcLthcr( I 98 ) . \ct th|s cssaydocs not takcup thcvcxcd
qucstion o|thcrcIationsh|pbctwccnthccoproduction o|spacc and timc |ncthno-
graphic pract|cc, northcdcbatc (sccbcIow)ovcrwhcthcrspaccandtimctcndto
cann|baIizccachothcr| nmodc,cap|taIistsocictics.Jhcprcscntargumcntabout
isinpartintcndcdto opcn upthcqucstiono| timc andtcmporaIityin thc
rc o| amgratc|uI to |ctcr cIs|orrcmindingmc thatthcpro-
duct|on o| iscqaIIy rcIcvant to howcthnography andIocaIityhavc
historicaIIy oncanothcr
J Athispont,myvicwo|IocaI|ationconvcrgcsw|ththcgcncraIargumcnto||cnr|
Lc|cbv( I 99I , hcstrcsscsthcrcIationshipo|capitaIismand modcrnity
tothis ncgativcscnsc o|IocaIization. Lc|cbvrs ownaccounto|thc nation-statcis
br|c|andcrypt|caIthoughtiscIcarthathcaIsosawthcIinksbctwccn thcprcsup-
posit|onso|thcmodcrnnat|on-statcandthccapitaIist proccsso|Iocaization.Jhc
qucston o|howmyargumcntmightrcIatctothosco|Lc|cbvrc( I 99 ! ) and|arcy
( I 989), aIthough important, cxcccdsthcscopco|thischaptcr.
! c | r | c L r u l r r b
204
| 0|0f8
AbuLughod, ( 989)bqorr Lurorun Hrgrmon: 1rr Worl o:trm L. t 213J. lcw
\ork Lx|ordOnivcrsityrcss.
( I 99 I ) Vritingaganst CuIturc. lnK. Iox(Ld. )Krcuturng ntrroolog Workng
n Irr rt:rrI. SantaIc.SchooIo|AmcricanKcscarch.
Ahmad, A. ( ! 987)amcsons Khctoric o| Lthcrncss andthc lationaI AIIcgory, oocul
!rxI 7 J25.
Ai,S . ( I 98 ! ) LrckrI Lrlgrl]ul. IcIhi. Kupa.
AIIcn I. K. ( I 985)Lrckrt 0H Irr ir. ondon BritishBroadcast|ngCorporat|on.
Am|n, S. ( ! 980) Llu:: un Pution: H:Iorcull un in trr Lurrrnt Lr::. lcw \ork and
London. onthIyKcvicwrcss
( ! 984)CandhiasahatmaLorakpurIistrict,LastcrnL, ! 92! 2. lnKanait
Cuha(Ld. )ouulIrm otur:: Wrting: on ooutr :un H:tot un oocr{ voI J. IcIiand
London. L|ordOnivcrsityrcss.
Andcrson, B. ( I 98J) mugirr LommuniI|r: K(rcIon: on trr Lrgin un orru o] Putonuli:m.
ondon. crso
( I 99 I ) Ccnsus, ap, uscum. n hsmugnr Lommunitr: (rcv. cdition). lcw
\ork andLondoncrso.
( I 994)LxodusLrificul nqut 20(2) ! 27.
Appadurai, A. ( I 9 8 I ) Worri un Lon[cI unrr Lolonul Kulr. lcw\orkCambrdgcOn|
vcrs|tyrcss
(Ld. ) ( I 98) Commoditics and thc oItics o|aIuc. n |s r oocul L(]r o]
1rng: LommoIir: n Lullurul tr:rctitr. Cambr|dgcCambr|dgcOnivcrsityrss.
( I 988) uttng |icrarchy |n ts Iacc Lulturul ntrroolog J ( I , Icbruay)
J750
( I 990) o|thcScI|raiscandLmotionin|| ndu ndia. nC.A.
Lutzand Abuughod(Lds.)Lunqucgr un Irr oliIic: o] LmoIion. Cambr|dgc Cam-
Ln|vcr|rss.
205
/ppadUra|, /. and ! /. brcCkcnr|dgc. | a) ^arragc, ^|graI|On and^Oncy. ^tra
a|r !|ncmaO|paCcmcnI, \suc| PIhroo|ojj + | bpr|ng). J~ J.
| b) ^UcUm /rc !OOdIOh|nk. cr|Iagc OnV|cw| n nd|a. n . arp,
b. c| nc, and TbarraraUIO |d.) u:rums c 1htr LommuIrs: 1r o|Iic o]
u|c LuIurc. Nah|ngIOn,. L. bm|IhOn|an nI|IUI|On rc.
| J) Ub|C ^Odcrn|Iy |n nd|a. n L/. brcCkcnr|dgc |d.) Losumj orr-
Ij. u|c Lu|Iurr c ouIh Pu Wor|. ^|nncapOi: Ln|Vcr|Iy O ^|nncOIarc.
/pIcr . L | J) 1hr o|hc o]ornzcIo. !h|CagO. Ln|Vcr|Iy O !h|CagOrc.
/rmIrOng, . | ) hc \CC|dcnIa /|Cc, (]]rrrcrs: P 1ounc| o] rmsI LulIurcl
Iur: J | J) : J+.
/aOn, ). . | ) a\|Ona|m, !Oba|ZaI|On and ^Odcrn|Iy, 1ro_, Lu|Iurr ur
ocrIj ]Unc)JJ.
/rnOd, . | oo) OUCh|ng IhcbOdy. crpcCI|Vc On Ihc nd|an agUc. n K !Uha
and !. ! bp|Vak |d.) r|rcIr uc|Im Iur. cw TOrk and \XOrd. \XOrd
Ln|Vcr|Iy rc.
/ad, | oJ) O\c On bOdy, a|n and rUIh |n ^cd|cVa !hr|I|an K|IUa,Lcoomj
c ocr[ J: JoJ~JJ.
ba|bar, L | ) hc aI|On Orm: | IO and dcOOy. n . ba|bar and . Nacr
Ic|n |d.)Kccr, cIior Llcs. Pmjuous trIIrs . OndOn and Pcw TOrk. VcrO.
ba|bar, L, and . Nacr\c|n. |d.) | ) Kccr, cIo Lmss: Pmjuous rIIir:. On-
dOnand cwTOrk VcrO.
barbcr, . | o) OpUar /rI |n /t|Ca, P]rcc Iur: Kr9ru J | J bcpIcmbcr): ~o.
barr|cr, !. . |d.) | o ) 1hr Lr:us brIsh c rurrsrcItrs. cwch|:^anOhar.
barIh, |d. ) | ) LIhrc rou: u bourrs. bOIOn.|IIc, brOwn.
. | J) Kcdcn|ng Ihc Oma|n O /nIhrOpOOg|Ca |COUrc. rccnIcd aI
Ihc Ln |Vcr|Iy O !h|CagO, \CIObcr.
barUah, b. | o) mm|gra\|On, \hn|C !On|CI andO|I|CaUrm|,/am oJ
Pc umrj J | , OVcmbcr). o+~1 J.
baCh, . , .!|CkbCh|cr, L bZanIOnbanC,cIa. | +) cIos Oou: 1rc:cIoc|
rorcI:, oIco|oc| rrccmrnIs, c rIrnIurc|zr cIo-IcIr . anghOc, a., and
Kcad|ng,L..:!OrdOnandbrcaCh.
baUdr|ard, ). | J) 1hr rror o]roucIo. bI. OUt: cOrc.
baUman, K, and L . br|gg. | ) Oc\tC and crOrmanCc a!r|I|C crpcCItVc
On angUagc and bOC|a |c, Pruc| Krtru o]Ihroo|ojj . J~oo.
bayy, L/ . | o) hc \r|gtn O bwadch| |Omc ndU) . !OIhand nd|an bOC|
cIy, ~ J. n /ppadUra| |d.) 1r occ| L]r o] 1|js: LommoIrs Lu|Iuru|
rrsrcI0r. !ambr|dgc. !ambr|dgc Ln|Vcr|Iy rc.
| oo) c ocr[ c Ihr ckj o] Ihr brIsh Lmrr. cw !ambr|dgc |IOy
Ond|a, , . !ambr|dgc. !ambr|dgc Ln|Vcr|Iy rc.
. | o) mrrc| rrc: 1hc brIsh Lmrr c Ihr Wor|, 1 78u-I830. OndOn and
cwTOrk: Ongman.
bcnjam| n, N | [ J| ) hcNOrk O/rI |n Ihc/gc O ^cChan|Ca KcprOdUCI|On.
n ./rcndI|d.)||umcIio:. .ZOhn|ran. )cwTOrk: bChOCkcn bOOk.
bcran\, . | ) 1r PcIomj o] cIoc| cIc:j: cuIhomr, Ooc, c L9rtjcj L(]r.
!h|CagO and OndOn. Ln|Vcr|IyO!h|CagO rc
bcranI, ., and L rccman | J) Uccr PaI|Ona |Iy,bouctj 2 ( i ). +~o.
bhabha, . . |d.) | ) cIo c crrcIo . OndOn andcwTO KOUIcdgc.
b l | o j r c h j
20

| +) 1hr LoccIo o] Lu|Iurc. OndOn and cwTOrk. KOUIcdgc

bhaIIaCharjcc,/.| J) hc ab|IOXnOm|naI|On.aI|On,NOmanand Ihc nd|an
mm|granIbOUrgcO||c,u|c Lu|Iurr J ( | ). ++.
b|rba|ngh, | o) ndO!ar|bbcan cI !r|CkcIcr, 1oroIo ouIh Psc Kr9ru J ( | ).
J~ .
baCk Ub|C bphcrc !OcCI|Vc | J) hc b aCk Ub|C bphcrc./Ub|C!UIUrc bOOk.
!h|CagO. Ln|Vcr| IyO!h|CagO rc.
bOCh,^. | o) rom b|rssj to \o|ccr sIo_ c ro|ojj |r Ihr Lrcumc|s|o KIuc| o] Ihr
trc o] ccjc:ccr. !ambr|dgc. !ambr|dgc Ln|Vcr|Iy rc.
bOndUranI, ). V | Jo) LoqursI o] \o|mcr: 1hr chc h|osohj o] Lo[cI. r|nCcIOn,
.). . r|nCcIOn Ln|Vct|Iy rc.
bOrncman, ). | J) br|ojj Ihr 1uo brrs , k, cIo. !ambr|dgc: !ambr|dgc
Ln|Vcr|Iyrc.
bOUrd|cU,. | ) !uI|tr o] c 1hrotj o] rccIcr. !ambr|dgc:!ambr|dgcLn|Vcr|Iyrc.
"- | o+) sIcIio P occ| LrIqur o] Ihr 1ujrmcI o] 1cslr. !ambr|dgc,^a.. ar
VardLn|Vcr|Iy rc.
bra, . K | +) 1hr o|Iics o]c scr rcccr. !ambridgc. !ambr|dgc LntVcr|Iy
rc.
braUdc, | o ~ o+) Lt||zcIo c LcIc||sm, ! 5Ih-I 8Ih LrIutj |J VO.). OndOn.
!O|n.
brcCkcnr|dgc, ! /. |d.) | oJ) UmbcrLc|nIhcV|jayanagarara.rccnIcdaIIhc
!OncrcnCcOnIhc|ngdOmOV|jayanagarIhcbOUIh/|anI|IUIc, Ln|Vcr|IyO
c|dcbcrg, c|dcbcrg, ]Uy + , oJ.
. | o) hc /cIhcI|C and O|I|C O !OOn|a !OcCI|ng nd|a aI NOrd
a|r, LomcrcItr Iur: ocr[ u sIotj J |J); J~J .
- | J) |d.)Losumj orntj. u|c Lu|Iurr c ouIh P:cr Wor|. ^| nncapO
|. Ln|Vcr|IyO^|nncOIa rc.
brcCkcnr|dgc, ! /., and cIcrVan dcrVccr|d. ) . | J) !rrIc sm c Ihr osIco|oc|
rrccmrI rrstcItrs o c ouIh c Wor|. h|adph|a.Ln|Vcr|IyOcnnyVan|a
rc.
brcwcr, ) . | o) 1r cus o] ourr: Wcr, orj, c Ihr Lrj|sh IcIr, I 688~I 783. cw
TOrk. nOp.
!ahOUn, ! |d.) | J) crrmc: c Ihr u|Ic hrrr. !ambr|dgc,^a. andOndOn.
^.
!mpbc, ! | o) 1hr KomcIc LIhc c Ihr rI o] orm Losumrrsm. \XOrd. ba|
baCkwc.
!angU|hc|m,!. | o) 1hr oimc| c Ihr uIho|ojcc|. cwTOrk: ZOnc bOOk
!arr|Ihcr, ^. , b. !O|n, and b. Ukc |d.) | oJ) br LuIrjotj o] Ihr rrso !am
br|dgc!ambrtdgc Ln|Vcr|Iy rc.
!ahman, K. | o) uIros, |cjrrs c Ihr Lrou. 1r hrommo o] c LrckcI. cw
ch|: \r|cnIOngman.
!aIOtad|, L | [ J| o) 1hr mujc_ :IIuIor o] ocr[. !ambrtdgc, ^a.:
rc.
!hakrabarIy, . | oJ) !Ond|I|On Or nOwcdgc O NOrk|ng-!a !Ond|I|On:
mpOycr, !OVcrnmcnI andIhc]UIcNOrkcr O!aCUIIa, o+. n K !Uha
and !. L bp|Vak |d.) r|rcIr uc|Irm Iuir:. cw TOrk and \XOrd. \XOrd
Ln|VcrtIyrc.
b l o j r c h j
= 20
Lhattcrcc, I. ( I 8)cIonc|:I 1oghI cnd Ihr Lo|onu| Wor|d. A rriruIrr :courr lon-
doncdbooks.
