Q1A Explain the types of research. Ans: A :The of research are: 1.

Pure Research : It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice, e.g., Einsteins theory of relativity, Newtons contributions, Galileos contribution, etc. 2. Applied Research: It is carried on to find solution to real life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and actiondirected. It seeks an immediate and practical result, e.g., Marketing Research carried on for developing a news market or for studies the post- purchase experience of customers. 3. Exploratory Research: It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. 4. Descriptive Study: It is the fact finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest type of research. It is more specific than an exploratory research. 5. Diagnostic Studies: It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering what is happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. 6. Evaluation Studies: It is the type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programmers implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental project area. 7. Action Research: It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action programme launched for solving a problem for existing situation. 1 .b. What is the significance of research in social and business sciences?

Significance of Research in Social and Business Sciences According to a famous Hudson Maxim, All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention. It brings out the significance of research, increased amounts of which

makes progress possible. Research encourages scientific and inductive thinking, besides promoting the development of logical habits of thinking and organization. The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or business is greatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of government and business has raised the use of research in solving operational problems. Research assumes significant role in formulation of economic policy, for both the government and business. It provides the basis for almost all government policies of an economic system. Government budget formulation, for example, depends particularly on the analysis of needs and desires of the people, and the availability of revenues, which requires research. Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the consequences of these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision making of policy-makers, although in itself it is not a part of research. In the process, research also helps in the proper allocation of a countrys scare resources. Research is also necessary for collecting information on the social and economic structure of an economy to understand the process of change occurring in the country. Collection of statistical information though not a routine task, involves various research problems. Therefore, large staff of research technicians or experts is engaged by the government these days to undertake this work. Thus, research as a tool of government economic policy formulation involves three distinct stages of operation which are as follows: Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts Diagnoses of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them; and The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments

Research also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and planning problems associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research, market research, and motivational research are vital and their results assist in taking business decisions. Market research is refers to the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the formulation of efficient policies relating to purchases, production and sales. Operational research relates to the application of logical, mathematical, and analytical techniques to find solution to business problems such as cost minimization or profit maximization, or the optimization problems. Motivational research helps to determine why people behave in the manner they do with respect to market characteristics. More specifically, it is concerned with the analyzing the motivations underlying consumer behavior. All these researches are very useful for business and industry, which are responsible for business decision making. Research is equally important to social scientist for analyzing social relationships and seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction of knowing things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses practical utility for the social scientist to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. This, research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge for its own sake, and knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems.

Q2: What is meant by validity? How does it differ from reliability and what are its types ? Ans:- validity is a measurement scale and may be considered to b valid if it effectively measures a specific property or characteristics that it intends to measure. The question of validity does not arise in the case of measurement of

physical characteristics such as length, weight and height. This is because the measurement is direct and can be done through standard measuring devices. Validity maybe classified into different types, as described below 1. Contact Validity: This type of validity may be of two types a) Face validity and b) Sampling validity. Face validity is determined through as subjective evaluation of a measuring scale. For Example, a brand and pretest the scale among a few experts. If the experts are satisfied with the scale, the researcher may conclude that it is determined by opinions, rather than through a statistical method. 2. Predictive Validity: This type of validity refers to the extent to which one behavior can be predicted based on another, based on the association between the results yielded by the measuring instrument and the eventual outcome. 3. Construct Validity: A construct is a conceptual equation that is developed by researcher based on theoretical reasoning. Various kinds of relationship may be perceived by the researcher between a variable under study and other variables. Reliability: This refers to the ability of measuring scale to provide consistent and accurate results. To give a simple example, a weighing machine may be said to be reliable if the same reading is given every time the same object is weighed. There are two dimensions of reliability stability and equivalence or nonvariability. Stability refers to consistency of results with repeated measurements of the same object, as in the weighing machine example.

Q3 .a. Why literature survey is important in research?

ans. 3 a. Review of Literature

Frequently, an exploratory study is concerned with an area of subject matter in which explicit hypothesis have not yet been formulated. The researchers task then is to review the available material with an eye on the possibilities of developing hypothesis from it. In some areas of the subject matter, hypothesis may have been stated by previous research workers. The researcher has to take stock of these various hypotheses with a view to evaluating their usefulness for further research and to consider whether they suggest any new hypothesis. Sociological journals, economic reviews, the bulletin of abstracts of current social sciences research, directory of doctoral dissertation accepted by universities etc afford a rich store of valuable clues. In addition to these general sources, some governmental agencies and voluntary organizations publish listings of summaries of research in their special fields of service. Professional organizations, research groups and voluntary organizations are a constant source of information about unpublished works in their special fields.

Q3. b. What are the components of a research design? Ans3 b. Components of Research Design It is important to be familiar with the important concepts relating to research design. They are: 1. Dependent and Independent variables: A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values, like height, weight, income, etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of objectivity. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as continuous variables. But, all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called noncontiguous variables. In statistical term, they are also known as discrete variable. For example, age is a continuous variable; where as the number of children is a noncontinuous variable. When changes in one variable depends upon the changes in one or more other variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable. And if, more variables determine demand, like income and prices of substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon

them in addition to the own price. Then, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables like own price, income and price of substitute. 2. Extraneous variable: The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between childrens school performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an experimental error. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous variable or variables. 3. Control: One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous variable. Technically, the term control is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous independent variables. The term control is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions. 4. Confounded relationship: The relationship between dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects. 5. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not be tested are predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified are not classified as research hypothesis. 6. Experimental and control groups: When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as control group. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an experimental group. In the afore-mentioned example, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B an experimental one. If both the groups A and B are exposed to some special feature, then both the groups

may be called as experimental groups. A research design may include only the experimental group or the both experimental and control groups together. 7. Treatments: Treatments are referred to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups are subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to examine through an experiment regarding the comparative impacts of three different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers would be treated as the three treatments. 8. Experiment: An experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, experiment may be conducted to examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be categorized into two types namely, absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a comparative experiment. 9. Experiment unit: Experimental units refer to the predetermined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which the different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental units must be selected with great caution.

