Physics SPM 2012

CHAPTER 6: WAVES
6.1

Wave Basics

Waves are generated by oscillating/vibrating systems An oscillation is the back-and-forth movement of an oscillating system through a fixed path

6.1.1 Wave Fronts

Wave fronts are the lines or surfaces connecting the particles moving at the same phase and are at the same distance from a wave source. Wave fronts are always perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Plane waves

Circular waves

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6.1.2 Types of Waves

Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves

Transverse waves are waves which oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation. E.g: Light waves

Longitudinal waves are waves which oscillate parallel to the direction of propagation. E.g: Sound waves

6.1.3 Amplitude, Period and Frequency

Amplitude is the maximum displacement of an object from its equilibrium position [m]

Period is the time taken for a particle to make one complete oscillation [s]
Period, T = time taken number of oscillatio ns

Frequency is the number of complete oscillations in one second [Hz]

Frequency, f = number of oscillations time taken f = 1 T

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6.1.4 Graphs
Displacement-time graph

Amplitude

Amplitude

Displacement-distance graph

6.1.5 Wave Equation

v = f where v = velocity of the wave [m s-1] f = frequency of the wave [Hz] = wavelength [m]

6.1.6 Damping and Resonance

An oscillating system which has a reducing amplitude over time is said to be undergoing damping. Damping is due to lost energy through friction and heat. External damping: Loss of heat energy because of friction with the air Internal damping: Loss of heat energy because of the compression and tension of the molecules in the system

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A system that is forced to oscillate continuously with provided external energy is said to be undergoing forced oscillation Natural frequency is the frequency of a system that is left to oscillate freely without an external force An object that is forced to oscillate at its natural frequency is said to be vibrating at resonance. An object vibrating at resonance has the maximum amplitude because it is receiving maximum energy from the external system

Bartons Pendulum

When the control pendulum X is oscillated, its energy is transferred to the other pendulums through the string. The other pendulums are forced to oscillate at the same frequency as pendulum X. Because pendulum D has the same natural frequency as X (same length), pendulum D will oscillate at resonance and will have the maximum amplitude.

6.1.7 Ripple tank

All water wave phenomena are observed through ripple tanks.

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Formation of wave shadows on the screen

6.2

Wave Reflection

6.2.1 Reflection of Waves

The angle of incidence = The angle of reflection

6.2.2 Applications
Embankments to protect the ports, beaches, etc

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6.3

Wave

Refraction
6.3.1 Water wave refraction
Water travels faster in deep waters and slower in shallow waters Therefore, the wavelength of water waves in deep water is bigger than the wavelength in shallow water.

1 > 2 When traveling from deep to shallow, the waves refract towards normal When traveling from shallow to deep, the waves refract away from normal

6.3.2 Water wave refraction patterns

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6.3.3 Water wave refraction at the seaside

As the wind blows the sea towards the beach, the decreasing depth causes the speed of the water waves to slow down The refraction effect causes the wave fronts to curve to be almost parallel to the beach In the middle of the sea, the wave fronts are almost in a straight line, as per A1B1C1D1 due to the same water depths As the waves approach the beachline, the wave fronts begin to curve to follow the shape of the beachline, as per A2B2C2D2 and A3B3C3D3 Energy from A1B1 is focused on the peninsula at A3B3 causing the peninsula to be hit by strong waves Energy from B1C1 is spread out through the bay at B3C3 causing the water at the bay to be calmer

6.3.4 Sound wave refraction

Sound refraction in the daytime

In the day, the air above the ground is hotter than the air higher in the atmosphere. As sound travels from hot air to cold air, its speed decreases and refracts towards normal; hence the sound wave curves upwards.

Sound refraction at night

At night, the air above the ground is colder than the air higher in the atmosphere. As sound travels from cold air to hot air, its speed increases until a point where the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and total internal reflection occurs; hence the sound wave curves downeards.

6.4

Wave Diffraction

6.4.1 Wave diffraction

Diffraction is more visible when: The wavelength of the wave is bigger The obstacle is smaller than the wavelength The aperture is smaller than the wavelength

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Smaller aperture Diffraction is more obvious

Bigger aperture Diffraction is less obvious

Smaller obstacle Diffraction is more obvious

Bigger obstacle Diffraction is less obvious

Round obstacle

6.4.2 Applications of diffraction

Embankment to protect ports

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6.5

Wave Interference

6.5.1 Principle of superposition

The principle of superposition state that when two waves propagate through the same point at the same time, the displacement at that point is the vector sum of the displacement of each individual wave. Two wave sources which are coherent have the same frequency and the same phase or phase difference. The superposition effects creates interference

Constructive interference

Destructive interference

6.5.2 Interference pattern

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6.5.3 Interference equation

=
ax D

where = wavelength [m] a = distance between sources [m] x = distance between two successive antinodal/nodal lines [m] D = distance between a and x [m]

6.5.4 Different frequencies

Low frequency (large wavelength) Value of x is larger

High frequency (small wavelength) Value of x is smaller

6.5.5 Different distance between the sources

Larger distance between the sources Value of x is smaller

Smaller distance between the sources Value of x is larger

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6.6

Sound Waves

Sound waves are longitudinal waves. Sound waves are mechanical waves; therefore they need a medium to propagate. The medium undergoes compression and rarefaction to transfer the energy of the sound waves from one point to another.

