PART B A) HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX. The Human Development Index (HDI) is a summary measure of human development.

It measures the average achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life (health), access to knowledge (education) and a decent standard of living (income). Data availability determines HDI country coverage. To enable cross-country comparisons, the HDI is, to the extent possible, calculated based on data from leading international data agencies and other credible data sources available at the time of writing.1 The HDI was created to emphasize that people and their capabilities should be the ultimate criteria for assessing the development of a country, not economic growth alone. The HDI can also be used to question national policy choices, asking how two countries with the same level of GNI per capita can end up with such different human development outcomes. For example, the Bahamas and New Zealand have similar levels of income per person, but life expectancy and expected years of schooling differ greatly between the two countries, resulting in New Zealand having a much higher HDI value than the Bahamas. These striking contrasts can stimulate debate about government policy priorities. New method for 2011 data onwards In its 2010 Human Development Report, the UNDP began using a new method of calculating the HDI. The following three indices are used:

1. Life Expectancy Index (LEI)

2. Education Index (EI)

2.1 Mean Years of Schooling Index (MYSI) 2.2 Expected Years of Schooling Index (EYSI)

[4]

[5]

3. Income Index (II) Finally, the HDI is the geometric mean of the previous three normalized indices:

LE: Life expectancy at birth MYS: Mean years of schooling (Years that a 25-year-old person or older has spent in schools)
1

http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/hdi/

EYS: Expected years of schooling (Years that a 5-year-old child will spend with his education in his whole life) GNIpc: Gross national income at purchasing power parity per capita 2

B) The Middle Income Trap The middle income trap is a situation where a country which attains a certain income (due to given advantages) will get stuck at that level. As wages rise manufacturers often find themselves unable to compete in export markets with lower-cost producers elsewhere; yet they still find themselves behind the advanced economies in higher-value products. This is the middle-income trap which saw, for example, South Africa and Brazil languish for decades in what the World Bank call the middle income range (about $1,000 to $12,000 gross national income per person measured in 2010 money).3 Similarly, if a country has a large population and limited natural resources, it will stay at low income countries. This is called a poverty trap. A country with a small population and lots of oil will automatically attain high income. And if a country has an average amount of advantages, it will be caught in middle income. So, a middle income trap is a special case of more general developmental traps. Typically, countries trapped at middle-income level have: (1) low investment ratios; (2) slow manufacturing growth; (3) limited industrial diversification; and (4) poor labor market conditions. Avoiding the Middle Income Trap The Middle Income Trap occurs when a country's growth plateaus and eventually stagnates after reaching middle income levels. The problem usually arises when developing economies find themselves stuck in the middle, with rising wages and declining cost competitiveness, unable to compete with advanced economies in high-skill innovations, or with low income, low wage economies in the cheap production of manufactured goods. Avoiding the Middle Income Trap entails identifying strategies to introduce new processes and find new markets to maintain export growth. Ramping up domestic demand is also important -- an expanding middle class can use its increasing purchasing power to buy high-quality, innovative products and help drive growth. The biggest challenge is moving from resource-driven growth that is dependent on cheap labor and capital to growth based on high productivity and innovation. This requires investments in infrastructure and education. As the Republic of Korea has proven, building a high-quality education system which encourages creativity and supports breakthroughs in science and technology is key. C) Demographic Transition; The Demographic Transition Model literally means 'Population Change Model'. This is a very useful model, showing how dynamic (subject to change) population is.

2 3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Income_Trap

Population change is shown in two ways here. The first is change over SPACE: a number of countries at the same time can exhibit the population characteristics of different stages. Second is change over TIME: a country will theoretically progress through the stages. It has been a long time since this model was developed, and some countries have begun to exhibit characteristics beyond stage 4. This page looks at the structure of the model, the reasons for the differences in population between stages, some examples of countries over time and space and a short look at a possible extra stage. This model can be directly compared to the Population Pyramid Model which shows the same information, using population pyramids instead of a line graph. There is a comparison chart at the end of this page.

Souce:United nations world population prospectus, The 1998 revision

The Stages of the DTM Each of the stages of the DTM exhibit specific characteristics. The following A - E? show what characteristics you can expect for each stage and possible reasons for the changes between stages.

