Women middle managers' perception of the glass ceiling

Janet Cooper Jackson

The author Janet Cooper Jackson is an Assistant Professor of Organizational Leadership, Chapman University, Orange, California, USA. Keywords Careers, Barriers, Women, Middle management, USA Abstract Women now represent approximately half of the working population in the USA. In 1996, the US Department of Labor reported that women comprised 44 percent of the total persons employed in executive, administrative and managerial occupations. However, this category is extremely broad, and women are grossly underrepresented at the top executive positions of Fortune 500 corporations. In 1995 the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission produced two reports: the first finding the existence of a glass ceiling; and the second presenting strategic recommendations on what corporations could do to remove or reduce these findings. Explores how women in middle management perceive their career advancement opportunities and what they consider their organizations to be doing to support their advancement. Overall, results suggest that the glass ceiling is still an issue for women within organizations. Finally, the business implications of this are considered. Electronic access The research register for this journal is available at http://www.mcbup.com/research_registers The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emerald-library.com/ft
Women in Management Review Volume 16 . Number 1 . 2001 . pp. 3041 # MCB University Press . ISSN 0964-9425

We've come a long way, baby! Or have we? Women working in organizations have made progress, haven't they? The US Department of Labor statistics report that women comprised 44 percent of the total persons employed in executive, administrative and managerial occupations in 1996, a 5 percent increase from 1988 (US Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, 1997). However, this category is extremely broad, from fast food restaurant managers to CEOs of large corporations. Women are still more likely to be managers in the same fields in which there are also proportionately more of them employed below the managerial level[1]. They are grossly under-represented at the top executive positions[2]. The term ``glass ceiling'', first used in a 1986 Wall Street Journal special report on the corporate woman (Hymowitz and Schellhardt, 1986), described a corporate world in which access to the top for women was blocked by corporate tradition and prejudice. Since the publication of this article, the term ``glass ceiling'' has come to mean the invisible barrier that keeps women and minorities from rising above a certain level in corporations. Many attribute this barrier to be based on the factors of gender or race, rather than factors such as lack of ability to handle jobs at higher institutional levels. In 1992, a Federal Glass Ceiling Commission was established, created out of the Civil Rights Act of 1991. The commission's mandate was to identify barriers that have blocked the advancement of minorities and women as well as the successful practices and policies that have led to the advancement of minority men and all women into decision-making positions in the private sector. Their research was reported in two reports. The first, Good for Business: Making Full Use of the Nation's Human Capital (US Department of Labor, 1995a), presented the findings of the research; the second, A Solid Investment: Making Full Use of the Nation's Human Capital (US Department of Labor, 1995b), presented strategic recommendations based on these findings. Participants in the Commission's study agreed that a glass ceiling does exist and that it operates substantially to exclude minorities and women[3] from top level positions of
Received October 1999 Revised/accepted July 2000

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Women middle managers' perception of the glass ceiling

Janet Cooper Jackson

Women in Management Review Volume 16 . Number 1 . 2001 . 3041

management. The Commission also found that increasing numbers of corporate leaders recognized that the glass ceiling (with its exclusion of members of groups other than white males) is bad for business. CEOs reported the need to compete in the changing business environment as the primary driver to address glass ceiling issues. They reported that glass ceilings exclude able people of diverse backgrounds from top leadership of corporations; and whom businesses need in order to compete successfully. Moreover, top quality people, regardless of gender, race, or ethnicity, are essential to the health and profitability of business (US Department of Labor, 1995a). What has happened in the wake of these reports published in 1995? This study explores the visible and invisible barriers that have historically kept women from reaching upper levels of management. It reports the results from a small but representative survey of middle managerial women's perceptions of career barriers and the initiatives their organizations have taken to reduce or remove those barriers. While the Glass Ceiling Commission focused on the upper levels of the organization, the majority of working women live either on the ``sticky bottom'' or somewhere in the middle. Additionally, women today are able to peek through the glass ceiling, and some question whether the executive floor is right for them. What they often see is the need to work long and hard hours, often without equitable pay, and in an atmosphere that is not always friendly towards them. This, coupled with projections of increases in lower and middle level management positions[4], leads us to a larger question than, ``Is there still a glass ceiling?'' More importantly we need to ask, ``How do we develop and reward those who choose lower levels of management as their career aspirations?'' We propose this to be the most compelling reason to continue our focus on the glass ceiling.

