Dust Explosions in the Pulp and Paper Industry

Timothy J. Myers Exponent, Inc. ABSTRACT Recent catastrophic dust explosions have caused an increased focus on dust hazards by government agencies such as the U.S. Chemical Safety Hazard and Investigation Board (CSB). Investigation of these explosions has revealed that many facilities, inspectors, and enforcement agencies have limited knowledge of dust explosion hazards. Materials present in the pulp and paper industry, including wood and paper dust, can represent significant dust explosion hazards. This paper describes the history of dust explosions in the pulp and paper industry, reviews existing regulations, standards, and practices for the prevention and mitigation of dust explosions, and discusses increased regulatory and enforcement efforts that may occur. INTRODUCTION Several catastrophic dust explosions have recently occurred outside of the pulp and paper industry. Five of these incidents are summarized in Table I and have caused 22 fatalities, an even greater number of injuries, and significant property damage. Preliminary data released by the U.S. Chemical Safety Hazard and Investigation Board (CSB) at a June 22, 2005 public hearing identified approximately 200 dust explosions that have occurred since 1985 that resulted in approximately 100 fatalities and 600 injuries. Table I: Recent Catastrophic Dust Explosions Year Facility State 1999 Gray Iron Casting Foundry Massachusetts 2002 Rubber Recycling Facility Mississippi 2003 Rubber Drug Delivery Products North Carolina 2003 Fiberglass Insulation Kentucky Manufacturer 2003 Automotive Wheel Foundry Indiana

Dust Phenolic Resin Scrap Tire Grindings Polyethylene Dust Phenolic Resin Aluminum Dust

Fatalities 3 5 6 7 1

An explosion in 1785 at a flour warehouse in Turin, Italy is frequently cited as the first reported dust explosion. The recent incidents in Table I, demonstrate that catastrophic dust explosions continue to occur in a variety of industries over 200 years later. Because of the attention received by these recent incidents, it is expected that many industries, including the pulp and paper industry, will see a greater focus on identification and mitigation of dust explosion hazards. Materials present in the pulp and paper industry including paper and wood dust can represent dust explosion hazards. Fortunately, current standards and guidelines from the NFPA and other organizations provide guidance to prevent and mitigate dust explosion hazards. The recent focus on dust explosions may cause changes to local and federal regulations. There will likely be a concurrent increase in emphasis on identifying and mitigating dust explosion hazards by inspectors from various public and private agencies, such as OSHA, local fire departments, and insurance companies. Increased awareness and educational programs on dust explosion hazards are also expected. FINDINGS FROM RECENT INVESTIGATIONS The CSB completed investigations of the North Carolina [1] and Kentucky [2] explosions listed in Table I and is currently investigating the Indiana incident. Additionally, in response to these recent incidents, the CSB launched a nationwide study to determine the scope of the problem and recommend new safety measures for facilities that handle combustible powders. The CSBs findings from these investigations include: Facilities did not fully comply with recognized guidelines and standards for the prevention and mitigation of dust explosions. Inspectors from major insurance companies and government agencies who had visited the facilities prior to the explosions did not recognize the dust explosion hazards at these facilities.

OSHA regulations related to dust explosion hazards are limited to specific industry regulations and classification of electrical equipment and forklifts for areas containing combustible dusts. (Note: OSHA regulations specific to the pulp and paper industry is described later in this paper) OSHA has not adopted a comprehensive standard for the prevention and mitigation of dust explosions such as NFPA 654 Standard for the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions from the Manufacturing, Processing, and Handling of Combustible Particulate Solids.

The CSB is not a regulatory authority and cannot issue citations, however it can and does make recommendations to other government agencies, trade organizations, standards organizations, and private and public companies. Recommendations from these investigations have included: Training inspectors from insurance companies and government agencies to recognize dust explosion hazards. Incorporating standards such as NFPA 654 into local code requirements. Creating outreach programs to educate industries about dust explosion hazards.