A - Stage 1 Both high birth rates and death rates fluctuate in the first stage of the population model giving a small population growth (shown by the small total population graph). There are many reasons for this: little access to birth control many children die in infancy (high infant mortality) so parents tend to have more children to compensate in the hopes that more will live children are needed to work on the land to grow food for the family children are regarded as a sign of virility in some cultures religious beliefs (e.g. Roman Catholics and Hindus) encourage large families high death rates, especially among children because of disease, famine, poor diet, poor hygiene, little medical science.

B - Stage 2 Birth rates remain high, but death rates fall rapidly causing a high population growth (as shown by the total population graph). The reasons for this could be: improvements in medical care - hospitals, medicines, etc. improvements in sanitation and water supply quality and quantity of food produced rises transport and communications improve the movements of food and medical supplies decrease in infant mortality.

C - Stage 3 Birth rates now fall rapidly while death rates continue to fall. The total population begins to peak and the population increase slows to a constant. The reasons for this could be: increased access to contraception lower infant mortality rate means there is less need to have a bigger family

industrialisation and mechanisation means fewer labourers are required the desire for material possessions takes over the desire for large families as wealth increases equality for women means that they are able to follow a career path rather than feeling obligated to have a family.

D - Stage 4 Both birth rates and death rates remain low, fluctuating with 'baby booms' and epidemics of illnesses and disease. This results in a steady population.

E- Stage 5? A stage 5 was not originally thought of as part of the DTM, but some northern countries are now reaching the stage where total population is declining where birth rates have dropped below death rates. One such country is Germany, which has taken in foreign workers to fill jobs. The UK's population is expected to start declining by 2021. Examples Population changes over time and space and the DTM can show both of these. Examples for both of these are shown below. Firstly, examples of countries that can be classed as exhibiting the population traits now are shown as an example of how population can change over space. Secondly, the dates the UK passed through each stage are indicated as an example of how population in one country can change over time.
Stage 1 Ethiopia / Bangladesh UK: pre-1780 Stage 3 Uruguay / China UK: 1880 - 1940 Stage 2 Sri Lanka / Brazil UK: 1780 - 1880 Stage 4 Canada / Japan UK: post-194

c)The Microeconomic Theory of Fertility; The Microeconomic Theory of Fertility attempts to explain the falling birthrates associated with stage III of the demographic transition. It is suggested that people choose how many children to "consume" as part of their utility maximization problem. Budget constraint indifference curve analysis is presented. Children in LDCs can be thought of as investment goods. Reasons are offered for why families in LDCs are having more children, such as the lower opportunity cost of time and a lack of job and education opportunities for women. The microeconomic theory of fertility is useful here because it asks the question why a family would decide to rear children in the first place. The economics of the family asks what kinds of incentives are involved. After all, the decisions being made are often not based on societys natural capital, or local wage levels. Family decisions are often made at the microeconomic rather than the macroeconomic level. These are salient microeconomic behaviors based on things like private prices, tastes and preferences, incomes, and especially the expected marginal benefit from having children and so on. To frame this discussion, children in regions of high-income (correlated with low fertility) often are considered consumption goods, whereas in regions with low-income (correlated with high fertility) they are often considered investment goods. The difference will be clear in a moment. It is often assumed that the reason why families in developing countries have so many children is due to the lack of education. This seems to be a blatant myth, and the microeconomic theory spells this out in terms of the rational decision-making that a family goes through. In non-welfare states, families often prefer to invest in children as a form of old-age security and insurance rather than rely on money savings or social security programs that provide these benefits in other societies.4

D) Urbanization Urbanization,or urban drift is the physical growth of urban areas as a result of rural migration and even suburban concentration into cities, particularly the very largest ones. The United Nations projected that half of the world's population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008.[1] It closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization. Urbanization can describe a specific condition at a set time, i.e. the proportion of total population or area in cities or towns, or the term can describe the increase of this proportion over time. So the term urbanization can represent the level of urban relative to overall population, or it can represent the rate at which the urban proportion is increasing5 Urbanization usually occurs when people move from villages to cities to settle, in hope of a higher standard of living. This usually takes place in developing countries. In rural areas, people become victims of unpredictable weather conditions such as drought and floods, which can adversely affect their livelihood. Consequently many farmers move to cities in search of a better life. Cities in contrast, offer opportunities of high living and are known to be places where wealth and money are centralized. Most industries and educational institutions are located in cities whereas there are limited opportunities within rural areas. This further contributes to migration to cities. It has the following effects