( I 3) !hr cIon cnd L rugmrI:: Lo|onc| und o:Ico|onc| |orr Irinccton
I.. IrincctonLnivcrsty Ircss.
. ,
Lhicago Lutura 5tudics !roup( I 2)Lritica Nuticutuaism,LrIcc| nui I 8 ( 3)
530-55.
Larkc,P, and|. Larkc( I 82)lighights and^ctionKcpays". ldcooy, 5portand
thcNcdia. l n| . largrcavcs (Ld.)jorI, L|Irr und dro|og. london Koutcdgc and
cganIau.
Li||ord,|. , and!.L. Narcus (Lds.)( l 8)WrIng L|Iurr: !hr orIc: cnd o|Ic: o]Ihnog-
rcjh. bcrkccy, Lnivcrsity o|Lai|orniaIrcss.
Lohn,b. 5. ( I )5tructuraLhangc in lndianKura5ocicty.n K. L. rykcnbcrg(Ld. )
Lund LonIro| cnd occ| Irc|urr n ndun Ioi. NadisonLnivcrsipo|WisconsinIrcss.
. ( I 87) hc Lcnsus, 5ocia 5tructurc andLbcctication in 5outh ^sia. nAn
AnIhrojo|og:I umong Ihr :Iorun: cnd LIhrr ::u:. Lchiandondon Lx|ordLnivcr
sityIrcss
Lomaro||,|, and|. Lomaro|| ( I 2a)hcNadmanandthcNigrant. n Ihnogrcjh
und |hr :Iorcu| mcgnc|on. boudcr, Loo.:WcstvicwIrcss.
. ( I 2b) Lotcmism andLthnicity. ln Ihogrujh und I:r :Iorcc| mugncIion.
boudcr, Loo. . WcsicwIrcss.
Loopcr, and P 5toc ( I 8) cnsions o| Lmpirc and Visions o| Kuc,Amrrccn
|hno|og:I I (4). 0-2 I .
Lorbin, P ( I 8) !hr ou| uJ Ihr rugrcnI: Ldor cnd Ihr rrnch occ| mcgncIion. Lam-
bridgc, Nass. larvardLnivcrsityIrcss.
Lortzar ( I 84)A LrHcin Lcu. !. Kabassa(rans.)Icw`ork. nop|.
Lranc, L. ( I 72)n0:n|r Lo||rgr:. Lhicago. Lnivcrsityo|LhicagoIrcss.
Lurtin,I.( I 84)Lro::-Lu|Irc| !cdr n WorJ :Ioi. Lambridgc:LambridgcLnivcrsity
Ircss.
Las, Vccna (Ld.) ( I 0) rror o] \o|rncr: LommunIr:, oIs und rrror: n ouIh A:c.
Lchi and Icw`ork Lx|ord LnivcrsityIrcss.
. ( I 5) LrIicc| urnI. An AnIhrojo|ogicu| rr:jrcIr on LonIrmjorui ndu. Lchi
Lx|ordLnivcrsipIrcss.
dc Lcrtcau, N. ( I 84)1br ruc|cr o] Lrrrdc Li|r. bcrkccy andlondon: Lnvcrsityo|
Lai|oiaIrcss.
Lccuzc, !., and !uattari ( I 87) A !houcnd |uIru. LujIu|t:m cnd chzojhrrnc.
b. Nassumi (rans. )Ninncapois. Lnivcrsityo|NinncsotaIrcss.
dc c ow, N. ( I 7) rcchng ]or Lxcr||rncr. 1br L|o_ cnd rcu o] jorI n ndc. Icw
Lchi and ludhianaayani.
Lcsarais,K.,and^.cinman. ( I 4)ViocnccandLcmoraiationinthcIcwWord
Lisordcr,AnIhrojo|og !odc I0 (5): I 2.
dcWaal,^. ( I 4)!cnocidcinKwanda,AnIhrojo|og !odc I 0( 3) : I-2.
Liawara, N. ( I 0) Lngishncss and backncss: Lrickct asLiscoursc on Looniaism
Lc|coo I 3 ( 2) 830-44.

Lirks, I. b. ( I 87)1r o||ou Lrou. LIhnoh:Ioi o] cn ndiun ^ingdom. Lambridgc Lam-

bridgcLnivcrsityIrcss.
. ( ! 8) hc Ioicing o|radition in Loonia 5outh l ndia. Ircscntcd at thc
LthnohistoryWorkshop, Lnivcrsityo|Icnnsyvania, Ihiadcphia, I 8.
b r | o g r u j h
208 =
Lockcr, L. ( I 7) Ior o] ndicn LrcrrI. LchiNacmian.
Lougas,N. ( I 7) Irimitivc Kationing. ln K. irth (Ld.) !hrmr: n conomic AnIhrojo|og.
london. avistock.
Lougas, N. , and b. shcwood( I 8 I ) !hr Wor|d o] |vod. Icw`ork. basicbooks.
Luranti, ^., and!oodwin, \ ( I 2) Lungcgr u: cn nIrrucIur hrnomrnon. Lambridgc.
Lambridgc LnivcrsityIrcss.
Lias, I. ( I 3| I 78) 1r Lr|zng rocr, vo. I . L. |cphcott (rans.) Lx|ord: basi
backwc.
Lias,I. , andL. Lunning( I 8)[urI ]or LxcIrmrI. jorI und Lrurr n Ihr Lr|zng rocr:.
Lx|ord. basi backwc.
Lnoc, \ ( I 8) Lthnicity, thc 5tatc, andthc Icw l ntcrnationa Lrdcr. ln]. 5tack
(Ld.) !hr rmord| Lhu||rgr IhncI n Ihr LonImjoru_ Wor|d. Icw `ork: !rccn-
woodIrcss.
Lwad,l ( I 8)LIuI rordrncr. Iaris. b. !rassct.
abian, ). ( I 83) !mr cnd Ihr LIhrr: ou AnIhrojo|og ^crr I: LnrcI. Icw`ork: Loum-
bia Lnivcrsity Ircss.
cathcrstonc, N. ( I 0) L|onu| L|Irr. cIonu|m, L|onc|zuIion und drnIQ. london and
Icwbu Iark, Lai|.. 5agc.
cd, 5. ( I 88)IotcsonWordbcat, un|c L|Irr I ( I ). 3 I -37.
cman, 5. ( I 8) Iarrativc ascstimony Lamus!hr |cgr. n |. Ihcan (Ld.) rcdng
crruIrr. om, LIhc:, dro|og. Loumbus Lhio5tatc LnvcrsityIrcss.
ostcr, K. ]. ( I I ) Naking Iationa Luturcsin thc !oba Lcumnc, Annuu| mru o]
AnIhrojo|og 20:235-0.
rascr, I. ( I 2)Kcthinkingthc Iubic 5phcrc ^ Lontribtion tothcLritiuco|^c-
tuay Lxisting Lcmocracy. n L. Lahoun (L)cnrrmu: und Ihr n|ic jhrrr. Lam
bridgc,Nass., andlondon:NlIrcss.
rac,| . !. ( I 00)!hr Lo|dr Dough: A Iud n cgc cd r|gon. london.Nacmian.
rcitag,5.( I 8)Lo||rcIir AcIon cnd LommnI: un|c Arrn n Ihr mrrgrncr o] Lommunc|:m
n orIh ndu. bcrkccy: Lnivcrsityo|Lai|orniaIrcss.
--. (I 0)lcttcrtoauthor.
ricdman,| . ( I 0)bcinginthcWord !obaization and locaization. n N. cathcr
stonc (Ld.) Lonc| Lu|Irr. london
rykcnbcrg, K. L. ( I 77)hc5icnt5cttcmcnti n5outhlndia, I 73-I 853: P ^naysis
o|thc Koc o| nams in thc Kisc |thc lndian lmpcral 5ystcm. l n K. L. rykcnbcrg
(Ld.)Lund 1tnrr und ruunI in oIh Aic. IcwLchi. Lricnt longman.
--.( I 87)hcLonccpto|"Naority" asa Lcviishorcci nthcIoitics o|Nod
crn ndia. ^ listoriographic Lommcnt, Joumc| o] Ihr Lommonurc|Ih Io_ und Lom-
jumIur o|Ic: 25( 3,Iovcmbcr) 27-74.
!ans, L. ( I 85)!hr Lnd o] c L||urr !ourd c Lcnrrc0rr AnIhrojo|og. bcrkccy Lnivcrsity
o|Lai|orniaIrcss.
!ccrtz, L.( I 3)L|d ocr|r cnd ru IcIr: 1r [urI]or odrn| n A:c cnd rcu. Icw
`ork. rccIrcss.
( I 73) Kitua and 5ocia Lhangc. ^|avancsc Lxampc. n !hr nr]rr|0|on o]
L|Iurr:. Icw`ork. basicbooks.
. ( I 75)Lommon 5cnsc as aLutura 5ystcm,AnIoch r0ru 33. 5-2.
( I 80) burrcd !cnrcs hc Kcguration o|5ocia hought, Amrrcun cho|cr
4 I 25-5.
b i r | i o j r c j b
20
. ( ! VdJ)Locu ourJgr. Cw 1Ctk: bslC bCCks.
. ( ! Vdd) Work: uJ Lr:: 1hr Ihrooog:I u: uIbor. bInCtd, !I.: bInCtd
LnlVCttIy tCss.
LC nCt, . ( ! VdJ)uIon: uJ uIlmu:m. IhC, : !CtnC LnIVCtslIyrCss.
LIddCns, P ( ! VV) LmIru !ro0m: ocu 1hro_: cIo, IrucIurr uJ LoIruJcIo
ocu u::. bCtkCCy: LnIVCrIIy C!lCtnltCss.
LtnsbU, ( ! VVJ)bCtIgln^Cdt nd IhC UsIttn mgtnty, !u0c LuIurr J ( J) :
-d.
LCmn, . ( ! V ! ) bymbCs C !ss bIIUs, brlI:h Joum o] ocoog 2 (CCCmbCt).
2V4-JU4.
LCVCtnmCnI C^htshIt ( ! VJ) 1hr JoI KrorI o] 1 o4: ru:urrmrI uJ Lu::gcuIo
Kur: o] Ihr Lrccu, urruI, okn mJ uuru ut0r:. gpUt: LCVCtnmCnItCss.
LUh, K ( ! VdJ) hC tCsC C !CUnICt-nsUtgCnCy. n K. LUh (d.) u0uIrm IuJr::
WrIg: o ouIh :u :Iot uJ ocrI, VC. 2. Cw ChI nd CndCn. \XCtd
LnIVCtst\y tCss.
LUpI, P, nd). !CtgUsCn ( ! VV2)bCyCnd!UIUtC. bpCC, dCnIlIy, ndIhCC tItCs C
lCtCnCC, LuIuru Ihrooog ( ! , CbtU): -2J.
bCtms, ). ( ! VdV) 1r IrucIuru 1ru:]omuIo o] Ihr !u0c hrrr. !mbtIdgC, ^ss.:
^JtCs.
bIb, . ( ! VJ) 1hr gruru :Irm o] ughu Ju [::~:oz} bCmby nd CndCn.
slUbIshlng CUsC.
. ( ! Vd2) Iu: o] Ihr ughu Lmrr: !oIcu uJ Lcoomc u:. Chl nd Cw
1Ctk. \CtdLntVCtytCss.
Cklng, . ( ! V) 1hr Lmrrgrcr o] !m0u0t[: !ho:ohcu IuJ o] Lur ru: u0ouI !ro0-
u0Q JucIo uJ IuI:bcu ]rrrcr. !mbtIdgCnd Cw1Ctk.!mbttdgC LntVCt
stIytCss.
. ( ! Vd2) btCpCwCtnd IhCVnChCC ttnICd UmbCrs, umuIr: ocrI J
( J4, bUmmCt nd !): 2V-VJ.
. ( ! Vd)^klngLpCCpC.n.L CCt, ^. bCsn,nd. .NlbCt(ds.)
Krco:IrucIg JJuu:m: uIoom, JtJuuI, uJ Ihr rg Wr:Irm 1houghI. bIn
Ctd,!l.: bInCtd LntVCtslIytCss.
bwChs,^. (! VJU ! VdU) 1r Lorc0r mo_. Cw1Ctk: tpCt KCw.
, b. ( ! Vd) !UIUt bIUdICs:JwCtdlgms. n K !ClnsCI . (ds.)rJu, Lu|urr,
uJ ocrI: LrIcu KruJrr. CndCnbgC.
mCInk, L ( ! VdJ) Lumrn uIoom o0u LommucuIo:. Cw1Ctk. Cngmn.
ndCt K. ( ! Vdd) uIcu:m uJ Ihr !oIc: o] LuIurr |r0rc. ^dlsCn. LnlVCtslIy C
NIsCCnsln tCss.
nl,^. ( ! VV) !lIyCCIh, Jiu 1oJu, !J)Uy, J41 ! .
nks, l ( ! VdV) CXIndCXtUIIy, uu Krru o] Ihrooog ! d: VJ-! 2.
nnCt2, L. ( ! Vd)hCNCtd ln !tCCt2IlCn,{[rcu J (4). J4JV.
( ! VdV)CICsCnIhC LCb CUmCnC,!u0c LuIurr ! (2, bptlng). J.