aspects of the organization (i.e. social structures) contribute to the barriers that impede women's career advancement. The literature on the glass ceiling suggests barriers that fall under the broad categories of corporate culture and corporate practices. Organizational culture is a popular concept with a variety of definitions, such as a pattern of basic assumptions developed as a group or organization learns to cope with its environment (Schein, 1985), or simply ``the way we do things around here'' (Deal and Kennedy, 1982). When a corporation has many more men than women (or vice versa) in influential positions, the culture tends to adopt attributes that favor the dominant gender, or what is referred to as ``gendered organizations'' (i.e. Klenke, 1996). In relation to the barriers that impede women's career development, culture is further delineated into perception or stereotyping and organizational climate. Perception and stereotyping Despite the gains women have made, negative attitudes and stereotypes of women as leaders prevail (Klenke, 1996). A common perception is that men are viewed as the leaders in organizations, while women are viewed as the supportive followers. Frequently women themselves, working in male-dominated organizations, are less inclined to see themselves as leaders or seek leadership roles. The perception of women as followers is strengthened by a lack of strong female role models. In an environment where the number of women in key executive positions is minimal, it is difficult to develop a mental model of women as leaders. This inhibits self-perception and evaluation of a woman's potential to be a leader (Davidson and Cooper, 1992), as well as anticipatory socialization. Some of the Caucasian men reported to the researchers of the Glass Ceiling Commission (US Department of Labor, 1995a, p. 35) that they believed that ``minorities and women are taking over and imposing different cultures and communication styles on them. They, too, feel excluded and angry''. Again, perception plays a role here. Ragins et al. (1998) reported that 40 percent of the female executives surveyed perceived white men fear reverse discrimination, compared to only 20 percent of the CEOs surveyed seeing this as an issue. 31

Barriers that impede women's career advancement

An investigation of the glass ceiling suggests that beliefs and attitudes held by organizational members (i.e. women are not viewed as leaders), as well as contextual

Women middle managers' perception of the glass ceiling

Janet Cooper Jackson

Women in Management Review Volume 16 . Number 1 . 2001 . 3041

Corporate climate The Commission came to the conclusion that America's corporate climate is still not receptive to diversity, reporting, ``. . . differing communications styles and ideas of what is appropriate and acceptable behavior can . . . create barriers to their [women and minorities] advancement and can influence supervisors' evaluations of their performance and potential'' (US Department of Labor, 1995a, p. 33). Ragins et al. (1998) cite corporate culture as the primary barrier to women's advancement into upper management. The women they surveyed described inhospitable and exclusionary environments. In most organizations that are male-led, the good old boy network still exists, and studies show that women have been largely excluded from these networks. Klenke (1996, p. 182) says:
Most women leaders do not share a traditional ``old boy'' network because they are often on their own. They often have to create alternatives to substitute for what informal networks accomplish.

The benefits of informal networking are well acknowledged as important to upward mobility, including information exchange, career planing and strategizing, professional support and encouragement, and increased visibility. While more women are taking up golf (a male-oriented informal networking activity), many women tend to network by joining female business networks. Discomfort on both sides leads to this exclusion (Davidson and Cooper, 1992). Another related factor is the issue of family responsibility. Women with major child rearing or elder care responsibilities find it difficult to engage in after-hour activities, therefore missing out on the opportunity to ``schmooze with decision makers'' (Castro and Furchtgott-Roth, 1997). Another gender related barrier is personal and professional style. Ragins et al. (1998) report that 96 percent of the female executives they surveyed felt they had to develop a professional style with which male managers would be comfortable. Closely related is the practice of management and leadership. Many organizations still embrace a ``male-oriented'' management style, where direct and aggressive behavior is the norm. However, when women embrace this style, they are frequently labeled as ``bossy'' and 32