6.6.1 Speed of sound

Speed of sound is fastest in solids, followed by liquids, then gases. Speed of sound increases with temperature

6.6.2 Amplitude and Loudness

The loudness of sound is dependent on the amplitude of the wave. The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound.

6.6.3 Frequency and Pitch

The pitch of sound is dependent on the frequency of the wave. The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.

6.6.4 Quality of Sound

Different musical instruments can produce notes of the same loudness and pitch, and yet they are easily discernible from one another. This is because of the quality or timbre of the note produced by the individual musical instruments. Quality of sound depends on the shape of the sound waves generated by the musical instruments. Each note consists of a fundamental frequency that is mixed with weaker frequencies called overtones.

6.6.5 Frequency ranges

Frequency too low for human ears Below 20 Hz Infrasonic / Subsonic Frequency audible to human ears 20 20 000 Hz Audio frequency Ultrasonic / Supersonic Frequency too high for human ears Above 20 000 Hz

6.6.6 Noise

Sounds with frequencies which change randomly are known as noise Exposure to noise for an extended period of time can create psychological and physical problems
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6.6.7 Application of sound wave phenomena

Echoes (Sound wave reflection) In an auditorium, concert hall or music studio, echoes must be taken into account to ensure good acoustics Hyperbolic shape of sound waves Ampitheatres are usually designed in a hyperbole to enable better sound travel Sonar Supersonic waves used to measure the ocean depths and to detect objects in the ocean The transmitter releases an ultrasonic pulse which echoes off the ocean bed or object and is detected by a hydrophone Ultrasonic waves in medicine Diagnostics to create a picture or an image of an internal organ. E.g. foetus in mothers womb Ultrasonic drill to cut a decaying part of the tooth Ultrasonic waves in industries Ultrasonic echoes to detect flaws in a metal structure. E.g. in railway tracks Ultrasonic drill to cut holes in glass and steel High frequency vibration to clean instruments and fragile items

6.7

Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are electrical and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular to each other around a single axis

6.7.1 Characteristics
Electromagnetic waves have the following characteristics: Transverse wave Fulfills the wave equation v=f Travels at the same speed (speed through vacuum: c = 3 108 m s-1) Does not need a medium to propagate Can be polarized

Polaroid is a type of material which allows waves to penetrate through in one plane only

Polarization
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Physics SPM 2012

6.7.2 Electromagnetic Wave Spectrum

Electromagnetic wave Gamma ray Source Nuclear reaction (fission, fusion) Characteristic High energy High penetration Extremely dangerous Uses Kill cancer cells Sterilization Food preservation Kill agricultural pests Detect flaws or worn parts in car engines Detect bone flaws or fractures Detect structural or machine flaws Investigate crystal structures and elements in a material Examine bags at the airport Treats the skin with the right exposure (for Vitamin D) Detects counterfeit money Enables vision Enables photography Photosynthesis Optic fibre to see inside tissues and organs Laser light in optic fibre for communication Physiotherapy Pictures of internal organs Satellite pictures Communication satellite, radar Cooking VHF & UHF Radio and television SW, MW & LW Radio broadcast

X-ray

X-ray tubes: high-velocity electrons hitting heavy metal targets

High energy High penetration Extremely dangerous

Ultraviolet ray WAVELENGTH, (m) FREQUENCY, f (Hz)

The sun Mercury vapour lamps Extremely hot objects The sun Light bulbs Fire

Visible light

Absorbed by glass and the ozone layer Enables chemical reactions, skin burns, skin cancer Consists of seven colours with their own respective wavelengths and frequencies

Infrared ray

Microwave

The sun Heater Hot or burning items Klystroms

Heat ray Enables a hot feeling Penetrates the atmosphere

Radiowave UHF VHF SW MW LW

Electrical currents oscillating at the transmitting aerial

Chapter 6: Waves

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Physics SPM 2010

6.8

Wave Phenomena
Changing characteristics Unchanged: Speed Frequency Wavelength Change: Amplitude Water waves Sound waves Light waves

Phenomena Reflection

i r

Incident ray

normal

Reflected ray

Refraction

Unchanged: Frequency Change: Speed Wavelength Amplitude

Carbon dioxide: Converges the sound waves (louder) Helium: Diverges the sound waves (softer) Results using single-slit slide:

Diffraction

Unchanged: Speed Frequency Wavelength Change: Amplitude Unchanged: Speed Frequency Wavelength Change: Amplitude

Ray box

Slide

Screen

Interference

Results using Young double-slit:

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