During a June 22, 2005 CSB public hearing on combustible dust fire and explosions hazards, the CSB Board asked panelists if they believed OSHA should create comprehensive regulations for the prevention and mitigation of dust explosions, or incorporate appropriate National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards and guidelines by reference. A possible outcome of the current CSB investigation of dust explosion hazards could be recommendations to OSHA to incorporate by reference the current NFPA standards and guidelines for the prevention and mitigation of dust explosions. DUST EXPLOSIONS IN THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY History of Dust Explosions in the Pulp and Paper Industry In the 1970s and 1980s, several authors described recent dust explosions that occurred in the pulp and paper industry and the fire and explosion hazards of paper dust [3 , 4,5,6]. These studies indicated that although it is often thought that paper dust is only mildly explosive, its dust explosion characteristics are similar to many dusts that are commonly accepted to be dust explosion hazards, such as coal, flour, and grain dusts. It is difficult to ascertain the total number of dust explosions that occur in the pulp and paper industry each year as studies have shown that most dust explosions are not reported and there are few centralized databases of reported dust explosions [7]. It is clear however, that the fact that paper dust is thought of as mildly explosive has resulted in a lack of recognition of the real hazard Figure 1 provides data from three databases tabulating the most common materials involved in historical industrial dust explosions.

45%

40%

U.S. Facilities 1900 to 1956 - NFPA Database F.R.Germany Facilities 1965 to 1980 - Jeske and Beck Database

Percent of Explosions in Each Database

35%

Facilities Insured by FM Global 1985 to 1995 - FM Global Database

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0% Coal Metals Other/Unknown Paper/Pulp Plastics Wood

Dust Type

Figure 1: Types of dust involved in dust explosions identified in three databases. NFPA (546 explosions), and Jeske and Beck (269 explosions), FM Global (150 explosions), databases [8,9, and 10]. Incidents involving food and feed documented in the NFPA and German databases were not included in this figure. Pulp and paper dust was involved in approximately 1.6 to 4% of the reported dust explosions in the databases shown in Figure 1. While this may seem like a relatively small number, it is likely that many smaller paper dust fires and explosions that do not cause significant damage or injury to workers go unreported to insurance companies and local fire departments. Wood dust is the most common fuel in two of the three databases and the second most common fuel in the third database, involved in approximately 30 to 40% of dust explosions. The frequency of dust explosions involving wood dust is important for the pulp and paper industry, given that many pulp and paper manufacturers also produce wood products and that wood is the raw material for the pulping processes, and is used as a fuel in power boilers. Characteristics of Dusts Present in the Pulp and Paper Industry A complete description of various test methods used to characterize the explosion hazards of dust is beyond the scope of this paper. A survey of ASTM testing methods useful for characterizing the ignition and explosion characteristics of dusts was recently published [11]. However, it is useful to compare some dust explosion characteristics of dusts that may be present in the pulp and paper industry to the characteristics of other dusts that may be more commonly known as explosion hazards. In Table II, three dust explosion characteristics are tabulated for examples of dust that may be present in pulp and paper mills, and dusts that may be more commonly known as dust explosion hazards to the general public or safety professionals. The maximum explosion over pressure is the maximum rise in pressure that will occur when a dust is dispersed in air and ignited in a closed vessel. The Kst is a volume-normalized rate of pressure rise in this same test and is independent of vessel volume for sufficiently large vessels. These two values provide an indication of the

