A prokaryotic cell, aside from not having a nucleus, does not possess complex membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria,

chloroplasts, and endoplasmic reticulum. Their chromosomes are composed of circular DNA which is not associated with histones. They often have additional small circular DNA molecules called Plasmids. Prokaryotes are surrounded by a cell wall but its structure is very different from plant cells. It is made up of fibres of peptidoglycan, whereas plant cell walls are made up of cellulose. The ribosomes of prokaryotes are small. They are about 20nm (70s) in diameter. Some prokaryotes have flagella but these flagella have a different structure from those in eukaryotic cells. A eukaryotic cell possesses a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope and containing a nucleolus. They contain numerous organelles surrounded by membranes. Most of these including the Golgi body and lysosomes are derived from the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum. However, it is thought that mitochondria and chloroplasts were once prokaryotic cells that invaded a eukaryotic cell and was able to live in it. Both cells were able to benefit from this agreement. The prokaryotes brought with them the ability to carry out complex metabolic reactions such as respiration and photosynthesis that provided the eukaryotes with energy. The eukaryote provided the prokaryote with nutrients. Symbiosis

can be considered as an arrangement whereby 2 organisms of different species live closely together. Thus mitochondria and chloroplasts are considered to be endosymbionts (endo : within). This theory is called The Endosymbiont Theory. Evidence for this theory : > Mitochondria and chloroplasts have an envelope surrounding them resembling that of eukaryotic cells and the inner membrane resembling that of prokaryotes. > These organelles each have their own small piece of DNA which is not enclosed in a nucleus and is circular like porkaryotic DNA. > Mitochondria and chloroplasts each have their own ribosomes which are 70s in size, the same size as prokaryotes. > Chloroplasts and mitochondria reproduce by binary fission before the eukaryotic cell divides by mitosis. > Mitochondria and chloroplasts are often similar in size to prokaryotic cells. Tissues and Organs In multicellular organisms, each cell possesses an identical set of genes, however, only some of these genes are expressed in any one cell and so different cells are specialised to carry out a particular fucntion. Cells that perform the same function are

generally grouped together forming a tissue. An organ can be defined as a structure within a multicellular organism that is made up of different types of tissues working to perform a specific function. A plan drawing is a diagram that shows the distribution of tissues. > Epidermis : This is the tissue forming the outer surface of the root. It is composed of a single layer of cells known as epidermal cells. Root hairs can be formed from the extension of these cells and they provide a large surface area for water and mineral salt absorption. > Cortex : This is the area of stem or root between the surface layers and the centre. It is mostly composed of Parenchyma tissue. The parenchyma cells are relatively unspecialised and possess thin cellulose cell walls. They allow water to move from the edge of the root to the centre through the cells or cell walls. They may store starch as an energy reserve for the plant. When these cells are turgid they can provide support.

> Stele

: It is found in the centre of the root and is made up of vascular tissue. It is surrounded by a layer of cells referred to as the endodermis which often contain cells that are waterproof by a deposit known as the Casparian strip.

The pericycle is a layer of cells which surrounds the vascular tissue involved in the transport in the plant. The two main tissues located in the stele are xylem tissue and phloem tissue. > Xylem : This tissue contains dead empty cells with lignified side walls and no end walls called vessel elements. The vessel elements are arranged end to end to form continuous tubes through which water flows unobstructed from the roots to the top of the plant. They also provide support to the plant as their lignified walls are very strong. In a transverse section of a root, xylem vessel elements are characterised by their large empty lumens surrounded by thick angular darkly stained walls. : This tissue contains phloem sieve elements which are living cells with no nucleus and a thin layer of cytoplasm with a few organelles.

> Phloem

They have cellulose with perforated end walls which allows sucrose solution to pass through by mass flow. Each sieve element is connected by many plasmodesmata to a companion cell which has a nucleus and many organelles. In a transverse section of a root, the phloem tissue can be seen between the "arms" of the xylem tissue. Its cells have thinner walls than that of the xylem and are stained differently. NB. Air spaces are found between the cells in the parenchyma and these can be found in plants that grow in wet soil. Oxygen is needed so that the root cells can carry out aerobic respiration, and these spaces allow oxygen and other gases to diffuse easily from the stem to the roots.

Membrane Structure and Function Plasma Mebranes A plasma membrane or cell surface membrane surrounds every cell and defines the limits of the cell. It is partially/selectively permeable and separates the cell's contents from its external environment. It also controls what can pass into

the cell from the external environment and vice versa. Membranes are also found inside the cell. Organelles such as lysosomes are surrounded by a single membrane whereas organelles such as chloroplasts, mitochondria or the nucleus each have 2 membranes around them forming an envelope. In addition, membranes are found in the cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells such as endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi body. These membranes are also partially permeable and able to control what can pass through them. They separate what happens inside the organelle from the rest of the cell. All cell membranes have a similar stucture and are normally between 7nm and 10nm thick. That makes them invisible with a light microscope but visible with an electron microscope. They are formed from a double layer of molecules called phospholipids in which many kinds of proteins are found. Phospholipid Bilayer