Q4 Explain the procedure for testing hypothesis? Ans:- A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e r e s e a r c h p r o b l e m o r a g u e s s a b o u t t h e r e s e a r c h o u t c o me . B e f o r e starting the research, the researcher has a rather general, diffused, even confused notion of the problem. It may take long time for the researcher to say what questions he had been seeking answers to. Hence, an adequate statement about the research problem is very important. What is a good problem statement? It is an interrogative statement that a s k s : wh a t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s b e t w e e n t wo o r mo r e v a r i a b l e s ? I t t h e n f u r t h e r a s k s questions like: Is A related to B or not? How are A and B related to C? Is A related to Bunder conditions X and Y? Proposing a statement pertaining to relationship between A and B is called a hypothesis.

Procedure for Testing Hypothesis: To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data r e s e a r c h e r h a s collected) whether or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the main question is: whether the null hypothesis or not to accept the null hypothesis? Procedure f o r h yp o t h e s i s t e s t i n g r e f e r s t o a l l t h o s e s t e p s t h a t we u n d e r t a k e f o r ma k i n g a c h o ic e between the two actions i.e., rejection and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated below: 1)Making a Formal Statement: The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho) a n d also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha). This means that hypothesis should clearly state, considering the nature of the research problem. For instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the load bearing capacity of an old bridge which must be more than 10 tons, in that case he can state his hypothesis as under: Null hypothesis HO: =10 tons Alternative hypothesis Ha : >10 tons Take another example. The average score in an aptitude test administered at the national level is 80. To evaluate a states education system, the average score of 100 of the states s t u d e n t s s e l e c t e d o n t h e r a n d o m b a s is w a s 7 5 . Th e s t a t e wa n t s t o k no w i f t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n c e d i f f e r e n c e b e t we e n t h e l o c a l s c o r e s a n d t h e n a t i o n a l s c o r e s . I n s u c h a situation the hypothesis may be state as under: Null hypothesis HO : =80 Alternative hypothesis Ha : 80The formulation of hypothesis is an important step which must be accomplished with due care in accordance with the object and nature of the problem under consideration. It also i n d i c a t e s wh e t h e r we s h o u l d u s e a t a i l e d t e s t o r a t wo ta i l e d t e s t . I f H a i s o f t h e t yp e g r e a t e r t h a n , we u s e a l o n e t a i l e d t e s t , b u t wh e n H a i s o f t h e t yp e w h e t h e r g r e a t e r o r smaller then we use a two-tailed test. a Significant Level: The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such the same should have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the level of significance are: The magnitude of the difference between sample ; The size of the sample;

The variability of measurements within samples; Whether the hypothesis is directional or non directional (A directional hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say, means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the context of the purpose and nature of enquiry. 3) Deciding the Distribution to Use: After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice generally remains between d i s t r i b u t io n a n d t h e t d i s t r i b u t i o n . Th e r u l e s f o r s e l e c t i n g t h e c o r r e c t d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e similar to those which we have stated earlier in the context of estimation. 4) Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate Value: Another step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an appropriate value from the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data. 5) Calculation of the Probability: One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true. 6) Comparing the Probability: Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with the s p e c i f i e d v a l u e f o r , t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l . I f t h e c a l c u l a t e d p r o b a b i l i t y i s e q u a l t o smaller than value in case of one tailed test (and /2 in case of two-tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis), but if the probability is greater then accept the null hypothesis. In case we reject H0 w e r u n a r i s k o f ( a t mo s t l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ) c o m mi t t i n g a n e r r o r o f t yp e I , b u t i f w e a c c e p t H 0, t he n we r u n some risk of committing error type II.

Flow Diagram for Testing Hypothesis

Q5. a. What are the characteristics of a good research design? Ans. 5 a. Needs of Research Design The need for the methodologically designed research: 1. In many a research inquiry, the researcher has no idea as to how accurate the results of his study ought to be in order to be useful. Where such is the case, the researcher has to determine how much inaccuracy may be tolerated. In a quite few cases he may be in a position to know how much inaccuracy his method of research will produce. In either case he should design his research if he wants to assure himself of useful results. 2. In many research projects, the time consumed in trying to ascertain what the data mean after they have been collected is much greater than the time taken to design a research which yields data whose meaning is known as they are collected. 3. The idealized design is concerned with specifying the optimum research procedure that could be followed were there no practical restrictions. Characteristics of a Good Research Design 1. It is a series of guide posts to keep one going in the right direction. 2. It reduces wastage of time and cost. 3. It encourages co-ordination and effective organization. 4. It is a tentative plan which undergoes modifications, as circumstances demand, when the study progresses, new aspects, new conditions and new relationships come to light and insight into the study deepens. 5. It has to be geared to the availability of data and the cooperation of the informants. 6. It has also to be kept within the manageable limits