expected severity of an explosion with a specific dust. Larger values of the maximum overpressure and Kst represent a greater explosion severity. It should be noted, that these maximum overpressures are not typically reached in industrial explosions because the walls of most buildings will fail at much lower pressures, venting the explosion. The dust cloud ignition temperature is the temperature at which a dust cloud will ignite without an ignition source, similar to the autoignition temperature of a gas or vapor. Table II: Dust explosion characteristics of various materials used in the pulp and paper industry and selected reference materials. (Data from Eckhoff [12]) Dust Median Particle Maximum Explosion Kst value Dust Cloud Ignition Size Overpressure (bar-g) (bar-m/s) Temperature (m) (C) Dusts that May be Present in Pulp and Paper Mills Cellulose Dust 51 9.3 66 500 Paper Pulp Dust 29 9.8 168 Paper Tissue Dust 54 8.6 52 540 Lignin Dust 18 8.7 208 470 Organic Dyestuff <10 11.0 288 480 Sulfur Dust 20 6.8 151 280 Wood Dust 43 9.2 102 490 Wood Flour 65 7.7-10.5 83-192 Example Reference Dusts Aluminum Powder <10 11.2 515 560 Rubber Dust 80 8.5 138 500 Pittsburgh Seam Coal ~74 7.3 124 585 Wheat Grain Dust 80 9.3 112 As can be seen from the data in Table II, many dusts including pulp, paper, cellulose, lignin, organic dyes, sulfur, and wood dust, have explosion properties similar to rubber, coal, and wheat dust. Metal powders, such as aluminum, typically represent the greatest explosion hazard of dusts. The median particle size of each dust sample is also listed in the table. Unlike gases and vapors, many ignition and explosion properties of dusts are not intrinsic properties of the material. The explosion properties of a type of dust can vary and are a strong function of the size and morphology of particles, and the moisture content of the material. As the particle size of a dust decreases, it typically becomes easier to ignite and the rate of pressure rise of an explosion increases. Because of this, published results of dust explosion testing for materials should only be used as a rough guideline of the dust explosion hazard and testing is required to determine the characteristics of a specific dust. METHODS FOR PREVENTION AND MITIGATION OF DUST EXPLOSIONS Standards and Guidelines for the Prevention and Mitigation of Dust Explosions Fortunately standards and guidelines for the prevention and mitigation of dust explosions exist. Investigations of recent incidents suggest that if these standards had been followed by these facilities, the severity of the dust explosions would have been reduced, if not completely eliminated. Increased awareness of these standards is needed in industry. NFPA standards and guidelines. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) publishes consensus standards for the prevention of dust explosions in specific industries and a standard for general industries not covered by specific industry standards [13]. Most relevant to the pulp and paper industry are NFPA 654 Standard for the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions from the Manufacturing, Processing, and Handling of Combustible Particulate Solids and NFPA 664 Standard of Fires and Explosions in Wood Processing and Woodworking Facilities. NFPA 664 specifically applies to facilities that process wood or manufacture wood products, using wood or other cellulosic fiber as a substitute for or additive to wood fiber, and that process wood which creates wood chips, particles, or dust. This would apply to both typical wood product facilities and portions of a pulp mill that handle logs, wood chips, and sawdust. NFPA 654 is a general standard for facilities not specifically covered by

other industry specific standards. As an example, this standard would apply to pulp and paper mills where pulp, paper, and other fibers and dusts may be present. These standards provide guidance in the following areas: Housekeeping Employee training, inspection, and maintenance Management of change Building construction Segregation, separation, or detachment of dust handling and processing areas Control of ignition sources (friction, bearings, equipment, electrical equipment, static electricity, open flames and sparks, heating systems, hot surfaces, industrial trucks, powder-actuated tools) Explosion venting Equipment explosion protection Equipment isolation Bulk storage Material transfer systems (duct systems, bucket elevators, conveyors, fans or blowers) Size reduction operations Particle size separation Mixers and blenders Dryers Dust collection equipment Fire protection