( ! VV2) LuIuru LomO[: IuJlr: Ihr ocu LrguzuIo o] rug. Cw1Ctk:
!CUmbtLntVCtstIy tCss.
nsCn ^. ( ! VV! ) bu0r uJ bu0o: rcIuIor:h mrrcu rI m. !mbtdgC,
^ss. . tVtd LnlVCtslIy ss.
( ! VVJ) LnsIbC^tXIUtCs, IICd bphCtCs: CgI nd UgCs 1r !u0c hrrr
uJ Lxrrccr, wCnIy1C ICt, !u0c LuIurr J (2, NtnICt). ! V-2 ! 2.
B i b g r u h j
2 I 0 =

tgteVCs, ). (d.) ( ! Vd2) crI, LuIurr uJ Jroog. CndCn: KCUICdgC nd Cgn

U
tVCy,L. ( ! VdV)1hr LcnJIo o] !o:ImoJrm|: Lqut Io Ihr Lng: o] LuIuru Lhugr.
!mbtldgC, ^ss.: bslbCkwC.
sn, ^. ( ! VV) u|ou:m uJ Lommuu !oIc: Ju, 1 V1 01V.o. Cw Chl:
^nCht.
2tC,N ( ! V)LrckrI KrurJ. bCmby: KUp.
( ! Vd ! ) Log g:. bCmby: KUp.
CbdIgC, . ( ! VV) u0cuIurr. 1r rug o] Ir. CndCn nd Cw 1Ctk KCUICdgC.
CChICt, ^. ( ! VJ) Irmu Loou:m: 1hr LrIc rgr brI|:h uIou Lr9romr|,
:.~: . bCtkCCy. LntVCtsIIyC!tCtnt tCss.
Cms, ^. ( ! Vdd) ::r: u LIhogruh|c LJ::r o] !oucr, ourJgr, uJ ro-
gruhcu L:Iucr. tlnCCICn,,. : tnCCICn LnlVCtslIy tCss.
Ct2Cd, ^. ( ! Vd2) Lur: Lcr orr: okorr, roog uJ Ihr Ankg o] oJm rrrcr.
UsIIn: LntVCtstIy C CXs tCss.
tnksCn, ). ( ! VVU) CsImCdCtnlsm nd bttUCIUt !hngC,!u0c LuIurr 2 (2, bptng):
d2-! U! .
ItsChmn, P \. ( ! VU)LXiI, \ocr uJ Lcu[. Kr:cn:r: Io Lrcr rm:, LrgumIo:
uJ Iu|t:. !mbtldgC,^ss.: tVtd LnlVCtslIy tCss.
Cbsbwm,. ( ! VV2)IhnlClIynd \tCnIsmt n Cdy, Ihrooog 1oJu d
( ! ): J-d.
( ! VVU)uIo: uJ uIou:m :cr : zsc. !rogrummr, Ih uJ Kru[. !mbtdgC.
!mbtldgCLnIVCtstytCss.
Cbsbwm, ., ndJ. KngCt(ds.) ( ! VdJ)Jhr rIo o] 1ruJIo. Cw1Ct. !CUm
bl LnlVCtslIytCss.
CdgsCn, ^. ( ! V4) 1hr \rIurr o] :um, Lo:crcr uJ :Iot u WorJ LIzuIto. ( J
VCs.)!hlCgC. LnIVCtslC!htCgCtCss.
UI2tng,_| ( ! V44! VJU)omo LuJm:: IuJ o] Ihr u-LrmrI LuIurr. Cw1CtkKCy.
UIChlns, L. ( ! V) 1hr u:c o] !rrmumcr: brI:h mrr|u:m n nJu. tInCCICn, .).:
ttnCCICnLnIVCtslIy tCss.
ymCs, . . ( ! VV)KrrI|g Ihrooog. Cw1Ctk nIhCCn.
( ! V4)ouJuIo: ocogu:Ic:: / LIhogruhc !rr:rcIr. htdCphI. Lnl
VCtstIyCCnnsyVnlrCss.
ndCn,K. b. ( ! VVU)mugg Ju. \XCtdnd!mbtldgC, ^ss.. bslbCkwC .
sCs, . ( ! VJ) Jo: o] Ihr 1r0r: rou JtI[ uJ !oIcu Lhugr Cw 1Ctk: tpCt
KCw.
Vy, ^. ( ! VdH)tdItCnndt CtCnCC ln IhC)pnCsC^ss ^Cdt,!u0c LuIurr ! ( ! ):
2! -2V.
. ( ! VdV)!tIIICCIs,^sstIlCIshC!CnsUmpItCnCnCwCdgC tnCsI
mCdCtn)pn. n^. ^lyCshl nd . . tCCIUnn(ds. )o:ImoJrn:m unJ Juu.
Uthm, . L: UkC LnlVCtlIy tCss.
. ( ! VV)L:cour:r: o] Ihr \u:hg. oJrmI, huIu:m, Juu. !hICgC LnlVCtlIy
C!hCgC tCss.
yCt, ( ! Vdd) \Jro ghI IhmuJu. Cw1Ctk. nCp.
)mCs, L . K. ( ! VJ)brcJ u bouJut. CndCn: bInCyU.
)mCsCn, ! ( ! VdJ) CsImCdCtnIsm nd !CnsUmCt bCCC\y. n. CsICt(d. ) 1hr |-
r:IhrIc L::u o !o:tmoJrm LuIurr. CtICwnsCnd, Nsh. . bytCss, ! ! !-2J.
B i b i o g r u h j
2 I I
. ( ! Jd) hlrd NCrdlICrIUiC ln IhC r CUIl-lIlCn \plIlsm,ocic
JXl ! 7 ():7-dd.
. ( ! JdJ)CsIglCrIhCiCsCnI,oul lcnlic |ucnrr dd bprlng): l J.
. (j! JJ ! JJU) KClUCIlCn ndLICpll nss\UIUrC. nijnclurr: o]lr Vi:i0r.
lCW1Cr ndCndCn: KCUICdgC.
)ChnsCn,K. ( ! Jd) NhI s\UIUrbIUdlCsPnyWy' ocic| 1cl ! : J d-dU.
ng, b. -`, ). CPCCn, nd K. II (ds. ) ( ! Jdd) 1r Lmic: cnJ Lulurc
xccjr. bCCU: nyngLnlVCislIy, nsIlIUICCrIhnCCglC bIUdlCs.
pCrCr, b. ( ! Jdd) LrjrnJ: o]ror, l: o]lclr. Nshlng\Cn, . \. . bmlIhsCnlnnsIl
IUIlCnrCss.
Vlrj , b. ( ! JJ4) Ln IhC \CnsIrUCIlCn C \CCnl CWCr. n . ngCs nd b. rs
(ds.) Lonlr:lij Lo nic rjrmo lclr cnJ ocir[ in ]rcc cnJ nJc. CndCn ndlCW
1Cr: . b. Urls.
Cy,N. ( ! JJU))pnCsClC-lCh:hC \rCssICUOlC\UIUrCl n KUrCsIlVlIy,
u0ic Lulurr 2 (2): 7-d ! .
CChnC, K. (d.) ( ! Jd) ro-Krci:m cnJ l: Lrlc:. CW 1Cr: \CUmOl LnlVCrslIy
rCss.
lng, P. ( ! JJ ! ) Lulurr, Lo0cizclion cJ l0r WorJ-:lrm Lonlrmorct LonJilion: ]or lr
Kr|:rr:rnlclion o]Jr8I[. bslngsICC. Cmn dUCIlCn.
CpyIC, . ( ! Jd)hC\UIUr blCg:phyChlngs: \CmmCdlIl2IlCn srCCCss. n
P.PppdUrl(d. )1r ocic L|[r o]1inj:. \mOidgC: \mOrldgC LnlVCrslIyiCss.
CIhrl, K. ( ! JdJ)\CmmUnlsm.hClCWCCC ndln CmCCrCy. n lclr cjcin:l
Lrmocrcc n rcrc0 o]mcr Lorncncr. Chl: P}nIUOlCIlCns,lCW1Cr. cW
CrlZCn rCss.
( ! JdJO)IhnlClIy. nKrlikinj Lrromrnl. n rcrc0 o]umcnr lrmclir: . Chl.
PnI UOlCIlCns,CW 1CrlCWCrl2CnrCss.
( ! JdJC) lclr cjcin:l Lrmocrcc n rcrc o] umcnr Lormcncr. lCW 1Cr: CW
CrlZCns.
CIln, ]. ( ! JJJ) 1ri0r: ou Kccr, Krrjon, cJ rnl[ Lrlrrminr uccr:: in lr ru Lo0c
coom. lCW 1Cr. KndCm CUsC.
CU, . , nd \. CUC( l Jd7)rjrmo cnJ ocici:l lrclrj. CndCn.VCrsC.
aC, \., nd. )ChnsCn ( ! JdU)rlcor: WrLr D. \hlCgCndCndCn:LnlVC:slIy
C\hlCgC rCss.
sh, b. , nd ]. Lriy ( ! Jd) 1r nJ o] \rjcnizrJ Lcilci:m. dlsCn. LnlVCrslIy C
NlsCCnslnrCss.
WICn, K. (d. ) ,J Jd) 1r Lrn:u: cnJ ocic ltvclurr n lrrrrlir LuiJr lo irlrrnl
Lrnlut Lr:u:r: ]or njcnJ cnJ Wcr:. CndCn ndCICW, .]. : \ss.
CC,b. ( l JJJ)\CingUOlC,n0ic Lulurr 7 (2): l d.
CCOViC, . ( ! JJ l ) 1r roJuclio o] ccr. \mOrldgC, ss. , nd LxCrd, LJ.
bCWC .
CC:I,\ . ( ! Jd)1br oilcc or=: o]oJrm ocir[ Durrcucrcg, Lrmocrnc, 1olcilcrici:m.
\mOHdgC, ss.. rCss .
JWls, \. ( ! Jd)hC CCCglC, cn 2 l (J): 4 l 4J.
UddCn, . . ( ! Jdd) Pgirln \CmmCrCllsm l n lghICCnIh \CnIU bCUIh ndl:
VldCnCC rCm IhC ! d2 J unCVCl \CnsUs, Jicn coomic cnJ ocic i:lo_ Krrn
2(4): 4JJ-7 ! J.
. ( ! JJ l ) \CnVCisIlCnWlIh UIhCr, h1dCphl.
B i | i o g r u
= 2 I 2 =
" . ( ! JJJ) LrlCnIls\ mplrlClsm: rnsCrmIlCns C \CCnl nCWCdgC. n
\. P. brCCCnrldgC nd . VndCr VCCr (ds.) Lrrnlci:m cnJ lr o:lco|onic rrJicc-
mrnl: rr:rclir: o oul :ic. hldCphl. LnlVCrslIyC CnnsyVnl rCss.
UI2, \. P., nd . POUUghCd (ds.) ( ! JJU)Lcjucjr cnJ lr oilic: o] molio. \m
OrldgC. \mOrldgC LnlVCrslIyrCss.
CPCCn, ). ( ! Jd ! ) 1i: Lrrcl m0o irrn Jr Lou0rnin cnJ lr Lrijin: o] lr oJrm
Lmic Lcmr: \hlCgC. LnlVCrslIyC \hlCgC rCss.
( ! Jd4)Kilr, Lrcmc, r:lic cnJ rclcUr. hldCph: nsIlIUIC CrIhC bIUdyC
Umn ssUCs.
. ( ! JJU)bICrClds ndIhC bIIC: UOln, CCdim ndIhCPCCCmplshmCnIC
nnCCCnCC,u0ic Llurr 2 ( 2) . 4l -4.
lnCWsl, b. (j!J22 ! JU)rjoncul: o]lr Wr:lrm cc(]c. lCW1Cr. . . U!ICn.
l, . . ( ! JJ7) uriI cnJ Xr: Viorncr, rmot cnJ clionc Lo:mooj cmonj ulu
Kr]ujrr: i 1cnnic. \hlCgC: LnlVCrslIy C \hlCgC rCss.
ndC, . ( ! Jd)Lclr Lcilci:m. CndCn: VCrsC.
nl, . ( l JJU) \CnICnIlCUs rdlIlCns: hC CO\C Cn cli ln \CCnl ndl. n
. bngrl nd b. Vld (ds.) Krcc:linj Womrn ::c: in Loonic i:lo_. lCW Chl:
l Cr NCmCn.
rCUs, \.,nd. lsChCt ( ! Jd)lrooojc: Lulurc Lriliqur. n Xrrimr8M omrnl
in lr umcn cirncr:. \hlCgC:LntVC:slIyC\hlCgC rCss.
rsh, ( ! Jd) IslCW\rlCC\IC y rdO, 1i: Wor|J lCVCmOCr22.
rIln , . ( ! JJ2)hCndC IhCbCdy2mrriccn lnooji:l ! J ( ! ) : ! 2 !4U.
IICr,P. ( ! JdJ) 1rcn:nclionc: cnJ lr 1irJ WorJ: 1r lrujjr ]or lurr. bCUIh dCy,
ss. : bCrglnnd\:vCy.
Uss, . ( ! JJ)CChnlqUCs C IhC bCdy, cono= cnJ ocirIj 2 ( I): U-d.
". ( j ! J2J ! J) 1br L([l. lCW 1Cr: lCrICn.
OCmOC,P. ( ! JJ2)hCbnlIyCCWCrndIhCPCsIhCIlCsCVUgrlIy ln\hCCsI
CCCny, u0ic Lulurr 4 ( 2) : ! -JU.