4 5

http://aeconomics.blogspot.com/2007/10/microeconomics-of-fertility.html

Slums They are urban areas that are heavily populated with substandard housing and very poor living conditions. As a result several problems arise. Land insecurity - Slums are usually located on land, which are not owned by the slum dwellers. They can be evicted at any time by the landowners. Poor living conditions - Crowding and lack of sanitation are main problems. This contributes to outbreak of diseases. Utilities such as water, electricity and sewage disposal are also scarce. Unemployment - Since the number of people competing for jobs is more than jobs available, unemployment is an inevitable problem. Crime - Slum conditions make maintenance of law and order difficult. Patrolling of slums is not a priority of law enforcing officers. Unemployment and poverty force people into anti-social activities. Slums become a breeding ground for criminal activities. Environmental impacts of urbanization Temperature - Due to factors such as paving over formerly vegetated land, increasing number of residences and high-rise apartments and industries, temperature increases drastically. Air pollution - Factories and automobiles are symbols of urbanization. Due to harmful emissions of gases and smoke from factories and vehicles, air pollution occurs. Current research shows high amount of suspended particulate matter in air, particularly in cities, which contributes to allergies and respiratory problems thereby becoming a huge health hazard. Water issues - When urbanization takes place, water cycle changes as cities have more precipitation than surrounding areas. Due to dumping of sewage from factories in water a body, water pollution occurs which can lead to outbreaks of epidemics. Though urbanization has drawbacks, it has its benefits. Efficiency - Cities are extremely efficient. Less effort is needed to supply basic amenities such as fresh water and electricity. Research and recycling programs are possible only in cities. In most cities flats are in vogue today. Many people can be accommodated within a small land area. Convenience - Access to education, health, social services and cultural activities is readily available to people in cities than in villages. Life in cities is much more advanced, sophisticated and comfortable, compared to life in villages. Cities have advanced communication and transport networks. Concentration of resources - Since major human settlements were established near natural resources from ancient times, a lot of resources are available in and around cities. A lot of facilities to exploit these resources also exist only in cities. Educational facilities - Schools, colleges and universities are established in cities to develop human resources. A variety of educational courses and fields are available offering students a wide choice for their future careers.

 Social integration - People of many castes and religions live and work together in cities, which creates better understanding and harmony and helps breakdown social and cultural barriers. Improvements in economy - High-tech industries earn valuable foreign exchange and lot of money for a country in the stock markets D) Rural Urban Migration Migration is the movement of people from one geographical location to another, involving permanent or temporary settlement. The region where people are leaving is referred to as the source region whereas the region to which people are entering is known as destination region. While rural-urban migration is the movement of people from rural areas (villages) to urban centres (cities). One noticeable aspect in the society today is the rate at which people migrate from the rural to the urban centres. While the urban centres are increasing in population, the rural areas are decreasing in population. The migration literature has come to regard rural-urban migration as the major contributing factor to the ubiquitous phenomenon of urban surplus labour and as a force which continues to exacerbate already serious urban unemployment problems6 The major causes of rural-urban migration is identified as; search for better wages, education, political and social stability, better technologies, employment and business opportunities. Others are poverty, unemployment, crop failures and famine, inadequate social amenities and facilities in the rural areas such as pipe borne water, electricity, good roads, hospitals, schools, vocational centres. As more and more people arrive in the urban centre, there will be insufficient jobs for them and the unemployment rate will increase there will be more workers chasing too few jobs this will lead to straining the resources of the government. Rural-urban migration brings pressure on urban housing and the environment as migrants arrive from rural areas they live on the streets and makeshift sub-standard accommodation before establishing themselves. The high rate of population growth in the urban centres also lessens the quality of life because it: destroys resources, such as water and forests, needed for sustenance. Rural-urban migration leads to overpopulation of the urban centres thus encouraging and raising the rate of crime in the society. Rural-urban migration also slows down the pace of development of the rural areas.7