NFPA 654 places a specific emphasis on housekeeping, employee training, inspection, maintenance, control of ignition sources, and management of change. Those sections of the standard apply retroactively to existing facilities. Additional NFPA standards provide guidance in specific areas of explosion prevention and mitigation and many of these are referenced within NFPA 654 and 655. These include: NFPA 68 Guide for Venting of Deflagrations NFPA 69 Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems NFPA 70 National Electric Code NFPA 499 Recommended Practice for the Classification of Combustible Dusts and of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Areas NFPA 505 Fire Safety Standard for Powered Industrial Trucks Including Type Designations, Areas of Use, Conversions, Maintenance, and Operation

FM Global data sheets. An industrial insurer, FM Global, publishes data sheets that include guidelines for the prevention of dust explosions and guidelines for specific processes in the pulp and paper industry that may involve dust explosion hazards. These include: 7-4 Paper Machines And Pulp Dryers 7-10 Wood Processing And Woodworking Facilities 7-17 Explosion Protection Systems 7-57 Pulp and Paper Mills 7-73 Dust Collectors and Collection Systems 7-76 Prevention And Mitigation Of Combustible Dust Explosions And Fire 7-102/12-29 Yankee Dryers

General Guidance The general approach for preventing dust explosions is similar to that used to prevent explosions of fuel gases or flammable and combustible liquid vapors in air: preventing the simultaneous occurrence of fuel, oxygen and an ignition source in the same location. The dust concentration in air required to fuel a dust explosion is typically on

the order of 100 grams/m3, orders of magnitude greater than concentrations that are typically considered to be breathing hazards for most materials. As a general rule of thumb, the dust concentrations in air required to fuel a dust explosion restrict visibility to less than 1 or 2 meters. During normal operating conditions, the concentrations of dust required to fuel a dust explosion are typically only found within process equipment and not in the occupied portions of facilities. A significant difference between leaks of flammable gases and fugitive dust from process equipment exists. When a small amount of gas or vapor leaks from a process vessel, it is diluted by air with time and distance, quickly reducing the concentrations to below the lower flammability limit and reducing the hazard. Conversely, fugitive dust will eventually settle on surfaces in a facility actually resulting in concentrations much higher than the original dust cloud released from the equipment. These dust accumulations can be dispersed at a later time, creating dust clouds of sufficient concentration to fuel a dust explosion. Dust explosions that occur outside of process equipment are often caused by dispersion and ignition of dust accumulations within the facility. Many catastrophic dust explosions actually consist of a chain of explosions with an initial small explosion or other event dispersing dust accumulations within the facility, which then allow the explosion to propagate throughout the facility. Dust accumulations in rafters and other elevated areas in a building can represent a significant quantity of material. Sections of NFPA 654 describe that accumulation of dust as small as 0.8 mm (1/32) can represent a dust explosion hazard. Because of this, it is critical to minimize releases of dust from process equipment into a facility and to provide dust collection systems where material is transferred between equipment. Aggressive housekeeping programs are required to continually remove dust accumulations before they reach hazardous levels. In the event that a dust explosion occurs, other elements of the standards are designed to reduce the amount of damage caused by the explosion. These measures include using damage limiting construction of buildings and pressure relief vents or blow-out panels on buildings and process vessels to vent pressures before they cause buildings to collapse or process equipment to rupture. CURRENT REGULATORY STATUS The NFPA is not a regulatory agency, and as such, the NFPA codes described above do not become regulations unless they are incorporated into regulations by an authority having jurisdiction or AHJ. AHJs can be local, state, or federal government organizations or agencies. In this section, we describe the routes through which these standards may become regulations in various jurisdictions Building Codes Original construction of facility. Building codes adopted by local or state governments vary throughout the United States. Increasingly, these building codes are incorporating the entire National Fire Code (NFC) of the NFPA by reference. The NFC consists of all NFPA standards including applicable standards for the prevention and mitigation of dust explosions. Generally, building codes require newly constructed facilities to be built to the standards in effect at the time of building design or construction. In many jurisdictions older facilities are grandfathered and are only required to follow the codes in effect at the time of construction of the facility, unless some portions of the codes apply retroactively. Significant modifications to a building may require compliance with current standards. The threshold in the degree of modification that requires compliance with current standards is often clearly defined. Typically, building code officials will only be involved in the initial construction of the building and modifications to the building if building permits are obtained. Review of current operation of facility. In many jurisdictions, local and state fire marshals are responsible for periodic inspection of a facility to ensure that the facility continues to comply with applicable regulations after its initial construction. OSHA Regulations Direct OSHA regulations. There are two primary OSHA regulations related to dust explosion hazards in general industry. The first is section 29 CFR 1910.178 which specifies the allowable types of industrial trucks or forklifts