OCmOC, CI. ( ! JJ2) bCy-Up. CrC Cn \hC CsICCCny, u0ic Lulurr 7 ( l , bpCCl
bCCIlCn): 4! 47.
C\rCCn, \. . ( ! Jdd) Lulurr cnJ Lo:mlion ruroccr: lo lr m0oic L0crcclrro]
Lo:umrr LooJ: cnJ cliilir:. bCCmlngICn. ndlnLnlVCrslIy rCss.
CCndiC, l. , . }. brCWCr, nd }. . UmO ( ! Jd2) 1r Dirl o]c Lo:mrr ocirI: 1r
Lommrrcczclion o]jlrrnl-Lrlu_ njcnJ. bCCmlng\Cn. ndlnLnlVCrslIy iCss.
CUhn ., nd b. K. CWC:s. ( ! JdJ) 1r Lo0c Vicjr. 1rcn:]ormclon: i WorJ, Lgr cnJ
rJic in lr 2 1:l Lrnlutg. lCW1Cr. LxCrd LnlVCislIy iCss.
C[UCCn, . ( l Jdd) hC PUsIrln bImp: mgC, Cslgn nd dcC Cgy, rrc d4
(bprlng): d-V.
CyrCWlI2,). ( l Jd)o rn:r o]ccr: 1r mccl o]|rclmic rJic 0H ocic Drcior. lCW
1Cr: LxCrd LnlVCrslIy rCss.
lCr, . ( ! Jd)clrrc Lulurr cnJ c:: Lon:umlion. CndCn. bslbCWC.
lCr, . ( ! Jd ! ) 1r Don rcr: ourjroi: Lulurr cnJ lr Lrcrlmrnl lorr, 10V1V7.
rlnCCICn,l. : rlnCCICn LnlVCrslIy rCss.
lnI2, b. N. ( ! Jd) urrlnr:: cnJ ourr. lCW 1C:: VllngCngUln.
lIr, P. ( ! Jd)\rtCCIrCn2yLnl\Cs lshCVCCdbUOCCn\lnCnI,cr c:lrm conomic
Kriru _Uy l U) . 4d-4J.
CnCy, }. ( ! JdJ) CChng ln IhC rCIpCC, Cr \CsrPdsUm)m CrIC CmpCy
B | | i o g r u
2 I 3
POCra!: hC KC!attng C nCWCOgC tn rCvtnCta nganO. rCsCn!CO a! Lark
LtOrat\ LLLP, larCh 4
lCCrC b. ( ! JJJ) oru|Iig MIr: urJ Ihr LIhogruh o] Ihr mrI Prtng!Cn, Va.: PmCrt-
Can Pn!hrCpCCgtCa PssCCta!tCn.
lukCrjt, L ( ! JbJ) rom Lru0rr mugr: uIIrn: o] oJrm uru|:m. CW ACrk: LCumOta
LntvCrstty rCss.
luvCy, ( ! J/)Vtsua CasurC anO arra!tvC LtnCma crrr ! ( J) : ! b.
lunn, . . ( ! Jb)!hr umr o] Luuu. mo|c IuJo] \u|ur !ru:]ormuIio ir u u::im
[uuu n Luiru} ocr[. LamOrtOgC: LamOrtOgC LntvCrstty rCss.
anOy, P. ( ! JbJ) 1r rIimuIr Lrm Lo:: uJ Krco0rr o] rq uJrr Lo|oru|i:m. Cht.
!XCrO LntvCrst!y rCss.
. ( ! Jb/)!ruJiIro:, !rururJ Ioiu:. Cht: !XCrO LntvCrs| rCss.
( ! JbJ)hC Ct!tCa Lu!urC C !hC nOtan b!a!C, urJu|u: ! ! b (4): !-2.
. ( ! JbJO)!hr !uo o] LrckrI: L Lumrs o]r:I urJ Ihr r:Iir o]Lumr:. CW ACrk.
Vtktng.
CaC, N L ( ! JJ) LanO s !C KuC. n K. . rykCnOCrg (O.) LuJ LoIro| urJ ociu|
IrucIurr i rJiur :Ior. laOtsCn. LntvCrst!y C NtsCCns!n rCss.
tCC, ( ! JbJ) ly rtp !C PtCC LriIici:m, rrr:uJ IrrrrIuIio J: 2 ! -J2.
tgam b. ( ! JJU)tsCtptntng anO CtCtng !hC LrImtnas Oy btr!h aJ! 2. hC CvC-
CpmCn! C a tsCptnary bys!Cm, ! b/ ! - ! JUU,Jiur Lcoomc uJ ociu| :IoQ Kr9ru
2/ ( J, )uy-bCp!CmOCr). 2/-b/.
!r!nCr, b. b ( ! JJ ! ) KCaOtng PmCrtCa: rCtmtnary C!Cs Cn Lass anO Lu!urC. n
K. CX (O. ) KrcuIurig rIhroo|og Workrg i r Ihr rr:rI. ban!a C, . l. : bChCC C
PmCrtCan KCsCarCh.
anOCy, !. ( ! JJU) 1r Lo:IncIior o] Lommuu|i:m i Lo|oriu| orIh rJiu. CW Cht anO
LCnOCn. !XCrO LntvCrst!y rCss.
an!, K. ( ! Jb/) hC LCgnt!tvC b!a!us C Las!C tn LCCnta !hnCgraphy. P KCvtCW C
bCmC Lt!CraUrC C IhC Cr!h NCs! rCvtnCCs anO !uOh, Jiur Lcoomc uJ ocu|
i:Ior Kc|ru 24 ( 2) : ! 4-2.
arh!, . ( ! Jb)Kru:o: urJ rr:o:. !XCrO. LattnOCn rCss.
arktn, . ( ! J/b)!hr Lu|Iuru| (}iIior o] o|Iicu| Kr:o:r. LCnOCn: PCaOCmtC rCss.
Crtn, l ( ! JbJ) rC!C nOus!rtatZa!tCn anO rCLCCnta bCu!h Psta, u:I uJ rr:rrI Jb
( JU): J4.
---. ( ! Jb/) lCnCyLsC t n La!C rC-LCCnta nOt a anO !hC n!Crna!tCna raOC t n
LurrCnCy lCOta. n ). KtCharOs (O.) !hr mrru| orrIuQ :Irm o]qhu| rJu.
Cht. !XCrO LntvCrst!y rCss.
t!ktn, . ( ! J/) !hr LocrI o] Krrr:rIuIior bCrkCCy anO LCs PngCCs: LntvCrstty C
LatCrnta rCss.
rakash, !. ( ! JJU)bCnOCO ts!CrICs. !CnCaCgtCs C LaOCr bCtvt!uOC tn LCCnta nOta.
ouIh :iu IuJr: 44. LamOrtOgC anO CW ACrk: LamOrtOgC LntvCrst!y rCss.
rCsCr, ! P ( ! Jb/)Kr|igio uJrr urruucruc: o|c urJ Jmi:IruIo ]or irJu !rm|r: i
ouIh rJiu. LamOriOgC anO CW ACrk LamOrtOgC LntvCrsty rCss.
ns!Cn N. ( ! JbJ)!hr r0: o]Lirc0uJ Lirugr uJ Ihr IuIr i uhuru:hIru. LamOriOgC
anO CW ACrk: LamOrtOgC LntvCrst!y rCss.
urt, . ( ! Jb2)bpCr!s vCrst!s LrtCkC!. Jiu rIrnuIiou| LrIrr |uunrr| J( 2) : ! 44.
KaOtnCW, . ( ! Jb) KCprCsCn!a!tCns arC bCCta aC!s. lCOCHt!y anO Cs!mCOCrnt| t n
B h l c j r u b
2 I 4 =
W
Pn!hrCpCCgy. n | LtCrO anO !. larCt!s (Os. ) WrIig Lu|Iurr !hr orIc: urJ o|-
Ic: o] LIhogruh. bCrkCCy: LntvCrst| C LatCrnta rCss.
. ( ! JbJ)rnch oJrr. or: uJ on: o] Ihr ocu| L0iromrI. LamOrtOgC lass.:
l rCss
Katjt , N ( ! J/)L 1u rmorr: LrruI buI:mu. bCmOa: yCOy.
KCOOtns, b. (O. ) ( ! JJJ)!hr huIom u|ic hrrr. ltnnCapCts: LntvCrstty C ltnnCsC!a
rCss.
KCOCr!s, l. ( ! Jb) thntCt!y tn KtpCs!C a! a LrtCkC! la!Ch. hC as! Cr !hC rCsCn!,
LomuruI9r IuJir: i ocir[ uJ i:Ior 2/: 4U !-2J.
KCOCr!sCn, K. ( ! JJU) lapptng !hC !COa LCnOt!tCn: !COatza!tCn as !hC LCn!ra
LCnCCp! 1mQ, Lu|Iurr uJ ocir / (2-J,)unC). ! -JU.
+ ( ! JJ2) L|ou|7uIio. ocru| !hror uJ L|ou| Lu|Iurc. CWOury ark, Lat., anO
LCnOCn. bagC.
KCOtnsCn, ( ! J/4) ruroIi:m umorg rJiur u:|im:: 1r o|iIrc: o] Ihr riIcJ ro9ircr:
u:|im:, 1d0 V7J. LCnOCn anO CW ACrk: LamOrtOgC LntvCrst!y rCss.
KCjCk, ( ! Jb/) LuiI|i:m uJ Lri:urr !hroi. LCnOCn. avts!CCk.
KCsOC K. ( ! JbJ) Lu|Iurr uJ !ruIh !hr Krmukirg o] ociu| ru|:i:. bCs!Cn: bCaCCn rCss.
KCsCnau, ). ( ! JJU)!uru|Ocr i Wor|J o|tIc: !hcoi o] Lhugr uJ LorIirui. rnCC!Cn,
.].. rtnCC!Cn LntvCrst!y rCss.
KCusC, K. ( ! JJ ! ) lCXtCan ltgra!tCn anO !hC bCCia\ bpaCC C Cs!mCOCrntsm, iu:oru 2
(2, bprtng): b2J.
bahtns l. ( ! J/2)Ior gr Lcoomic:. CW ACrk: POtnC.
( ! Jb! ) isIoricu| rIuhor: urJ Ihcu| Kru|iIirs IrucIurr ir Ihr Lur| i:Ior o] Ihr
uJuch :|urJ: irgJom. Pnn PrOCr: LntvCrst!y C ltChtgan rCss.
". ( ! Jb) :|urJ: o]i:IoQ. LhtCagC: LntvCnt!y C LhtCagC rCss.
"- ( ! JJ2) !CCdOyC !C ris!Cs rCpCs: !hnCgraphy tn !hC LCn!CX! C lCOCm
NCrO ts!Cry, hC ! JJ2 KyCrsCn LCC!urC (Pprt 2J), LntvCrst!y C LhtcagC. 1r
i9rr:iI o] Lhcugo KrcorJ. COmary 4, ! JJJ.
batO, . N. ( ! J/b) LrirIu|i:m. CW ACrk Vtn!agC bCCks.
bavC, . . . ( ! Jb/)!hr IoQ o] Ihr Kr|ucr Lu. CW Cht: Vtkas.
barasWa!ht, b. ( ! J/4)ioriIit: uJru: IuIr: Lrou Irrr:I r oJrm o|iIic:. Cht: mpCX
nOta.
baWChuk . ( ! Jbb) P aC C nsCrtp!tCnlashtCn b!a!CmCn!s. n P. anO l. rCkCr
(Os. ) oJ 0uJrr: uic rX r mrricu. bastngs!CkC: laCmt1an OuCa!tCn.
bChaCr, . ( ! JJ) Lo|Jr ruchr: o] umurkurJ: IuJ o] ug LXoIic:. bCrkCCy: LntvCr
st!y C LatCrnta rCss.
bChtCCtn, . ( ! Jb) CrCrmanCC anO !hC Lu!ura LCns!ruC!tCn C KCatty. bptrt!
bCanCCs amCng a CW !utnCa CCpC, mrricur LIhro|og:I ! 2 (4): /U/-24.
bChtCr . ( ! J/) LommuicuIior urJ Lu|Iuru| omiuIio. Nht!C atns, .: n!Crna
!tCna PrIs anO bCtCnCCs.
bChuOsCn, l. ( ! Jb4)J0rrIi:rg, Ihr ru: rr:uu:or. CW ACrk: bastC bCCks.
bCC!!, ). L ( ! Jb) Wruo: o] Ihr Wruk: L9rrJu orm: o] rusuI KcssIucr. CW avCn,
LCnn.. AaC LntvCrst| rCss.
( ! JJU)omiruIio uJ Ihr n: o] Kr:i:Ircr iJJrr !ru:criI:. CW avCn LCnn.:
AaC LntvCrst!y rCss.
bhah, P. l. ( ! JbJ) Las!C anO !hC n!CtgCn!sta, irJu:Iu 1!mr: larCh 24.
bhas!rt, K. anO b. a!u ( ! Jb2)huIk huIkur (t n lara!ht). bCmOay. POt!ya rakashan.
B i b o j r u b
2 I 5 ~
5h|s, L. ( I 57) lr|mord|a, lcrsona, 5acrcd, and L|v| Jcs,brl:h 1oumc| o]oco|oj 8
(2). I 30-5.
5|mmc,!. ([I 04| I 57) ash|on,mrrtcc 1omc| o]oco|oj 2 (). 54 I -58.
