University of Massachusetts - Amherst

ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst
Wind Energy Center Reports UMass Wind Energy Center

1978

Wind Turbine Blade Stress Analysis And Natural Frequencies

F. W. Perkins Duane E. Cromack

Perkins, F. W. and Cromack, Duane E., "Wind Turbine Blade Stress Analysis And Natural Frequencies" (1978). Wind Energy Center Reports. Paper 11. http://scholarworks.umass.edu/windenergy_report/11

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WIND TLIRBINE BLADE STRESS ANALYSIS AND NATURAL FREQUENCIES

Technical Report by F.W. P e r k i n s and D.E. Cromack

Energy A1 t e r n a t i ves Program U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts 01003

August 1978

Prepared f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Department o f Energy and Rockwell I n t e r n a t i o n a l Number PF 67025F.

, Rocky

F l a t s P l a n t Under C o n t r a c t

This r e p o r t was prepared t o document work sponsored by t h e United States Government. N e i t h e r t h e U n i t e d States n o r i t s agent t h e De-

partment of Energy, n o r any Federal employees, n o r any o f t h e i r c o n t r a c t o r s , subcontractors, o r t h e i r employees, make any warranty, express o r imp1 i e d , o r assume any l e g a l l i a b i l i t y o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e accuracy, completeness, o r usefulness o f any i n f o r m a t i o n , apparatus, product o r process disclosed, o r represent t h a t i t s use would n o t i n f r i n g e p r i v a t e owned rights."

ABSTRACT There a r e many problems t o be addressed w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e design o f wind t u r b i n e blades. Foremost among these a r e aerodynamic The s u b j e c t o f aero-

performance, s t r u c t u r a l i n t e g r i t y and c o s t .

dynamic performance, a t l e a s t i n t h e steady s t a t e c o n d i t i o n , has been d e a l t w i t h a t some l e n g t h by various i n v e s t i g a t o r s . c o s t o f a blade system i s beyond t h e scope o f t h i s paper. The s t r u c t u r a l i n t e g r i t y o f wind t u r b i n e blades must be i n s u r e d i n both t h e s t a t i c and dynamic l o a d cases. The c r i t i c a l s t a t i c l o a d The

has been determined t o be a h u r r i c a n e wind p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e blade planform. The dynamic loads i n c l u d e t h e f l u c t u a t i n g com-

ponent due t o t h e wind and a l l blade-support i n t e r a c t i o n s . V i t a l t o an understanding o f these s t r u c t u r a l problems i s a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l frequencies and mode shapes o f t h e blades. These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e t h e s u b j e c t o f t h i s paper. While these

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be computed u s i n g e x i s t i n g programs (e.g. NASTRAN) t h e c o s t o f t h e r e p e t i ti t v e use of those codes i s p r o h i b i t i v e f o r t h e general user. The enclosed codes a r e much l e s s expensive t o run, They are, however, c l o s e l y matched t o

and a r e n o t as comprehensive.

t h e needs of t h e A l t e r n a t i v e Energy Progra~iio f t h e School o f Engine e r i n f a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Massachusetts, and have been developed t o be o f use t o t h e small wind energy conversion i n d u s t r y .

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I1

111

. .

IV

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i v LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i x LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x RATIONALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Description o f WF-1 Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Observations on Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1 . 3 Program I n p u t Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.4 Program Output Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 . DESCRIPTIONOFPROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.1 H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.2 Fornial D e s c r i p t i o n o f Blade Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.3 D e s c r i p t i o n o f Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 2.4 Other Dynamic C o n s i d e r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 2.5 Environmental Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 GOVERNINGEQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 3.1 S t a t i c Beam Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 3.2 Equations o f Motion f o r Small Flexural V i b r a t i o n s . . . . . 17 NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 4.1 I n t e g r a t i o n o f S e c t i o n P r o p e r t i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 4.2 Bending D e f l e c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 4.3 Bending S t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 4.4 Flexural V i b r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

Page

v.

PROGRAM VERIFICATION
5.1 5.2

......................

..................... Stress and D e f l e c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Section Properties WF-1 Stress and D e f l e c t i o n Vibration

5.3 5.4

................. .........................

VI

........................... REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX A Coordinate System Correspondence . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX B Equations o f Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIXC ProgramMoments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONCLUSIONS
C 1

Flow Chart Formal ism PrograrnMornents

..............

C.2

APPENDIX D

................ P r i n c i p a l Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Program L i s t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Terminal Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Function INPUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDIX E

................. Program L i s t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Function INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P r i n c i p a l Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Program L i s t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P r i n c i p a l Variables

82
84

85
86 87

TABLE O CONTENTS (Continued) F Page APPENDIX F Function INTEG

...................
................

89 90 92 93 95 96

P r i n c i p a l Variables Program L i s t i n g

APPENDIX G

.................. F l ow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Function DEF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

P r i n c i pal Vari abl es
Program L i s t i n g

................

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 F l o w c h a r t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 APPENDIX H Minor Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Program D e s c r i p t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Program L i s t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Flow Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 APPENDIX I Program FREQ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Program D e s c r i p t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 P r i n c i p a l Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Program L i s i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Flow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Terminal Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 APPENDIX J Function DOG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Program D e s c r i p t i o n P r i n c i p a l Variables

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Program L i s t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Flow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page APPENDIX K

.................. Program D e s c r i p t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P r i n c i p a l Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Function ORTHOG Program L i s t i n g Flow Chart

119 119

120
121 122 123 123 125 129

..................

APPENDIXL

APPENDIX M

.................... Data F i l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample C a l c u l a t i o n f o r Rayleigh's Method . . . . .

viii

LIST OF TABLES TABLE Page BladeDesignWF-1 Blade Shape WF-1

1.1
1.2 5.1

.................... ....................

4 5 31
31

Modulus Weighted Section Properties f o r a Diamond

5.2
5.3
5.4

M.l

.... Modulus Weighted Section Properties f o r an E l l i p s e . . . Bending Stress by Gage Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modeshapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sampl e Cal c u l a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37
43

132

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 1.2 2.1 3.1 5.1 WF-1 Planform and Twist . Page

....... Description of Blade Components . . . . Power vs RPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Test Sections .

..
.. .. ..

Windmill (Rotating) Coordinate System .

............ Strain Gage Location . . . . . . . . . WF-1 Test Blade ( S t a t i c Tests) . . . . Wind Furnace Blade T i p Deflection . . . TestBeam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Force and Moment Balance . . . . . . . Scheniatic Program Moments . . . . . . . Santple Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.. ..
.. ..

..
.. ..

..

C H A P T E R RATIONALE 1.1 D e s c r i p t i o n o f WF-1 Blades

A t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts, t h e r e e x i s t s t h e Wind Furnace

I. This machine i s a p r o t o t y p e wind t u r b i n e which i s intended t o

c o n t r i b u t e a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e heat energy r e q u i r e d f o r space heati n g f o r t h e U n i v e r s i t y ' s S o l a r H a b i t a t I. The machine has a downwind, t h r e e bladed r o t o r . Each blade i s i n c l i n e d from t h e plane o f r o t a t i o n Each blade i s capable o f being

by t h e s t a t i c coning angle o f 10'. p i t c h e d through an a r c o f 93'

by t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism. The

'The blade planform and geometry a r e described i n Figure 1.1.

NACA 441 5 a i r f o i l shape was chosen as t h e e x t e r i o r p r o f i l e on each cross section. (The reasons f o r t h i s choice are p a r t l y h i s t o r i c a l 1 and

p a r t l y based on t h e popular use o f t h e NACA 4415 a i r f o i l i n a i r p l a n e p r o p e l l e r s . ) The blades are o f 4 p a r t c o n s t r u c t i o n (Figure 1 . 2 ) . s k i n i s o f a r e l a t i v e l y low bending modulus composition f i b e r g l a s s epoxy m a t r i x . epoxy m a t r i x . sleeve. Table 1 .I.) Measurements subsequent t o blade c o n s t r u c t i o n showed t h a t t h e cross s e c t i o n s v a r i e d considerably from t h e intended 15% t h i c k a i r f o i l (Table 1.2). Thicknesses as g r e a t as 22% were measured on t h e spare The v a r i a t i o n i n t h e chord was s l i g h t .
It

The

The spar i s made o f a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h modulus f i b e r g l a s s The blade stock ( F i g u r e 1.1 ) i s surrounded by a s t e e l

(The intended cross s e c t i o n c o n s t r u c t i o n i s described i n

b l a d e o f t e r o t o r system.

i s not, a t t h i s time, p o s s i b l e t o measure t h e i n t e r n a l components o f t h e blade t o check f o r u n i f o r m i t y . 1

FIG.1.I W F-I PLANFORM AND TWIST

RADIUS f t.

CHORD ft.

TWIST degrees

FIG. 1.2
DESCRIPTION OF

BLADE

COMPONENTS

TYPICAL SECTION (NACA 4 4 1 5 )

SPAR

WE7

7 SKIN

SPAR

TRAILING EDGE STIFFENER

BLADE

STOCK

FIBERGLASS

EPOXY

STEEL SLEEVE

TABLE 1 .1 BLADE DESIGN WF-1 (Radius = 16.25 f t ) L.E. t o Spar Web (ft) Skin Thickness (in) Spar Thickness (in) Web Thickness (in)

r/Radius (Station11 0 )

Chord (ft)

Twist (degrees)

6 E s k i n= 2.2 x 10 p s i

Gskin=

.5 x 106 p s i

'skin = .0555

Ib 3 in

6 = 4.4 x 10 p s i Espar

6 Gspar= . 3 x 10 p s i

'spar- - .0501

3
in

Ib

TABLE 1 . 2 BLADE SHAPE WF-1 (Radius = 16.25 f t )

CHORD Desi n (in3 Result (in)

AIRFOIL Desi n (in3

THICKNESS Error

Result (in>

(%>

1.2 Observations on Design I t appears a t t h i s time t h a t there i s l i t t l e i f anything t o be l o s t in terms of aerodynamic performance i f thicker a i r f o i l s are used in design!" In f a c t , the observed thicknesses of the UMass WF-1 blades and

the b e t t e r than predicted performance tend to confirm t h i s thought.

A t t h i s time however, there i s no reason t o expect t h a t future blade

designs will incorporate the same a i r f o i l section a t a l l radial points. I t may t u r n out t h a t s p e c i f i c parameters, e.g. low noise requirements o r aeroelastic requirements, require blade shapes both highly twisted and tapered, as we1 1 as havi ng various cross-sectional shapes. The increasing a v a i l a b i l i t y of composite materials i s a f a c t o r of great significance t o the designer. Traditional structural materials will The l i k e l i -

c e r t a i n l y continue t o play a major r o l e i n blade construction.

hood of designs incorporating more than one material becoming commonplace i s great. In f a c t , t h i s i s now standard practice i n the military a i r c r a f t

propeller industry.
1 .3 Program Input Requirements

I t i s apparent from the foregoing t h a t any comprehensive code f o r blade bending s t r e s s analysis must a1 low f o r the fol lowing .inputs. 1) 2)
3)

Cross section e x t e r i o r shape Cross section i n t e r i o r structure Bending modulus distribution Density distribution

4)

5 ) Twist distribution
6)

Radial spacing

7)

Bending a x i s l o c a t i o n

These inputs are s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e bending s t r e s s analysis o f t h e blade. (With t h e a d d i t i o n o f t h e shear modulus, t h e i n p u t would be sufThe shear s t r e s s

f i c i e n t f o r a t o t a l s t r e s s analysis of t h e blade.

i s o r d i n a r i l y o f secondary importance i n t h e design of blades. Time does n o t a l l o w i t s i n c l u s i o n here.) 1.4 Program Output Requirements The parameters o f primary i n t e r e s t t o the designer must be included i n t h e output. 1) These i n c l u d e

Bending s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s Deflections under l o a d Mass o f blade Mass moment o f i n e r t i a about a x i s o f r o t a t i o n Natural frequencies o f blade. Number 4 Number

2)

3)
4)
5)

A l l o f the above except f o r 4 and 5 can be uniquely s p e c i f i e d .

i s weakly dependent on t h e mode shape o f the n a t u r a l frequencies.

5 i s s t r o n g l y dependent on t h e means by which t h e blade i s supported.

The approach taken i s t o assume a c a n t i l e v e r beam and t o compute the n a t u r a l frequencies attendent t o t h a t configuration

From t h i s p o i n t ,

the dynamacist should be able t o p r e d i c t most o f the important system

C H A P T E R

I 1

DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM 2.1 H i s t o r i c a l Perspective T r a d i t i o n a l l y , w i n d m i l l s have been designed t o operate i n t h e s t a l l e d aerodynamic mode. bladed windmil 1. indicated. F i g u r e 2.1 sbws a p l o t o f power versus RPM f o r a t h r e e On t h e f a r l e f t t h e r e g i o n o f s t a b l e s t a l l e d o p e r a t i o n i s

I n t h i s mode of o p e r a t i o n , a l l t u r b i n e s have p r e t t y much t h e same The power o u t p u t i s dependent on t h e swept area

aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

o f t h e r o t o r , t h e s o l i d i t y of t h e blade system, rpm, e t c . It i s obvious t h a t much more power can be d e l i v e r e d a t t h e same wind speed by t h e same r o t o r i f t h e r o t a t i o n a l speed i s allowed t o increase. f i c i e n t speed t o a l l o w t h e blades t o " f l y , " The r o t o r can then g a i n s u f t h a t i s t o operate a t a very low

aqgle o f a t t a c k w i t h consequent h i g h l i f t and low drag.

I t was n o t u n t i l t h e e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y t h a t a i r f o i l knowledge had pro-

gressed s u f f i c i e n t l y t o a l l o w t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f e f f i c i e n t p r o p e l l e r s and 1 i f t i n g surfaces. These developments opened t h e way t o powered f l i g h t and t o t h e development o f modern wind t u r b i n e s . Since t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a i r f o i l s i n t o

t u r b i n e technology, t h e r e have been two major t h r u s t s i n blade design. The f i r s t approach, t y p i f i e d by t h e Smith-Putnam machine!*%as been t o

de-emphasize aerodynamic s o p h i s t i c a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o s t o f unt w i s t e d , untapered blades. The p e n a l i t i e s t h a t a r e p a i d by u s i n g t h e s e

simple blades a r e s l i g h t l y (-10%) reduced performance w i t h r e s p e c t t o aerod y n a m i c a l l y optimum blades, n o i s e o f o p e r a t i o n , and t h e investment o f a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e amount o f m a t e r i a l i n t h e blades p e r u n i t power. The

FIG. 2-1 POWER

Vs.

R.P.M.

10 7 4 10 3

r e f . 2.1

10 2 I0 1 1 00
90

BLADES

$f
Vo

=oO
=

2 2 . 5 rn.p.h. R = 25 in. CHORD = 4 in.

-1

m
tt-

80 706050 40 30
STALLED REGION OF STABLE OPERATION

5.
z
w

20 1 0 0
0

200

400

600
R.P. M.

800

10 00

primary b e n e f i t i s ease o f f a b r i c a t i o n and consequent low cost. The second approach, as e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e H u t t e r , Brace I n s t i t u t e ,

NASA MOD-0 and LlMass machines, i s t o i n c o r p o r a t e b o t h t w i s t and t a p e r

i n t o t h e blade design i n an attempt t o o p t i m i z e performance and reduce noise. Much work has been done t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e planforms r e q u i r e d

f o r optimum o r n e a r l y optimum performance over a wide range o f design cons t r a i nts. Recent work by ~ u t t e ? ? W i 1son, Lissamann and ~ aker'? l and

Cromack and ~ e f e b v r c ?%ave e l u c i d a t e d these problems. '

A s e r i o u s o b j e c t i o n t o t h e above work i s t h a t t h e performance curves

were generated u s i n g quasi-steady, h i g h Reynold's Number a i r f o i l data.

Experience has shown t h a t wind t u r b i n e s almost never operate a t t h e i r design point. The n a t u r e o f t h e wind i s such t h a t t h e mean wind speed, w i t h no

o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n , i s o n l y m a r g i n a l l y adequate t o c h a r a c t e r i z e performance. The n a t u r e o f p r a c t i c a l t u r b i n e s i s such t h a t , t r a d i t i o n a l l y , a i r f o i l d a t a has been c o l l e c t e d a t from 3 t o 10 times t h e Reynold's Number a t which most o f t h e power i n a wind t u r b i n e i s produced. o c i t y x Chord (The Reynold's Number, Velalong blade. Most Work

+ Kinematic V i s c o s i t y ,

varies r a d i a l l y

o f t h e t u r b i n e ' s power i s produced i n t h e outbard 3/10 o f t h e r a d i u s . )

has y e t t o be done which w i l l show which i f any a d d i t i o n a l d a t a a r e needed f o r adequate performance p r e d i c t i o n s , and how o r i f t h e y can be i n c l u d e d i n e x i s t i n g performance codes.

2.2

Formal D e s c r i p t i o n o f Blade Problem R o t a t i n g wings have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been analyzed as beams w i t h v a r i o u s

boundary c o n d i t i o n s .

Depending on t h e d e t a i l e d c o n s t r u c t i o n , these beams

may be e i t h e r hinged a t t h e r o o t , pinned a t t h e r o o t , o r some combination. The o u t e r edge i s i n v a r i a b l y f r e e .