that may be used in environments with Class II combustible dusts or Class III combustible fibers. This section of the OSHA regulations is based on an historical version of NFPA 505 Fire Safety Standard for Powered Industrial Trucks Including Type Designations, Areas of Use, Conversions, Maintenance, and Operation. Similarly section 29 CFR 1910.307 specifies the requirements for electrical equipment that may be used in environments with Class II dust or Class III fibers. This section of the OSHA regulations is based on an historical version of NFPA 70 National Electric Code. Standards incorporated by reference for the pulp and paper industry. Section 29 CFR 1910.261 provides additional regulations specific to the pulp, paper, and paperboard mills. This section incorporates two dust explosion standards by reference, using their ANSI designations from the late 1960s. The first standard, ANSI Z12.12-1968, refers to NFPA 655, which is currently titled Standard for Prevention of Sulfur Fires and Explosions. The inclusion of this standard likely dates back to a time when sulfite mills and sulfur-burners were more common in the pulp and paper industry. The one section of 29 CFR 1910.261 that uses the expression dust explosion refers to sulfur burners and sulfur-burner houses. The second standard incorporated by reference, ANSI Z33.1-1961, corresponds to NFPA 91, which at the time was titled Installation of Blower and Exhaust Systems for Dust, Stock, and Vapor Removal or Conveying. Currently, NFPA 91 is titled Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids (emphasis added) and portions of the standard dealing with combustible particulate solids has been incorporated into NFPA 654 Standard for the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions from the Manufacturing, Processing, and Handling of Combustible Particulate Solids. General duty clause. The general duty clause, section 5(a)(1) of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, states that each employer shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees. This clause is used to cite employers when a specific OSHA regulation does not exist for the alleged safety violation. A search of an OSHA database of general duty clause citations including the words dust and explosion identified over 200 citations between 1995 and 2004 [14]. The actual number of facilities cited is somewhat lower as many of these citations are multiple citations to a single facility. It is possible that some citations related to dust explosions are not included in this database or this search.

45

40

35

30

Citations

25

20

15

10

0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Year

Figure 2: OSHA general duty clause citations containing both the terms dust and explosion by year. Note: A single employer received 36 citations in 1996. Over 100 of these general duty clause citations specifically reference NFPA standards that could have been followed to mitigate dust explosion hazards. Some of the more frequently referenced standards relevant to the pulp and paper industry and the number of citations in which they were referenced are listed in Table III.

Table III: NFPA standards related to dust explosions that are relevant to the pulp and paper industry and frequently referenced in OSHA general duty clause citations. Data for the period of 1995 to 2004. Standard Title Number of Citations Referencing Standard NFPA 68 Guide for Venting of Deflagrations 10 NFPA 69 Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems 11 NFPA 654 Standard for the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions from the 26 Manufacturing, Processing, and Handling of Combustible Particulate Solids NFPA 664 Standard of Fires and Explosions in Wood Processing and Woodworking 24 Facilities The data in Table III demonstrates that OSHA considers NFPA standards for the prevention and mitigation of dust fires and explosions such as NFPA 654 and NFPA 664 to be good engineering practice that should be followed by industry even though they are not specifically referenced in the OSHA regulations. However, both OSHA inspectors and industrial health and safety professionals likely have a lower awareness of these standards than they would have if they were formally incorporated into OSHA standards.