5m|th, l. ( I 88) V|s|t|ng thc banana Kcpub|c. ln A. Koss (Ld. ) O0rnc| rcdo' !hr
o|lc: o]o:Imodrmi:m. N|nncapo|s. Ln|vcrs|tyo|N|nncsota lrcss.
5m|th, K. 5. ( I 85) c-by Kccords andKucby-Kcports: Lompcmcntary Aspccts o|
thcbrit|shlmpcr|aKuc o|law, Lolrrulo: lo dic oco|oj I ( I ) . I 53-7.
5tack,). l )r. (Ld.)( I 8)r rmordc| Lhc||rqqr: Llhc! lhr Lolrmjorc_ Wor|d. lcw
`ork !rccnwoodlrcss.
5tcwart, 5. ( I 84) L Loj|j: crrcl0r: o]lhr clurr, lhr jclc, lhr ou0rr lhr Lo||rc-
Io. bat|morc:|ohnslopk|nsLn|vcrs|tylrcss.
5utton,L. 5. ( I 5) Lonsum|ngLountcrrcvout|on Jhc K|tua andLuturco|Lann|-
ba|sm|n Wuxuan, !uangx|, Lh|na,Nayto)uy I 8, LomjcrcI0r ldr: ocr!
cd :loi 37 ( I ) I 372.
Jamb|ah, 5.). ( I 8)r Lckc Llhc rclrcdr cd lhr L:mcI|j o]Lmocrcc. Lhcago.
Ln|vcrs|tyo|Lh|cagolrcss.
( I 0) lrcs|dcnt|aAddrcssKc|cct|onsonLommunaV|ocncc|n 5outhAs|a
!hr Joumc| o]:c ludn 4 (4, lovcmbcr):74 I-0.

Jhapar, K. ( I 8)mag|ncdKc|g|ous Lommun|t|cs Anc|cnt l|stoandthc Nodcm

5carch |oral|nduldcnt|ty, odtm :c ludr: 23. 2032.
Jhomas, . ( I 87) lumcracy |n Nodcm Lngand, !rc:cclo: o] lhr !oc| >lorcc|
ocir[ 37 (5th 5crics) I 0332.
Jhompson, L. l. ( I7) mc, Work-L|sc|p|nc and lndustr|a Lap|ta|sm, c:l cd
rt:rl 38. 5-7.
Jhornton, K ( I 88) hc Khctor| o| Lthnograph|c lo|sm, Lu|lurc| lhrojo|oj 3
(3, August): 285303.
Jr|path|, 5. ( I 0) 5harah:ALrassLarn|va,dc !odc Nay 3 I . 88- I .
Jrou|ot, N. -K. ( I I ) Anthropoogyandthc 5avagc 5ot:Jhc loct|cs and lo|t|cso |
Lthcrncss. n K. ox (Ld.) !rccjIrj lhrojo|oj: Workj lhr rr:rl. 5anta
l. N.: 5chooo|Amcr|can Kcscarch.
Jurncr, J ( I 2) Lcant lmagcs: Jhc apayo Appropr|at|on o| V|dco, lhrojo|oj
!odc 8 (). 5-I .
Lrban, and). 5hcrcr (Lds.) ( I I ) clio:-lclr: cd dc: Lcl| mrrc. Aust|n:
Ln|vcrs|tyo|Jcxaslrcss.
Vachani, l. ( I 8)larrat|vc, lcasurcand ldcoogy|nthcl|nd|| mAnAnays|s o |
thc Luts|dcrormua. N . A . hcs|s, Anncnbcrg 5choo o | Lommun|cat|on, Ln|
vcrs|yo|lcnnsyvn|a.
van dcrVccr, ( I 8)hclowcro|LctachmcntL|sc|p|ncso|body andN|ndnthc
Kamanand|Lrdcr,mrricc Llho|oj:l I . 458-70.
,i 4) Kr|jou: cloc|:m du cd u:|m: dc. bcrkccy and london:
Ln|vcrs|tyo|La||orn|alrcss.
van !cnncp, A. [I 08| I 5) r !tlr: o]c::cjr. london: cgan lau.
Vcbcn,J ( I I 2) !hr !hrot o]lhr Lr:urr L|c::. lcw`ork.Nacm|an.
Wacrstc|n, . ( I 74)!hr odrm Word :lrm. ( 2 os. )lcw`ork andlondon:Acadc-
m|clrcss.
Warncr, N. ( I 0) !r LrIlrr: o] lhr !rjur||c: ur|cclo cd lhr r|c jhrrr LijhItrnlh-
Lrlut mtrcc. Lambr|dgc, Nass. laardLn|vcs|tylrcss.
B i 0 o g r n h }
2 I
( I 2)JhcNass lubl|c and thcNass 5ubcct. ln L. Lahoun (Ld. )crrrmc:
cd lhr ur|c jhrrr. Lambr|dgc,Nass.Nllrcss.
Wash brook, L. A ( I 7) !hr Lmrrjrcr o] ro0cc| o|lic: !hr ndrc: rcdrnc,
1 o 1 VJ. Lambr|dgcandlcw`ork: Lambr|dgcLn|vcrs|tylrcss
W||ams, K. ( I 7)t_uord:. lcw`ork:Lx|ordLn|vcrs|tylrcss.
W||ams, K. l. ( I 82)Lrtcm Wor|d:: c:: Lo:umj|o Lc|t rlrOlh- Lrlut rcr.
bcrkccy. Ln|vcrs|tyo|La||orn|alrcss.
Wo|, L. ( I82) Lurojr cd lhr toj|r ulhoul >lot. bcrkccy: Ln|vcrs|ty o|La|o|a
lrcss.
`osh|moto, N. ( I 8)hc lostmodcrn and Nass magcs |n)apan, ur|c Lu|lrr I (2).
8-25.
ar||, l. ( I 5) Kcps|t|on|ng thc body. An lnd|an Na|a Art and |ts lan-Asan
lub|cs. lnL. A. brcckcnr|dgc (Ld.) Lo:umj odm[: ur||c Lu|lurt c oulh :c
Wor|d. N|nncapo|s. Ln|vcrs|tyo|N|nncsotalrcss.
bcrg, A. K., A. 5uhrkc, and 5. Aguayo. ,i 8) L:ccjr ]rom Vo|rcr. lcw `orkand
Lx|ord: Lx|ordLn|vcrs|tylrcss.
B i 0 o g r n h }
2 I 7 =
U06X
LompicdbyLiinlynch
Abu-Lughod, L., 27,60, I 47
adcrt|s|ng,72 78, 84, I 06 I 07, I I 2
cap|taI|strcaI|sm| n, 5J, gIobaI,42,
mcd|ascapcsan,42roIc|nconsump
t|on,77,soc|aI, I 05
a||cct, pol|t|cso|, I 44-49, I 5 J , I 57
agcncy, I 2, 45, 52, I 78, I 98coIon|a
|smand, I 27, I J4,consumpt|onand
7, 42, 70,cr|ckctand, I 05, I I J goup
mobIat|onand, I 45, I 6J |mag|na-
t|onand,J I , 6 I , 6J, I 45,| nI|tcrary
|antas|cs,58, pIcasurcand, 7, I I I ,rc
aI|smand 6JrcIat|ontoh|sto, I 5 7
Ahmad,A, 52, 20 I
FLo 50, I 66
AIIcn,I. K. , 9 I
Amcr|ca,as|rcc-tradczonc I 74-75
Amcr|can|zat|on, I 7, 29, J 2
Amcr|canncss I 707J
Amn,b. , JJ, I J4
Andcrson, B, JJ, I 45, I 55 , I 88, I 96,
20Jccnsusquant|hcat|onand, I I 5
|mag|ncdcommun|t|csand,2 8 , J I , 54,
I I 2, I 59, pr|nrcap|taI|smand,8, 2 I ,
J , 28, I I 2, I 6 I
Arcr: oco qiqucs, 5
anthropoIog, , I 2, I 6, I 8 , 46, 48, 67,
7 I , I J9 202asarchc, I I ,o|thc
body, I 47, I 48contcxr| n, I 87,co-
product|ono||nd|gcnous catcgor|cs
| n, I 82,o|cosmopoItan|sm,49,cuI-
turaIstud|csand, 50, 65, 202,chn|c|y
| n, I 40,coIut|onconccprs| n, 52
h|storyand, 64o|I|tcraturc,58, 6 I ,
and, I 78 , I 80,nat|on-sac|n
I 8 8
Appadura|,, 8 , 67,98, I 0J, I 79, 20I ,
202
I. L. , I J9
arcastud|cs, 2, I I , I 6, I 7, I 8
Armstrong,l , I I 8
Aason, . l. , I 50
ArnoId, I. , 5 I , I 07, I I 6, I J4
art,mcchan|caI,4J, 45
Asad,, 67, I 47
Ayodhya,Lrrarlradcsh, I I 4, I J5 , I 96
2
BaIibar, L. , I I 9, ! 59, ! 88, I 89
Barbcr, |., J2
Barr|cr, L.l. , I ! 6
Barth,!, I 40, 202
Baruah, S. , J9
Basch,L. , 88
BaudriIIard, ). , J0, 42, 67,8 !
Bauman, K. , ! 87
BayIy,C. A, 28, 7J, ! 25
BcII, K., 6
Bcn]amin,V. ,4J
BcrIant, L. , I 69, ! 70, I 74, I 76
Bhabha, |. |. , 94, I 59, ! 88
Bhattachar]cc, A, I 97
BirbaIs|ngh,!,9I
BirminghamSchool, I 45
BIacklubI|c SphcrcCoIIcctivc, I 69
BIoch, . , I 8J
body.coIonialcontroIo|Indian, I 20,
I 24, I 25, I J0, ! J2, consumption and,
6768, 74, 8J-85,cmbodicdcxpcri-
cnccso|group idcntity, I 57,cnumcra
tionocooniaI, ! J2, I JJ, inndian
crickct, I 0J, I 04, I I 2, I I J, inscription
o|IocaIityonto, ! 4, 67, I ! 2, I 79,
manipuIation, 84, I 20,rcvoIto|thc
Indian, I JJ, I J4,as sitcoIanguagc
uscandcxpcricncc, I 0J,tcchniqucso|
:rr tcchniqucs, bodiIy)
Bondurant, ). V, I J4
Borgcs, ). L., ! 22
Borncman, ). , ! 88
BosniaIaIIacy, 2 !
Bourd|cu,l, 5 ! , 67,bodilyhcxisand,
I I I , distinctionand,75,cmbodimcnt
and, I 48,habitusand,44, 55,improvi-
sationand, 55, 68
Brass,l K. , 4I
BraudcI,! ,27
brcak, thcoryo|:rr u|:o rupturc), J, 9
Brcckcnr|dgc, C. A., 57,77,94, I 0J,
I 29, 20I , 202
Brcwcr, ). , 66, I ! 5, I I 7, I 25
Briggs,C. L. , I 87
cadastraI poIitics, I 2 ! , I 24, I 25, I 27,
! 29
Calhoun, L., ! 6I
CampbcII,L. , 68, 72, 8J
CanguiIhcim,L. , I I 8
cap|taIism,6, 27, J2, 7J, I 75, 204,con-
sumptionand,67,72,85,disorga-
nizcd, JJ, 40, 52, ! 50, clcctronic, 8,
I 6I , nostalgiaand, J0-J I , 85, pr|nt,8,
28, ! ! 2, I 6I , ! 88
Carrithcrs,. , 52
Cashman,K.,9J, 94, ! 00, ! 0!