``pushy'', whereas men using the same behaviors are labeled ``leaders'' (Davidson and Cooper, 1992). Interestingly, aggressiveness, objective thinking, dominance, competition, and decisiveness are characteristics often found in leadership research studies as preferred by both men and women as desirable (Klenke, 1996). However, when women display these traits, they often receive negative evaluations; while men displaying the same traits are positively evaluated. Women report the perception that if they adopt a ``feminine'' managerial style, they run the risk of being viewed as ineffective, and if they adopt a ``masculine'' style, they will be criticized for not being feminine (Ragins et al., 1998). While once women were expected to assimilate and become ``one of the boys'', there seems to be a trend away from that, particularly with the attention now being paid to women's leadership styles (i.e. Rosener, 1990). However, in male dominated organizations, women often feel under-utilized and devalued. Women are not only excluded from informal networks, but also from important meetings where decisions are made. Women tend to be given lower level projects with less visibility. Women's ideas are frequently discounted or ignored, creating the ``invisiblewoman syndrome''. Corporate practices The Commission's findings (US Department of Labor, 1995a, p. 33) noted outreach and recruitment practices that do not reach women and minorities, finding that most companies surveyed had not expanded their traditional recruitment methods. Once hired, women are often initially placed in genderized fields: channeled into staff or highly technical and professional jobs that are not traditional positions that track to the top, resulting in a ``glass wall''. Along with being clustered in genderized areas of organizations, women often suffer from limited career development. For example, not being given a variety of jobs or special assignments that increase their visibility and enhance their career development. Additionally, women are less frequently offered rotational job assignments to areas that are on the revenue-producing side of the business, decreasing their chances for promotions to the top slots of the organization.

Women middle managers' perception of the glass ceiling

Janet Cooper Jackson

Women in Management Review Volume 16 . Number 1 . 2001 . 3041

``In the race to the top, mentors can make the difference between getting on the inside track and trailing the field'' (Ragins and Cotton, 1996). It is widely acknowledged that mentoring is an important factor of a successful career (i.e. Klenke, 1996; Ragins et al., 1998). While mentoring in organizations is not a new concept, what is relatively new is women serving as mentors to other women, and organizations implementing formal mentoring programs to help women along the leadership path (Klenke, 1996). Mentoring has a number of benefits, including reports that people with mentors are more satisfied with their jobs and have greater success on the job than those without mentors. Women in male-dominated organizations often have limited mentoring opportunities, creating a paradox as ``mentoring relationships may be particularly important for women seeking leadership roles'' (Klenke, 1996, p. 184). Klenke further says, ``Women who do not have a mentor because they lack access to informal networks may not be visible to organizational decision makers and therefore may reduce their chances of being selected for leadership roles'' (Klenke, 1996, p. 185). Women continually report the need to work harder, prove themselves, and prove their credibility as managers, particularly when they are the ``token woman''. Ragins et al. (1998) report that 99 percent of the female executives in their study reported ``consistently exceeding performance expectations'' as critical or fairly important, stating they feel the need to prove their ability repeatedly and over-perform in order to counter negative assumptions. Additionally, as women move into higher positions, they become more highly visible and public, and there is a perception of a higher pressure to perform harder than their male colleagues, that their actions are more highly scrutinized (Klenke, 1996) and they are often seen as a test case for women in the future (Davidson and Cooper, 1992). Many, including the US Department of Labor, Women's Bureau (1997), report that women managers have not achieved equity in terms of balancing work and family. Conventional male-dominated organizational culture dictates that people who pursue managerial careers subordinate all other life roles to their work (Maier, 1997). Statistics from the US Department of Labor, Women's Bureau (1997) in 1996 show that a higher 33

proportion of male managers were married (74 percent) compared to women (61 percent). Women managers were nearly twice as likely as their male counterparts to be divorced, and were more likely to be single (never married). Despite the controversy raised by Schwartz (1989), the decision remains with most women working in organizations to be ``career-primary'' or ``career-family''. Progression to the top of most organizations is a sequence of linear, vertical steps up the ladder; this sequence doesn't adjust well to extended leaves and does not integrate the family (Klenke, 1996). Davidson and Cooper (1992) discuss role stress as a factor with the multiple role demands inherent in running a career, a home, and a family. Gordon and Whelan (1998) found that 78 percent of their sample of successful mid-life professional women stated the need for renewed workfamily balance, finding ways to ensure balance and developing and maintaining a healthy perspective on the quality and interdependency of various aspects of their lives.