POTENTIAL FUTURE REGULATORY AND ENFORCEMENT CHANGES It is likely that state and local building codes that do not currently incorporate NFPA standards for the prevention and mitigation of dust explosions will be modified to incorporate these standards. It is also possible that in the future, OSHA may add specific regulations related to dust explosions in general industry, or more likely incorporate existing NFPA codes. However, currently OSHA may not be inclined to create additional regulations. In another recent CSB investigation, the CSB recommended that OSHA broaden the Process Safety Management (PSM) regulation to include reactive chemical hazards. In response to the CSB recommendation, OSHA appeared reluctant to modify the regulation and is instead focusing on creating greater awareness to the reactive chemical hazard and using the general duty clause where significant hazards exist [15]. Thus, the immediate impact of these recent catastrophic dust explosions may not be in changes to regulations, but instead to greater awareness of inspectors and more aggressive enforcement of current regulations and NFPA standards as a good engineering practice under the general duty clause. At the recent June 22, 2005 CSB public hearing on combustible dust fire and explosions hazards, officials from two states where recent catastrophic dust explosions occurred, described their greatly increased efforts to educate their inspectors to recognize dust explosion hazards and increased inspection of facilities likely to have dust explosion hazards. CONCLUSIONS Several catastrophic dust explosions have recently occurred outside of the pulp and paper industry. Because of the attention received by these recent incidents, it is expected that many industries, including the pulp and paper industry, will see a greater focus on dust explosion hazards. Materials present in the pulp and paper industry including paper and wood dust can constitute dust explosion hazards. Fortunately, existing NFPA standards and guidelines provide guidance to prevent and mitigate dust explosion hazards. These standards and guidelines are being increasingly incorporated into state and local building codes. In the future, OSHA may incorporate these standards or elements of these standards into regulations. However, the more immediate impact will likely be increased awareness of government and insurance inspectors to dust explosion hazards when they inspect industrial facilities. References 1. U.S. Chemical Safety Hazard Investigation Board, Investigation Report: Dust Explosion, West Pharmaceutical Services, Inc., Kinston, North Carolina, January 29, 2003, Report No. 2003-07-I-NC, September 2004, http://www.csb.gov/completed_investigations/docs/CSB_WestReport.pdf 2. U.S. Chemical Safety Hazard Investigation Board, Investigation Report: Combustible Dust Fire and Explosions, CTA Acoustics, Inc. Corbin, Kentucky, February 20, 2003, Report No. 2003-09-I-KY, February 2005, http://www.csb.gov/completed_investigations/docs/CSBFinalReportCTA.pdf 3. Boyle, G.M., Dust Explosion Hazards in the Paper Industry, Paper Technology, 11(1), pp. 35-40 (1970). 4. Cocks, R. E., Recognition and Control of Dust Explosion Conditions, proceedings from the 1978 TAPPI Engineering Conference, San Francisco, California. 5. Staples, F.J., Pulp Air Suspension Drier Causes and Prevention of Fires and Explosions, Transactions of the Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand, Electrical/Mechanical/Chemical Engineering Section, 12(1), pp. 51-56 (1985). 6. Grandmaison, E.W., Review of the Explosion Hazard of Pulp and Paper Dust, proceedings from the 1986 TAPPI Engineering Conference, Atlanta, Georgia. 7. Guidelines for Safe Handling of Powders and Bulk Solids, Center for Chemical Process Safety, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Page 6-7, (2005). 8. National Fire Protection Association, Report of Important Dust Explosions: a Record of Dust Explosions in the United States and Canada since 1860, 1957. 9. Beck, H., Schadenalyse von Staubexplosionen, Staub-Reinhalt. Luft, 42 pp. 118-123(1982) as reported in Eckhoff, R.K., Dust Explosions in the Process Industries, Third Edition, pp. 22-25 (2003). 10. FM Global, Property Loss Prevention Data Sheet 7-76, Prevention and Mitigation of Combustible Dust Explosions and Fire, Revised January 2001. 11. L.G. Britton, et al., The Role of ASTM E27 Methods in Hazard Assessment Part II: Flammability and Ignitability, Process Safety Progress, Volume 24(1), pp. 12-28, (2005).