castc, I 29, I J2, I 4J, ! 46cassihcation
and, I I 9,inIndianccnsus, ! I 8,
I 2728, ! J I , I 62,andpolitics|
grouprcprcscntation, I I 4, I J0
Castoriad|s, L. , I 45
ccnsus, ! 8 , I I 8, ! 2 I , I 26, I J0, ! 57,
202,AII-IndiaCcnsus, ! 2729, British
vs. ndian, ! I 7,andcastc, ! 27, I 29,
I 62,communaIidcntityinIndiaand,
98, I I 4, I 2829, ! J I , crcationo|
idcntityinndiaand, I I 6, I 25, ! 29
Chakrabarty, I. , ! I 6, 202
chaosthcory,4647, I 50, I 66
Chattcr]cc,l, 28, J9, I J2, I 59, I 88
cincma :rr u|:o hlm,mcdia mcdia,mass,
tcIcvision), 4, 5J, 64,77, I 5J, art, ! 94,
displaccmcntin,6 ! , 6J,ascIcctronic
capitaIism, I 6! , imag|nationand,5J,
ndian,J6, 40, 626J, I 0I2, I ! 0, 202,
mcdiascapcsand,40,nostaIgiai, 77,
as pubic spacc, J, I 0I
CIarkc,A, 94
CIarkc,). , 94
cIass, ! 98, inccnsuscs, I I 8,inI ndian
crickct,9I 92, 9496, ! 05,inV|cto-
riancrickct,9I , 94,96
cIassihcation, ! I 9, ! 2J, I 62
CIi|ord, ). , 58
Cohn, B. S. , 98, ! ! 6, I 20, I 26
CoIIins, S., 52
coIoniaIism:rr ul:o dccoonizat|o),28,
I 88, constructcdcthniciticsand, 28,
98crickctinLnglish,9J94, I 09,
cxoticizationin, I ! 5, I ! 8, ! 2J, ! 28,
mcasurcmcntandcIassihcat|oni,
! 2J, I J2,nostaIgia|or, 78,oricntaIism
and, I I 8, I ! 9, ! JJJ4,quantihcation
l r J t
220
| n, ! 5, I I 8, I J2,rcproductiono|
IocaIityin, I 8 I
Comaro||, ). , I 40, ! 6 I , ! 89
Comaro||, ) . L., ! 40, ! 6 I , I 89
commoditization,6, 2 ! , ! ! 0, I 8 ! , cuI-
turaIhomogcnizationand, J2, o|
Indiancrickct, I 06, I 09
communaI idcntityinIndia. ccnsusand,
98, ! I 4, I 2829, ! J I , crickct and, 97,
98
communitics,imagincd:rr u|:o imagina
tion,woro|imaginatio,worIds,
imagincd) , J ! , J2, 54, ! I I -I 2, I 59,
! 95coloniaIismand, 28, 99,cnumcr-
atcdcommunit|csand, I J2,vs.imag-
incdworIds, JJ, nationaismand,28,
o|scntmcnt,8,scparatisttransnationaI
movcmcntsas,J9
Comtc,A, J
con]uncturcs.orr dis]uncturcsandcon-
]uncturcs
consumcr. borrowing, 8082, |ctishism
o|,4I , 42,rcvoIutions,7274,79,
8 I-82
consumption:rr ul:o |ashion,nostaIgia),
66, 7J, 77, I 02,bodyand,678,74,
8J85,crcationo|timcby,70,7879,
8 I 82, 84-85,drudgcryo|,7, 84,gi|t
givingand, 6869,historicsandgc-
ncaIogicsin,75, 8J, intcrdiction and,
7I 72,asIcisurc, 7980, 8J,pIcasurc
o|, 7, 68, 8J, rcIationtosumptuary
Iaw,7! , 84,asrcpctition,6768, 78,
rcvoIutiono|,82, ritcso|passagcand,
6870,84,aswork, 828J
contct, I 8J88, I 9J, I 95, I 98
Coopcr,! , 94
orbin,A, 74
corporat|ons, multinationaI, I 6768
Cortzar, ). , 586I
cosmopoIitanism,2, J, 56, 57, I 04, I ! 2,
cthnographic, 4952,transnatonaI
culturaI|Iowsand,64
Cranc,I., 8
crickct, ! 4, I 8, I 48,cIassandpatronagc
in, 9I92, 9496, I 056, I I 0I 2,
communaisminndian,9J, 9798,
dccoIonizationand, 89, 9 I , I 05, ! 07,
202,diasporicnationalismo|, I 0,as
hardcuItural|orm, 90, I ! 0, I I ! ,idca
o|ndiannation and, 9799, I 06, n-
dianprinccsin, 9497,indigcnization
o|,90,94, I 00, ! ! 0,mascuIinityand
croticso|nationhoodin, 9J, ! I I I 2,
mcans o|modcrnity and, I I 2,and
statcculturaIpoIicy, 9J, vcrnacuIariza-
tiono|, ! 00-4, I ! 2, 202, Victorian
vaIucsin, 9I 9J, ! 078, I ! 0
cuIturaI.iathropology, I ! , I 6, biog
raphyo|things, 76, chaos, 4647,
vs. cuturc, ! 2I 4, 60, dimcnsionso|
gIobaIization, I 2, hardandso|t|orms,
90, I ! 0, I I ! , hctcrogcnization, J2,
homogcn|zation:rr homogcnization,
cuIturaI),rcproduction:rr rcproduc
tion,cuIturaI),studics, 50,5I , 58, 65,
I 59,trans|crandimitation,60
cuItural|Iows,gIoba:rr ul:o gIobaI,ho-
mogcnization,cuItural), J ! , J7, 46, 65,
causaI-historicalrcIationshipamong,
47,chaosthcoryappIicdto,4647,
! 50, I 66,dis]uncturcs in, J7, I 50,hvc
dimcnsionso|, JJ, J9, ironicso|,J0,
IocaI|tyin, I 78, I 97,samcncssanddi|-
|crcnccin,4J,thcoryo|,4547
cuIturc. anthropoIogicaIconccpto|, 50,
boundarymaintcnanccand, I J,di||cr
cnccand, ! 2, ! 4I 6, 60,habitus
and,44,poIit|cso|gIoba, J7,post
structuraIistconccptso|,5I raccand,
! 2,rcIationtocuIturalism, ! JI 6, ! 47,
rcproductiono|:rr rcproduction,
cuIturaI),asasubstancc, ! 2, 50, 60,
6J, transmission o|,4J, writ|ngand,
58, 60
Curin, , 27, 7!
Iaatta, K. , I 67
Ias, V, I55, 20J
dc Ccrtcau,. , ! 45, I 8J
dccoIonization:rr ul:o coIoniaIism), I 09,
! I 2,asdiaIogucwithcoIon|aIpast,89,
throughimagincdcommunitics, I I 2,
o|Indiancrickct, 899I , I 057, 202
r J r x
2 2 I
LcIcuzc,L 29, I 8 8
dccIIow, , 96
dcmocracy, I 42, I 66, I 72, ! 74-75,cnd
o|naton-statcand, ! 9,dcao|rcprc-
scntaton n, I J I , dcoscapcs and,
J6J7, 40, Inks wthdvcrstyand
prospcty, I 7 I , modcrnzaton
and, 9, I 4 ! prmordaIstthcorcs
I 44,racaI, 22,transnatonaImcanngs
J7
Lcrrda, ). , I 2, 5 I
LcsarIas,K 20J
dctcrrtoraIzaton(rr uo gIobaIzaton,
tcrrtory), I 8, 44, 52, 5 J,ascontct
|orcthncoIcncc, J8, 49, 66, cuI-
turaIpo|tcso|, J7J9,o|moncyand
hnancc,49,rcproducton n, J7J8,
4J5, 48, 49, nsmaIIspaccs,6 !
dcVaaI,A , 204
daspora(rr ulo dspIaccmcnt,mgra-
ton), 6, I 8 , I 9, 40, 49, I 7J, ! 75, I 97,
cIcctroncmobIzatono|ndan, I 96,
|orccd, I 66o|dcoscapctcrmsand
magcs, J6o| ntcIIcctuaIs J7, I 65, o|
kcywords, J6, Iabor, J7J8, 44, n
M|ss|ss|jj| uulu, I 0,natonaIsmand,
I 0, 40, I 72, I 96,potcsand, I I , 40,
I 96,pubIcsphcrcsand,4, I 0, 2 I 22,
I 47,rcIatontorcproducton, I 7I
Lawara, 9 I
d ||crcncc, 20I ,cuIturcand, ! 2, ! 4I 6,
60,group dcnttyand, I J,naton-
statccontroIovcr, J9, 42, ! J0, I 77,
rcpatratono|,42
Lrks,l B , 98, I I 6, I 20, ! 26
dscourscstudcs, ! 59
dsuncturcs andconuncrcs, I ! 2, I 44,
I 6 I , 85coIonaIsmand, ! 27, I J0,
I J2, consumptonand,7274,8 J , o|
dsorganzcdcaptaI, JJ, 40, ngIobaI
cuIturaIcconomy, J 7, J9, 4J, ! 50, 20I ,
naton-statcand, J9,bctwccnspataI
andvrtuaIncghborhoods I 89,
I 94-97,thcoryo|, I 99
dspIaccmcnt(rr ulo dctcrrtoraIzaton,
mgraton,pIacc), 22, J8, 45,58, I 70,
cncmaand,6 I 6J natonstatcand,
J9, I 6566, I 76, productono|IocaI-
ty and, I 9J, I 9899,socoIoo|, J9
Lockcr,L.,9J, 94
LougIas, 7 I , 80
Lunnng, L., ! ! 0
Lurant, A, I 87
LurkhcmL , J, 5, J I , 8J, I 79
l., 6 8 I , 8 J , I I 0, I 48
cmprcsm,orcntaIst(rr uo or|cntaI
I I 5, ! 2 J
cncuIturaton,4J
LnIoc, 202
cnumcraton(rr uo numbcr), I I 4- I 8,
! 2J, I 27J0, I J JJ4,Brtshvs.
ughaI, I 29,ncoIonaIpoIcy, I I 5 ,
I ! 9, I 2J, o | humancommuntcs, I 25,
I 2729, ! 52,InkswthcIasshcaton,
I I 4, astcchnquco|socaIcontroI,
I I 7, I 8
cphcmcraIty, acsthctc o|,
cthncty(rr ulo mpIoson,prmordaI-
sm,oIcncc,cthnc), I I I , I 7 ! , bus-
ncsssucccssand, I 70, cuIturaId||cr-
cnccand, I J, ! 47asgIobaI|orcc,4 I ,
202,nstrumcntaIconccpton I 4,
nvcntono|,44,IocaIty and, 4 I ,
modcrntyo|, I J9, I 44, I 57,natona-
smand, I J9, I 62
cthnodrama, 6 ! , 62
cthnography(rr ulo cthnoscapcs,IocaI
ty), 58, 64,204,cosmopoItan, 4952,
ndctcrrtoraIzcdworId,52, 6J,
magncdIvcsn, 5455,o|
6 ! , macrocthnography,52, o|thc
modcrn, I 82, o|spcakng, I 87,o|
tourststcs,! 92
cthnonatonaIsm,20, I 6J, I 64
cthnoscapcs, J5, J7, 40, 4 I , 45, 47,dc-
ntono|, J JJ4,cthnography and, 48,
52, gcncaIogcsandhstorcso|,
6465, magnatonand,59,IocaIty
and, ! 9899,ncghborhoodsand, I 8 J,
I 84, ! 86, ! 88
cvcntcascadcs, ! 5054, I 56, I 64
LwaId, , ! ! 8
l n J t
2 2 2

Iaban, ). , J I , 204
|antasy(rr u:o magnaton,nostaIga),
J9, 4J, I 66, I 7 I , |magnatonand, 6,
7, J I , 58, 82, natonaI,o|Amcr|ca,
I 70,asrcsduaIpractcc, 5J, roIc n
ndancrckct, I IU, I I ! assocaIprac-
tcc, 54
|ashon(:rr ulo consumpton,nostaIga)
consumptonand 6768, 7 ! 72, 75
8 I 8485, gvngand, 70,ntcr-
natonaI, I 67, nostaIgaand, 76, 77,
patnaand, 75, 78, 8 2
Icathcrstonc, . , I 88
|ccIng, structurcso|, I 5J, I 56, I 8 I ,
I 82, I 89, I 99
IcId, . , J2
cIman, 58
Icrguson,). , I 8 8
|ctshsmconsumcr, 4 I , 42
hIm(rr ul:o cncmamcd|a,mcda, cIcc-
tronc,mcda,masstcIcson), I 9J,
I 94ascthnodrama,62 cthnography
and,64,gcndcrpoItcsn, 4 I , 45,
lndan, J8, 62, I 08, markcts|or,J8,
49mcdascapcsand J5, 40,modcr
ntyand, I , 2, I 0, nostaIgan,77
hcscapc, JJ, J4, J7, 40, 45
schcr, ., 46,5 8
|ocaIzaton, ! 5054, I 56
Iostcr, K ). , I 8 8
IoucauIt, 5 I , I 26,bopoItcsand,
I 20, I 48, crtquco|Vcstcrn human
smand, 52,knowIcdgcandpowcr
and, I 47
Irank|urtSchooI, 6, J I
Irascr, l., I 69
Irazcr, L, I 80
Irccman, I 69, I 74
Irctag, 98, I 29
Ircud, 67
Ircdman, , I 88
K. L., I 26 I J I
|undamcntaIsm,42,gIobaI, J8, organ -
zatons I 68,racaI, rcgous, and
cuIturaI, ! 46,rcIg|ous, J8, I 40, I 65,
! 74, I 96
ans, L, J2
\, 50, 5 I , 58, 69, !40, I 8 I ,
202J
LcIIncr, L., I 88
gcndcr womcn)coIonaIsmand,
I J4,cuIturaIrcproductonand, I 98,
ndctcrrtoaIzaton, J9 nndan
9J, I I 0 I I , 2 n trans
natonaI hIm ndustry, 4 ! , 45,voIcncc
and, 45
gcncaIogy, I 7I 8, 6465, 74
Lddcns, A, 52
Lnsburg, , I 94
gIobaI,s:: uo cuIturaI |ows, gIobaI, cuI
turc,homogcnzaton,cuIturaI, ocaI
ty).cuIturaIcconomy, J2, 4 I , I 50,
cuturco|thchypcrrca, 29,dcvcIop-
mcnt,arstthcorcso|, JJ, asmod-
crn, I 0, I I , 2 I , tcnsonwththcIocaI,
6J, 64, I 84vIIagc,29
gIobaIzaton(rr ulo dctcrrtoraIzaton,
homogcnzatoncuIturaI,IocaIty), I U,
I 6, I 8 , ! 50, I 87, ! 88homogcnzaton
and, l I , I 7, J2, 42,o||ndusm,57,
asIocaIzngproccss, I 7, thcmodcrn
and, 4, naton |orm and, I 88,spacc
and, 9
Lo|an, L 75
Loodn,\, I 87
LouId,S. ) . , 52
Lramsc,A , I 45
, 29, I 8 8
K. , I I 6, ! 2 I ! 26
Lupta,A, I 88
|abcrmas, | , I 6 I
|abb,l . I 29
habtus, 44,69, 74, I ! J,mprovsaton
and, 6, 5556IocaItyas, I 85,tcch-
n|qucso|bodyand67
an . , I I 6 I 8 , ! 25
|andIK. , J9, I 8 8
|an|, . , I 52
|anks,N , I 87
l n J r
2 2 J
|anncrz, L. , 32, 46, 63, I 88
|anscn, , I 69, I 94
|argrcavcs, I I 0
|arrs, . , 52
|arcy,L , 85, 204
|asan, , I 30
|cbdgc, L , ! 45
|cchtcr,. , 38, I 46
|clms,. V. , 27, 7I
|crdcr, | L. , I 6 I
hctagcpoltcs:tt c|:o rcproducton,
cultural), 39, 42, 44-45, I 46
|crz|cld, . , 39, I 8 8
|nkson, | . , 47
|rschman,P L. , 6, I 45, I 49
hstoy, 20, ! 56, I 82, agcncyand, I 57
anthropologyand, 64, consumpton
and,7 ! , 78,gcncalogyand, I 7 I 8 ,
64-65 74hstorcalsub]cctsand,I 85
localsmand, ! 7
|obsbawm,L. , 4 I , I 45, I 64, I 88
|odgson,. , 27, 7!