6 7

McTodaro, 1976).
www.ajbms.org

2 A) THE STATE OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN ZAMBIA. Zambias HDI value for 2010 was 0.395, positioning the country in the low human development category; it ranked 150th out of 169 countries. Table 3.1 shows that between 1980 and 2010, Zambias HDI value rose from 0.382 to 0.395, an increase of 3 percent, which made Zambia the 92nd country in terms of highest HDI growth over 20 years. Progress on both the overall HDI and its components was irregular. In the 1980s, the HDI rose sharply, reaching the highest value ever, at just above 0.42 in 1990, only to fall over the next decade to the lowest value ever, at just below 0.35 in 2000. By 2010, Zambias HDI was still below its 1990 level. With respect to its components, during the 1980s, only the education dimension improved, while in the 1990s all three dimensions deteriorated. Since 2000, all components have improved.

Life expectancy at birth expected years of schooling 1980 51.9 7.6 1985 52.1 8.5 1990 51.1 7.9 1995 46.7 7.6 2000 42 7.2 2005 42.9 7.2 2010 47.3 7.2
Source:Human development report,zambia 2011

mean years of schooling GNI per capita (PPP US$) HDI VALUE 3.3 1,533 0.382 5.3 1,273 0.41 7.5 1,226 0.423 6.1 1,009 0.371 5.9 1,031 0.345 6.3 1,153 0.36 6.5 1,359 0.395

According to the 2010 global Human Development Report, worldwide, other than the countries in the third category, which have faced civil strife and economic upheavals during the recent past, no other country has faced Zambias deterioration, stagnation and sluggish improvement in HDI over the past 30 years. A the 2007 Zambia Human Development Report observed, this has happened in a country that has had no political disturbances since independence in 1964, and boasts of immense development potential given her abundant natural resources, fertile land and a conducive climate for agriculture. A perfect storm of shocks on three fronts is responsible for the decline and stagnation in the countrys human development. First, inappropriate macroeconomic policies in the 1970s and 1980s caused stagnation and even a decline in economic growth. These were followed by orthodox stabilization and structural adjustment efforts that in the 1990s sharply increased unemployment, reduced real wages and significantly increased the incidence of extreme poverty. At the same time, expenditures for publicly provided services such as health care, education and social protection were reduced. The positive economic growth of the recent past is apparently still insufficient to fully redress the decline in the standard of living and in human development originating from the two lost decades. Consequently, Zambias GNI per capita of US $1,359 for 2008 was below the US $2,050average for Sub-Saharan Africa. Second, Zambia found itself at the epicenter of the HIV pandemic in Central and Southern Africa (it had an adult prevalence of 23 percent in 1991-1992, 15.6 percent in 2001-2002 and 14.3 percent in 2007), but for a long time, 9

little was done to fight the crisis. The destructive impacts of HIV on Zambian society include, among others, the fact that the country now has the third lowest life expectancy at birth in the world (47.3 years, per UNDP 2010) and losses in GDP per capita have been significant (estimated at 5.8 percent by Resch et al. 2008).Third, as discussed in Chapter 2, Zambia has experienced a systematic erosion of its governance institutions, which in comparison to most countries remain below average. Although improving since 2002, most governance institutions remain weak. In a context of weak institutions, higher government spending on goods and services does not necessarily lead to improved long-run progress in human development, as was the case from 1988 to 1992 and 2001 to 2005.Lower government spending drastically accelerated a downward spiral in human development from 1993 to 2000. The countrys trajectory was characterized by neither high growth nor high human development from 1980 to 2000. Since 2001, Zambia has been successful in pursuing growth, but continues to perform poorly in human development, specifically in ensuring a long and healthy life for citizens. The table below shows the comparison of the HDI for Zambia and the rest of the regions in 2010.

