Geothermal Energy

Stephen Lawrence
Leeds School of Business University of Colorado Boulder, CO 80309-0419

AGENDA Geothermal Energy

Geothermal Overview Extracting Geothermal Energy Environmental Implications Economic Considerations Geothermal Installations Examples

Geothermal Overview

Geothermal in Context
Energy Source Total a Fossil Fuels Coal Coal Coke Net Imports Natural Gasb Petroleumc Electricity Net Imports Nuclear Electric Power Renewable Energy Conventional Hydroelectric Geothermal Energy Biomassd Solar Energy Wind Energy 2000 98.961 84.965 22.580 0.065 23.916 38.404 0.115 7.862 6.158 2.811 0.317 2.907 0.066 0.057 2001 96.464 83.176 21.952 0.029 22.861 38.333 0.075 8.033 5.328 2.242 0.311 2.640 0.065 0.070 2002 97.952 84.070 21.980 0.061 23.628 38.401 0.078 8.143 5.835 2.689 0.328 2.648 0.064 0.105 2003 98.714 84.889 22.713 0.051 23.069 39.047 0.022 7.959 6.082 2.825 0.339 2.740 0.064 0.115 2004P 100.278 86.186 22.918 0.138 23.000 40.130 0.039 8.232 6.117 2.725 0.340 2.845 0.063 0.143

U.S. Energy Consumption by Energy Source, 2000-2004 (Quadrillion Btu)

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/geothermal/geothermal.html

Advantages of Geothermal

http://www.earthsci.org/mineral/energy/geother/geother.htm

Heat from the Earths Center

Earth's core maintains temperatures in excess of 5000C
Heat radual radioactive decay of elements

Heat energy continuously flows from hot core

Conductive heat flow Convective flows of molten mantle beneath the crust.

Mean heat flux at earth's surface

16 kilowatts of heat energy per square kilometer Dissipates to the atmosphere and space. Tends to be strongest along tectonic plate boundaries

Volcanic activity transports hot material to near the surface

Only a small fraction of molten rock actually reaches surface. Most is left at depths of 5-20 km beneath the surface,

Hydrological convection forms high temperature geothermal systems at shallow depths of 500-3000m.
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm

Earth Dynamics

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm

Earth Temperature Gradient

http://www.geothermal.ch/eng/vision.html

Geothermal Site Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Geysers
Clepsydra Geyser in Yellowstone

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geyser

Hot Springs

Hot springs in Steamboat Springs area.

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/geothermal/geothermal.html

Fumaroles
Clay Diablo Fumarole (CA) White Island Fumarole New Zealand

http://lvo.wr.usgs.gov/cdf_main.htm

http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/img_white_island_fumerole.html

Global Geothermal Sites

http://www.deutsches-museum.de/ausstell/dauer/umwelt/img/geothe.jpg

Tectonic Plate Movements

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Geothermal Sites in US

Extracting Geothermal Energy

Methods of Heat Extraction

http://www.geothermal.ch/eng/vision.html

Units of Measure
Pressure
1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 Newton / square meter 100 kPa = ~ 1 atmosphere = ~14.5 psi 1 MPa = ~10 atmospheres = ~145 psi

Temperature
Celsius (C); Fahrenheit (F); Kelvin (K) 0 C = 32 F = 273 K 100 C = 212 F = 373 K

Dry Steam Power Plants

Dry steam extracted from natural reservoir
180-225 C ( 356-437 F) 4-8 MPa (580-1160 psi) 200+ km/hr (100+ mph)

Steam is used to drive a turbo-generator Steam is condensed and pumped back into the ground Can achieve 1 kWh per 6.5 kg of steam
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

A 55 MW plant requires 100 kg/s of steam

Dry Steam Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Single Flash Steam Power Plants

Steam with water extracted from ground Pressure of mixture drops at surface and more water flashes to steam Steam separated from water Steam drives a turbine Turbine drives an electric generator Generate between 5 and 100 MW Use 6 to 9 tonnes of steam per hour

Single Flash Steam Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Binary Cycle Power Plants

Low temps 100o and 150oC Use heat to vaporize organic liquid
E.g., iso-butane, iso-pentane

Use vapor to drive turbine

Causes vapor to condense Recycle continuously

Typically 7 to 12 % efficient 0.1 40 MW units common

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp

Binary Cycle Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Binary Plant Power Output

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm

Double Flash Power Plants

Similar to single flash operation Unflashed liquid flows to lowpressure tank flashes to steam Steam drives a second-stage turbine
Also uses exhaust from first turbine

Increases output 20-25% for 5% increase in plant costs

Double Flash Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Combined Cycle Plants

Combination of conventional steam turbine technology and binary cycle technology
Steam drives primary turbine Remaining heat used to create organic vapor Organic vapor drives a second turbine

Plant sizes ranging between 10 to 100+ MW Significantly greater efficiencies

Higher overall utilization http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm Extract more power (heat) from geothermal