The simplest rotating winds, are of a rectangular planform and a single material. For example, extruded a1 uminum blades are now comThese are the simplest t o analyze

mercially available in various sizes.

i t will always be possible t o find a s e t of axes which completely un-

couples the bending deflections in one direction from those i n the other. These are by definition the principal axes. They will have the

same orientation f o r a l l sections and a l l loads and moments can be resolved about them. The introduction of twist complicates the analysis. The twist will

make i t d i f f i c u l t o r impossible t o f i n d axes f o r which the bending deflections are decoupled. calculated once. rect orientation. However, the moments of i n e r t i a need only be

They can then be transformed by rotation into the corA t t h i s point, the analysis requires the solution of

the coupled bending equations (Appendix A ) and the coupled bending s t r e s s equations. The introduction of taper requires t h a t the moments of i n e r t i a be computed a t each station of i n t e r e s t . The equations which must be solved

are then the same as in the case of a beam of rectangularplanform w i t h twist. I f the rotor blades are constructed of more than one material, for example a1 uminum and fiberglass or fiberglass of two or more d i f f e r e n t bending moduli , i t i s necessary t h a t the so-called modulus weighted section properties be computed. This i s a method by which the t e n s i l e properties

of the different components of each cross-section are weighted i n the accumulation of those quantities necessary f o r analysis. For example,

the modulus weighted x and y centroid locations define the location of the tension center for the cross-section. (The tension center i s t h a t point

a t which an applied radial load gives no l a t e r a l deflections. )

The blades on t h e WF-1 a r e j u s t such non-homogeneous, t w i s t e d , tapered beams. The s o l u t i o n of t h e bending and s t r e s s equations r e -

q u i r e s t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f numerical techniques i n some a l g o r i t h m s . The f a c t . t h a t t h e blade cross-sections a r e r a t h e r complex shapes ( b o t h e x t e r n a l l y and i n t e r n a l l y ) i n d i c a t e s t h e need f o r some numerical methods f o r t h e computation of t h e s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s . ( I t t u r n s o u t t h a t many

numerical techniques were r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s e c t i o n p r o p e r t y i n t e g r a t i o n s . ) 2.3 D e s c r i p t i o n o f Load I n t h e case o f non-accelerated r o t a t i o n t h e loads encountered a r e 1ift, drag, g r a v i t y 1oads and c e n t r i f u g a l 1oads

Performance codeszo6 can

p r e d i c t t h e quasi-steady l i f t and drag o p e r a t i n g on a blade s e c t i o n subj e c t t o t h e above r e s t r i c t i o n s . These loads can then be r e s o l v e d about The g r a v i t y l o a d i s

r e f e r e n c e axes and t h e bending equations solved. b o t h r a d i a l and f l e x u r a l t h e horizon. excitation.

, depending on t h e b l ade o r i e n t a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o

For each blade, g r a v i t y gives a one p e r r e v o l u t i o n c y c l i c The c e n t r i f u g a l loads a r e c o n s t a n t i f t h e angular speed i s

constant and d e f l e c t i o n s o u t of plane due t o g r a v i t y a r e n o t t o o g r e a t . Unsteady, a c c e l e r a t e d motion i n t r o d u c e s o t h e r loads. The tower

shadow o r wake may cause a c y c l i c v a r i a t i o n i n t h e a p p l i e d wind loads. This w i l l cause a change i n t h e d e f l e c t i o n p a t t e r n on a one p e r r e v o l u t i o n p e r blade basis. The c y c l i c v a r i a t i o n i n d e f l e c t i o n w i l l cause t h e genThe magnitude

e r a t i o n o f s o - c a l l e d c o r i o l i s forces by t h e blade elements. of these p e r i o d i c loads i s of considerable i n t e r e s t .

They w i l l determine The per-

t h e c y c l i c stresses, hence t h e f a t i g u e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e blades.

i o d i c response of t h e blade t o t h e tower wake i s very p o o r l y understood a t t h i s point. Ongoing i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts

and elsewhere may shed l i g h t on t h i s area.

2.4

Other Dynamic Considerations The e f f e c t o f t o r s i o n a l coupling o f v i b r a t i o n s has been neglected i n

the foregoing.

The e f f e c t o f t h e coupling between r a d i a l loads and v i These e f f e c t s are considered t o be o f

b r a t i o n s has also been neglected.

marginal i n t e r e s t t o t h e windmill designer because o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y low r o t a t i o n a l speed o f the r o t o r . I n a paper w r i t t e n by Ormiston

2.7

, loads

are scaled according t o t h e Ormiston shows t h a t f o r

radius o f t h e wind machine under consideration.

very l a r g e machines, t h e one per r e v o l u t i o n g r a v i t y loads may be the 1i m i t i n g design c r i t e r i o n . For moderately sized machines, t h e c r i t i c a l

loads are f l e x u r a l and a r e due t o t h e aerodynamics o f power production. The random nature o f the wind a l s o provides a non-steady component i n t h e a i r loads. This e f f e c t becomes more pronounced as t h e p i t c h a t This e f f e c t i s p r e s e n t l y

which peak power i s produced i s approached.

thought secondary i n importance t o t h e tower wake and/or shadow w i t h r e spect t o c y c l i c loads. igation. This i s another area under a c t i v e i n v e s t -

2.5

Environmental E f f e c t s The sun w i l l degrade t h e s t r e n g t h o f glass laminates which a r e n o t

protected from it.

The experience a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts has

been t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t erosion o f the most e x t e r i o r l a y e r o f r e s i n took place i n t h e f i r s t two years o f operation. The blades were purposely n o t pro-

t e c t e d i n order t h a t s t r u c t u r a l defects would be e a s i l y seen.

It i s n o t

f e l t t h a t this erosion had any effect on blade strength.

N structural o

defects were found which can be unequivocally assigned to the design. Metal-plastic composites may suffer from fatigue due t o different coefficients of thermal expansion and the diurnal temperature cycle. Metals are subject to corrosion i n the environment of the wind turbine. There i s presently great interest in the siting of windmills The effects of s a l t spray on metal are

either on or near the ocean. f a i r l y well understood.

The fatigue properties of metals are quite For inland

well known, once the stress environment i s prescribed.

locations, rain and windblown sand and dust are significant factors in the weathering of bl ades

.
However, the data

I t seems a t this time that the material properties of metals are better understood than are those of composites. base for composite fatigue i s broadening.

CHAPTER

I 1 1

GOVERNING EQUATIONS 3.1 S t a t i c Beam Bending Beam theory f o r homogeneous p r i s m a t i c beams i s q u i t e w e l l developed. The dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f such beams are a l s o w e l l known. This i s

not t h e case w i t h non-homogeneous, non-isotropic, o r non-prismatic beams.

If a l l o w t h e existence o f a coordinate system such t h a t t h e x we

a x i s i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e plane o f r o t a t i o n ; t h e x a x i s p o i n t s down t h e bending. axis, and t h e y a x i s i s i n c l i n e d from the upwind d i r e c t i o n by t h e coning angle (see Figure 1) w i t h u = u n i t d e f l e c t i o n i n the x d i r e c t i o n v = u n i t deflection i n the y direction, then the d i f f e r e n t i a l equations f o r beam bending a r e (see Appendix A )

The general equations f o r bending stress a t p o i n t (x,y) s e c t i o n plane i s

i n some cross-

FIG. 3.1

CONING/ ANGLE

--!A
ONCOMING

WIND

PLANE OF ROTATION

WINDMILL

(ROTATING)

CO-ORDINATE

SYSTE M

These equations are solved in the enclosed codes.

Because of the

possibility of large deflections in a long, slender windmill blade, i t was t h o u g h t advisable t o include the influence of slope in the deflection equations. The fact t h a t many windmil 1 blades are highly twisted and

tapered required the allowance of bending about non-principal axes. Equations of Motion for Small Flexural Vibrations In general, the equations of motion of a rotating beam involve coupl i ng between flexural , 1ongi tudi nal , and torsional vi brati on many situations numerous simplifications may be made. numerical techniques must s t i 11 be used for solution. The equations of motion for the flexural vibrations of a beam allowing coupl i n g between vibrations in orthogonal directions are (see Appendix B )

In

Usually, however,

m = lineal mass density.

C H A P T E R

I V

NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES 4.1 I n t e g r a t i o n o f Section P r o p e r t i e s The axes used i n a l l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s i s as follows. P o s i t i v e x has i t s o r i g i n a t t h e l e a d i n g edge and increases P o s i t i v e y has i t s o r i g i n a t t h e l e a d i n g edge and

along t h e chord l i n e .

i s p o s i t i v e towards t h e low pressure surface.

The technique used i n t h e computation of t h e s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s was t h e replacement of i n t e g r a t i o n s w i t h summations when t h e use o f t h e d i r e c t i n t e g r a t i o n was i n a p p r o p r i a t e . 'rhi s procedure i s accompl ished by

the functions.

INDEX and INTEG (Appendices E and F r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .

The f u n c t i o n INDEX i s o l a t e s t h r e e adjacent p o i n t s on t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e s e c t i o n being considered. I t appends t o t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n t h e per(Thickness here r e f e r s t o

t i n e n t bending modulus and m a t e r i a l thickness.

t h e minimum d i s t a n c e from t h e o u t s i d e t o t h e i n s i d e .

If the l i s t e d thickI t a l s o appends

ness i s zero t h e program assumes t h e s e c t i o n i s s o l i d . ) t h e weight d e n s i t y .

( U n i t s used f o r t h e d e n s i t y a r e pounds p e r c u b i c inch.)

T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s then used w i t h f u n c t i o n IIVTEG. Function INTEG f i r s t f i t s t h e b e s t parabola, i n t h e l e a s t square sense, through t h e s e t o f t h r e e p o i n t s . The i n t e r v a l d e f i n e d by these P o i n t s on t h e p e r i p h e r y o f

p o i n t s i s then d i v i d e d i n t o t e n equal segments.

each segment a r e then found by use o f t h e l e a s t square c o e f f i c i e n t s , 18

and the value of x a t the midpoint of each section. determined from the three input points.

Thus ten points are

This has the e f f e c t of decreasing

the e r r o r due to the replacement of the section integrations w i t h summations a t the expense of the error introduced by the use of a f i t curve rather than the i n p u t data points. I f the section i s s o l i d , the section properties determined by the above ten intervals are solved f o r directly. If the section i s not s o l i d , the algorithm accomplishes the following. For each value of y, another value i s determined which i s the former value

minus the projected thickness.

(The projected thickness i s found by

multiplying the thickness of the skin by the secant of the tangent a t the point x, y. That i s tprojected = t[cos tan-'
(C,

+ 2c2xi)]-', where t i s
The midpoint

the s k i n thickness and C l , C2 a r e l e a s t square coefficients.)

values and the values Xi determine the area centroids of the load carrying material i n this small interval. The worth of t h i s information can best be shown by examination of the following equations. If Ixx, Ixy, Iyy are the moments of i n e r t i a of

some area about an arbitrary axis system xy, and I r r y Ipsy '5s a r e the moments of i n e r t i a of t h a t same area about i t s own centroid axis system, then Ixx Ixy

Irr

AY

Irs + ~ x y
+

IYY Iss

k2, where

= geometric area of the considered,

i s parallel t o x , isparallel t o y , are the coordinates of the centroid

s
X,Y

I r r , Irs9 ISS can be made vanishingly small by the use of either a properly chosen coordinate system o r a small area. Consider the following, a 1 inch square centered a t x = y = 2 in.

XY

o+

1 (2)(2) = 4
YY

For even so gross an example, the error in Ixx and I

introduced

by neglecting the area's centroidal moment of inertia i s only 2%. W e the cross section properties are computed, the small areas are hn weighted according to the local bending modulus, or by the local density.

The modulus weighting i s a method whereby a composi t e cross s e c t i o n may be represented by a s i n g l e t o t a l bending s t i f f n e s s . This i s done by

d i v i d i n g t h e l o c a l bending s t i f f n e s s by an ( a r b i t r a r y ) reference modulus and m u l t i p l y i n g t h e considered area by the r e s u l t . considered areas. This i s done f o r a l l

Density weighting i s accomplished by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e (See Appendix F.) The r e s u l t s o f

considered area by t h e l o c a l density.

the c a l c u l a t i o n s are summed w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f previous c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r the cross section. The q u a n t i t i e s computed a r e the modulus wei g k d areas, f i r s t moments, and second moments, and the d e n s i t y weightedareas and f i r s t moments, a d d i t i o n , t h e geometric areas of the cross s e c t i o n a r e computed. The In

modulus weighted area are used f o r t h e t r a n s p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e c t i o n moments o f i n e r t i a from the leading edge, t h e o r i g i n , t o t h e bending a x i s . (The chordwise l o c a t i o n o f the bending a x i s i s p a r t o f t h e program i n p u t . The l o g i c assumes t h a t t h e y coordinate o f the bending a x i s i s t h e same as the y coordinate of the tension a x i s . ) The modulus weightEd f i r s t moment (The l i n e con-

i s used t o determine t h e l o c a t i o n of the tension center. n e c t i n g a l l tension centers i s the tension axis.) second moments a r e t h e s e c t i o n moments of i n e r t i a . f l e x u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e beam.

The ~ o d u l u sweighted They determine t h e

The d e n s i t y weighted f i r s t moments are used t o determine t h e l o c a t i o n o f the centers o f mass of t h e cross sections. g i v e t h e blade s e c t i o n weights. The d e n s i t y weighkd areas

I n summary, when a s o l i d s e c t i o n i s considered, d i r e c t i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s i s accomplished. When a non-solid s e c t i o n i s

considered, the f o l l owing s e r i e s rep1ace t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s .

AREA = 1 9 dA A wherein 9

mi

A A,,

x, y = are c e n t r o i d values dependent on t h e weighting f u n c t i o n AREA = e i t h e r geometric o r modulus weightedarea o f t h e l o a d c a r r y i n g m a t e r i a l i n t h e cross section.
4.2

- -

= weighting f u n c t i o n ,

Bending D e f l e c t i o n s The governing equations f o r beam bending, u s i n g t h e coordinate system

o f Chapter 1, where thermal stresses a r e n o t considered, are

1 (1

dv

3/2

- -EREF
lxxlyy-Ixy

)I

These equations are non-linear. term i s customarily neglected.

For small d e f l e c t i o n s , t h e non-linear

I t i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e n o n - l i n e a r i t y be

included i n an a n a l y s i s of blade bending, however, because t h e blades are very long, t h i n , and f l e x i b l e . The method used f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f these equations i s a f o u r t h order Runge Kutta method!.' This method uses t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s on a func-

t i o n and i t s d e r i v a t i v e s t o i n t e g r a t e t h e d e r i v a t i v e s across some i n t e r v a l . The p a r t i c u l a r Runge-Kutta f o r m u l a t i o n chosen i s t h e so-called c l a s s i c method. L e t t i n g i be an index r e l a t e d t o t h e p o s i t i o n x, we have

'it1

= mi

k (kl

+ 2k2 + 2k3 + k4), where

i s t h e i n t e g r a l from which y i s determined, i s a d e r i v a t i v e o f some order 1 l e s s than f.

By t h e use of t h i s i n t e g r a t i o n scheme, d i f f e r e n t i a l equations o f any

order may besolved. be c a r r i e d i n memory.

A l l o f t h e d e r i v a t i v e s o f intermediate value must

(See APPENDIX G.) The p r e c i s i o n a v a i l a b l e by t h e

use o f t h i s method i s q u i t e high.

I f t h e p r e c i s i o n i s n o t acceptable,

t h e i n t e g r a t i o n i n t e r v a l may be shortened o r higher order Runge Kutta methods used. These equations could have been w r i t t e n i n f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e o r f i n i t e element form as we1 1 complication.

The f i n i t e element method 1ed t o unnecessary

The f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e method r e q u i r e d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f

new data p o i n t s i f t h e same r e s o l u t i o n o f displacements were required. N e i t h e r o f these methods were considered uniquely s u p e r i o r t o t h e Runge Kutta s o l u t i o n f o r t h i s problem. (One disadvantage o f t h e Runge Kutta methods i s t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n t o p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equations i s apparently unknown. This precludes

t h e i r use f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f v i b r a t i o n problems i n t h e time domain.)

4 - 3 Bending Stress
The expression f o r t h e bending s t r e s s a t some p o i n t (x,y) is

There were no special techniques necessary f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s problem. The m u l t i p l i e r s o f the coordinate components x and y are a l s o computed i n t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e bending equations. They a r e stored i n memory and re-

c a l l e d where t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s reported.

The bending s t r e s s i s resolved a t each p o i n t l i s t e d i n t h e f i r s t two i n p u t s t o t h e program, t h a t is,on t h e h i g h and low pressure aerodynamic surface skins. (APPENDIX D, INPUT. )
I f any o t h e r data a r e

entered i n t h e i r place, t h e s t r e s s w i l l be resolved a t t h e p o i n t s entered. The i n p u t s e c t i o n i s very v e r s a t i l e i n t h a t no special order o f data e n t r y i s r e q u i r e d (except CHORD, see APPENDIX D)

The program output

would n o t have t o be modified i n any way if t h e order o f data e n t r y i s modified, as long as the operator keeps t r a c k o f which data has been entered.
4.4

Flexural V i b r a t i o n s The governing equations f o r f l e x u r a l v i b r a t i o n s o f a twisted, non-

p r i s m a t i c beam are (APPENDIXB)

These equations cannot be solved i n closed form w i t h o u t s i m p l i f i c a tion. T h e i r s o l u t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e use o f numerical techniques. They may

be solved i n a number of ways.