Initiatives that organizations can take to reduce or remove these barriers

The Federal Glass Ceiling Commission found evidence of initiatives that companies can take to reduce or remove career barriers to women and minorities, which they clearly outlined in their report (US Department of Labor, 1995b). As with the barriers, these practices fall generally under the categories of corporate culture and actual practices and relate to the barriers addressed earlier[5]. Corporate culture If organizations are interested in retaining talented women and minorities, a change in organizational culture is called for. Maledominated organizations still appear to have perspectives that are incompatible with the advancement of women into upper management levels. This is evidenced by the small number of women at top executive spots, as well as the number of women who leave the corporate environment to form their own companies. Readdressing human resources policies and practices and changing the organizational culture and executive

Women middle managers' perception of the glass ceiling

Janet Cooper Jackson

Women in Management Review Volume 16 . Number 1 . 2001 . 3041

attitudes should help organizations retain highly talented women. One of the most important factors for addressing the glass ceiling is CEO commitment. The Commission stated, ``The CEO must communicate visible and continuing commitment to workforce diversity throughout the organization'' (US Department of Labor, 1995b, p. x). The Commission recommended that companies include diversity in all strategic business plans and hold line managers accountable for progress. Short- and long-term objectives should include efforts to achieve diversity both at the senior management level and throughout the organization. Additionally, performance appraisals, compensation incentives and other evaluation measures must reflect a line manager's ability to set a high standard and demonstrate progress toward breaking the glass ceiling. Additionally, it was recommended that while organizations cannot make members of society blind to differences in color, culture, or gender, they can demand and enforce merit-based practice and behavior internally. CEO commitment goes beyond EEO compliance to include sensitivity to issues concerning women and their advancement into higher levels of management. The Commission recommended that companies provide formal training at regular intervals on company time to sensitize and familiarize all employees about the strengths and challenges of diversity. Maier (1997) suggests that ``white-male managerial behavior'' is unconsciously accepted as the norm to which everyone who wishes to be a manager must aspire. Maier suggests that succeeding by assimilation to this norm blinds white men to the potential limitations of the system and how others are disadvantaged by the system. Corporate practices Organizations are encouraged to select, promote, and retain qualified individuals, expanding their recruitment practices and seeking candidates from non-customary sources, backgrounds, and experiences. Policies need to be in place that support the promotion of qualified women to management positions, and thereby attempt to retain this valued resource. Recommendations to improve opportunity include expanding women's access to core areas of the business and to various 34

developmental experiences, such as rotational and non-traditional job assignments that broaden the base of a candidate's experience and visibility. This is supported by the Gordon and Whelan (1998) study, where 65 percent of the women interviewed stated the need for continued achievement, accomplishment, and perceived value to the organization. They also suggest that organizations must be willing to take a chance on talented women who have not held the prerequisite jobs but have the credentials for the position. Ragins et al. (1998) reported that 94 percent of their study respondents regarded handling difficult or highly visible assignments as important to their success. They also reported the need to seek out these assignments more so than their male counterparts. Along with challenging assignments, the Glass Ceiling Commission recommended that organizations initiate specific career path programs that identify objective performance, skill, and knowledge criteria for advancement. Closely related to career development is the need for feedback, and the importance for men and women to receive regular performance feedback on an equal basis. Closely tied to career development is the recommendation that organizations establish formal mentoring programs that provide career guidance and support to prepare minorities and women for senior positions. Additionally, employee-sponsored networks and affinity groups were seen as important developmental tools for those seeking higher levels of responsibility. Schwartz (1996) suggests that by joining a women's group, one has the opportunity to develop strategies for addressing common problems and issues. Gordon and Whelan (1998) suggest encouraging mid-life women to act as mentors to younger women. Work/life and family-friendly practices and policies benefit all employees, and are an important step in an organization's commitment to hiring, retaining, and promoting both men and women (US Department of Labor, 1995b). Policies should be adopted that recognize and accommodate the balance between work and family responsibilities that impact the lifelong career paths of all employees. Such practices include flexible hours, child care and elderly care programs, and job sharing. Additionally, as important as the formal policies, are

Women middle managers' perception of the glass ceiling

Janet Cooper Jackson

Women in Management Review Volume 16 . Number 1 . 2001 . 3041

informal practices that support the policies, i.e. reinforcing flextime by prohibiting meetings outside the core flextime hours (Gordon and Whelan, 1998).