12. Eckhoff, R.K., Dust Explosions in the Process Industries, Third Edition, pp. 686-699 (2003). 13. NFPA Inc. One Battery March Park Quincy, Massachusetts, 02269. 14. OSHA General Duty Standard Search, http://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/generalsearch.html. 15. Letter from John L. Henshaw, Assistant Secretary for Occupational Safety and Health to Carolyn W. Merritt, Chairman of the U.S. Chemical Safety Hazard and Investigation Board, November 13, 2003.

Dust Explosions in the Pulp and Paper Industry

Tim Myers
Exponent Failure Analysis Associates 21 Strathmore Road Natick, Massachusetts 01760 tmyers@exponent.com

Outline

Recent catastrophic dust explosions in

other industries

Basic elements of dust explosions Characteristics of dusts present in the

pulp and paper industry Methods for preventing and mitigating dust explosions Possible regulatory and enforcement changes

Recent catastrophic dust explosions

Recent catastrophic dust explosions

Year 1999 Facility State Dust Fatalities Gray Iron Massachusetts Phenolic 3 Casting Resin Foundry Rubber Mississippi Scrap Tire 5 Recycling Grindings Facility Rubber Drug North Polyethylene 6 Delivery Carolina Dust Products Fiberglass Kentucky Phenolic 7 Insulation Resin Manufacturer Automotive Indiana Aluminum 1 Wheel Foundry Dust

2002

2003

2003

2003

CSB findings and recommendations from recent dust explosions

Findings
Facilities did not fully comply with recognized guidelines and standards. Insurance and government inspectors did not recognize dust explosion hazards. OSHA has limited regulations related to dust explosion hazards and has not adopted a comprehensive standard for the prevention and mitigation of dust explosions.

Recommendations
Train inspectors to recognize dust explosion hazards. Incorporate dust explosion standards into local code requirements. Create outreach programs to educate industries about dust explosion hazards.

Effect of particle size on combustion rate

After Eckhoff, Dust Explosions in the Process Industries (2003)

Elements of a Dust Explosion

Combustible dust
Small particle size Oxidizable

Oxidizer (typically
air) Ignition source Dispersion of dust Confinement

Paper dust explosion demonstration

Materials frequently involved in dust explosions

45% 40% U.S. Facilities 1900 to 1956 - NFPA Database F.R.Germany Facilities 1965 to 1980 - Jeske and Beck Database

Percent of Explosions

35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Coal

Facilities Insured by FM Global 1985 to 1995 - FM Global Database

Metals

Other

Paper/Pulp

Plastics

Wood

Dust Type

Explosion characteristics of dusts

Median Maximum Explosion Kst value Dust Cloud Particle Size Overpressure (bar-g) (bar-m/s) Ignition (m) Temperature (C) Dusts that May be Present in Pulp and Paper Mills Cellulose Dust 51 9.3 66 500 Paper Pulp Dust 29 9.8 168 Paper Tissue Dust 54 8.6 52 540 Lignin Dust 18 8.7 208 470 Organic Dyestuff <10 11.0 288 480 Sulfur Dust 20 6.8 151 280 Wood Dust 43 9.2 102 490 Wood Flour 65 7.7-10.5 83-192 Example Reference Dusts Aluminum <10 11.2 515 560 Powder Rubber Dust 80 8.5 138 500 Pittsburgh Seam ~74 7.3 124 585 Coal Wheat Grain Dust 80 9.3 112 Dust

Standards for the prevention of dust fires and explosions

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Standards
NFPA 654 Standard for the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions from the Manufacturing, Processing, and Handling of Combustible Particulate Solids NFPA 664 Standard of Fires and Explosions in Wood Processing and Woodworking Facilities

