Table of Content

1 Introduction 2 Fundamentals of Protection Practice 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 Introduction Protection equipment Zones of protection Reliability Selectivity Stability Speed Sensitivity Primary and back-up protection Relay output devices Relay tripping circuits Trip circuit supervision

3 Fundamental Theory 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Vector algebra 3.3 Manipulation of complex quantities 3.4 Circuit quantities and conventions 3.5 Impedance notation 3.6 Basic circuit laws theorems and network reduction References 3.7 4 Fault Calculations 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Introduction Three phase fault calculations Symmetrical component analysis of a three-phase network Equations and network connections for various types of faults Current and voltage distribution in a system due to a fault Effect of system earthing on zero sequence quantities References

5 Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 Introduction Synchronous machines Armature reaction Steady state theory Salient pole rotor Transient analysis Asymmetry Machine reactances Negative sequence reactance Network Protection Application Guide

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5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 Zero sequence reactance Direct and quadrature axis values Effect of saturation on machine reactances Transformers Transformer positive sequence equivalent circuits Transformer zero sequence equivalent circuits Auto-transformers Transformer impedances Overhead lines and cables Calculation of series impedance Calculation of shunt impedance Overhead line circuits with or without earth wires OHL equivalent circuits Cable circuits Overhead line and cable data References

6 Current and Voltage Transformers 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Introduction Electromagnetic voltage transformers Capacitor voltage transformers Current transformers Novel instrument transformers

7 Relay Technology 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Electromechanical relays 7.3 Static relays 7.4 Digital relays 7.5 Numerical relays 7.6 Additional features of numerical relays 7.7 Numerical relay issues 7.8 References 8 Protection : Signaling and Inter-tripping 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 Introduction Unit protection schemes Teleprotection commands Intertripping Performance requirements Transmission media, interference and noise Methods of signalling

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9 Over current Protection for Phase and Earth Faults 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 Introduction Co-ordination procedure Principles of time/current grading Standard I.D.M.T. overcurrent relays Combined I.D.M.T. and high set instantaneous overcurrent relays Very Inverse overcurrent relays Extremely Inverse overcurrent relays Other relay characteristics Independent (definite) time overcurrent relays Relay current setting Relay time grading margin Recommended grading margins Calculation of phase fault overcurrent relay settings Directional phase fault overcurrent relays Ring mains Earth fault protection Directional earth fault overcurrent protection Earth fault protection on insulated networks Earth fault protection on Petersen Coil earthed networks Examples of time and current grading References

10 Unit Protection of Feeders 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 Introduction Convention of direction Conditions for direction comparison Circulating current system Balanced voltage system Summation arrangements Examples of electromechanical and static unit protection systems Digital/Numerical current differential protection systems Carrier unit protection schemes Current differential scheme analogue techniques Phase comparison protection scheme considerations Examples References

11 Distance Protection 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Page 3 of 8 Network Protection Application Guide Introduction Principles of distance relays Relay performance Relationship between relay voltage and ZS/ZL ratio Voltage limit for accurate reach point measurement

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11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 Zones of protection Distance relay characteristics Distance relay implementation Effect of source impedance and earthing methods Distance relay application problems Other distance relay features Distance relay application example References

12 Distance Protection Schemes 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 Introduction Zone1 extension scheme Transfer trip schemes Blocking scheme Directional comparison unblocking scheme Comparison of transfer trip and blocking relaying schemes

13 Protection of Complex Transmission Circuits 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 Introduction Parallel feeders Multi-ended feeders unit protection Multi-ended feeders distance protection Multi-ended feeders - application of distance protection schemes Protection of series compensated lines Examples References

14 Auto-Reclosing 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11 14.12 Introduction Application of auto-reclosing Auto-reclosing on HV distribution networks Factors influencing HV auto-reclose schemes Auto-reclosing on EHV transmission lines High speed auto-reclosing on EHV systems Single-phase auto-reclosing High speed auto-reclosing on lines employing distance schemes Delayed auto-reclosing on EHV systems Operating features of auto-reclose schemes Auto-close circuits Examples of auto-reclose applications