Obvious choices a r e t h e use o f f i n i t e The method used i n t h i s r e p o r t

d i f f e r e n c e and f i n i t e element methods. i s c a l l e d Rayleigh's method.

The technique as used here (see APPENDIX I ) d i f f e r s s l i g h t l y from t h e usual a p p l i c a t i o n s i n t h a t successive approximations a r e made t o r e f i n e t h e determined mode shape, when possible. (For higher modes,

w i t h t w i s t e d beams, t h e method does n o t always converge.)

The technique

i s very v e r s a t i l e because o n l y t h e response t o an assumed l o a d p a t t e r n need t o be determined. included. Any response ( a x i a1 , f l e x u r a l , t o r s i o n a l ) may be

Any degree o f simp1 i f i c a t i o n can be achieved by n e g l e c t i n g

chosen parameters. R a y l e i g h ' s method does n o t s o l v e f o r t h e system behiavor i n t h e t i m e domain. Instead, t h e method r e s o l v e s t h e n a t u r a l frequencies and mode This i n f o r m a t i o n can then be used i n a

shapes o f an o s c i l l a t i n g system. modal a n a l y s i s o f t h e system.

The expression f o r t h e square o f t h e n a t u r a l frequency o f an o s c i l l a -

4.2 t i n g system i s

where Fi
+i

i s t h e imposed l o a d a t i, i s t h e mode shape a t i, i s t h e arr~pl tude, i i s t h e mass a t i.

A
Mi

The key t o t h e method o f successive approximations i s t h a t t h e i n e r t i a l l o a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o a mass times i t s displacement. Hence

The constant k i s o f no i n t e r e s t , s i n c e t h e mode shapes a r e a p r o p e r t y o f t h e l o a d p a t t e r n s , n o t t h e loads themselves. T h i s l o a d p a t t e r n i s used t o

compute another mode shape by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d e f l e c t i o n s due t o t h e imposed

loads.

The magnitude o f t h e d e f l e c t i o n so computed a t some one p o i n t The s e t o f a l l d e f l e c t i o n s d i v i d e d by t h i s When the i n e r t i a l forces associated w i t h some

i s c a l l e d the amplitude (A). amplitude i s the mode shape.

mode shape produce a d e f l e c t i o n p a t t e r n having the same mode shape, the method has converged t o the fundamental. A t t h i s p o i n t , the square o f the (See APPENDIX M

c i r c u l a r frequency i s the r e c i p r o c a l o f the amplitude. f o r a sample c a l c u l a t i o n . ) The niaximum k i n e t i c energy f o r the system i s

The maximum p o t e n t i a l energy i s equal t o the maximum k i n e t i c i s given by 1 u = C - F (A (i) 2 i i 1

energy and

= C 2 Mr i -

4:1 A 4i,where

i s t h e mode shape from t h e l a s t c y c l e o f t h e i t e r a t i o n .

S e t t i n g these two expressions equal gives

which i s t h e same as equation 1 once the expansion o f Fi has beem accomplished.

I f convergence o f the mode shape has been achieved, then

The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t w i s t i n a beam, t h a t i s t o say t h a t the p r i n c i p a l axes o f a l l cross sections o f a beam being non-parallel, introduces

coupling between the loads i n one plane and t h e d e f l e c t i o n s i n another.

Ifa beam i s p r i s m a t i c and n o t twisted, o r a t worst tapered, then the

resonant v i b r a t i o n s o f the beam w i l l be a l i g n e d w i t h one o f t h e p r i n c i p a l axes. other. This i s a consequence o f t h e d e f l e c t i o n s being uncoupled from each For a h i g h l y t w i s t e d beam, e.g. a windmill blade, the d i r e c t i o n o f

resonant v i b r a t i o n s w i l l , i n general, vary from cross s e c t i o n t o cross section. Any attempt a t analysis, therefore, must a l l o w two degrees o f

f l e x u r a l freedom a t each cross section.

(A more complete a n a l y s i s would

Since

a l s o a l l o w a t o r s i o n a l degree o f freedom a t each cross section.

there was no observable t o r s i o n a l d e f l e c t i o n o f the t e s t e d blade under load, t h a t component o f the a n a l y s i s was considered unimportant.) general r e s u l t s hold, however. o f the tips deflection. The same

The amplitude i s chosen t o be t h e magnitude

The i n e r t i a l forces are the mass per segment The

times t h e mode shape a t t h e midpoint o f each spanwise section. d e f l e c t i o n s a r e computed u s i n g the f u n c t i o n described above.

Rayleigh's method i s u s u a l l y used f o r a determination o f t h e fundamental mode. There are various techniques a v a i l a b l e f o r the i s o l a t i o n o f The f i r s t such method i s t o impose a d e f l e c t i o n

higher modes, however.

i n space o r i e n t e d a t 90" t o t h e fundamental d e f l e c t i o n p a t t e r n . (A f r e e beam i n space has t h e property t h a t the fundamental mode shape f o l l o w s a p a t t e r n which produces a maximum d e f l e c t i o n f o r t h e given loads.) A l o a d p a t t e r n 90' o u t o f phase b u t equal i n magnitude w i l l produce much smaller deflections. ( I n fact, f o r a r e g u l a r p r i s m a t i c beam, t h e d e f l e c t i o n s so This d e f l e c t i o n p a t t e r n can then be used t o

produced w i l l be a minimum.)

compute the beam frequency. mental.

This frequency w i l l be higher than t h e funda-

I t w i l l o f t e n be the n e x t highest frequency.

Another technique i s known as Schmi tt Orthogonal i z a t i o n (see APPENDIX

K )

(The f o l l o w i n g and much o f t h e foregoing i s taken from Bi ggs Struc-

t u r a l ~ynamics.) Any assumed d e f l e c t i o n patten can be expressed as

where

m ia

= t h e assumed mode shape a t i,

J;n = the p a r t i c i p a t i o n f a c t o r o f the mth mode i n mi,

m im

= the mode shape o f mode

rn a t i.

M u l t i p l y i n g both sides by mi

$in,

we have

where i 9-i n
= mass a t i = mode shape a t i f o r mode n

The o r t h o g o n a l i t y c o n d i t i o n f o r normal modes i s t h a t

unless m = n.

Equation 3 can now be r e w r i t t e n

The p a r t i c i p a t i o n f a c t o r f o r t h e mth mode i s

Using t h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n f a c t o r , t h e assumed mode shape can be swept c l e a n o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p r e v i o u s l y determined mode shapes. mode shape becomes The assumed

T h i s procedure w i l l converge t o t h e n e x t h i g h e r mode shape and frequency.

(If an i t e r a t f v e process i s used and t h e procedure i s f u n c t i o n i n g c o r r e c t l y ,

t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n f a c t o r s w i l l a1 1 approach zero.) Yet another procedure i s t o assume a number o f mode shapes r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r and l o o k f o r a frequency minimum. Since t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n o f

an i n c o r r e c t mode shape does n o t e x c i t e resonant responses alone, t h e mode shape g i v i n g t h e maximum n a t u r a l frequency i s t h e most accurate.

C H A P T E R

PROGRAM VERIFICATION 5.1 Section Properties The f u n c t i o n s which make up t h e programs as assembled were a l l subjected t o verification. The functions INDEX and INTEG were used t o corn-

pute t h e geometric p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s e c t i o n s shown i n Fig. 5.1. For t h e diamond shape, t h e modulus weighted c a l c u l a t e d s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s , compared w i t h t h e e x a c t p r o p e r t i e s , a r e as f o l l o w s :

CALCULATED
IXX

EXACT 78.75 i n 4 78.75 i n 4

0.00

ERROR 1% 3.1% 0 1.5%

78.98 i n 4 81.20 i n 4
0.00

I YY

IXY
AREA

5.45 i n 2

5.37 i n 2

Table 5.1 For t h e e l 1 ipse, t h e modulus weighted s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s c a l c u l a t e d by t h e program cornpared w i t h t h e e x a c t values a r e as follows: CALCULATED Ixx 190.7 i n 4 337.4 i n 4 0 7.55 i n EXACT 190.4 i n 4 357 i n 4 0 ERROR 1% 5.6%

I YY
I XY AREA

2
Table 5.2

7.66 i n2

1.4%

TEST

SECTIONS
ELLIPSE

FIG. 5.1

DIAMOND

The r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e e r r o r i s due t o the steep slope o f t h e e l l i p s e as i t nears t h e leading and t r a i l i n g edges. The most expedient way t o

improve t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f these rounded p a r t s o f the shape i s t o increase t h e number o f p o i n t s d e s c r i b i n g t h i s region. are u s u a l l y l i s t e d i n t h i s way5-'. I t was n o t p o s s i b l e t o t e s t t h e a i r f o i l shapes d i r e c t l y , since t h e moments o f i n e r t i a o f a i r f o i l shapes are n o t commonly a v a i l a b l e . From ( A i r f o i l s e c t i o n coordinates

t h e foregoing, however, good r e s u l t s f o r t h e section p r o p e r t i e s can be expected.

5.2

Stress and D e f l e c t i o n The e l l i p t i c cross section above was used as t h e cross s e c t i o n

shape of a hypothetical c a n t i l e v e r e d beam 10 f e e t long.

The d e f l e c t i o n

p r e d i c t e d by t h e w e l l known s t r e n g t h o f m a t e r i a l s formula i s

P L - 1000 ( 1 2 0 1 ~ ~ = .30 inches = - 3(3x1 07) (63.45)

where

a = deflection
P = l o a d a t 10 f e e t L = l e n g t h o f t h e beam E = Young's modulus ( f o r s t e e l ) I = 63.45 i n4
The program c a l c u l a t e d a d e f l e c t i o n o f .301 inches. negl ig i b l e. The e r r o r i s

The maximum s t r e s s predicted by the usual strength of materials formula f o r the above beam and load i s

where y = maximum distance from the neutral axis. The maximum predicted s t r e s s was 7557 psi. 5.3 WF-1 Blade Stress and Deflection As a final t e s t of the s t a t i c portion of the analysis, the geometry describing the WF-1 blade was entered. was input a t .95 R.
A hypothetical load of 15 1 bs. 8 oz.

The e r r o r i s negligible.

An actual load of the same weight was placed on the

t e s t blade and the deflection and s t r e s s levels measured. For the f i r s t t r i a l , the pub1 ished geometry of the WF-1 blade was used as program input. The observed deflections differed from the calcuA t t h i s time, the

lated deflections by approximately a factor of two.

blade geometry was established by ~iieasurement. The blade cross sections were discovered t o have a great deal more depth than originally thought. The chord lengths of the cross sections were nearly a t the specifications. (See Tab1 e 2.2). Nw data f i l e s were establ ished by mu1 tiplying the coordinates i n the e old f i l e s by the fractional difference between the observed and l i s t e d depths. (These data f i 1 es a r e 1i s t e d in APPENDIX M. ) The new data f i 1 es

were used as i n p u t t o the program. Figure 52shows the location of s t r a i n gages used f o r the t e s t . The

s e t of gages (1--10) around the circumferences of the blade a t ,475 R were 350 n Constantan BLH s t r a i n gages of various l o t s . The s t r a i n gages

FIG. 5 . 2

STRAIN

GAGE

LOCATION

CROSS SECTION A T .475 R

LOW PRESSURE SURFACE F A C I N G

organized radially (11-20) were 500 n Constantan BLH strain gages of the same l o t . hesive. All bonds between gage and substrate were by Eastman 910 ady The strains were detected and transduced b a shop built r e s i s t o r

bri dge and amp1 i f i er. Table5.3 l i s t s the observed and predicted values of s t r e s s for a l l gages. They are plotted in Figure 5.3 Agreement between predicted and The gage bond

measured values were good for a l l gages except number 17.

i s suspect there, largely because of the good agreement between predicted

and observed deil ections.

Figure 5.4 shows the observed blade t i p displacement due t o the sing1 e 15 I b . 9 Oz. load a t .95 R. This load was oriented a t 90' t o the chord

l i n e a t the t i p , towards the low pressure surface (towards the bottom of the page). The deflection in the lead direction (positive x direction

according t o the paper's sign convention) i s due entirely t o the coupling between the deflections in two planes. twist. I t i s a consequence of the blade

The deflection values are as follows: Predicted .57 in. 2.99 in. Measured .36 - .13 in. + 2.96 - .06 in. +

This agreement i s acceptable.

Uncertainties in the geometry of the

t r a i l i n g edge, particularly relative t o the load carrying capacity of the roving bundle used t o seal the t r a i l i n g edge, make any more precise determination of the bending coupling unlikely.

TABLE 5.3 BENDING STRESS BY GAGE NUMBER (Refer t o F i g u r e 5.2)

Stress, p s i Predicted Observed 233

38
FIG. 5 . 3
WF-I T E S T BLADE (STATIC T E S T S ) 151b. 80z. A T .95 RADIUS S T A T I O N SKIN STRESS A T .475 R A D I U S

200
I

LOWER AERCDYNAMIC (HIGH PRESSURE! SURFACE

PER CENT CHORD.E. 1 0 20 3C 40

I
I

60

70

-400

-500

--

STRAIN GAGE MEASUREMENT WLUE (WITH ERROR BARS) COMPUTER SIMULATION (CORRECTED FROM .5R .475R VIA LINEAR INTERPOLATION TO

-600
-70 S K ! N S T R E S S A T 4O0/0 C H O R D PER CENT RADIUS HU6 1 0 20 30 40

( ) GAGE

NUMatI R (FIG. 5.2)

50

60

70

80

90

TIP
(201

UPPER AERODYNAMIC

FIG. 5.4

UNLOADED POSIT1ON 4

1
+
1

.36in. MEASURED (.57in. PREDICTED)

2.96in. MEASURED (2.99in. PREDICTED )

I
7

LOADED POSiTiON

WIND FURNACE

BLADE

TIP

DEFLECTION

5.4

Vibration The Rayleigh R i t z method was used f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l

frequencies. tip

The mode shapes were a1 1 normal i z e d t o t h e magnitude o f t h e

displacement v e c t o r (see APPENDIX I)

As a simple t e s t o f t h e program, t h e dimensions and s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s of a s i x f o o t l o n g s t e e l beam whose cross s e c t i o n was a one i n c h by f o u r i n c h r e c t a n g l e ( F i g u r e 5.5) were used. t h i s beam a r e The t h r e e l o w e s t frequencies o f

u3 = 251 radians/sec.

The numbers p r e d i c t e d by program FREQ a r e

The agreement i s seen t o be q u i t e good.

The reason t h a t two numbers

a r e g i v e n f o r t h e h i g h e s t p r e d i c t e d frequency i s t h a t t h e program FREQ c o n t a i n s two a l g o r i t h m s f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h i s frequency. uses S c h m i t t o r t h o g o n a l i z a t i o n f o r t h e s o l u t i o n . The f i r s t

The second superimposes

t h e f u n c t i o n s i n ( r x + L ) over t h e fundamental mode shape and t h e value o f x i s varied. On t h e spare wind f u n a c e blade, a shaker was mounted f o r t h e i s o l a t i o n o f resonant frequencies. The t o t a l weight o f t h e shaker was 2.79 1bs. The r o t o r

It was mounted a t .35 R, 48.8 inches from t h e blade support.

FIG. 5 . 5

TEST

BEAM

CROSS

SECTION

STEEL B E A M E = 3 x 1 7 psi 0

1
6 ft.

weighed .40 Ibs. and had an e c c e n t r i c i t y o f .38 i n .

The blade support

was b o l t e d atop a s e c t i o n o f 8 i n c h diameter steam pipe 5 f e e t t a l l . The p i p e was f i x e d t o t h e concrete f l o o r . The stand was s t i f f e n e d by

e x t e r n a l supports i n both bending and t o r s i o n . The r e s u l t s o f t h e frequency a n a l y s i s o f t h e Measured

WF-1 a r e shown below.

Predicted

The agreement i s n o t extremely good. disagreement can be guessed a t .

The primary reasons f o r t h e

F i r s t , the density o f the blade's Second, t h e blade was

materia.1 i s n o t known w i t h any g r e a t p r e c i s i o n .

balanced d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n ( v i s . a v i s . t h e o t h e r s i m i l a r blades) by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f l e a d shot a t unknown l o c a t i o n s . T h i r d , any remaining (Qua1it a -

f l e x i 1ib i t y i n t h e support would lower t h e observed frequency.

t i v e l y , t h e support was q u i t e r i g i d .

A penny balanced on edge on t h e

Fourth, t h e

blade support d i d n o t tumble o f f d u r i n g a v i b r a t i o n t e s t . )

apparatus a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e t e s t , t h e r o t o r and a s t r o b e l i g h t , do n o t a1 low tremendous r e s o l u t i o n of t h e resonances, p r i m a r i l y because sympathetic v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e blade w i l l be caused by e x c i t i n g forces n o t p r e c i s e l y a t t h e resonant frequency. The agreement between observed and p r e d i c t e d frequencies, a1 though n o t tremendous, i s considered acceptable. l i s t e d i n Table5.4. The p r e d i c t e d mode shapes are

They appear t o be c o r r e c t , b u t measurement o f these

mode shapes was n o t p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a t hand.