HDI HDILife expectancy at birth Mean years of schooling Expected years of schooling GNI per capita(PPP 2008 US $) Arab States 0.588 69.1 5.7 10.8 7,861 East Asia and the Pacific 0.643 72.6 7.2 11.5 6,403 Europe and Central Asia 0.702 69.5 9.2 13.6 11,462 Latin America and the Carribean 0.704 74 7.9 13.7 10,642 South Asia 0.516 65.1 4.6 10 3,417 Sub-Saharan Africa 0.389 52.7 4.5 9 2,050 Zambia 0.395 47.3 6.5 7.2 1,359
Source: UNDP, Human Development Report 2010, The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development

The HDI in Zambia can further be segmented into Provinces with all its components. Relatively high child mortality. Life expectancy is the biggest component index for Zambias 2008 HDI. It reflects some of the recorded improvements in the health sector, such as declining infant and child mortality. The provincial disparities in life expectancy are quite apparent: Northern (0.342), Western (0.422) and Luapula (0.429) have the lowest life expectancy indices; while Copperbelt (0.573), Central (0.521), North Western (0.543) and Eastern (0.525) have the highest. Lusaka (0.497) ranks fifth due to a higher HIV prevalence rate. The IHDI adjusts the HDI for inequalities in the distribution of each of the three dimensions across the population. It is based on a distribution sensitive class of composite indices and draws on a family of inequality measures. In this sense, the IHDI is the actual level of human development (accounting for inequality), while the HDI can be viewed as an index of potential human development (or the maximum level of HDI) that could be achieved if there was no inequality. The loss in potential human development due to inequality is given by the difference between the HDI and the IHDI, and can be expressed as a percentage.

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The Table shows that the education index has significantly changed it has been drastically lowered with the adoption of new indicators. This is a reflection of the fact that despite increased gross enrolment in schools, the mean years of schooling and expected years of schooling remain low. For 2008, Eastern (0.363) and Western (0.385) have the lowest indices, whereas Copperbelt (0.494) and Lusaka (0.480) have the highest. For Eastern Province, life expectancy and education achievements do not seem to move in the same direction or at the same pace. The poor formal sector employment opportunities in rural areas may have dampened the rural populations quest for education, resulting in the observed low mean years of schooling and expected years of schooling.

Region Zambia Central Copperbelt Eastern Luapula Lusaka Northern North Western Southern Western

Life expectancy index 0.494 0.519 0.572 0.523 0.428 0.496 0.34 0.542 0.452 0.422

education index 0.422 0.424 0.468 0.359 0.391 0.429 0.406 0.393 0.424 0.371

income index 0.282 0.257 0.356 0.228 0.215 0.302 0.233 0.229 0.252 0.187

IHDI value 0.389 0.384 0.457 0.35 0.33 0.401 0.318 0.366 0.364 0.308

HDI value 0.409 0.398 0.48 0.354 0.35 0.465 0.326 0.382 0.394 0.321

Loss due to inequality,% 5 4 5 1 6 16 3 4 8 4

Sources: Calculated using Central Statistical Office Census data, Living Conditions Monitoring Survey 2006.

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B) The state of the Demographic Transition Theory in Zambia. Like many other developing countries, Zambia is still in the second stage of the demographic transition theory. The level of current fertility is one of the most important topics because of its direct relevance to population policies and programs. Measures of current fertility presented include age-specific fertility rates (ASFR), the total fertility rate (TFR), the general fertility rate (GFR), and the crude birth rate (CBR).. A three-year period is chosen for calculating these rates to provide the most current. Current fertility rates for the three years preceding the Demographic survey are presented in Table below for the country as a whole and by urban-rural residence. The survey results indicate that the TFR is 6.2 births per woman. This means that, on average, a Zambian woman will give birth to 6.2 children by the end of her childbearing years. The current TFR is a slight increase from 2001-2002 TFR of 5.9. Overall, fertility peaks at 274 births per 1,000 women among women age 20-24 and declines thereafter. The general fertility rate is 214. This means that there were 214 births for every 1,000 women during the three-year period preceding the survey. The table also shows a crude birth rate of 43.6 per 1,000 populations for the period under review. Rural areas have a much higher TFR than urban areas (7.5 and 4.3, respectively). The table also shows that there are large urban-rural differences in ASFRs for all age groups. The largest variations are in age groups 20-24 and 25-29 in which the rates among rural women exceed 300 births per thousand women, compared with urban rates of 201 and 190 births per thousand women, respectively.

Age group 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 TFR GFR CBR

Residence Urban 99 201 190 181 127 52 5 4.3 151 36.3

Rural 189 329 314 277 228 114 44 7.5 259 47.5

Total 146 274 263 240 191 90 29 6.2 214 43.6

Source:Zambia Demographic Survey,2007. Notes: Age-specific fertility rates are per 1,000 women. Rates for age group 45-49 may be slightly biased due to truncation. Rates are for the period 1-36 months prior to interview. TFR: Total fertility rate expressed per woman GFR: General fertility rate expressed per 1,000 women CBR: Crude birth rate, expressed per 1,000 population 12

Another way to examine fertility trends is to compare current estimates with earlier surveys and censuses. The table below show estimates of ASFRs from a series of surveys and censuses conducted in Zambia since 1980. In addition to the 2007 ZDHS, these sources include the 1980, 1990 and 2000 censuses and the earlier rounds of the ZDHS in 1992, 1996 and 2001-02. Before 1992, the peak ASFR was in age group 25-29. Results from 1992, 1996, 2001-2002 and 2007 ZDHS surveys, as well as the 2000 Census, show that the peak has shifted to the 20-24 age groups. Fertility rates have decreased by one birth over the 27-year period from 7.2 births per woman at the time of the 1980 Census to 6.2 births in the 2007 ZDHS. The most recent ZDHS survey data show a slight increase in fertility, mainly due to an increase in rural fertility from 6.9 in 2001-2002 to 7.5 in 2007.Fertility in urban areas remained constant between 2001-2002 and 2007 at 4.3. Age specific Fertility rates and total fertility rate Census 1980 153 318 323 289 225 115 17 7.2 Census 1990 94 267 294 272 226 129 59 6.7 ZDHS 1992 156 294 271 242 194 105 31 6.5 ZDHS 1996 158 280 274 229 175 77 24 6.1 Census 2000 141 277 269 232 175 83 30 6 ZDHS 2001-2002 160 266 249 218 172 79 30 5.9 ZDH 2007 146 274 263 240 191 90 29 6.2

Age group 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 TFR 15-19

Source: Zambia Demographic and Health survey 2007.

ON the other hand, mortality levels in Zambia have been increasing at a decreasing rate. An examination of mortality levels across the three successive five-year periods suggests that under-five mortality decreased from 157 deaths per 1,000 births during the middle to late 1990s (circa 1993-94 to 1997-98) to 119 deaths per 1,000 births during the first half of this decade (circa 2002-03 to 2007-08). Most of the decrease in mortality occurred outside of the neonatal period.8 With these statistics above, it is evident that Zambia is still in the second stage of the Demographic Transition. It is still experiencing high fertility rate and declining mortality rates.

Zdhs,145,2007

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Period 1950-1955 1955-1960 1960-1965 1965-1970 1970-1975 1975-1980 1980-1985 1985-1990 1990-1995 1995-2000 2000-2005 2005-2010

Live births per year 117 000 136000 160000 189000 219000 254000 283000 322000 365000 427000 480000 547000

Deaths year 54 000 57000 62000 68000 72000 79000 91000 113000 151000 187000 212000 204000

Natural per change per CBR year * 63 000 46.8 78000 47.6 98000 48.6 121000 49.3 147000 48.5 174000 47.5 192000 45.1 209000 44 214000 43.5 240000 44.6 269000 44.4 342000 44.5

CDR * 21.7 20.1 18.8 17.7 16 14.9 14.4 15.4 18 19.6 19.6 16.7

NC * 25.1 27.5 29.8 31.6 32.5 30.6 28.6 25.5 25.5 25.1 24.8 27.9

TFR * 6.75 6.9 7.15 7.4 7.43 7.38 6.95 6.66 6.3 6.2 6.1 6.2

IMR* 148 137 127 118 107 100 99 103 107 105 103 95

* CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000) ; IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman

Source:Central statistical Office.

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Bibliography.

Micheal P Todaro, Economic Development ,1976). Human development report, Zambia 2011 http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/hdi/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Income_Trap http://aeconomics.blogspot.com/2007/10/microeconomics-of-fertility. UNDP, Human Development Report 2010, The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development www.ajbms.org Zambia Demographic Health Survey: 2007.CSO Living Conditions Monitoring Survey: 2010: CSO

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