FM Global Data Sheets

7-4 Paper Machines And Pulp Dryers 7-57 Pulp and Paper Mills 7-76 Prevention And Mitigation Of Combustible Dust Explosions And Fire

Areas of guidance in standards

Housekeeping Employee training,
inspection, and maintenance Management of change Control of ignition sources Building construction Segregation, separation, or detachment of dust handling and processing areas Explosion venting

Equipment explosion
protection Equipment isolation Bulk storage Material transfer systems Size reduction operations Particle size separation Mixers and blenders Dryers Dust collection equipment Fire protection

Items in gold apply retroactively in NFPA 654

Prevention
Limiting the simultaneous occurrence of dust, oxidizer, and an ignition source will prevent a dust explosion. Dust suspension (MEC ~ 10 to 500 grams/m3)
Orders of magnitude greater than breathing exposure limits Reduces visibility to 1 to 2 meters

Oxygen (LOC ~ 5 to 15%)

Vessels can be inerted to below LOC

Ignition Sources
Hot work, open flames, sparks, hot surfaces

Hazard of dust accumulations

Dust layers as thin as 1/32 (0.8 mm) can represent an
explosion hazard when dispersed.

Initial explosions can disperse dust accumulations

causing secondary explosions. Secondary explosions can cause small initial events to become catastrophic. Dust accumulations on elevated surfaces and within duct work can be especially hazardous.

Minimizing dust accumulations

Minimize escape of dust from equipment.
Operate equipment at negative pressure. Maintain equipment seals.

Use dust collection systems in dust

generation areas.

Frequent housekeeping to remove dust

accumulations before they reach hazardous levels.

Avoid vigorous sweeping, air hoses, and other methods that produce dust clouds. Do not neglect elevated surfaces or other difficult to reach areas.

Eliminating ignition sources

Areas with combustible dust may be classified
as Class II or III Division 1 or 2 by OSHA and the National Electric Code (NEC).
Classified electrical equipment should be used. Classified industrial trucks (fork lifts) should be used.

Eliminate other ignition sources

Sparks (friction, electrical, static electricity) Hot surfaces Hot work Open flames

Mitigation of dust explosions

Damage limiting construction of buildings
Strong building frame Lightweight non load bearing walls or vents

Explosion venting on equipment and buildings Fast acting detection and suppression
equipment in vessels

Isolation devices between equipment

Chokes, rotary valves, fast acting valves, flame front diverters

Regulatory and enforcement issues

Many current building codes incorporate NFPA dust
explosion standards.
Older facilities may be based on building codes that did not adopt these NFPA standards.

OSHA has not formally incorporated comprehensive

dust explosion standards.

OSHA does cite facilities for not complying with NFPA

standards as good engineering practice. practice.

Current focus on dust explosions is likely to increase

enforcement efforts.

Government agencies may add reference to NFPA

standards in regulations.

OSHA dust explosion citations

45

General Duty Clause Citations

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Year

Standards referenced in citations

Standard Title Citations Referencing Standard 10 11 26

NFPA 68 Guide for Venting of Deflagrations NFPA 69 Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems NFPA 654 Standard for the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions from the Manufacturing, Processing, and Handling of Combustible Particulate Solids NFPA 664 Standard of Fires and Explosions in Wood Processing and Woodworking Facilities

24

Conclusions
Several recent catastrophic dust explosions have
increased focus on dust explosions by government agencies. Dusts present in the pulp and paper industry can represent dust fire and explosion hazards. Existing standards and codes provide guidance for preventing and mitigating dust explosions. Facilities in the pulp and paper industry are likely to see increased emphasis on dust fires and explosions by insurance and government inspectors. Although NFPA standards are not formally incorporated in all jurisdictions, they are recognized as good engineering practice by OSHA.