TABLE 5.4 MODE SHAPES

CHAPTER CONCLUSIONS

V I

The o b j e c t o f t h i s study was t h e development o f computer programs u s e f u l t o the wind t u r b i n e designer. Codes were developed

which a l l o w t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f bending s t r e s s i n and n a t u r a l frequencies of wind t u r b i n e blades. The codes a r e inexpensive t o

operate when compared w i t h f i n i t e element codes of comparable sophistication. Good agreement between t h e p r e d i c t e d and observed f l e x u r a l d e f l e c t i o n s has been shown. Acceptable agreement between p r e d i c t e d I n short,

and observed n a t u r a l frequencies has a l s o been shown.

t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n of t h e codes w i t h r e s p e c t t o an e x i s t i n g wind t u r b i n e blade has been accompl ished. Thi s p r o v i des s t r o n g e v i dence

t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of R a y l e i g h ' s method t o t h e problem o f f r e e v i b r a t i o n o f a beam, a l l o w i n g c o u p l i n g between d e f l e c t i o n s i n two directions, i s valid. veri fied. The i n c l u s i o n of t h e computer codes and documentation i n t h e appendices should f a c i l i t a t e t h e use of these codes on o t h e r
A l l o t h e r p a r t s of t h e codes have a l s o been

computer systems. The extension of these codes t o a l l o w , f o r example, shear a n a l y s i s and/or t o r s i o n a l c o u p l i n g may be accomplished by subroutine modifications.

REFERENCES C h i l c o t t , R. E. , The Design, Development, and Testing of a Low Cost 10 Hp Windmill Prime Mover; Brace Res. I n s t . Pub1 . No. MT7, J u l y , 1969. Hutter, Ulrich; Optimum Wind Energy Conversion Systems, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech., 1977, 9: 399-419. B i ggs, John M. , Introduction t o Structural Dynamics, McGraw-Hi 11 ,

Nw York, 1964. e
Shapiro, Jacob, Principles of He1 i c o p t e r Engineering, Temple Press Limited , London, 1955. Stoddard, Perkins, Cromack, Wind Tunnel Tests f o r Fixed Pitch S t a r t U and Yw C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , UM-WT-TR-78-1. p a Putnam, Palmer C . , Power from the Wind, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1948. Op. c i t . , Hutter. Wilson, Robert E., e t a l . , Aerodynamic Performance of Wind Turbines,

Final Report, 1976, ERDA/NSF/O4014-7611. Lefebvre, Paul L. and Cromack, Duane

E . 9

A Comparative S t u d y o f

Optimized Blade Confiqurations f o r High Speed Wind Turbines, UM-kF-TR77-8. Wilson, Robert E. and Lissamann, P e t e r B.S., Applied Aerodynamics of Wind Power Machines, 1974, NTIS, PB-2385-95. Ormiston, Robert A., Rotor Dynamic Considerations f o r Large Wind

Power Generator Systems, W C Workshop Proceedings, NSF/RA/W-73-006. ES James, M-L., e t a l . ; Applied Numerical Methods f o r Digital Computation, I.E.P.

A Dun Donnelley Publisher, New Yor, 1977.

REFERENCES (Continued)

4.2

Biggs

5.1

Abbott, I.A.

and Von Doenhoff, A.E.,

Theory o f Mind Sections, Dover

P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1959,

New York, p. 407.

A.l

ibid.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Burke, Barbara L., Meroney, Robert N.; Energy from t h e Wind, Annotated

B i b l iography , L i b r a r i e s and F l u i d Mechanics and Wind Engineering Program, Colorado S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , F t . C o l l i n s , Colo. Wilson, Robert E., and Lissaman, Peter B.S.; Applied Aerod.ynamics of

Wind Power; NTIS, PB-238595, July, 1974.

W i 1son, Robert E.

, et

a1 ; Aerodynamic Perfonnance o f Wind Turbines,

F i n a l Report, ERDA/NSF/0401-76/1. C h i l c o t t , R.E. ; The Design, Development, and T e s t i n g o f a Low Cost 10 Hp Windmill Prime Mover, Brace Res. I n s t . Publ. No. MT7, J u l y , 1969.

utter,
Mech.,

Ul r i c h ; OPTIMUM WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS, Ann. Rev. F l u i d 1977, 9: 399-419. I n t r o d u c t i o n t o S t r u c t u r a l Dynamics, McGraw-Hill,

Biggs, John M.; New York, 1964.

Shapiro, Jacob; P r i n c i p l es of He1icopter Engineering, TEMPLE PRESS L i m i t e d , London, 1955. Putnam, Palmer C.; York, 1948. Lefebvre, Paul L. and Cromack, Duane E.; Power from t h e Wind, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New

A Comparative Study o f O p t i -

mized Blade Configurations f o r Hiqh Speed Wind Turbines, UM-WF-TR-77-9. Ormiston, Robert A.; Rotor Dynamic Considerations f o r Large Wind

Turbine Power Generator Systems, W C Workshop Proceedings, NSF/RA/WES 73-006. Rive1 l o , Robert M; Theory and Analysis o f F1i g h t Structures, McGraw-Hill New York, 1969.

12.

Houbolt, John C. and Brooks, George W; D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of Motion f o r Combined Fl apwise Bending, Chordwise Bending, and Torsion of Twisted Non-Uniform Rotor Blades,

NACA TN 3905, 1957.

13.

Harris, Cyril M and Crede, Charles E.; Shock and Vibration Handbook, McGraw H i l l , Nw York, 1976. e

14.

James, M.L. I .E.P.-A

, e t a1 . ; Appl ied Numerical Methods f o r Digital Computation;

Theory of Wing Sections,

Dun Donne1 ley Pub1 i s h e r , Nw York, 1977. e

15.

Abbott, I r a A. and Von Doenhoff, Albert E.; Dover Publ i c a t i o n s , Inc., N w York, 1959. e

16.

MIT; Wind Energy Conversion, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, PB-256198, 15 Feb., 1976.

17. 18.

Abramson, Norman H.;

Dynamics of Airplanes, Ronald Press, Nw York, 1958. e

Miles, Alfred and Newell, Joseph; Airplane S t r u c t u r e s , Vo1. 1 , John Wley and Sons, Nw York, 1954. i e

19.

Ashley, Hol t ; Engineering Analysis of Flight Vehicles, Addison Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, Mass., 1974.

20.

W-i1liams, D; An Introduction t o the Theory of A i r c r a f t S t r u c t u r e s ,

Edward Arnold (Pub1 i s h e r s ) L t d . , London, 1960. 21 . Den Hartog; Mechanical Vibrations, McGraw H i 11, N w York, 1956. e 22. Bispl inghoff, Raymond L . , e t a1 . ; Aeroelastici t y , Addison Wesley Publ i s h i n g Co., Inc., Cambridge, Mass., 1955. 23. Fung, Y .C. ; An Introduction t o t h e Theory of A e r o e l a s t i c i t y , Dover Publ i c a t i o n s , Nw York, 1969. e 24. Gessow, Alfred and Myers, Garry C. J r . ; Aerodynamics of the Helicopter,

e Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. Inc., Nw York, 1952.

Acton, Forman S; Numerical Methods t h a t Work, Harper and Row, New York, 1970. Kuhn, Paul; Stresses i n A i r c r a f t and Shell Structures, McGraw H i l l , New York, 1956. Wah, Thein and Calcote, Lee R. ; S t r u c t u r a l Analysis by F i n i t e D i f f e r e n c e Calculus, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1970.

Wind Turbine S t r u c t u r a l Dynamics, NASA Lewis, NASA Conference P u b l i c a t i o n 2034, DOE Pub1i c a t i o n CONF-771148. Larrabee, E; Aerodynamic Design and Performance o f M i ndmi 11s , (Dept Comnerce?) PB-256 198. Morrison, J.G.; The Development o f a Method f o r Measurement o f S t r a i n s

. of

i n a Windmi 11 Rotor, The E l e c t r i c a l Research Association, Technical Report C/T117, 1957. Wood as an Engineering M a t e r i a l , U.S. Hdbk. McCormi ck, Barnes, W. ; [ , Journal , Fa11 , 1975. Rohrbach, Carl and Worobel , Rose; Performance C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Aerodynamically Optimum Turbines f o r Wind Energy Generators, 31st Annual National Forum o f t h e American H e l i c o p t e r Society, Washington, D.C., May, 1975, P r e p r i n t No. S-996. Ormiston, Robert A.; Dynamic Response o f Wind Turbine Rotor Systems, Forest Products Lab., 1974, Wood

A I A A Student

31 s t Annual National Forum o f t h e American He1 i c o p t e r Society, Washington,

D.C.,

May 1975, P r e p r i n t No. S-993. Discussion o f Monientum Theory f o r Windmills, Energy

Stoddard, F o r r e s t S.;

A l t e r n a t i v e s Program, U n i v e r s i t y of Massachusetts, TRj7612, APPENDIX

IV.

36.

Scanlan, Robert H. and Rosenbaum, Robert; Introduction t o t h e Study of Aircraft Vibration and F l u t t e r , the Macmillan Cornpany, Nw York, e 1951.

37.

Proceedings, S p e c i a l i s t s Meeting on Rotorcraft Dynamics, American Helicopter Society and NASA/Ames Research Center, James C. Biggers, M.S. 274-1, NASA-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, 94035.

38.

Wind Energy Conversion Systems, Workshop Proceedings, NSF-NASA, June 11-13, 1973, D . C . , NSF/RA/W-73-006, Dec. 1973.

39.

Golding, E.W.;

The Generation of E l e c t r i c i t y by Wind Power, E. & F.N.

SPON LTD, London, 1976. 40. Helicopter Aerodynamics and Dynamics, Agard Lecture Series No. 63, Agard LS-63. 41. Young, Maurice I . ; The Influence of Pitch and Twist on Blade Vibrations, Journal of A i r c r a f t , 6:10, pg. 383. 42. Hohenemser, Kurt H . and Yin, Sheng Kuang; On the Question of Adequate Hingeless Rotor Model 1 ing in Forward Fl i g h t , 29th Annual Forum of the American Helicopter Society, D . C . , May, 1973, preprint No. 732.

A P P E N D I X

COORDINATE SYSTEM CORRESPONDENCE The d i f f e r e n t i a l equations f o r beam bending were taken from R i v e l l o , A.l Theory and Analysis o f F l i g h t Structures The c o o r d i n a t e systems c o r -

respond i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner. indicated directions are positive.

Primes r e f e r t o R i v e l l o ' s system.

All

Hence t h e f o l l o w i n g correspondences

Vx

x = - Y'
y =

Mx =

My'
I

--

VY1 V ',

z1

MY = M , M = M , ',

Vy = V ,

z = x'

= V ',

R i v e l l o ' s equations f o r beam bending a r e

These become

R i v e l l o ' s r a d i a l s t r e s s equation i s

This becomes,

where
P

i s any r a d i a l l o a d i s t h e cross s e c t i o n area i s a bending moment about t h e ith i s ax a r e space coordi nates

A
M~

x ,y ,z

A P P E N D I X Equations o f Motion

Figure B1 shows t h e transverse shear forces and bending moments a c t i n g on a s l i c e o f blade o f l e n g t h dz. This diagram neglects t h e t h e i n c l u s i o n o f which are the D'alembert forces

i n f l u e n c e o f an o f f a x i s placement o f the c.g., would introduce t o r s i o n a l coup1 i n g . a c t i n g on the o s c i l l a t i n g section.

f x and f

Summing moments about the i n f e r i o r edge, we have

Neglecting h i g h e r o r d e r terms i n dz and cancel 1i n g

Neglecting higher o r d e r terms i n dz and c a n c e l l i n g

Summing forces a c t i n g on t h e element

FIG. 8.1

If m i s the lineal mass density, u i s a unit displacement in the x directions and v in the y direction, then

then from 3a and 4a, w have e

For small displacements, w have from Rivello that e

where a) b) c) El i s an a r b i t r a r y reference modulus

My i s the bending moment about t h e y a x i s

Mx i s t h e bending moment about t h e x a x i s

W can now solve f o r t h e bending moments a t some p o i n t z i n terms o f e t h e curvatures a t t h a t p o i n t . Let

n

and

Rearranging 5 and 6,

Substituting 8 i n t o 7

Recall i n g t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f k , t h i s reduces t o

Solving f o r Mx by i n s e r t i o n i n t o 8

Expanding k and s i m p l i f y i n g ,

Rewriting 1 i n terms o f 10 and 2 i n terms o f 9 , we g e t

R e w r i t i n g 3 i n terms of 12 and 4 i n terms o f 11, we g e t

These a r e t h e equations of motion f o r t h e coupled f l e x u r a l free v i b r a t i o n s o f a beam o f a r b i t r a r y mass d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o n s t r u c t i o n . closed form s o l u t i o n f o r these equations e x i s t s . a r e o f engineering i n t e r e s t , however. For example, i f we consider a u n i f o r m homogeneous beam w i t h o u t t w i s t , t h e equations 13 and 14 reduce t o No

Numerous s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s

where

I f we f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t a t t e n t i o n t o t h e case o f bending about p r i n c i p a l axes, then we have

These l a t t e r equations a r e comnonly encountered i n books on beam v i b r a t i o n s and s t r u c t u r a l dynamics.

A P P E N D I X

C. 1 Flow Chart Formal i s m

The subscript i implies t h a t B i s a data f i l e with more than one number .(potentially assigned to i t ) .

Bi i s assigned a1 1 numbers included within the

brackets.

Only the kth entry of Bi i s considered.

Input, O u t p u t or executable statement.

Decision or comparison.

Program control transfer

Machine control flow direction.

C.2

Program Moments This i s t h e main program o f t h e s t a t i c analysis. The program f l o w

c h a r t i s included on t h e f o l l o w i n g pages, The program f i r s t d i r e c t s t h e p r e s e t t i n g of perti.nent v a r i a b l e s , then t h e i n p u t o f i n f o r m a t i o n necessary t o t h e analysis. Once t h e i n p u t s e c t i o n i s completed, t h e (modulus weighted) moments o f i n e r t i a a r e transposed t o t h e p o i n t a t which t h e bending a x i s passes through t h e station. The program then r o t a t e s t h e s e c t i o n axes (hence t h e values of

t h e moments o f i n e r t i a ) i n t o t h e proper o r i e n t a t i o n f o r t h e bending analysis. Next t h e program computes t h e d e f l e c t i o n s due t o bending by Finally, the stress levels i n the

c a l l i n g f u n c t i o n DEF (see Appendix G ) . s k i n are computed and reported.

The program then asks whether o r n o t i t e r a t i o n f s desired. program execution ceases.

I f not,

Ifyes, t h e operator i s asked f o r t h e s t a r t i n g

value of t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h , t h e increment by which t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h i s t o be changed ( t h i s may be p o s i t i v e o r negative) and t h e number o f i t e r a t i o n s desired. The l o a d p a t t e r n i s assumed t o remain constant. The

program then computes t h e bending s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n associated w i t h each col 1e c t i ve p i t c h s e t t i n g . There were few problems i n v o l v e d i n w r i t i n g t h e main program. coordinate transformations are s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . The

One p e c u l i a r i t y o f t h e

a l g o r i t h m i s t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e BMX i s a c t u a l l y t h e negative o f t h e bending moments about t h e x axis. The i t e r a t i v e loop f o r r e p o r t i n g stresses was introduced t o save compp u t e r time. That s e c t i o n o f t h e program uses very l i t t l e computer time Consequently, one i n p u t can r e s u l t

when compared w i t h t h e i n p u t section.

FIG. C . I
PROGRAM MOM ENTS SUBROUTINES

SECTION PROPERTIES

0
INPUT

4
m a -

--

A ,
CALCULATES SEC TlON PROPERTIES

OUTPUT
m e -

--

TRANSLATE TO BENDIFJG AXIS

INDEX

--------ROTATE COORDINATES

v
INTEG
1
I

-------b
COMPUTE DEF CHANGE PITCH ANGLE INPUTS

- -------COMPUTE STRESS

b
DEF

CALCULATES DEFLECTIONS

I
SCHEMATIC PROGRAM MOMENTS

i n a n a l y s i s of many d i f f e r e n t c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h s e t t i n g s . refinement, which has n o t been made,is

One obvious

t o allow the introduction o f d i f Presently, only c o l l e c t i v e

f e r e n t l o a d p a t t e r n s w i t h i n t h e i t e r a t i v e loop. p i t c h may be indexed,

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e program can be v e r y e a s i l y m o d i f i e d t o a l l o w t h e moments o f i n e r t i a f o r p a r t i c u l a r designs t o be s t o r e d i n g l o b a l memory. This would r e q u i r e t h e i n p u t s e c t i o n t o be used o n l y once f o r any p a r t i c u l a r blade design. The m o d i f i c a t i o n necessary i s t h e removal o f t h e v a r i a b l e s

concerned from t h e header 1i n e o f MOMENTS.

PRINCIPAL VARIABLES

BETA BETANOT THETA

Local p i t c h angle C o l l e c t i v e p i t c h angle 1) P o l a r Mass Moment of I n e r t i a about r o t o r a x i s ANGLE o f PRINCIPAL AXES w.r.t. chord a t each s t a t i o n .

2)

( P o s i t i v e i s a r o t a t i o n from Leading edge towards Low Pressure surface) PR PS RO H Minor p r i n c i p a l moment o f i n e r t i a Major p r i n c i p a l moment o f I n e r t i a Local p i t c h angle w.r.t. wind m i l l axes

I XX
IYY

S e c t i o n moment o f i n e r t i a about windmi 11 x a x i s S e c t i o n moment o f i n e r t i a about w i n d m i l l y a x i s Mixed s e c t i o n moment o f i n e r t i a about w i n d m i l l a x i s Bending modulus a t low pressure s u r f a c e s k i n Bending modulus of h i g h pressure s u r f a c e s k i n
Y c o o r d i n a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f low pressure s u r f a c e

I XY

EUP EL0
YU

XC
YL

X c o o r d i n a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f low pressure s u r f a c e
Y c o o r d i n a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f h i g h pressure s u r f a c e

XCL

X c o o r d i n a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f h i g h pressure s u r f a c e

c2
STRU Stress d i s t r i b u t i o n i n Low Pressure s u r f a c e s k i n

65

STRL

Stress distribution in High Pressure surface skin

PROGRAM

LISTING

VMOYEHTSCnJV vMOYE1.IT5 Fn o t - 1 114PUT

;1;.:>:0;

I'I'YO

I:<'r'O: T H E T A ; P R ; F'5 ;ROOT

YBAR

; E O P R E A iB E T A i CH0;'r'LIP G

; Y L O j C i ;C2;

XC;sCL;Yu;YL;YuP~;YLo~

n
RFIND IXXC, I I I C , I X T C

IXXCtIXXO-ARE AX YEAR*^
~ r r c t r ~ ~ ~ r o - n f i ~ a ~ s e a ~
1X'I'CtI~:'fO-AREaxX~nR~ x'r'PAR

YETAtBETA+FHI

rvEra+wx

( : ~ Q P R~ I ~ ~ I ~ O R O + : ~ X - ~ + t2 M O S ~ ) ) ~ ~

THETO+-THET~XMPSS

THEt&ClJtTHETd[1]+2

THETACfTnETa)tT~ETd[pTHET~]f2
1YLISG
8

YOMEI4T

CF

INERTIa

ASOUT

T H E F:OTOR

A:.:J.S

(LB

I14 S E C * 2 )

';+/TUETA+32,2X12

THETAcMASZXH rHETA~~)+:UETOC~]-2 THETa[fTHETA]+;HETaCfTYETA]f2 'SLADE

1 I

WEIGdT,

POUNI*S

';+/THETA

.
PRINCXPLIL A14GIE

nFIND

R H D MOMENTS O F I t 4 E R T I A

rwzrac

fr::xc+zr i z ) + 2 : - ~ : o o - + (;( ( z : c x c - r ' r " r . c ) + 2 ) *:)+I::Yc*~) P S + ( ( X::>:C+EYYC ) - 2 ) +RCOT * I I . I C L I ~ ~ I L I T I C ' N F S E U T I O I i P R I I 1 C X F ' ~ LA X E S F R O M C H O R D O

..

-~B:~XI::YC+I~YC-I;-:XC)

!;z
*0,;
(CCWr+)

'

9 2. THE TAX^^. 29578

i I

'MCDULUS

WEZGHTED

CENTROI~

LocnrIou1

'
7
I ,

XBOR YBLIR 3+Q( 2 , p : i s a ~ ) p x ~ a ~ , rsan

X

'

'MCDULUS WIGHTEb y z+xaaR-cHotsn

, 6

C E P I T R O I I ~ L O C A T I O N FIS CHORD

FRACTION'

'&AS5

C E N T R U I n COORDSNATES' >:HAP: YEPR'

9 ~+~(~r~Mcssx)pMoPsx,MLLss51'
I t

'MLISS

CEMTROID

AS

CHORD

FRACT1OI.I'

9
I

3+dASSX+C?HORK~
I

'YEt4DING 'AEOUT

STIFFNESSES

-1E7'

T H E MAJOR

PRINCIPAL LIXI5'

9
I I

2+PR THE MX14OR P R X I 4 C I P A L A X I S '

'ABOUT

9 27'I I

'TOTAL
0
I I

AREA

OF

MASS'

~.IGEOAREA

'YEfGHT

O F U N I T SPA14,

POUNDS P E R

INCH*

9 4twass n
P0:nCOMPUTE
I I

MOMENTS O F

INERTIA

AbOUT

WIIiDM1LL

AXES

I I

lnEta
I

NAUGHT

1;(-l*~~r~)~180+ol
(+1E7) FIEOUT WII4DMILL LI:<CS REFERRED TO BENDII4G A X I S '

'BENDI~IG

STIFFNESSES

C633 C643 C653 C663

RuOcDCTA-01 'CxXXXslC7'

2 ~ 1 % X t I:<:<Cx (

(20PHO)

1 2 ) + ( I'V'rCx

(1oRHO) t2)-DS,t?x

(1oRHO)

( 2 o R H O ) xI:.:IC

C673
C683 C693

"
' S X I ' ? ~ I ' s ~ L ~ ~ zrIY'l.c( I:::.:Cx.( l o R H G ) a 2 ) + ( I Y Y C x ( Z o R H O ) a:)+DD

C70]
C713

"
'CXIXY-lE7'

2+1:<'tc(IX:<Cx

( l o U H 0 ) X2oRHJ)-(

IItYCx ( 1oRHn) xzoRHC) +I:CC'Cx~~,7x%UO

C723 C731
C74] C753 C763 C773 c783

"
x ( (DMYx1:::C)-DM:<~I:<~r)-(I:~:%~I'~'l'~-I:~'~'~~

* 0 U ~ ~ + 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

c~c(srounG)~((~~wx~~r)-b~'r~~::~)i.(~:~?:x~~r't)-~:r'r'~~
C:+(-'fOUUG)
"

''
' I N THC FLAP DIRECTIOPI' (HvPcl)DEF

C791 C801 C811 [82]

C831

c l

"
"

' I H

THC

LLPD

LAG DIRECTIOH' I N
THE

~841
CBJ3 C8&]

( H P P C ~ ) D L Fc? ,,COMPUTC sracssss I + l fiITEIPCITIVE snaxrs

s r x n OUT STWESSB

LOOP FOR

RCPORTI1.IG

C37]
Ce83

UoTaTron

SUP+ " U P C l ;

1I

~891
~ 9 0 3 c913

E L o c r L o c l i l J

::s+
ruplc(l
IS~U ) .. P 1 5 BENDI1.IG STEESS ABOVE :: ,, :</CHORD, bEh1DI:lO STFB55 BPLCW ' * L o l c ( l l)+rLo 'OtDCR OF READING 'ruP1Cr;lcruPlCr; 'rl.Olc1;

C923 C933 C9j]

~ 9 5 3 C963 ~ 9 7 3 C993

'-:'

P~:"IIIIIIIIIIP===III====~=I~==========================

]-TBPRCI]

] t Y L O l C I ;]-tPARCI]

::~+(-~X::S~'P~CI~)+:<~CI;'J Y U ~ ( - ~ ~ : < ~ ~ ~ ~ R U O C I ~ ) + ' I U ~ ~ [ I ; ] ~ , X ~ ~ R H O C I ]

rLc(-lx:<lxlowro[~]

~991

[loo]

)+.I.Lo~[I ;I-,

.X:~F:HOCI]

~C~(:~:~~:~UHOCI])+~UP~~I;]~.X~~FHOCI~
:~CLC(::~X~~EHOCI] )+.I.Lo~cI;
X~ORHOI:

~1011
El033

11

a
"STRESS FORMULATIOH AND SOLUTIOH S T R U C S T R L ~ ( ~ ' I ' U F )1 ~ STFUtEUPx (CIEI]. x'tU)+C:!CI]e

[103] C104]

El053
El063

~ T R L ~ E L ~ ~ ( c ~ ~ I ] ~ . x ~ L ) + c ~ ~ I ] ~ ~ ~ ~ . c L

.
#;I

x:<C

C1071
C1083 ~ 1 0 9 3

"

"

'srarrou uuMacR C1101 7 O r S T R U ~ 1 1 1 3 7 z + ( : : l + : : r a n l ~ r 1) - C H O U D C I ~ C1133 7 OrsTRL El131 '' C11.41 1+1+1

El153 C1163 C1173 C1183 +(I>Pcl)/P2

+'I
p:!:+<IT1~4DfO)/p3

' '

f 1193
[1,7O] C1:1] C1223 El233 CL253

''
'DO YOU WANT TO ITERPTE WITH ME?' I T I H D c A / ~ ' ~ ' E S ~ = ~ ~ ~ ~ +(ITIND=O)/P4 ITI1.tDeO 'NUMaLR OF ITLRATIOHS'

El261
C1273

NITcO 'IHCREMLHT' 1T1~cc(o+l80)r0

POIHT~

~ 1 2 8 3 'STPRTIHG

FUNCTION MOMENTS

I
I

1:IITIR 12: 'VARIABLES (FOOL 1)

I
I

PRItIT MINOR PRINCIPAL , W I T OF IlLQTIA AT W( RIDIUS

I If

E X E M E ItVRT SECTION (IXPUT)

OETCBINE IXX. 1x1. :YY WUT THE 3OlOIffi AXIS

BLTII,

L C W I:TC'

41

FIND W R l l l l O n OF :#ERTLI O i BLADE ROTATI* AXIS

PRINT COLLibTIVE PITCH

FiP-BENOIXG W L U S JF

P4!:IT PPI'iCIPAL PX!S LO3T:Jt:S 47 C4U( RADIAL ?OUT:rJ:(

.EFSR I X I . 1x1. IVY

V L P ~ -LOU PRESSURE SKIN

T5 U I ! S I I L L AX;S SfSTSI

CI i - ~ ~ - 7

[~*,Ivv,-M, ,1XVi Iui:vv! -!xv?)

)

II

4 I G H PPESSURE SKlR coo~o~uam

vLo'.y

MOMENTS (Continued)

TRANSFOffl Y CMRDIiYTES INTO EOlDING AXIS CEllTERED S'ISTDI

1 1 1

lr
ITERATIW DESIRED

IHTO BFIIDING AXIS CENTERED SYSTEM

1 I I

'I I

INTO UItI1IIILL AXIS

COMPUTE X. V COORDIIYTES OF POiliTS C HIGH AlW U LOU PRESSURE SURFACES N I T - E S I R E D W E E R OF ITEPATIOAS U M E STRESS LEVEL If1 UPPER U l D LOU SKINS

PITCH IMCRDIENT P R I K STRESS L E MID NL CHORWIM LOUTIONS

a
1:IITIALIZE L D U L PITCH
YES

TERMINAL SESSION

YOMENTS

ENTER

T H E NUMBER

OF

VLITLI

SETS

a:
8
ENTER THE UPPER S K I N 7 NEWFl ENTER THE S K I N X CO-ORD CO-ORDINLITES

a:
0:
NlWFlZX E N T E R T H E LOWER SKIN Y CO-ORV

a:
HEWF2

ENTER

rnE 'f MATRIX

a:
< :
0:
NLWF34X HEUP3 MLITRIX

ENTER

THE 7

YPTRIX

0:
X

NEWF4 MLITRIX NEWP34:<

0:

ENTER

THE

YC)TRI:<

0:

< :

NEWF5 MQTRI:< NewFgbx

a:
ENTER THE MC)TKI:<

0:
NEWPb
: MLITt?r:< i

0:
NCWF56:.:

ENTER

THE

MPTRIX

CI :
NCWF7

< MATRIX : 0:
NEWF78X

ENTER THE

MaTRIX

a:
X

NEWF8 MLITRIH

:
NEWF78::

PLOD

VECTOR NEYPWI

PWI.

THE

REL,

TWIST

114 D E G R F E S

!Y :
ENTEe *ETA HaUGHT

0:
0
ENTER

Tna

RaoraL

STATION

SPACING,

0:

19.5
LNTLR TUB LOCATION OF THE RENDING

6x1s

0:
SHLAR

.7,5xcuoao
FORCE PER SPnhJWISE S E C T I O N I N THE

: DIRECTIOeI C

0:

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
SHEAR FORCE 11.1 T H E
Y

DIRECTION

0:

C 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 15+9-16
ENTER THE RnXnIUS OF THE MOST INBOARrm STATIOH,

0:

19.5

C O I I I N G ANGLE?

0:
10
Mass MOMENT OF I N E R T I n nBOUT THE ROTOR AXIS (LB I N S E C L ~ ) 664.6

I).ICLI1~JGTIO).J O F

SECTIOW

F-RIbICIPOL AXES

FROM CHORD

(CC.r)=+)

-10.89
MODULUS ::BLR

5.99
r BPR

5.56

4.58

3.50

4.77

17.23

7.33

3.78

6.14

WEIGHTEO

CENTROID

LOCnTION

3.61 4.29 3.77 1.01 2.43 2.07 1.03 1.56 1.33 1.16
MODULUS

1.04 0 63 0.55 0.45 0.38 0.34 0.33 0.27 0.24 0.15

X

WEIGHTED

C E N T R O I D L O C A T I O N 65 CHORD

FRACTION

0.223
MnSS CENTUOXD XPAR

0.245
r'BC)R

0.249

0.246

0.238

0.236

0.269

0.236

0.246

0.276

COORDINnTES

3.80 4.63 4.08 3.28 2.66 2.25 2.15 1.70 1.47

1 .02 0.62 0.54 0.45 0.38 0.34 0.36 0.27 0.25

MPSS

C L N T R O I D AS

CHORD

FRACTION

0.234
DRMDIN6 AmOUT THC

0.264
MAJOR

0.270 ilC7 1.67 10.23 4.94

POUNDS CLR

0.268

0.261

0.256

0.285

0.258

0.272

0.311

STICFNLSSCS

PRINCIPAL AXIS

4.09
ABOUT TNL

2.96
MINOR

1.31 5.50 9-16

INCH

0.65 3.18 3.57 0.1940

0.39 1.51 2.76 0.1507

0.16 0.91 2.42 0.1298

0.13 0.14 1.51 0.0825

0.06 0.27 1.06 0.0574

0.01 9-15 0.55 0.0295

PIINCIPAL AXIS

13.89
TOTAL aRLA OC

15.13
MPSS

10.32
P L I O H T OC U N I T

6.33
SCAM,

0.5633

0.3431

0.2671

0.2254

DENDIHG STIFCNSSSCS EX I X X + l E 7

(ilC7) ABOUT 1.97

WINDMILL

A:<LS

PLCCRRED

TO

eLNDIHG

4x1s

7.17

4.39

1.05

0.67

0.39

0.21

0.13

0.07

0.01

I N

Tnc

CLAP

DIPECTION

DCCLSCTION

0.000

C.016

0.077

0.205

0.415

0.723

1.162

1.766

2.513

3.339

ORnCR

OF

RCADING

15

BENDrt<G STRESS

PDOVC : i r :</CHOF:n,

EEt.IDII.IG

STRESS

3ELOW

: C

STATION

NUMOLR

-447 0.00 -447

-444 0.05 -293

-379. -220 0.10 0.20 '8 11 22

-37 0.30 215

lh3 0.40 406

375 0.50
5'77

596 0.60. 787

824

i179
0.85

0.70 ?77

1265

1551 l.OC 1551

STATION

NUMBER

84 0.00 84

203 0.05 273

-297 0.10 327

-391 0.20 370

-411 0.30 382

-377 0.40 369

-306 0.50 395

-207 0.60 398

-85 0.70 400

146 0.65 410

41R 1.00 418

S T a T I O N NUMBER

3 -344 0.10 536 -525 0.20 547 -602 0.30 515 -6C4 0.40 476 -552 0.50 434 -462 OsLO 389 -340 0.70 343 -96 0.85 285 222 1.00 222

241 0.00 241

'8 17 0.05 484

STPTION

I4UYBER

4 -334 0.10 538 -535 0.20 537 -613 0.30 495 -625 0.40 445 -585 0.50 393 -507 0.60 337 -396 0.70 281 -173 0.85 206 128 1.00 128

257 0eOO 257

-173 0.05 492

STPTXON

14UYLER

5 -346 0.10 511 -530 0.20 513 -613 0.30 474 -623 0.40 428 -580 0.50 380 -501 0.60 328 -390 0.70 375 -165 0.85 206 134 1.00 134

232 0.00 232

-189 0.05 464

STPTION

HUMIER

6 -354 0.10 576 -567 0.20 566 -669 0.30 512 -692 0.40 449 -658 0.50 385 -584 0.60 316 -476 0.70 247 -250 0.85 153 56 1.00 56

285 0.00 285

-178 0.05 531

S T P T X O N f.dUYDEP

8 -289 0.10 565 -506 0.20 535 -621 0.30 463 -664 0.40 384 -655 0.50 303 -608 0.60 219 -530 0.70 133 -355 0.85 15 -107 1.00 -107

320 0.00 320

-116 0.05 535

STPTXOfl

NUYPEU

9 -153 0.10 346 -386 0.20 320 -362 0.30 370 -395 0.40 216 -398 0.50 160 -379 0.60 103 -342 0.70 45 -252 0.85 -37 1 ' 0 1.00 -110

313 0.00 313

-47 0.05 333

bO

I O U WPblT

TO

XTER9TE

WITH

ME?

I E S 14UYDEF: O F

ITEI?PTIOl4S

0:

IHCREMEHT

0: 0:

"
F'OI>lT

STPRTLNG

D E T P NPUGUT

BCNDXNO

STICCNCSSLS

(+1C7) PBOUT 20 .9

UINDMILL

I X C S RCCCRRCD TO

BCNDXNO

6x1s

cxxxxi1o7

68 .6

46 .7

10 .9

0.68

0.39

0.20

0.13

3.01

0.01

I N THC L C I D L A 0 D I R C C T I O M DCCLCCTION

0.000
ORDIR OC

0.002
LLPDINO

0.016

3.050

0.104
PBOVL

0.176

0.278

0.424
STRESS

0.601

0.790

I S B L N D I N G STRCSS

X T :</CHORDT

PCHOING

LCLOW H

STITLO14

NUMBER

2
'9 29 0.10 306 -382 0.20 354 -394 0.30 374 -354 0.40 388 '7 28 0.50 400 -175 0.60 410 ' 5 0 0.70 420 179 0.85 441 459 1.00 459

63 0.00 63

'1 21 0.05 230

S T a T I O H NUMBER

-?=5 0.00
225 277 0.00 277

-204 0.05 465

-362 0.10 515

-546 0.20 523

-625 0.30 488

-629 0.40 446

5 1 0.50 402

-494 0.60 354

-375 0.70 306

-137 0.85 243

176 1-00 176

sTITION

NUMBER

6 -374 0.10
582

'9 16 0.05 533

-586 0.20 578

'8 64 0.30 529

-701 0.40 472

-660 0.50 412

-577 0.60 348

-459 0.70 283

-217 0.85 197

107 1.00 107

STATION

NUMBER

7 -349 0.10 1443 -817 0.20 1244 -1184 0.30 963 -1408 0.40 668 -1529 0.50 368 -1576 -1561 0 ~ 6 0 0.70 -317 61 -1423 0.85 -690 -1140 1.00 -1140

1097 0.00 1097

164 0.05 1453

STATION

t.IUMBER

9 -167 0.10 364 -307 0.20 340 -384 0.30 290 -416 0.40 235 '1 46 0.50 179 -392 0.60 121 -349 0.70 63 -249 0.85 -19 -103 1.00 -103

217 0.00 217

-56 0.05 348

BTa

NAUGHT

4 (;1E7) 2.23
ABOUT WZ'NDMILL PXES PEFECPED TO BENDING A;:IS

WLI.IDII.IG ExI:.:>:-lE7

STICF1.IESSES

6.55

4.98

1.14

0.70

0.39

0.19

0.13

0.06

0.01

IEl

THE

FLPP

DXRECTIOH

DEFLECTION

3.000

0.016

0.075

0.205

0.419

3.734

1.205

1.887

2.740

3.681

I H THE LEaD DEFLECTION

LAG

DIRECTION

0.000
ORDER OF

0.002
READING

0.016
15 FENPING

0.052
STRESS

0.111
ABOVE
H.

0.190
:C/CHORD.

0.305

0.478
STRESS

0.688
WELOW

0.912
:: .

*EI.IDII.IG

S T A T I O N C4UMBER

STATIOII

I.IUMBLR

S T a T I O l - I NUMPER

6 -394 0.10 586 -604 0.20 589 -697 0.30 546 -708 0.40 494 -658 0.50 440 -567 0.60 381 -439 0.70 322 -180 0.83 244 162 1.00 162

266 0.00 266

-215 0.05 532

5T6TION

NUMBER

8 -333 0.13 587 -552 0.20 568 -661 0.30 506 -693 0.40 435 -669 0.50 362 -605 0.60 285 -507 0.70 308 -297 0.85 102 -8 1.00

309 0.00 309

-154 0.05 547

-@

END OF CROGRaM

A P P E N D I X FUNCTION INPUT

Function i n p u t reads t h e data necessary f o r a11 subsequent c a l c u l a t i ons The f u n c t i o n a l s o c a l l s t h e r o u t i n e s which compute t h e s e c t i o n s ' s t r u c t u r a l characteristics

The c a l c u l a t i o n s a c t u a l l y performed by t h e s u b r o u t i n e a r e l i m i t e d t o

incrementing i n d i c e s and t h e r e d u c t i o n of f i r s t moments t o c e n t r o i d s by d i v i s i o n by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l y weighted areas. Specifically,

X BAR

f ( ~ ( ~ , ~ ) +) X 1 E dA A

~ ( E ( X , ~ ) + E dA )Y ~ YBAR
.

A (E(x,Y) +El J

dA

MASSX

A ~ ( ~ dA ~ ) ~ , f ) A ~ o ( , ~ dA ~ P ( X , Y ) YdA

MASSY :P(X,Y) where dA

A4
El

dA

i s t h e i n t e g r a l of t h e f u n c t i o n area,

over a l l l o a d c a r r y i n g

E(x3.y)

i s t h e l o c a l bending modulus, i s an a r b i t r a r y reference modulus,

p(x,y)

i s t h e l o c a l density.

The function checks t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e c o r r e c t number o f transverse loads have been entered i n both t h e x and y d i r e c t i o n s . By t h e time t h e v e c t o r i a l i n p u t s are r e q u i r e d (1 i n e 28 and beyond) t h e v e c t o r CHORD has a l ready been established. This i s u s e f u l i f , f o r Thus, when t h e pro-

example, t h e bending a x i s i s scaled w i t h t h e chord.

gram asks f o r t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e bending a x i s , one need o n l y type l . 2 5 x CHORD' and a l l o f t h e bending w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o t h e q u a r t e r chord l i n e .
I f scaled any o t h e r way, t h i s can a l s o be entered as long as t h e scale has

t h e same shape as CHORD.

MASSX and XBAR have a l s o been established a t t h i s p o i n t .

They could

be e x p l o i t e d i n a s i m i l a r manner. (The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f the r o t o r as a c a n t i l e v e r beam supported a t t h e most inboard s t a t i o n i s accomplished a t t h i s p o i n t by t h e f u n c t i o n BEND. This w i l l be described e x p l i c i t l y i n Appendix H. be accomplished by m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s Function.) The v a r i a b l e CHORD, t h e values o f t h e chord l e n g t h f o r t h e various sections, i s assigned by operation on the f i r s t entered f i l e o f x coordinates. I f any data f i l e i s entered which does n o t c o n t a i n t h i s information, t h e values s t o r e d i n CHORD w i l l be i n c o r r e c t . t h e chord w i l l be adversely e f f e c t e d . Subsequent c a l c u l a t i o n s based on Any o t h e r beam type can

PRINCIPAL VARIABLES

A r e c o r d o f t h e Low pressure s k i n Y coordinates and bending modulus A record o f t h e h i g h pressure s k i n Y coordinates and bending modul us
X X BAR A Record o f t h e X coordinates associated w i t h t h e above

The X component of t h e modulus weighted c e n t r o i d f o r each station

Y BAR

The Y component o f t h e modulus weighted c e n t r i o d f o r each station

MASSX MASSY

The X components o f t h e mass c e n t r o i d l o c a t i o n s The Y components o f t h e mass c e n t r o i d l o c a t i o n s

PROGRAM LISTING

VIHF'UTCOIV vI~.IPUT;&I)JJ;MY~;~(M

Cll
C23 (33

"
'ea.rra.? H+O JJ+O 'ENTER THE UPPER 5111.1
THE ~ i u w s r aOF

n c ~ a ETS' S

C41

C51
C63 C73

'r

C1-GRDI1.lPTES

'

CB] (91
C103

M Y ~ + ~ U P C O ' C I i T E P T H E 51114 YMtXtU CHORDtr/MM +DPLTON LS1.1OX:'CNTEE VLoewwlcO +DPLTON TME

: CO-GPD1 E

C11]
C123

LOYCfi

SKIN

1 CO-ORD' '

CIS]
CIS]

CIS1
C161

'

"
L1: ' ' ''
'EPITCR TkE T YOTRIX
1

C171
C183

C19]
CZOI C213

w"lt0 ':< M P T r I : < 8 IMDE:C

M M ~

CZ23 M*tO ~ 2 3 3 naLrorc:rw C243 ~ 2 3 3 C243 C273

JJcJJ+l

+ ( J.J=>I)
+L1

/aLraN.r'

+(Jd=1,/LEllU:<
aiaaH'r:'F:EaD VECTOR PHI, THE REL. TWIST Ir-1 D E G P E E S '

izs]

~ 2 9 3 ~ 3 0 3

; . : s a ~ c : < a a ~ - a ~ ~ a 'veaR+.r.mar-afi:ca

~311 ~321
C333

~assnt~ass;<-uass ~~ss.rcrnss'fi~ass
PHIC(O-1eO)XO

C34] C351 C36]

C373

' ENTER

1.!OUGHT' PT1TION THE SFICIt-IG,

H L

*eTa+io-l80)rU lEIiTEC: T H E R P D I d L HcIJ 'LIiTER THE

(381

L O C P T I O N OF

B E l ~ I D I l ~ t O >:15' P SECYIOi.1 11.4 T:4E

~ 3 9 3 ;:sae:+z CAO] C::1: ' 4 H E P Y FORCE PER C413 8 M v c H WE!.ln 0

SPPHYI3E

:: .

:.IF.ECTIO~.I '

C423
C433 t443

+ ( < pBM't')=pCHORG)/C;!~
'INCORRECT SHEPR FORCE IWPUT, TI> lGPIH.l

CJs]
C46]
C473

+CXl C X 2 : '5HEPF.

I N THE

DIL.ECTIOli'

B M X c U SEND 0 +((pQMx)=pCHORD)/Cw3

C483
c493 CSOj

' INCORRECT
+c::=
C:'3:'ENTER IMBORDCO 'CONIl4G
'

SHGPR THE

X:IPUT,

TRY

PGPI1.l. INBOPPD sTaTI0t.1,~

RADIUS
8

O F T H E MOST

CSl] CS?] C531

C543 CSS3

PtiGLE?

~ * c t o - i e o ) x o

''

"
v

FUNCTION INPUT

IPn-YUD-LOII PRESSURE SURFPCE W T R I X

m-x tarark CORPLSPOXDING T J ABOVE A30 BELO'.

RELATIVE n I s T AT EACH STATION. I N 9EBREES

YL3.Cbll416H PRESSURE SURFAC: COORDllUTES

W-x COOROlNATE
RTRIX

BET&(

" i1SO!

COLLECTIVE PITCH
: DEGREES I

H-SPACING B M E E N W l A L STATIONS

INPUT (Continued)

s
BrSlYi BEIIDING MOMENTS DUE T O LOADS IN X DIRECTION (BWY H BEND )
+

BMYi+ BENDING MOMENTS DUE TG LOADS IN Y

MOST INBOARD STATION

0
RETURN

A P P E N D I X FUNCTlON INDEX

T h i s f u n c t i o n reads t h e data f i l e s MM and M 1 and d i r e c t s t h e i r i n t e M gration. The o n l y a r i t h m e t i c a c t i v i t y i s t h e a d d i t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s o f f u n c t i o n INTEG t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e v a r i a b l e s . The vector X c o n s i s t s o f t h e x coordinates, t h e l o c a l bending modulus, and t h e l o c a l d e n s i t y . The v e c t o r Y c o n s i s t s o f t h e thickness o f t h e

s e c t i o n being considered, and t h r e e y coordinates corresponding t o t h e above x coordinates. The f u n c t i o n INTEG i s then c a l l e d t o operate on x and y.

On t h e f i r s t pass, t h a t i s when t h e f i r s t d a t a f i l e i s being processed, t h e s i z e o f t h e v a r i a b l e s i n l i n e s 15 through 24 i s e s t a b l i s h e d . When o t h e r

data f i l e s a r e being processed, t h e newly i n t e g r a t e d q u a n t i t i e s a r e summed w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e elements o f t h e already e s t a b l i s h e d v e c t o r s . The unique

advantage of t h i s arrangement i s t h a t any s i z e d a t a f i l e s may be used i n t h e analysis. The a l g o r i t h m a u t o m a t i c a l l y adapts i t s e l f , as l o n g as every data

f i l e p e r t a i n s t o t h e same number o f s t a t i o n s . The program f i r s t moves across t h e columns, then down t h e rows. Because

t h e program always p i c k s o u t t h r e e p o i n t s a t a time, t h e r e a r e some r e q u f r e ments on t h e shape o f b1M and MM1. Since each row o f MM1 except t h e f i r s t

c o n t a i n s thickness and c o o r d i n a t e i n f o r m a t i o n , each row must have an even number of numerals included. entries. Each row o f I'rlM must have an odd number o f

MFll must have one more row than MM, because t h e f i r s t row o f MM

c o n t a i n s o n l y bending modulus and d e n s i t y i n f o r m a t i o n .

PRINCIPAL VARIABLES

J E(x'y)y
Ai 1

dAi: measured from chord l i n e

IYYOi

2 J E ( x s y ) x dAi measured from t h e l e a d i n g edge

Ai El

IXYO

E(x,y)xy dAj Ai

AREA

1 E(x,Y) dAi Ai El

YBAR

J E(X,Y)X dAi i El

D i m m & n & O X X X X - : D H M I & n & O X X X > : i D H H H ~ & X & > : 1 c ; Z X R E ' I ~ - - ~ D D D I * ~ j : . : ~ ' ~ m ~ m ~ ~ ~ r m z + xt r t n t ~m t ~ r D H ~ L O ~ ~ ~ D D ~ ~ : ~ H ~ L O ~ ~ ~ L mD ~ D u~ l ~ i r + m Z ~ ~ ~ Im In c n n n ~ o o a n m s c n n z ~ o o o z n + z r ~ m r r* m i z ix n n n n n n - . ul ix n x t t t t t t t a c t . ~ 1 I - * * + - I-4 z ?:3 x ~i ~ ~ ~ L L L L ~ mL t H x ~ . : i D n n ~ + ~ m W L t : I i \ DLLUUUUUU;: \ D x x D ~ V A < : . : > : + I-GI t x x I X D n u u t t f f f f X D f D D m D D m i + X n w I U L f t X r r i D H H O ~ 0 ~ u l 0 a 3 D O O O L E U X X D I * ~ ~ : . : ~ ~ m n c - - - . . . - - - L ~t D D ~ D D ~ - . + L D O < > : X X X * H H H X m ~ ~ e m c n q n ~ o o D Z u D O O D I - t ~ w o o m u l m n n n n n n t n a n L q n D c V o \ ~ I aI a m O ' X L L L L L L H gnnuuuuuu : : D O 0 i B L L + + + + + + : . : n E E :.: < I ~ u u X X X @ H H O D i l H D + + D O O D I - t . J n A X 3 nnncn~ncn L m 5 L I I E E R U D U G ~4 4 1 I -

\ +

-I++

+ f
D

:: .

i .

n -: ; . : rn

FUNCTION INDEX

L_r
F-J + 1

INDEX (Continued)

A P P E N D I X FllNCTrON TNTEG

Function INTEG performs summations o f t h e s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s t o approximate t h e i n t e g r a l s d e t a i l e d i n Appendix E.

Ift h e s p e c i f i e d t h i c k n e s s f o r t h e summation i s zero, t h e l o g i c assumes

t h a t the specified section i s solid. I n t h i s case, most o f t h e i n t e g r a b l e Other-

s e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s aretcomputed d i r e c t l y ( l i n e s 17 through 29). wise, t h e s e c t i o n i s broken up i n t o many r e c t a n g l e s and t h e c e n t r o i d coordinates o f these r e c t a n g l e s used.

The i n p u t r e q u i r e s t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h r e e p o i n t s on t h e surface. A parabola i s f i t through these p o i n t s , and evenly spaced i n t e r v a l s a r e pros c r i b e d o n t o t h a t curve. Thus, we g e t t e n i n t e r v a l s evenly spaced between The c e n t r o i d a l x c o o r d i n a t e s a r e then The values o f y associated w i t h these

t h e l a r g e s t and s m a l l e s t v a l u e o f x. determined f o r each o f t h e i n t e r v a l s .

x values a r e then determined.

I f t h e s e c t i o n i s s o l i d , t h e i n c l u d e d s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s a r e then determined.

I f t h e section i s n o t s o l i d , then the projected thickness i s

s u b t r a c t e d from t h e p r e v i o u s value of y and t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s between these values of y a r e found. This establishes t h e coordinates o f t h e c e n t r o i d This i n f o r m a t i o n i s then operated on i n l i n e s

of t h e s e c t i o n considered.

41 through 53 t o e s t a b l i s h t h e summation o f i n t e r e s t .

PRINCIPAL VARIABLES

RO H

density 1ocal bendi ng modu 1us

E
X

x components o f selected p o i n t s
y components o f selected p o i n t s
c o e f f i c i e n t s o f t h e best f i t parabola coo + colx

Y
co

+ co2x2

= y

MD T O WY

i '1

--i yi
i 5x.

Ai

MD T O WX

A A.

MS A

RO T H WX

pi

X i

A Ai

i
RO T H WY

C pi

Y i A Ai

AREA1

L A Ai i

where

density l o c a l bendingmodulus small s e c t i o n of a r e a

E AA

1 =

107

PROGRAM L I S T I N G

VI,.(TEGCC]V V:.: I 1 4 T E G 1';F:HO;E;

'

T;CO;THET THE

iC I i ' f l

;CICI;Il:.:;T*'r';::B;

'1'F;I.IEW THE OF I:.:'r', THE CI1.111

THIS

R O U T I t . I E ZnOES

PIECEWISE

SUMMCITION O F

' f i V n R I O U S P R O P E R T I E S OF T H E CROSS S E C T I O H 5 . HOST ~ R U n F l T I T I E SS H O U L a P B R E C I D l L I I D E I . ( T X F I C I E L E ,

~ 1 1 ,12, I 3 HCIVE T O n I:CX R E S F ' E C - T V E L Y .