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15 Busbar Protection 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 Introduction Busbar faults Protection requirements Types of protection system System protection schemes Frame-earth protection (Howard protection) Differential protection principles High impedance differential protection Low impedance biased differential protection Numerical busbar protection References

16 Transformer and Transformer-feeder Protection 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 16.10 16.11 16.12 16.13 16.14 16.15 16.16 16.17 16.18 16.19 Introduction Winding faults Magnetising inrush Transformer overheating Transformer protection overview Transformer overcurrent protection Restricted earth fault protection Differential protection Stabilisation of differential protection during magnetising inrush conditions Combined differential and restricted earth fault schemes Earthing transformer protection Auto-transformer protection Overfluxing protection Tank-earth protection Oil and gas devices Transformer-feeder protection Intertripping Condition monitoring of transformers Examples of transformer protection

17 Generator and Generator Transformer Protection 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 Page 5 of 8 Network Protection Application Guide Introduction Generator earthing Stator winding faults Stator winding protection Differential protection of direct-connected generators Differential protection of generator transformer units Overcurrent protection Stator earth fault protection Overvoltage protection

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17.10 17.11 17.12 17.13 17.14 17.15 17.16 17.17 17.18 17.19 17.20 17.21 17.22 Undervoltage protection Low forward power/reverse power protection Unbalanced loading Protection against inadvertent energisation Under/Overfrequency/Overfluxing protection Rotor faults Loss of excitation protection Pole slipping protection Overheating Mechanical faults Complete generator protection schemes Embedded generation Examples of generator protection settings

18 Industrial and Commercial Power System Protection 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 18.9 18.10 18.11 18.12 18.13 Introduction Busbar arrangement Discrimination HRC fuses Industrial circuit breakers Protection relays Co-ordination problems Fault current contribution from induction motors Automatic changeover systems Voltage and phase reversal protection Power factor correction and protection of capacitors Examples References

19 A.C. Motor Protection 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9 19.10 19.11 19.12 19.13 19.14 Introduction Modern relay design Thermal (Overload) protection Start/Stall protection Short circuit protection Earth fault protection Negative phase sequence protection Wound rotor induction motor protection RTD temperature detection Bearing failures Undervoltage protection Loss-of-load protection Additional protection for synchronous motors Motor protection examples

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20 Protection of A.C. Electrified Railways 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 Introduction Protection philosophy Classical single-phase feeding Catenary thermal protection Catenary backup protection Autotransformer feeding Feeder substation protection Example of classical system protection

21 Relay Testing and Commissioning 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8 21.9 21.10 21.11 21.12 21.13 21.14 21.15 21.16 21.17 Introduction Electrical type tests Electromagnetic compatibility tests Product safety type tests Environmental type tests Software type tests Dynamic validation type testing Production testing Commissioning tests Secondary injection test equipment Secondary injection testing Primary injection testing Testing of protection scheme logic Tripping and alarm annunciation tests Periodic maintenance tests Protection scheme design for maintenance References

22 Power System Measurements 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 22.8 22.9 Introduction General characteristics Digital transducer technology Analogue transducer technology Transducer selection Measurement centres Tariff metering Synchronisers Disturbance recorders

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23 Power Quality 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 Introduction Power Quality classification Causes and impact of Power Quality problems Power Quality monitoring Remedial measures Examples

24 Substation Control and Automation 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 24.6 24.7 Introduction Topology and functionality Hardware implementation Communication protocols Substation automation functionality System configuration and testing Examples of substation automation

25 Distribution System Automation 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 25.7 Introduction Factors influencing the application of automation to distribution networks Primary distribution system automation Secondary distribution networks - urban areas Secondary distribution networks - rural areas Communications Distribution system automation software tools Terminology ANSI/IEC Relay Symbols ApplicationTables

Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3

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