homclands,nvcntcd, 38, 45, 49
homogcnzaton,cultural.globalzaton
and, , I 7, 32, 42,naton-statcsand,
32, 39, 4 I 46, I 7 I 8 9
|uznga,). , I I 0
|utchns, L., 96, I 20
|ymcs, L. |. , 5 8, I 87
dcnttypoltcs, 5, I 45, I 65
dcoscapcs, 33, 3538, 40, 45, 47
imugncrt, 30, 3 I
magnary, 3 I , I 45, I 6 ! , ! 9 I
magnaton :rr c|:o communtcs, mag-
ncd,|antasy,worko|magnaton,
worlds, magncd), 49,60, I 85, ! 95,n
colonlsm, I I 5, I I 7,communtyo|
scntmcntand, 8dalogucwthrtual,
5, 6, 57cthncvolcnccand, I 49, ! 53
cthnogaphyand,53, 58|antasyand,
6,7, 3 I , 58, 82natonstatcand, 39,
I 6 I ncwncsso|,5,npoltc, I 45
olc nsocall|c, 3 I , 52, 53, 54, 55, 6 I
assocal|actandpractcc,5, 3 I , 5 3
mploson,9, I 49, ! 5 I , I 5657, I 64-65,
I 93
mpvsaton, 6, 55, 68
Indcn,K B. , ! ! 6
ndiu LuburtI, 38, 6 ! , 63
ndgcnzaton :rr c:o dccolonaton
globalzaton,homogcnzaton,cul
tural). Amcrcanzatonand, 32o|
crckct,90,94, I 00, I I 0dccolonza-
ton and, ! 0 I , I 06modcrntyand,90
lnkclcs,A, 6
saacs,|. , I 39
lshrwood,B. , 7I
lvy, . , 32, 73, I 46
Iycr, l , 29, 32
)amcs,\.L. ,90, 9 I
)amcson , 295 2 , 2 0 I , consumpton
andrcpcttonand,67poltcso|nos
talgaand, 30, 77
)ohnson, . , 36
)ohnson,K ,202
1 b17, 1r, I 2 I24
|ang, I 67
|ap|crcr, B., I 8 8
|arach,9 , I 50-52, I 54
. , I I 5, I 3 I
|clly,N , I 46
|cohanc, K I 49
|crkcgaard, ., 67
|ng, P, I 8 8
|lcnman,P, 203
knowlcdgc, local, I 8 I
|opyt||, l , 76
|othar, , 40, ! I 4 I 3 I I 4 I
|otkn, |. , I 70
|rocbcr,A. , ! 2
Lacan, 5 I
Laclau, L , I 45
Lako||, 36
Lash,b. , 33, 40, 52, I 50
Lawton,K. , I I 7
LcBon, I 48
Lcc, B. , I 6 I
Lc|cbvrc,| , I 78, 204
Lc|ort, I 45
Lcrncr, 6
n J X
2 2 4 ~
Lcw,L. , ! 80
localtytt cl:o cthnographyncghbor-
hoods, producton,sub]ccts,local),
9, I I , I 78, I 94, I 97, 204bodlyn
scrptonand, I 4, 67, ! I 2, I 79con
tcxtand, ! 86, I 88, I 9 I , I 93, I 95, I 98
ndctcrrtoralzcdword,52, I 8 889
asdsgusco|transnatonalproccsscs,
42cthnctyand, 4 ! , cthnography
and, 52, 55, 63, ! 7982, I 84,|raglty
o|, ! 79, ! 82, ! 84, ! 98,ashstorca
product, ! 8,naton-statcand, I 90,
ncghborhoodsand, I 79, I 82, I 99,
204,aspropcrtyo|socall|c, I 82,
I 99,rtualso|, I 80-84,structurcso|
|cclngand, I 53, I 56, ! 8 I , I 82, I 89,
! 99
Luddcn, L. L , ! I 5, I I 6, I I 7, ! 28, 202
Lukcs, b. , 52
Lutz,. P, I 47
Lyotard, -, 3 I
acAloon, |. , 60, I I 0, ! 67
magcal rcalsm, 53, 5859, 6 I
alnowsk, B. 69, I 80
alkk, L. |. , I 55, 203
andaommssonKcport, I I 4, I 35
! 43, I 46, I 62
andcl, L., 3 3
an, L. , I 20
mappng, I 2 I-22, ! 80
arcus,L. , 46, 5 8
arshall,, I 07
artn,L. , 85
arx|. , 3, 47, 52, 79, I 44, I 57, I 8 I ,
alcnatonand, 42 dctatorshpo|
prolctaratand, I 42, |ctshsmo|com-
modtyand,4 I
attclart,A , 3 2
auss, . , 67,bodlytcchnucsand,
69, I 47collcctvcconscousncssand,
8 3g|tgvngand,68
azzn,L , I 6 I
bcmbc,P , I 59, I 89
crackcn, C. L , 75
cLonaldzaton,29
c|cndrck, l., 66,72
cuhan,, 29
39
mcasurcmcnt, andcolonalpolcy, I 2 3
mcda cncm,lmmcdaclcc-
tronc, mass,mcdascapcs,tclc-
vson).nndgcnzatono|crckct,
9 ! , I 00, I 02, I 04, I 07, I 2moblza-
tono|dcnttyby, I55, ! 56,modcr-
ntyand, 3,placc 29,producton
o|localtyn, I 8 I ,rolcncrcatng
worlds 3, 33, 35, 45
ccctron, :rr c|:o ncghbor
hoods), 9, I 74, I 89 consumcrnagc
66,dasporaand, I 9698,dasporc
publcsphcrcsand, I 0, 22 ncghbor
hoodsand, ! 89, I 997 ncwpatrot-
sms and, I 96,asopumo|masscs,7
scl|-magnngand, 4, tradtonal
mcdaand,3
mcda, mass:tr cl:o mgraton), 3, ! 8 I ,
I 94,agcncyand, 7, communtcso|
scntmcntand,8consumptonand,
84culturalrcproductonthrough, 45,
ndctcrrtoralzcdcontcxt, 38, 45,
55,magnatonand,5 355,mgaton
and, 2,6, I0, 2 ! , I 56, natonstatc
and, 20-2 ! , I 56
mcdascapcs, 33, 3 540, 47,cultural
poltcso|, 45dcntono|, 35, |an-
tasy,magnatonand, 36, |ctshsmo|
consumcrand, 42, nvcntcdhomc
lands and, 38, 45
ccnaksJcmplc,56-57
mcltngpot, ! 7 ! , ! 72
cyrowtz, | . , 29
mgraton:tt ul:o dctcrrtoralzaton,
daspora,dsplaccmcnt,mcda,mass),
9, 28, 32, I 75, I 86, I 92, ! 99,aschal-
lcngctonaton-statc, 4, I 56, I 57, I 9 ! ,
culturalrcproductonand,43-44,cul-
turalstmovcmcntsand, I 5, I47, I 56
dctcrrtoralzatonand,4 dcao|
homclandand, I 76,magnatonand,
6massmcdaand,2, 6, I 0, 2 I , I 56,
modcrntyo|, 3rcpcat, I 72
llcr, L , 75
llcr, , 73
n d r x
2 2 5
__________
NnIz, b. V,/!
NIra, ! ! !
mOdcmIy (:u u:o mOdcrnzaIOn), !-3 ,
! /, ! 4J, JU4, aI argc, ! J, J 3 , O cIh
nCIy, ! 3J, ! 44, ! '/, indgcnzaIOn
and, JU, mcans O, ! ! J, ! ! 3, mgraIOn
and, 3, naIiOn-sIaIc and, ! J, rcprOduC
IOn O OCaIy n, ! 8 ! , as IhcOry, J,
IhcOry O mpIurc n, J, 3, J, as vcrnaCu-
ar gObazaIOn, ! U, wOrk O magna-
IOn and, 3
mOdcmzaIOn (:rr o:o mOdcrnIy), JU3
dcmOCraCy and, I 4 ! , dcvcOpmcnI
and, I U, JU, ! 44, naIOn-sIaIc and, J,
J, ! U, IhcO], J , 3, , J, ! ! , ! J, 3 ! , ! 4U
NOncy, | , ! ! /
NOOrc, b. , ! 88
NOuc, \. , ! 4'
mOvcmcnIs, CuIuralsI (:rr o:c rcprOduC-
IOn, CuIura), ! ', ! '/, CuIurc, Cu-
Iurasm and, ! 3- ! , naIOnsIaIc and,
! ', ! 4, ! 4/
Nukcr| , /J
muICuIurasm, ! ' , JJ, ! JJ, n Lng-
and, ! 4 3, ! 4, n \nIcd bIaIcs, ! J,
! / ! , ! J/
Nuvcy, L, 84
Nunn, . . , ! 8U
ar, N. , ! U, 3 8 , ! , 3
andy, A. , 3J, 'J, JU, JJ, J, ! U, ! 4 ! ,
JU3
naIOnasm (:rr u|:o cIhnCIy, naIOn-
sIaIc, paIriOIsm, Irbasm), JU, ! '8,
! / ! , ! 88, ! JU, CrCkcI naIOnasm, J ! ,
JJ, ! U/, ! UJ, I I J, daspOrC, ! U, 4U,
I /J, I J, as dscasc, ! J, ccCIrOnC mc
daIOn and, J, ! J, cIhnCIy and, ! 3J,
! J, magncd COmmunIcs and, J8,
Ong-dsIanCc, JJ, I J, paIrOIsm and,
! 'J-U, pOIcs O mcmOry n, I '',
I ', as prmOrdasm, J I , IcrrIOry
and, ! ! , ! '-, ! / ! , IrOjan, ! '
naIOna, quccr, ! 'J, ! /4, ! /
na:On-sIaIc (:rr u|:o COmmunIcs, mag-
ncd, naIOnasm). COnIrO Ovcr d||cr-
cnCc, 3J, 4J, ! 3U, ! //, Crss O, ! J,
3J, ! '/, ! '8, ! U ! , ! J, ! /J, Cu-
Iurasm O, I 4, ! 4/, ! ', ! '/, das-
pOrC pubC sphcrcs and, 4, cnd O, ! 8,
! J, ! J, ! /, gOba CuIura cCOnOmy
and, 3J, hcrIagc pOICs and, 3J, 4J,
! 4, hOmOgcnzaIOn and, 3J, 3J, 4J,
! 4, ! //, ! 8J human mOIOn and, 4,
! ', ! '/, ! J ! , hyphcn n, ! J, 3J-4U,
! 'J, ! /, magnaIOn and, 3J, ! ! , as
OCaIy, 4J, mObzaIOn O dcnIIy
by, ! ''-', ! 3, mOnOpOy Ovcr mOd
crnzaIOn, ! U, ncghbOrhOOds and,
! JU-J3, ! J8, prmOrdasm and, ! 4,
I J, prOduCIOn O OCaIy by, ! 8/,
I JU-J ! , prOduCIOn O pcOpc and,
! ! J, ! 'J, ! /, ! 8J, ! J ! , spaCc and,
! 8J, IcrrIO] and, ! ! , ! 8J, ! J ! , Irans-
naIOna dcsIabzaIOn O, ! /8, I 8J
cac, V. ! J '
ncghbOrhOOds (:rr u|:o OCaIy, Icrr
IOry), ! 4, ! 8U, COOnzaIOn and, ! 84,
! 8, COnIcXI and, ! 8 3-88, ! J 3 , ! J',
! J8, CuIura rcprOduCIOn n, 44, dch-
nIOn O, ! /8, I /J, cIhnC vOcnCc n,
I J 3, ! 83 , ! 84, ! 8,
magnaIOn and, /, ! 8 I , OCaIy
and, ! /J, ! 8J, ! JJ, JU4, naIOn-sIaIc
and, ! JU-J3, ! J8, rIuas ! 8 3-84,
sOCa, '3, spaIa and vrIua, ! 8J,
! J4-J8, as IransOCaIcs, ! JJ,
'anOmam as, ! 8'-8
CO, , 3 J
lgam, b. , ! ! 8
nOmnasm, dynamC, ! I , ! J '
nOngOvcrnmcnIa OrganzaIOns (NCOs),
! 8, ! JU
nOsIaga (:rr o:o COnsumpIOn, anIasy,
ashOn, paIna), ! ', ! J, armChar,
/8, and CaIaOgs, /, /8, COnsumpIOn
and, 8', anIasy and, //-/8, 8 ! -8J,
8 3, ashOn and, /, //, wIhOuI mcm-
Ory, 3U, //, 8J, Or Ihc prcscnI, 3U, //,
rc:uns and, 3U
numbcr cnumcraIOn): n brIsh
pOICa magnaIOn, ! ! / n CadasIra
pOICs, ! J ! , ! J', n COOna magna-
IOn, ! ! /, Or COOna and sOCa COn-
h dt X
2 2 =

IrO, I ! /, ! J', ! JJ, dynamC nOmna

sm O, ! J', ! 3J, as Orm O IransaIOn,
! J, |usIhCaIOry and dsCpnary rOc
O, ! ! J-J ! , ! J '-J, n rcCOrds and
rcpOrIs, ! J
LympC 'amcs, 4, 8, U, ! /
OrcnIasm (:rr u|:o cmprCsm, OrcnIa-
sI): COOnasm and, ! ! 8, ! ! J,
! 33~34, CrIqucs O arca sIudcs
! , cnumcraIOn n, ! ! ', ! JJ, magna-
IOn and, ! ! '
LrIncr, b. b , '', JU3
andcy, ' , J8, ! J/, !8, ! 3U
anI, K. , ! J/-J8
arhI, ., 'J
ark n, . , 48
arsOns, , , JU3
aI!, b. , ! U4
paIna (:rr o|:o ashOn, nOsIaga), /'-/,
/8, 8J
paIrOIsm (scc asO naIOnasm, naIOn-
sIaIc, Irbasm, vOcnCc, cIhnC), !J4,
! /, dcIaChcd rOm IcrrIOry, J ! , nks
wIh bCuIurasm, ! /U, mcda and,
! J, naIOnasm and, ! ' J-U, sOCa|
sCcnCc and, ! 8-J3
cs, . , JU4
crn, ,/ ! , ! JJ
crcc, J
Ikn, ! , ! 3 !