RHOt:-:[5] EtXC4J TtfC43 EtE-EF:EF

DO

WITH

THE

SECTIO14'S

S'r"r',

:<t>:c \ 3 3

I't','C I 3 3 COtr>< F I T Y ::+:.:[i]+(D:1+2)+( YtCOCl

( \ 1 0 ) - 1 ) x D ~ : c o . 1xx'[3-J-:cC1]

~+(coC~~x~:)+coI:33X~:*2

4 ( T Z O ) /HECK

I ~ + x ~ + + / E xI.X~XXO.~~X:.:*:
1 2 t I ~ + + / E x O . ~ x ~ X x X x T * ~ 13tTJ++/Ex(Dxs3)xT*3

FCI5EltBCISE1++/Exn:~:x'r' M o ~ W T ~ r ~ t M O r ~ W T ~ r ~ + + / E x n : C x 1 ' .* 2 5 O
MODWTX+MOrhWT%++/ExD:CxY
'

xi.:

Mi\StMAS++/E:Cx~xeHO
HHOIUTS+EHOWT:~:++/F:HOXXXL~~<~'~~

RHOWTYtRHOWT'r'++/RHOxro:CxO.
aREnltaREal++/nxx

5xY*2

+lo00
HECK:THET+-30CO~~J+~xCO~~]x:~:
'1'1t'r'-0 . S x ( xYC:] )=XYC~I
) xT+20THET

ant (x'r.1
rn'i+(

rmt(aax.r~1)+0.5x~x~aa ( c o ~ ~ l x ~ : - n : ~ + ~ ) + c :o - u : < + ~ ) 2 ) - ( ~ 0 [ 2 ] x : c + n : ~ : + 2 ) + c o f ( c~ ~ j x n 33 (LIX*~)+D~*~)*O.S

n+rx(

x(~+nxt2)*2

+ ( l o = ~ + / n a ) / w o ~ ~ a t ( a a x a ) + ( ~ a a ) x ln:.:x.r WOEK:n THE BUTTER

>:me:.:
I1+r1++/Exax:~:a*~

~ ~ + ~ ~ + + / E x ~ x ~ * x ~ B
X3+13++/EXaX'?E*2 masEltBasE1++/Exa MODWTY+MODWTT++/EX~T~BXA MOL~WT:~~MO~WTX++/EX:~'EXCI M ~ S C M A S C R H O +/Q X RHOWT>~tF:HOWTX++/RHOX>:BXG

RHOWTYtRHOWTY++/EHOxYBXa
aREaltaREal++/a

FUNCTION

INTEG

I NTEG Page 2

+ I MODWTY MODUTY I

1 RHO x
i

Ai

0
RETUR

APPENDIX G FUNCTION DEF F u n c t i o n DEF solves t h e Equation o f bending g i v e n i n Chapter 3.

It

u t i l i z e s a f o u r t h o r d e r Runge-Kutta method f o r t h e s o l u t i o n (Chapter 4 ) . I t s operation i s straightforward. I n t e g r a t i o n begins a t t h e most i n b o a r d The d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e most i n b o a r d

s t a t i o n and proceeds toward t h e t i p .

s t a t i o n i s assumed t o be zero i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s . The i n i t i a l s l o p e i s assigned t h e v a l u e zero. T h i s must be changed t o

some o t h e r value i f some r o t o r s u p p o r t o t h e r t h a n a c a n t i l e v e r i s t o be considered.

PRINCIPAL VARIABLES

s t a t i o n spacing number o f s t a t i o n s slope a record o f slope as a f u n c t i o n o f radius

N
F

FF

RET d e f 1e c t ion
C the q u a n t i t y being integrated, f o r example

PROGRAM LISTING
VDEFCa]V VIN DEF CjHjNjFjFFjF:ET;ITjK;K2;K3jK4;Li;L2;L3;L4 H+II.(Ci] rt+1t-t~2] F+FF+O F;:ET+O IT+i LO:K+~,~XCCIT]+CCIT+~] Ki+HxKx(i+Fh2)hi,5 Li+HxF L~+HxEB+F+K~+~ K2+HXKX(i+EE*2)fii,5 L3+HxPP+F+U2-2 K ~ + H x K x ( ~ + P B * ~ ) * ~ , ~ Lq+HxPP+F+K3 KqtHxKx(i+PB*2)*i,5 FF+FFIF+(+6)~Ki+K4+2XK2+K3

RET+RETY(-i+RET)+(+6)xLi+L4+2xL2+L3
+(IT=N-i)/Lii IT+IT+i F+-i+FF +LO LI 1 :' DEFLECT1Ot.t '

8
I

3tRET
t

FUNCTION

DEF

R P D VECTOR I1 :

RSD

VECTOR H

c
X I - H I < . (I + F ~ ) ~ . ~
Rtl

[REI. (LAST ErrmY IN

I r-J
IT- IT
1
iUST ELE!EIi?

OF FF

APPENDIX H MINOR ROUTINES Functi on Bend Function Bend computes bending moments due t o t h e loads F according t o t h e spacing d e f i n e d by H. For p o s i t i v e H and p o s i t i v e Care must

F t h e computer bending moments w i l l a1 1 be p o s i t i v e .

t h e r e f o r e be taken t h a t t h e s i g n o f t h e bending moments thus c a l c u l a t e d are a d j u s t e d c o r r e c t l y i n t h e c a l l i n g program. Function RESET RESET assigns v a r i a b l e t y p e (empty v e c t o r ) t o t h e l i s t e d vectors.
It a l s o assigns i n i t i a l values t o t h e l i s t e d s c a l a r s .

Function FOOL 1 FOOL 1 assigns v a r i a b l e t y p e t o t h e l i s t e d vectors and i n i t i a l values t o t h e 1 i s t e d s c a l a r s .

PROGRAlll LISTING

vBEl.lD[n] v v M + H B E N D F;I;K

C11 C21 C31 141 CSl C61 171 C81

MeF I+1 NEW:K+I+(II+(~F)-I)-~ M[I]+HX+/(O,S+K-I)XF[K] +(I=pF)/L I+X+I +NEW L:W+M?O

vRESET[O]v VRESET

111

C21
C31

MODWT:.:+MOEIWTP+I ~ + I ~ + I ~ + P & S E 1 + & R E A 1 + 0 RHOWTX+RHOWTV+WAS+O

Ki-2

C41 CSI
w

d+d+1 Ill+I22+X33+0

' I

FUNCTION BEND
4

READ DISCRETE LOAD

PATTERN AND SPACING BEnliEEN LOADS

r-l
I
INITIALIZE

ASSIGN MEMORY SPACE

+
COMPUTE BENDING STAT ION MOMENTS AT EACH ASSIGN 0 AT FREE END RETURN

7 ( 1

FUNCTION FOOL 1
SPACE FOR

FUNCTION RESET

I
ASSIGN I N I T I A L VALUE TO A P P L I CABLE VARIABLES

VARIABLES
I

7
RETUR

APPENDIX I PROGRAM FREQ FREQ c a l c u l a t e s t h e n a t u r a l frequencies and mode shdpes o f a f r e e l y v i b r a t i n g beam. The beam considered may be o f completely a r b i t r a r y con-

s t r u c t i o n , m a t e r i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , t w i s t and t a p e r so l o n g as coup1 i n g between f l e x u r a l and any o t h e r n o n - f l e x u r a l v i b r a t o r y modes may be neg1ected

.
The p e r t i -

FREQ i s w r i t t e n such t h a t t h e r e q u i r e d i n p u t t o t h e program i s s u p p l i e d d u r i n g t h e normal execution o f t h e program MOMENTS.

nent constants a r e c a l c u l a t e d by MOMENTS and s t o r e d i n g l o b a l memory. To execute FREQ you need o n l y t y p e t h e name. FREQ uses t h e Rayleigh R i t z method o f assumed s o l u t i o n t o f i n d t h e frequencies and mode shapes. no c o n s t r a i n t s . The beam i s f i r s t allowed d e f l e c t i o n s w i t h

The method converges t o t h e fundamental.

The n e x t o p e r a t i o n i s t o assume a mode shape which i s t h e n e g a t i v e transpose of t h e fundamental mode shape. T h i s assumed mode shape i s 90"

o u t o f phase w i t h t h e fundamental mode shape a t each r a d i a l s t a t i o n . The i n e r t i a l l o a d due t o t h i s assumed mode shape i s determined. The

d e f l e c t i o n s , mode shape, and frequency due t o t h i s i n e r t i a l l o a d a r e computed and reported. (The f u n c t i o n DOG i s used t o compute t h e d e f l e c t i o n s . ) Higher modes a r e now sought. The f u n c t i o n ORTHOG i s used t o sub-

t r a c t t h e i n f l u e n c e of lower modes on t h e assumed s o l u t i o n by Schmitt Orthogonal i z a t i o n . When appl i e d i t e r a t i v e l y , t h e assumed s o l u t i o n conOnce convergence has been noted,

verges on t h e n e x t h i g h e r mode shape.

t h e frequency i s computed, and t h e frequency and mode shape are p r i n t e d . Once again t h e negative transpose o f t h e mode shape i s used t o compute a y e t h i g h e r mode. The process i s t h e same as described above. The program w i l l f i n d

The program as p r e s e n t l y w r i t t e n now stops.

a r b r i t r a r i l y h i g h e r modes (up t o t h e l i m i t imposed by the s i z e o f t h e d a t a entered) i f t h e 2 i n l i n e 77 i s changed t o some a r b i t r a r y l a r g e r integer. ( I n a t e s t , a u n i f o r m beam d e f i n e d by 11 s t a t i o n s was entered.

The modes p r e d i c t e d agreed w i t h t h e exact r e s u l t up t o t h e t h i r d mode. Above t h a t agreement was p r o g r e s s i v e l y worse. )

I f t h e operations on t h e lower modes by ORTHOG do n o t converge t o

a s i n g l e assumed mode a f t e r 10 i t e r a t i o n s , a d i f f e r e n t scheme i s used. F i r s t , a node i s assumed a t t h e s i x t h s t a t i o n . t o be s t a t i o n 1 . ) (The support i s d e f i n e d

A s i n e f u n c t i o n having a node a t t h e support and a t

The fundamental mode shape i s m u l t i The f r e -

t h e assumed mode i s established.

p l i e d by t h e imposed s i n e .

This becomes t h e assumed s o l u t i o n .

quency i s computed on t h i s basis.

Next, a node i s assumed a t t h e f r e e Next, a node i s assumed The same operations a r e

end and t h e same operations are c a r r i e d out. halfway between s t a t i o n s i x and the f r e e end. c a r r i e d o u t again.

These t h r e e steps a r e t h e f i r s t i n a b i s e c t i o n search r o u t i ~ e . The search seeks t h e node p o s i t i o n and frequency corresponding t o a f r e quency maximum. (This i s t h e same i n i n t e n t as t h e Schmitt Orthogonal i-

z a t i o n of an assumed s o l u t i o n w i t h j u s t t h e fundamental ) maximum corresponds t o a w e l l d e f i n e d spanwise node.

This frequency

The frequency and

mode shape so determined a r e r e p o r t e d and t h e program stops.

This program can be used f o r any boundary c o n d i t i o n s once s u i t a b l e m o d i f i c a t i o n s have been made t o f u n c t i o n s BEND and DEFl (DEF1 i s l o g i -

c a l l y i d e n t i c a l t o DEF, Appendix G ) , such t h a t they r e f l e c t t h e bending moments and i n i t i a l slope due t o t h e changed boundary c o n d i t i o n s . The deflected mode shapes and moments o f i n e r t i a a r e a l l r e f e r r e d t o t h e most r e c e n t p i t c h s e t t i n g i n MOMENTS.

PRINCIPAL VARIABLES

MASS
IXXi

L i n e a l weight d e n s i t y , 1b s / i n . Modulus weighted nioment o f i n e r t i a Modulus weighted moment o f i n e r t i a Modulus weighted moment o f i n e r t i a

IYY

IXY
ACCX ACCY MAS

X components o f lower mode shapes Y components o f lower mode shapes

MASS o f r a d i a l segments
X component o f assumed mode shape

PHIY

Y component o f assumed mode shape

X component o f i n e r t i a l l o a d

Y component of i n e r t i a l l o a d

Ampl it u d e (1 ines 25-80) Node p o s i t i o n (1 i n e s 81 on) Ampl itude ( 1 i n e s 81 on) C a l c u l a t e d mode shape, x C a l c u l a t e d mode shape, x c a l c u l a t e d mode shape, y C a l c u l a t e d mode shape, y C a l c u l a t e d mode shape, x C a l c u l a t e d mode shape, y C i r c u l a r frequency

Previous node position Previous node position Previous circular frequency Previous circular frequency Deflection in the +x direction Deflection in the +y direction

PROGRAM

LISTING

VFREnCO]V

v~REa;aCc~:;nCc'~'-F~~'~P-r';FHI:-:;FHI'r';PHI::~;FHIr~;al;L:WS;II~l;FSI; a : F . ~ l ' r & ; k a 5 ; ~ : 7 .I, I;FH;:.:

C13 C I I
C31 C41 C51

'INFUT 'Mass
a

RECORF'

*;A
';6

3r~ass
2+I'r'Y I+I:.:'r'

I : ' . 2+1:<:< ! :; 6 !

I
Y
a b4
0 0 # ,

' ;6

' i 6 3-n

COUI<T+0 acc::+accy+ INcO P::+PT+.( (j=x::;.:)-1)r1 H1+H*pI:<x r+t -l+punss

0 ,p

: . I

r '