Hot Dry Rock Technology

Wells drilled 3-6 km into crust
Hot crystalline rock formations

Water pumped into formations Water flows through natural fissures picking up heat Hot water/steam returns to surface Steam used to generate power
http://www.ees4.lanl.gov/hdr/

Hot Dry Rock Technology

Fenton Hill plant

http://www.ees4.lanl.gov/hdr/

Soultz Hot Fractured Rock

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

2-Well HDR System Parameters

2106 m2 = 2 km2 2108 m3 = 0.2 km3

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Promise of HDR
1 km3 of hot rock has the energy content of 70,000 tonnes of coal
If cooled by 1 C

Upper 10 km of crust in US has 600,000 times annual US energy (USGS) Between 19-138 GW power available at existing hydrothermal sites
Using enhanced technology
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Direct Use Technologies

Geothermal heat is used directly rather than for power generation Extract heat from low temperature geothermal resources
< 150 oC or 300 oF.

Applications sited near source (<10 km)

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm

Geothermal Heat Pump

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp

Heat vs. Depth Profile

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Geothermal District Heating

Southhampton geothermal district heating system technology schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Direct Heating Example

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Technological Issues
Geothermal fluids can be corrosive
Contain gases such as hydrogen sulphide Corrosion, scaling

Requires careful selection of materials and diligent operating procedures Typical capacity factors of 85-95%
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm

Technology vs. Temperature

Reservoir Temperature Reservoir Fluid Common Use Technology commonly chosen

High Temperature >220oC (>430oF).

Water or Steam

Power Generation Direct Use Flash Steam Combined (Flash and Binary) Cycle Direct Fluid Use Heat Exchangers Heat Pumps Binary Cycle Direct Fluid Use Heat Exchangers Heat Pumps Direct Fluid Use Heat Exchangers

Intermediate Temperature 100-220oC (212 - 390oF). Low Temperature 50-150oC (120-300oF).

Water

Power Generation Direct Use Direct Use

Water

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm

Geothermal Performance

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Environmental Implications

Environmental Impacts
Land
Vegetation loss Soil erosion Landslides

Water
Watershed impact Damming streams Hydrothermal eruptions Lower water table Subsidence

Air
Slight air heating Local fogging

Noise Benign overall

Ground
Reservoir cooling Seismicity (tremors)
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm

Renewable?
Heat depleted as ground cools Not steady-state
Earths core does not replenish heat to crust quickly enough

Example:
Iceland's geothermal energy could provide 1700 MW for over 100 years, compared to the current production of 140 MW

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal

Economics of Geothermal

Cost Factors
Temperature and depth of resource Type of resource (steam, liquid, mix) Available volume of resource Chemistry of resource Permeability of rock formations Size and technology of plant Infrastructure (roads, transmission lines)
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/cost_factor.htm

Costs of Geothermal Energy

Costs highly variable by site
Dependent on many cost factors

High exploration costs High initial capital, low operating costs

Fuel is free

Significant exploration & operating risk

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/

Adds to overall capital costs Risk premium

Risk Assessment

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm

Geothermal Development

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm

Cost of Water & Steam

Cost (US $/ tonne of steam) 3.5-6.0 3.0-4.5 Cost (US /tonne of hot water)

High temperature (>150oC) Medium Temperature (100-150oC) Low Temperature (<100oC)

20-40

10-20

Table Geothermal Steam and Hot Water Supply Cost where drilling is required

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm

Cost of Geothermal Power

Unit Cost (US /kWh) High Quality Resource Small plants (<5 MW) Medium Plants (5-30 MW) Large Plants (>30 MW) 5.0-7.0 4.0-6.0 Unit Cost (US /kWh) Medium Quality Resource 5.5-8.5 4.5-7 Unit Cost (US /kWh) Low Quality Resource 6.0-10.5 Normally not suitable Normally not suitable

2.5-5.0

4.0-6.0

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm

Direct Capital Costs

Plant Size
Small plants (<5 MW)

High Quality Resource

Exploration : US$400-800 Steam field:US$100-200 Power Plant:US$1100-1300 Total: US$1600-2300 Exploration : US$250-400 Steamfield:US$200-US$500 Power Plant: US$850-1200 Total: US$1300-2100 Exploration:: US$100-200 Steam field:US$300-450 Power Plant:US$750-1100 Total: US$1150-1750

Medium Quality Resource

Exploration : US$400-1000 Steam field:US$300-600 Power Plant:US$1100-1400 Total: US$1800-3000 Exploration: : US$250-600 Steam field:US$400-700 Power Plant:US$950-1200 Total: US$1600-2500 Exploration : US$100-400 Steam field:US$400-700 Power Plant:US$850-1100 Total: US$1350-2200

Low Quality Resource

Exploration : US$400-1000 Steam field:US$500-900 Power Plant:US$1100-1800 Total:US$2000-3700 Normally not suitable

Med Plants (5-30 MW)

Large Plants (>30 MW)

Normally not suitable

Direct Capital Costs (US $/kW installed capacity)

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm

Indirect Costs
Availability of skilled labor Infrastructure and access Political stability Indirect Costs
Good: 5-10% of direct costs Fair: 10-30% of direct costs Poor: 30-60% of direct costs
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm

Operating/Maintenance Costs
O&M Cost (US c/KWh) Small plants (<5 MW) O&M Cost (US c/KWh) Medium Plants (5-30 MW) O&M Cost (US c/KWh) Large Plants(>30 MW)

Steam field Power Plant Total

0.35-0.7 0.45-0.7 0.8-1.4

0.25-0.35 0.35-0.45 0.6-0.8

0.15-0.25 0.25-0.45 0.4-0.7

Operating and Maintenance Costs

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm

Geothermal Installations
Examples

Geothermal Power Examples

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Geothermal Power Generation

World production of 8 GW
2.7 GW in US

The Geyers (US) is worlds largest site

Produces 2 GW

Other attractive sites

Rift region of Kenya, Iceland, Italy, France, New Zealand, Mexico, Nicaragua, Russia, Phillippines,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal

Geothermal Energy Plant

Geothermal energy plant in Iceland

http://www.wateryear2003.org/en/

Geothermal Well Testing

Geothermal well testing, Zunil, Guatemala

http://www.geothermex.com/es_resen.html

Heber Geothermal Power Station

52kW electrical generating capacity

http://www.ece.umr.edu/links/power/geotherm1.htm

Geysers Geothermal Plant

The Geysers is the largest producer of geothermal power in the world.

http://www.ece.umr.edu/links/power/geotherm1.htm

Geyers Cost Effectiveness

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Geothermal Summary

Geothermal Prospects
Environmentally very attractive Attractive energy source in right locations Likely to remain an adjunct to other larger energy sources
Part of a portfolio of energy technologies

Exploration risks and up-front capital costs remain a barrier

Next Week: BIOENERGY

Supplementary Slides
Extras

Geothermal Gradient

http://www.earthsci.org/mineral/energy/geother/geother.htm

Geo/Hydrothermal Systems

http://www.freeenergynews.com/Directory/Geothermal/

Location of Resources

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp

Ground Structures

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Volcanic Geothermal System

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Temperature Gradients

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

http://www.earthsci.org/mineral/energy/geother/geother.htm

UK Geothermal Resources

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Porosity vs. Hydraulic Conductivity

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Performance vs. Rock Type

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Deep Well Characteristics

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Single Flash Plant Schematic

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm

Binary Cycle Power Plant

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp

Flash Steam Power Plant

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp

Efficiency of Heat Pumps

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Recent Developments
Comparing statistical data for end-1996 (SER 1998) and the present Survey, it can be seen that there has been an increase in world geothermal power plant capacity (+9%) and utilisation (+23%) while direct heat systems show a 56% additional capacity, coupled with a somewhat lower rate of increase in their use (+32%). Geothermal power generation growth is continuing, but at a lower pace than in the previous decade, while direct heat uses show a strong increase compared to the past. Going into some detail, the six countries with the largest electric power capacity are: USA with 2 228 MWe is first, followed by Philippines (1 863 MWe); four countries (Mexico, Italy, Indonesia, Japan) had capacity (at end-1999) in the range of 550-750 MWe each. These six countries represent 86% of the world capacity and about the same percentage of the world output, amounting to around 45 000 GWhe. The strong decline in the USA in recent years, due to overexploitation of the giant Geysers steam field, has been partly compensated by important additions to capacity in several countries: Indonesia, Philippines, Italy, New Zealand, Iceland, Mexico, Costa Rica, El Salvador. Newcomers in the electric power sector are Ethiopia (1998), Guatemala (1998) and Austria (2001). In total, 22 nations are generating geothermal electricity, in amounts sufficient to supply 15 million houses. Concerning direct heat uses, Table 12.1 shows that the three countries with the largest amount of installed power: USA (5 366 MWt), China (2 814 MWt) and Iceland (1 469 MWt) cover 58% of the world capacity, which has reached 16 649 MWt, enough to provide heat for over 3 million houses. Out of about 60 countries with direct heat plants, beside the three above-mentioned nations, Turkey, several European countries, Canada, Japan and New Zealand have sizeable capacity. With regard to direct use applications, a large increase in the number of GHP installations for space heating (presently estimated to exceed 500 000) has put this category in first place in terms of global capacity and third in terms of output. Other geothermal space heating systems are second in capacity but first in output. Third in capacity (but second in output) are spa uses followed by greenhouse heating. Other applications include fish farm heating and industrial process heat. The outstanding rise in world direct use capacity since 1996 is due to the more than two-fold increase in North America and a 45% addition in Asia. Europe also has substantial direct uses but has remained fairly stable: reductions in some countries being compensated by progress in others. Concerning R&D, the HDR project at Soultz-sous-Forts near the French-German border has progressed significantly. Besides the ongoing Hijiori site in Japan, another HDR test has just started in Switzerland (Otterbach near Basel). The total world use of geothermal power is giving a contribution both to energy saving (around 26 million tons of oil per year) and to CO2 emission reduction (80 million tons/year if compared with equivalent oil-fuelled production).

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp