Lecture 8 AC circuits Resistive Load Capacitive Load Inductive Load RLC circuit Resonance Last time we finished lecture

by talking about circuits, specifically RL and RC circuits where R = resistor, L = inductor, C = capacitor. We also covered the basics of analyzing a circuit. So lets start today by talking about an RLC circuit and using the basic rules to analyze it: One very important rule: The sum of voltages around a closed loop must add to zero. This is basically a statement of energy conservation. In the simplest example, if a charge gains energy traveling through a battery, it will lose that energy traveling through a resistor.

+ !V = +" !V = #IR

"Vbattery + "Vresistor = 0

# $ IR = 0 # = IR If we follow a charge through the circuit the energy gained from the battery is equal and opposite to the energy it loses in the resistor.

We can also look at the base units of a Volt:

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V = Joule Coulomb

by looking at the voltage changes, were really looking at the energy changes.
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The circuit weve been looking at has a DC power source (a battery), so what does that mean?

It means that the current over time is constant, DC = Direct Current.

I (t)

We can also talk about AC sources, where the current varies over time. AC = Alternating Current.
I (t)

i(t) = I sin(2"ft + # ) The maximum current is I, and f is the frequency of the power source. Recall frequency has to do with how many cycles the current goes through each second. We can measure a cycle from peak to peak or trough to trough.

So lets study three simple circuits with AC current: First lets look at one with just a resistor:

VR = iR , where i(t) = IR sin(2"ft)

i(t) v(t) Imax Vmax

v R = IR sin(2"ft) # R = IR Rsin(2"ft) = VR sin(2"ft) VR = IR R

It turns out that the current and the voltage are in phase in this circuit. ! This means their waveforms match. If the voltage is on a crest so is the current, if the voltage is on a trough, so is the current. Now lets look at a circuit with a capacitive load:

Experimentally if we look at the waveforms of the current and voltage this is what we see:

IC V C
t

We can see that the waveforms dont match, i.e. the current reaches its maximum before the voltage does. If we write down the equations to describe the voltage and current, they would be:

vC = VC sin(2"ft)

" iC = IC sin(2"ft # ) 2 IC = max current through capacitor

By looking at the equation for current and voltage, we see that there is a phase constant between the two sine functions. The phase constant of - /2 tells us that the current reaches its max before the voltage. We say the current leads the voltage in this situation. So, whats the relationship between IC and VC ? Recall ohms law, V = IR which is the relationship between voltage and current for a resistor. So it would be nice to have a similarly simple relationship for a capacitor. It turns out that we can classify the ! relationship between IC and VC almost as simply.
VC = IC "C 1 capacitive reactance 2$f C The capacitive reactance is just like calculating the resistance of a capacitor in an AC circuit. Notice it depends on frequency and it has units of resistance (ohms). # "C =

Now lets look at a circuit with an inductive load:

IL
V L
t

v L = VL sin(2"ft) iL = IL sin(2"ft +

" ) 2 IL is the max current through the inductor

Again we can look at the equations for current and voltage and see that there is a phase constant between the two sine functions. The phase constant of + /2 tells us that the voltage reaches its max before the current does. We can say that the current lags the voltage. Again, just as we did with the capacitor, we can define a simple relationship between IL and VL:
VL = IL " L # " L = 2$f L inductive reactance

So lets summarize what weve learned:

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Circuit Element Symbol Resistance or Reactance Phase of the Current Phase Angle

Resistor R

Capacitor C

Inductor L

R
in phase with !R v 0

X = 1 C 2" fC X L = 2"fL
leads vC by 90 lags vL by 90 90

! -90 VR = IR R VC = IC X C VL = IL X L

So finally what we want to look at is an RLC circuit.

" V = IReq

# = IReq
Req = Z , impedance

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We can actually treat the power source like it is hooked up to a big resistor. In this case " = IR, where " is voltage of the power source.

But instead of R well define something called the impedance, Z which will be a combination of capacitive reactance, inductive reactance, and the resistance. But what is Z?

Z = R 2 + (X L " X C ) 2 Z = R 2 + (2#f L " 1 2 ) 2# C

So now we can find the current in the circuit:

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I= I=

" Z "
R 2 + (2#f L $ 1 2 ) 2# C

Now we know enough to talk about resonance. When you establish resonance in an RLC circuit, you get the maximum current to flow through the circuit. This happens when: XC = X L Recall :
Z = R 2 + (X L " X C ) 2 # Z = R2 = R $ I= R

So lets review:
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I= I=

" Z "
R 2 + (2#f L $ 1 2 ) 2# C

% When Z is small, I is big. The smallest Z can be is when Z = R. This only happens when : 1 1 2#f L = or when f = 2# C 2# LC

This frequency is called the natural frequency. There are many systems that have a natural frequency. One famous example is the Tacoma Narrows bridge, The old Tacoma Narrows bridge was named Galloping Gertie after its completion in July 1940 because it vibrated rather strongly whenever there was a little wind. Crossing it was like a roller-coaster ride, and Gertie was quite popular. However, on November 7, 1940, a day of rather high winds, Gertie took on a 30-hertz transverse vibration (like sending waves down a rope by moving the end up and down) with an amplitude of 1 feet! It later took on a twisting motion of about 14 hertz and quickly tore itself in two. http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/may98/892678504.Eg.r.html

You can see a video of this here: http://www.stkate.edu/physics/phys111/curric/bridgedeath.mpg The bridge was destroyed because due to its resonant vibrations. Resonance occurs when you expose a system to an external force that is vibrating at the systems natural frequency.

There are many common examples of systems that we can get to resonate easily: swings everybody knows that there are certain rules about pushing on a swing you have to push the person on the way up you have to push at the correct speed standing waves mass on a spring

A final question: Given 3 circuits each with = 25V, R = 200 and XC and XL of: (1) 50 and 100 (2) 100 and 50 (3) 50 and 50 Which circuit 1,2, or 3 is in resonance? Calculate the maximum current. Calculate the capacitance, if the frequency is 30Hz. (3) is resonating The maximum current is: " 25V I= = = 0.125A R 200# The capacitance is: 1 XC = 2"fC 1 1 #C= = = 0.1mF 2"fX C 2" (30Hz)(50$)

Applications of inductors: Transformers: Way to transfer energy from one circuit to another through magnetic coupling. Take two inductors, send an ac current through the first, this induces a changing B field through the second inductor. Youve now generated a current in the second inductor and transferred energy to that second circuit. It is often used to convert between high and low voltages and accordingly between low and high currents. You can have a step up transformer:

This is where you have more coils on the second inductor than the first. You can increase the voltage this way. You can also have a step down transformer:

This is where you have more coils on the first inductor than the second. You can decrease the voltage this way. The power company uses transformers to transport current to homes across the power grid because by stepping up the voltage and stepping down the current they minimize losses to the power that gets to your home or apartment. Remember P = I 2 R if you can decrease I then you can decrease energy lost in transporting the current through the power lines.
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Another place inductors are used: In oscillators like your car radio.