M P S + ( M ~ ~ ~ C I ] + M ~ S ~ C I + ~ I ) - ~
uasc~auas-386.4

DOG

~~~~~~~~~~~1
PHI'r'+FHI::

aa: + ( XI+=O)
OPTHOG P:c+uasx

,,'aan

(PHI:.:CI']+PHI;:CI+1]

)-2

F ' r ' c M a s x ( V H I ' I ' C I J C F ' H I ' I ~ ~ T + ~)-,7 ] ?JOG acr/((us3)+Vk?)r0.5 PHI::+U-n PH1'reV;a
OPTPOG

COu1~IT+.C'3UI~I T + 1 +(COUI.ITP~~ j Ana:F!:+Ma5x

lac

(FHI;,[I]+PHX;i[I+1]

)-2

F ~ r e ~ a s x ( F ~ I r ~ I ] + i H IK ' r] ) - Z [ +L DOG ol+r,,( PHI> !us2 )+v12) s0.5 PHr:.:l+usa!

lcvial
(PHI!:-FHIXl! ): !f

EMS+(+/

f0.5
1'1) 1 2 )

FMSCRMS+<+~'(FHI'I-FHI + ( ~ ~ 5 < 0 . 0 0 1 ) / ~ B FHII'.:+PHI:.:~ PHI'r+PHIr'l

t0.5

a* :acc::eccc::,r.n1::1
accl'cacC~r',rHI'l'1 'OMEGP

+a0

'

FHI:int(PHI:<[T]+PHI:.:[I+1] )-_7 PHI::~c(~HI::~[I]+FHI:.:~[X ti] )-2 P H I ' I ' ~ + ( P H I ~ ' ~ I ] + F ' H I ' ~ ' ~ -2 ~ ] )I +

PHIY1+(CHIY1~I]tFHI'I1~I+l])i~ 6 ,7+Bt( ( + / M ~ S ~ ( F H I ~ ~ : ~ ~ F ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ ) + ( F . I ~ I ~ ~ ' ~ ~ F H I ~ I ' ~ ) ) - ~ ~ ~ + / M ~ S ~ ( P W I

'FFEOENCY, 'MODE ' U ' V
0 ,

HERTZ

';6

'70-02

SHaFE' ?+PHI:.! 2tPHI'r

';&

' ;6

,, ,,
FHI:~:CI+PHI'I1 .-ux'rn+-l
XFHI;.:~

P>:tMasxPHI:.:n PYcM~SXPHII~ DOG

--r/(r/tu),r/~v PHIX8eU;a Pnr Y E L V + O

PHIXlc(FHI:t8CI]+FHIi:6CI+1]);~

PHITle(PHIY8cI]+PHI>SCI+1])-~

'OMEGA ' ;6 Z+Bc( ( + / M ~ S X ( F H I : - : ~ X P H I : : P ) + ( F ' H I ' I ~ X F . H I I)' + ) ~ ~ 'PREL1EEICY9 HERTZ 1 ;6 2 + e i o 2

'MODE
SH9PE

x + / M O S X ( P H I : : ~ ~ ~ ) + P H I 10.g* ~ ) ' ~ ~

'

' u ';A
-.

?+rwrxa

C743 '' C751 ' ' C763 INcII.1+1 C773 +(1*=2)/1000 C783 PHI:.:cxrHI'r~c(pu)p~ ~ 7 9 1 +aa CO E 3 aC:'NO CONVERGENCE O F ORTHOGONOL V E C T O R S ' C811 a4-6 C821 INcl c e j ] ama:n sEnrcn FOR PRLQUE~ICY C84] wr:'cacc>:Ci: j x l o e ( I H ~ C ~ J)+a Cd5] rnIYcacc'rCl;]xlos(~W~~~])+a ~ 8 . 5 3 a a a a c r / ( (PHI:.:I:)+PHI~L~) 10.5 ~ 8 7 3 rnr::crn~u+aaaa r.n~rc~nx'r'.+aaaa ~ 8 1 3 P:.:cMasx (PHI:.:c~]+PHIZ:CI+~~ )-2 ~901 ~ ~ ~ ~ ( ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ I ~ + P H I Y ~ I + ~ ] ) x M ~ ~ . + ~ C911 DOG C923 aaaacr/((u*?)+vr?)*0.g ~ 9 3 3 rur::lcu+aaaa C943 P II H' lev-aaaa C95] F~I~:~~(CHI~~CI]+FUI:<~CI+~])C~ C963 PHI::c(PHI:ECI]+F~HI:<CI+~J);~ ~9.71 r n r ~ r l c ( p w x . r ~ ~ C r ] + p n x ~ r 1 [r+lj);2 C983 PUIYc(PHITC:]+F H I I C l + l ] ) t 2 ~ 9 9 3 o c i ( + / ~ ~ ~ x ( P ~ I : ~ ~ x ~ ~ I ~ ) + P H) I -. a ~ x P ~ I + / u a s ~ ( r ~ ~ : . : l ~ ~ ) + ~ h r ~ r ~ ~ ~ ) I a a ~ x . ~ ~ ,0.5 C1003 INerN+: C1013 +iIPt>?)/aBW ClO23 a l e ' ~ 1 0 3 3 acrr:<x C1043 D l & & ~1053 +am ~ 1 3 6 3a r a : + ( r n ) 3 ) / a r c C1033 a 2 ~ a C1083 ~3-r CIWI nco.sxal+a CIIOI +am ~ 1 1 1 1a e c : + ( ( 1 i l D - * i ) A o . i ~ 1 ~ - ~ l ) / ~ ~ ~ ~ C1123 +((ax62)taxa~)/aur C1131 a l e s ~ 1 1 4 3 a14-a C~ISI aco.sxa2+a ~ 1 1 5 3 +-0 ~ 1 1 7 3 a=:P:ca C1183 aa : e ~ 1 1 9 1 aco.5xal+a ~1203 ~ 1 2 1 3arD:'oueoa 'ja [122] 'HERTZ ';Pioz lU ' $ 6 :+CUII: C124] 'V ' ;5 2+PHI'V v

PROGRAM FREQ Page 1

PROGRAM

FREQ

CALCULATE DEFLECTIONS D U E T 0 PRESUMED LOAD COUNT

+

OMPUTEORTHOGONA ECTORS TO LOWER ODESAND SUBTRAC

COMPUTE RESULTANT MODE SHAPES

COMPUTE I N E R T I A L LOAD

ACCX, ACCY ASSIGNED SPACE I N MEMORY

I N I T I A L LOAD ASSIGNED 1 EVERYWHERE COMPUTE I N ERT I AL LOADS

COMPUTE DEFLECTIONS DUE TO I N E R T I A L LOADS

I
I

COMPUTE MODE

l~l+ H,

length

1
MASS DISTRIBUTION

DEFLECTIONS L;R/ , :Y LOAD,

'

1
NO

SLIBTRACT ORTHOGONAL VECTORS

i
0

1
f

AMPLITUDE COUNT=10

PROGRAM FREQ Page 2

COMPUTE MODE

CCX ASSIGNED X ORTION OF MODE L H A r

DEFLECTIONS DUE TO I N E R T I A L LOADS

COMPUTE LENGTH j OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CURRENT AND LAST PREVIOUS MODE SHAPE

/
I
COMPUTE MODAL ENTERS OF SPANWISE SEGMENTS

CALCULATE AND PRINT FREQUENCY

MODE SHAPES

CALCULATE AND PRINT MODE SHAPE

OLD MODE SHAPE ASSIGNED CURREN MODE SHAPE

FREQUENCY

COMPUTE NEGATIVE TRANSPOSE OF MODE SHAPES

/'

ASSUMED MODE ASSIGNEDALL I's

1
I

CALCULATE I N E R T I A L L O A D DUE TO NEGATIVE J TRANSPOSE

PROGRAM FREQ Page 3

TI I
ASSUME NODE CALCULATE SHAPE

CALCULATE INERTIAL

I /
END OF BEAM

A2+TI P POSITION

CALCULATE DEFLECTION DUE TO

COMPllTED FREQUENCY

CALCULATE AMPLITUDE

I I
i
FREQUENCY

AtNEW NODE

( A 1 +A2); 2

CALCULATE NODAL COORDINATES AT

I

CALCULATE FREQUENCY AND STORE AS B

PROGRAM FREQ Page 4

FREQUENCY

COMPUTED FREQUENCY

COMPUTED FREQUENCY

MODE SHAPE

NODE P O S I T I O N

NODE P O S I T I O N

POSITION

POSITION

TERMINAL SESSION

FREn INPUT
RECORD

Mass I:< ,:
ITy
*'<Y

0.563 0.343 0.267 0.225 0.194 0.151 0.130 0,082 0.057 0.030 6.55 4.98 2 . 2 3 1.14 0.70 0.39 0.19 0.13 0.06 0.01 11*4213.12 9.67 5.37 3.13 1.51 0.88 0.44 0.27 0115 4.76 ' . 3 57 -3.27 -1.38 -0.63 -0.25 -0.28 -0.07 -0.05 -0.02 19.500

OMEGA

26.80 FREOEI4CY H E R T Z 4.26 MODE SHaPE u 0.00 0.00 ' . 1 O0 -0.02 -0.05 -0.08 ' . 2 01 -0.17 -0.23 -0.30 V 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.07 0.35 0.25 0.38 0.55 0.75 0.96

OHEGa 63.07 FREOENCI, H E R T Z

MODE S H n F E U 0.00 0.01
V

10.04 0.05 0.02 0.11 0.03 0.19 0.05 0.30 0.08 0.43 0.13 0.60 0.19 0.79 0.26 1.00 0.34

0.00

0.01

iiO

CONVEHGEl.ICE

OF

ORTHOGOtiAL

VECTORS

OMEGA HERTZ
U
V

89.76 14-29 0.00 -0.01 -0.02 -0.05 -0.08 -0.09 -0.05 0.05 0.20 0.00 0.02 0.08 0.17 0.25 0.27 0.16-0.15-0.66

APPENDIX J FUNCTION D G O D G reads t h e r a d i a l spacing o f s t a t i o n s , t h e loads i n two planes O and t h e s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s t o compute t h e d e f l e c t i o n s i n two planes. The values o f d e f l e c t i o n a r e r e t u r n e d t o t h e c a l l i n g program. The program uses t h e f u n c t i o n DEF1. i d e n t i c a l t o DEF (Appendix G). This function i s l o g i c a l l y

PRINCIPAL VARIABLES

MX MY

Bending moment about x axis Bending moment about y axis

C i , CZi 1
u

, C3i

Bending constants Deflection i n x direction Deflection in y direction

PROGRAM LISTING

FUNCTION DOG

READ H, H1 , Px,
pyy

IXXi

I Y1 J . Y

COMPUTE BENDING MOMENTS

COMPUTE BENDING CONSTANTS

1
COMPUTE DEFLECTIONS

(;>
RETURN

APPENDIX K FUNCTIO ORTHOG N ORTHOG accomplishes t h e Schmitt O r t h o g o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e c u r r e n t assumed mode shape w i t h p r e v i o u s l y determined (lower) modes. The func-

t i o n r e q u i r e s o n l y t h e mass d i s t r i b u t i o n , assumed mode shape and p a s t mode shapes f o r i n p u t . (The procedure i s explained i n Chapter IV.)

Each o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y determined mode shapes i s represented by one l i n e i n b o t h ACCX and ACCY. The program f i r s t repeats t h e assumed

mode shape row by row u n t i l t h e r e i s one row o f t h e c u r r e n t mode shape s t o r e d i n memory f o r each p r e v i o u s l y determined mode. The coordinates

are then compressed i n t o t h e modal coordinates o f t h e s e c t i o n mid-spans. The m a t r i c e s a r e then operated on row by row t o f i n d the p a r t i c i p a t i o n f a c t o r ( s ) f o r each mode. The p a r t i c i p a t i o n f a c t o r s a r e then mu1 ti p l i e d and t h e i n f l u e n c e o f each mode subThe m o d i f i e d

i n t o t h e r e s p e c t i v e mode shapes

mode shape. t r a c t e d s t a t i o n by s t a t i o n from t h e ass~~med

assumed mode shape i s then r e t u r n e d t o t h e c a l l i n g program.

PRINCI PAL VARIABLES

ACCXi ACCY

, , j

Accumulated x components o f mode shapes Accumulated y components of mode shapes M a t r i x w i t h t h e same shape as ACCX f i l l e d w i t h assumed mode components ( 1 i n e s 5-1 5 ) As above f o r y components Midspan components from ACCX Midspan components from ACCY Mass per segment corresponding t o AC1 o r AC2 Midspan c o o r d i n a t e s from F1 Midspan c o o r d i n a t e s from F2
X components ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n f a c t o r Y components' p a r t i c i p a t i o n f a c t o r

F1i ,j

F2i, j
ACl ACZi

,j

M1i ,j
PHIXXi ,j PHIYY PSIXi PSIY

M a t r i x o f x lower mode coordinates times t h e i r respective p a r t i c i p a t i o n factors As above f o r y Assumed mode shape, x component Assumed mode shape, y component

PROGRAM LISTING

VORTHOG[D]v

V ~ R T H O G ~ F H I > ~ ~ C ~ P H I T Y ~ M ~ ; L I C ~ ~ L I C ~ ~ I I ~ F ~ ~ F ~ ~ F ~ ~ F S I ~ ~ : ~ ~ S I ~
n THIS SUBROUTINE LICCOMPLISHES SHLIFE SCHMITT ORTHOGOEIYLIZLITION n O F T H E P R E S U M E D MODE WITH ALL PAST

Mom6 SHLIF.ES,
THE

SEE PROCE-

nbx_GEP, B ~ B Y ~ ~ Q ~ C ) ! : - b ~ O R~ LII.1 E:CPL11.lLITIOI~1 O F FN ~ ~ E ~ nDURE, BYE FOR NOW, F i t P U I : < : C t (pPCC:.:) pPHI:< F ~ ~ P U I Y( p a c c s ) p ~ ~ r ~ Y ~ FHI:tX+(PHIX:C[; I]+PWI:C:.:C; I+l])+Z F H I Y ' f t ( F H 1 Y Y C ; I]+PHI'r"r'C;

I+l])i2

aclt(accs~;r~+accx~;1+13)+2
~ C ~ + ( ~ ~ ~ Y ~ ; I I + ~ ~ C Y C ; I + ~ I ) + ~ u i t ( r a c 1 )puass
~ ~ I ~ ~ ( + / M ~ x ~ ~ ~ x F ~ I ~ ~ : ) - + / M ~ x L I c ~ R ~
P s I Y ~ ( + / M ~ x ~ ~ ~ x P H I Y ~ ) - + / M ~ x ~ C ~ R ~

F ~ ~ L I C C : < ~ Q ( ~ @ L I C C X ) ~ P S ~ X ~ 2 t a c c r x ~ ( p ~ a )c c S I Y ~P r PHI:C+PHIX-++F1 PHIYtPHIY-+#Fz

0

FUNCTION

ORTHOG

ra
ESTABLISH MATRICES OF I D E N T I C A L ROWS 0 THE CURRENT MODE SHAPEHAVINGTHESAM S I Z E AS THE MODE SHAPES I N MEMORY F I N D RADIAL SECTION MIDSPAN MODE SHAPE CO-ORDINATES

READ PRESENT ASSUMED MODE SHAPE AND A L L LOWER NODE SHAPES, MASSi

+
COMPUTE PARTICIPATION FACTORS OF LOWER MODES

MULTIPLY EACH

SUBTRACT (TERM BY TERM) FROM ASSUMED MODE SHAPE

0
RETURN

APPENDIX L
DATA FILES

The data f i l e s a l l have a number of we1 1 defined characteristics. The y matrices contain the following information:
1)

local bending modulus ( i n the [1;1] position) local weight density ( i n the [I ;2] position)

2)

3) the material thickness a t each s t a t i o n ( i n the f i r s t position of each row)

4)

the extreme co-ordinate r e l a t i v e t o the chord ( s t a r t i n g a t the second column of each row from the second row down)

The x matrix contains one entry for each of the y co-ordinates in the corresponding y matrix and nothing else. The y matrix thus has one

more row and one more column than the x matrix. The thickness l i s t e d in the f i r s t column of the y matrix i s the minimum distance from one side of the skin t o the other. The integrating

routines which operate on these data f i l e s automatically correct f o r the curvature of the skin r e l a t i v e t o the section axes. I f the l i s t e d thick-

ness i s zero, the integrating routines assume t h a t the considered section

i s solid.

For example, consider the following f i l e s : and NEWF34X.

NEWFl and N W 3 are y matrices. E F

NEWF1, NEWF12X, NEWF3, W W 1X and NEWF34X a r e E F2 N W 3 refers t o the E F They

x matrices.
spar.

N W l refers t o the exterior skin. E F

They both refer t o the low pressure surface of the stations.

both have an even number of columns. of data points.

(The routines require an odd number

Adding the thickness, i n the f i r s t colur~in, the total 123

number o f columns becomes even.)

They both have t h e same number o f rows

(one p e r s t a t i o n p l u s t h e bending and d e n s i t y i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e f i r s t row)

.
The x m a t r i c e s have o n l y one row p e r s t a t i o n . The number of c o l The number o f columns w i l l always be one l e s s

umns w i l l always be odd.

t h a n t h e number o f columns i n t h e y m a t r i x , t h e same f o r t h e number o f rows. As w r i t t e n , NEWF1 , NEWF2, and NEWF12X r e f e r t o t h e e x t e r i o r s k i n . NEWF3, NEWF4, NEWF34X r e f e r t o t h e spar. t h e spar web. NEWF5, NEWF6, NEWF56X r e f e r t o

NEWF7, NEWF8, NEWF78X r e f e r t o t h e t r a i l i n g edge bond.

I f any o t h e r d a t a were entered, f o r example, a concentrated mass, o t h e r data f i l e s c o u l d be developed. For example, a y m a t r i x f i l l e d
I f any row c o n t a i n e d

w i t h zeros would c o n t r i b u t e n o t h i n g t o t h e t o t a l .

non-zero elements, i t s p r o p e r t i e s would be i n t e g r a t e d as a lumped parameter. (However, i t would be much more c o n s e r v a t i v e o f computer t i m e

i f such lumped parameters were i n t r o d u c e d subsequent t o i n t e g r a t i o n as

an a d d i t i o n t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e element of some v e c t o r . (and has been) done by i n t e r r u p t i n g f u n c t i o n INPUT. 1

T h i s c o u l d be

NEWPHI c o n t a i n s t h e t w i s t i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e blade design. i s one e n t r y f o r each s t a t i o n .

There

The r e f e r e n c e p o i n t f o r B , t h e c o l l e c The t i p has been used here. This

t i v e p i t c h setting, i s arbitrary.

A l l of t h e above i n f o r m a t i o n i s s t o r e d i n g l o b a l memory. makes t h e i n f o r m a t i o n e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e .

The l o c a l p i t c h s e t t i n g c o u l d

e a s i l y be t y p e d i n by t h e o p e r a t o r d u r i n g t h e d a t a i n p u t stage o f t h e program.

DATA

FILES

APPENDIX M SAMPLE CALCULATION F R RAYLEIGH'S METHOD O This example i s taken from Biggs, S t r u c t u r a l Dynamics, p. 170. The simply supported beam o f f i g u r e 1 has t h r e e regions. span has a mass i n t e n s i t y o f The c e n t r a l

M2 = -10 1b sec in

and a bending s t i f f n e s s o f

The two ends have mass i n t e n s i t i e s o f

N1 = .050 1b sec i n2

and bending s t i f f n e s s e s of

The beam d e f l e c t i o n s are c a l c u l a t e d by t h e conjugate beam method, i n which the bending moment due t o t h e e l a s t i c l o a d i s equal t o t h e d e f l e c t i o n . For t h e purpose o f analysis, the beam i s broken up i n t o twenty equal segments. Since t h i s i s a simply supported beam, only t h e symmetric modes Each s e c t i o n i s assigned a mass

w i l l be important.

129

Because of s y m e t r y , o n l y one h a l f o f t h e beam need be considered. t h i s h a l f beam, f i v e o f t h e segments have an assigned mass o f

For

1b sec M = .5 r in

and t h e o t h e r f i v e an assigned mass o f

s i n c e AX = 10 inches. The frequency i s given by

where

blr

= t h e mass a t r, = t h e assumed mode shape a t r,

= computed mode shape a t r,

r A"

'" '
r

= computed amplitude.

The computations l e a d i n g t o t h e frequency a r e shown i n t a b l e 1.

Any

o t h e r method o f computing t h e beam d e f l e c t i o n s would have l e d t o t h e same result. The i n i t i a l assumed mode shape i s a s i n e curve. The l e f t h a l f o f

t h e beam i s used f o r a n a l y s i s .

o % Z ~ E ~ S Y c C a
-eon==
LI

rron

a$==x

good

s q ? -'=Refm - q -- -Or C I C

I = P

o o a g ~q o o o r u
o w o

- - C

azzsz=%a=:?
OD=

m r r i i

0 0 d d " ~ o o o o ~
n

The computed n a t u r a l frequency a t t h e end o f t h e f i r s t c y c l e i s

u1 =

94.13 r a d i a n s l s e c .

A t t h e end o f t h e second c y c l e , t h e computed frequency i s

u2 = 94.05 r a d i a n s l s e c .