paCc (:tr u|:o OCaIy,
mcda). magnaIOn ' 3 , '8,
mcda and, JJ, naIOnasm and, ! ! ,
! , naIOnsIaIc and, ! 8J, ! J ! , ncgh-
bOrhOOd and, ! 8 3-8, ! 88, pcOpc,
hcrIagc and, 4, rIua and, ! 83-8'
pcasurc. agcnCy and, /, ! ! ! , agOnsIC
spOrI and, ! ! U- ! ! , O COnsumpIOn, /,
8, 83, O COsmOpOIansm, J, ! ! J, O
cphcmcraIy, 8 3-84, ashOn and, 8,
O Ihc gazc, 84, mass mcda and, 8
umb, ,
pOICa COrrcCIncss, ! / !
pOsInaIOna (:rr ul:o Irans naIOn,
IransnaIOna), J, ! ' 8-'J, ! 4-/ ! ,
I /3-//, cIhnC mObzaIOns, ! 4,
Orms O acganCc, ! , hcIcrOgcnc
Iy and, J3, magnaIOn, J ! -JJ, ! //,
vs. muInaIOna and nIcrnaIOna,
! /-8, ncIwOrk O daspOras, ! / ! ,
pOICa wOrd, JJ-J3, pOICs, ! /3,
sOCa Orms, ! '8, ! /, sOdaIcs, 8
Owcrs, b. K., JJ
rakash, '. , J8, ! ! , ! J
rcscr, P, ! JU
rcsIOn, N, ! J
pnmOrda sm (srr u:c cIhnCIy), ! 3J-4J,
JU3, cIhnC vOcnCc and, J ! , ! 4U-4! ,
! 44, ! 4J, ! ' 3 , ! '-'/, gObazaIOn
O, 4 ! , mOdcrnIy and, !4U, ! 44, para
dOx O COnsIruCIcd, J8, pOICs O
acCI and, ! 44-4/, ! ' 3 , Irbasm and,
! /U
prOduCIOn. and COnsumcr cIshsm, 4 ! ,
4J, O OCa subjcCIs, ! /J-8 ! , ! 8',
! 8/, ! JU, O OCaIy, ! 'J, ! 8U-8J,
! 8', ! 8J, ! JJ-J4, O naIvcs, ! /J, O
pcOpc, ! ! J, ! 'J, ! /, ! 8J, ! J! , O
spaCc, ! /8
rOusI, N. , /
ur, . , JU
quccr naIOnaIy, ! 'J, ! /4, ! /
[ucIccI, P ! 3U
KabnOw, . , 4J, ! ! 8
Ka|, `,J 3
Kangcr, , 4 ! , ! 4'
Kanj, J'J/
KanjIsnhj. 5oKanj
rcugccs, 43, ! ! , ! , ! JJ, Camps and,
, I /, ! J ! , ! JJJ3, CuIura pOICs
O, 4', CuIurasm and, ! ', cIhnO-
sCapcs and, 3 3 , mpOsOn and, ! 4J,
naIOn-sIaIc pOCcs On, 34, ! J ! , n
pOsInaIOna Ordcr, JJ, ! /-8, n
IransnaIOn, ! /J-/3
rcgOn, /, 8, JU, J/, ! 43, n Ccnsuscs,
! ! 8, rOc n naIOnasm, ! !
rcprOduCIOn, CuIura (:rr u:o mOvc-
mcnIs, CuIurasI), ! / ! , ! 8', dcIcrrIO
razaIOn and, 3/-3 8, 43-4', 48, 4J,
r J t X
= 2 2 7 =
gIobaIizcdrcIat|onso|,5 I , I 98,|or
|indusabroad, 38, 57,motonand,
4344,standard, 54,tcnsonbctwccn
IocaIandgIobaI in,63
rcsstancc,29, 63, 84, I 33, I 89,cuIturaI
transactions and, 27,massmcdaand,
7,tomodcrnzaton, I 40,prmordaI-
smand, I 40, I 45
rtcso|passagc, 6870, 84, I 7980
rtuaI, 69, daIoguc wth imagnaton,5,
6, 57,IocaIsubcctsand, I 8 I , I 85,roIc
|nIocaIty, I 8084
Kobbns,B. , I 69
Kobcrts, ^. , 9 I
Kobcrtson,K, I 50, I 88
Kobnson, , I 30
Kock,\. , 79, 83
KosaIdo,K. , 58
Koscnau, ). , I 50, I 5 ! , I64, I 66, ! 88
Kousc, K., ! 8 8, 204
rupturc|rr uo brcak,thcoryo|), ! 2 ! ,
rcIatontonostalga, 76,thcoryo|,7,
3, 9
Kushdc,S. , 8, 53, 58
SahIns,^. , 69, 72, 85, I 8 8
Sad,L, I 6, I I 4 I 5
Salvc,. . ., 99, I 09
Saraswath,S. , I 3 I
ouIunc \rrr, 1hr, 8 , 53, 58, 59
Saussurcan ngu|stcs, ! 7
Sawchuk, |. , 84
Scha|cr,L, 27,7 I
Schcr, , 204
Schc||cln,, ! 80
SchIlcr, |. , 32
Schlcsngcr, L. ,202
Schudon,^. , 53
Scott, ). \. , ! 45, I 49, I 89
Shah, P ^. , I I 4, I 3 I
Shastri,K , I 04
Shcrcr, ) , I 8 8
ShIs,L . , 6 , 39, 703
SmmcI,C. , 50,75
Smth,,78
Smth,K S. , I ! 7, I I 9, I 202 ! , ! 76,
! 27, I 28
sociolinguscs, ! 87
socoIogy.coIoniaI,93, 98,cuIturccon-
ccptn,5 I , o|dispIaccmcnt, 39
spacc. gIobalizationand,9,natiostatc
and, I 89,productono|, ! 78,tmc
and, I 80, ! 86, 704
Stack, ). r., 7
Scwart, S., 77
Stolcr,P L., 94
subaltcrn studcs, ! 45
sub]ccts, IocaI IocaIty and, ! 790,
I 88naton-statcand, I 909 ! , ! 93,
I 97ncghborhoodsand, I 8 I , I 85,
! 87, I 90, ! 98,rtuaIand, I 8 ! , ! 85
supcrorgan, ! 2
Sutton,L. S . , ! 55, 703
Jambah, S.)., I 4 , I 49,I 505 ! , I 53, I 8 8
tcchniquc,bodIy|:rr u:o body), 69, 83
consumptonand,6768, 74,
cphcmcraI|tyand, 84,rcIatontodsci-
pInc, I 4748
tcchnoscapcs, 33, 34, 35, 37, 40, 45
tcIcvson:rr u|:o cincma,Im,mcda
mcda,cIcctronic,mcda,mass) advcr-
tsngandconsumpton,73, 77, 84,
cincmaand, ! 94,ascIcctroniccaptaI-
|sm, I 6 ! , thcgazcand, 84,inIndan
crickct, ! 0 I , I 02, I 04, ! 06, ! ! 7,
mcdascapcsand, 35,mgratonand, 6,
npostnatonaI poIt|caIordcr I 66.
roIcn|magination,53

tcrrtoryrr u|o dctcrrtoraIzaton,

naton-statcncghborhoods),7,98,
! 75, ! 86,asaIb||ornatonaIsm, I 65,
ncountcrnat|onaIsms, 2 I , nat|on-
statcand, I 6 ! , I 89, ! 9 I , nc|ghbr-
hoodsand, I 95,poItico|cuIturaIrc-
productonn,44
Jhapar, K, ! ! 4
Jhomas, |. , I I 7
Jhompson,L. ., I 7, 79, 87, I 45
Jhornton, K, 46
tmc commodihcatono|,79, 82,con-
sumptonand,70,76,7879, 85,
spaccand, ! 80, I 86, 704
Jocnn|cs,, 3, I 79
IJ :
2 2 8
tradton,invcntono|,4 I , 44, I 45
transocaI proccsscs, 77
transIocaItcs, I92
transnaton, I 7773, I 7677, 204
transnaonaIrr u|:o postnatonaI), ! 5,
I 7, 3 I , I 65, I 70, I 76, I 77, I 93, I 94,
aIIcgancc anda|hIaton, 20, I 67
aIIanccs andmobIzation, 8, I0, 43,
I 47, culturaIows,49, 64, dcstabIza-
tono|naton-statc, I 78,gcncaIogcs,
64, |dcasanddcoscapcs, 37,5960,
ntcIIcctuas, I 6 I , I 95, mcda and
mgaton, 9, 35, 40, 44, 704,phIan-
thropicmovcmcnts, I 67, rcIatonso|
producton,47,scparatstmovcmcnts,
72, 39, 40, sprcado|dscasc, 50, I 66
transvauation, I 5054, I 56
trbaIsm srr u|:o cthncity,prmordaI-
ism), I 5, I 4 I , I 73,Amcrcanracsm
and, I 707I , nationaIsmand, I 5,
202 I , I 6264
Jrpathi,S. , I 09
JrouIIot,^. K, 65
Jurncr, , 94
JyIor, L.B. , 50
Orban,C. , ! 88
Orry, ) , 33, 40, 52, I 50
Vachan, L., 40
van dcr Vccr, , I 47, I 56, I 88
vanCcnncp, P, 68, 69, I 80
Vcbcn,, 66, 68
vocncc, cthnc |:rr ul:o cthnctypr-
mordaIsm,cthnicvoIcnccand),203,
bctrayaIandtrcachcry in, I 54, I55,
703, cuItraIsmnd, I 5, I 56dctcrr-
toraIatonand, 38, 49, ! 66, cvcnt
cascadcsand, I 5054, I 56, ! 64,
dcoscapcsin, 38, maginatonand,
! 49, I53, impIoson, cxpIosonand,
I 49, I 5 I , I 54, ! 5657, I 6465, I93,
structurcso||ccIng n, I 53, I 56
VaIIcrstcin, l . , 27, 33, I 8 8
Varncr,^ . , 36, I 6 I
wars,urban, 57, I 9 3
Vashbrook,L. P , I 3 !
Vcbcr, ^. , 3, 6, 83, I 70, I 79, 203,cth
nictyand, I 4dcoIogy npoIticaII|c
and, I 45,rsco|captaIsmand,77
trrIrhrn ad,50
whtcncss, I 59, ! 7 !
VIIams,K, 36, I 45, ! 53
VIIams,K |., 77,73
Vo|,L.,77, 33, 46, 7I
womcn|:rr u|:o gcndcr),honoro|, 45,
lndancrickctand, 93, I I I ,voIcncc
aganst,44,45, I 96
worko|magnaton|rr u|:o magina
ton), 9, 83, I 98, mcdia, mgraton,
and, 3, I 0, 63, 5,naton-statcand, I0,
72, I 46,asspacco|contcstaton, 4, 54
worIdsystcmstcory, 77
worIds,magncd,5, 4 ! , dcntono|,
33, roIco|mcda in, 3, 33, 35, 45
anoma, I 8586
oshmoto, ^., 37
ar,., 40
oIbcrg,P K, I 49
n Jr X
2 2
PKJ LN P||PLLKP| lsprotcssorotanthropoogyandot5outh ^slan anguagcs
and clvlllatlons at thc Lnlvcrslty ot hlcago whcrc hc was prcvlously
dlrcctor ot thc hicago umanltlcs nstltutc. ls many publlcatlons ln-
cludc weso; orJ Cer].ci rJ: Celer:l Rl: ,ambridgc, I 8 I T: Sec|:l
L(j: e] To|rs ,as cdltor, ambldgc Lnlvcrsty rcss, I 8 and C:rJ:,
C:r: orJ Pem: ,ascocdltor, Lnlvcrsltyotcnnsyvanlarcss, I I c ls
thcdlrcctorotthcloballatlonro|cctatthcLnlvcrsltyothlcagoand
s currcnty rcscarchlngthcrclatlonbctwccn chnlcvlocncc and lmagcs
ottcrrltoylnmodcrn naton-statcs.