This study
As discussed, the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission (US Department of Labor, 1995a) found that the glass ceiling exists in many US companies. Redwood (1996) says, ``Cracks are in the ceiling and women are moving up the corporate ladder. Progress has been made, but we still have a long way to go''. Redwood also reported that at the other end of the spectrum, some CEOs perceived the issue of the glass ceiling to be resolved. Where, along this continuum, do women in middle levels of management perceive themselves? This investigation set out to directly survey women in middle managerial positions regarding their perceptions of their own career barriers in their organizations. Secondarily, the study was intended to examine their perceptions regarding the implementation of any initiatives taken by their organizations to reduce or remove career-impeding barriers. Finally, the study was intended to develop a survey questionnaire that would quantify and measure perceptions of the glass ceiling. It was intended as a pilot study of women in a small geographical area, with intentions to expand further to a larger geographical area as well as a survey of men's perceptions of their careers in similar organizations. For the purposes of this paper the following research questions will be addressed. . Do women middle managers perceive that there are organizational barriers, similar to those found in the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission study and literature, that impede their career advancement in their companies? . Do women middle managers perceive that their organizations have undertaken initiatives recommended by the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission to remove career-impeding barriers that impede their success? . How do women in middle management positions perceive their chances for success in career advancement in their organizations? 35

Methodology A 144-item questionnaire was developed that incorporated items directly from the literature, as discussed earlier. It examined four main areas: (1) perceptions of career barriers at their organization; (2) perceptions of workplace initiatives taken to remove or reduce these barriers; (3) perceptions of career advancement opportunities within their organizations; and (4) specific career strategies they have employed. A number of biographical questions were also included. Most items were rated on a fivepoint Likert-type scale from totally disagree (1) to totally agree (5). Career strategies were open text questions. Most of the statements were written in a positive tone, for example, ``I am invited to informal gatherings along with my male peers''. Some items were written in a negative tone, for example, ``I am excluded from important decision-making meetings''. When combining both positive and negative statements for a scale, the negative tone items were recoded to make the scales consistent. Sample The sample in this study was developed through four sources: (1) examining the membership lists of two professional societies in Southern California; (2) students enrolled in graduate degree programs at the author's university; (3) attendees at a conference; and (4) word-of-mouth referrals. Approximately 300 women received letters inviting them to participate in this study. Many responded that while they were interested in participating in the study, they did not meet the inclusion criteria, which included working in an mid-to-large size organization of 400+ employees, both men and women, with a minimum of four levels of management. Respondents needed to hold a management position, lower than the executive level. They needed to have worked at the organization for a minimum of one year. The questionnaire, administered via a postal survey, was mailed to 80 women and completed by 47. Of the women, 36 (77

Women middle managers' perception of the glass ceiling

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Women in Management Review Volume 16 . Number 1 . 2001 . 3041

percent) reported themselves as white/ Caucasian; the mean age of the sample was 46, with the age range of 27 to 65 years. A total of 91 percent of the respondents held a college degree, with 57 percent possessing a post-baccalaureate degree. A total of 64 percent of the women were married and 31 of the women had children. The mean number of years the participants had been in their current job was 3.9; the mean number of years they had been with their current organization was 8.1; and the mean number of years in management was 8.5. A total of 72 percent of the sample reported themselves to be in an upper or middle management position; 68 percent of the women worked in staff positions. A total of 62 percent of the sample reported earning between $50,000 and $100,000 a year in 1999. A total of 66 percent of the women worked in companies with more than 1,000 employees, 66 percent in companies with 25 to 75 percent of the population being women. A total of 38 (81 percent) of the respondents reported fewer than 25 percent of women at the executive levels in their organizations. A total of 68 percent of the women reported that their board of directors included one or more women. A total of 79 percent of the women worked in the service sector, with several industries represented including manufacturing, health care, financial services, insurance, education, aerospace, and public sector, all but two located in Southern California.

Results
The results are organized under three main headings: (1) perceptions of career barriers; (2) perceptions of workplace initiatives; and (3) perceptions of their chances for success in career advancement in their organization. Descriptive statistics were utilized to summarize the data collected in the survey. Perceptions of carrier barriers The first part of the survey asked respondents to rate 52 items describing career barriers in terms of how each statement applied to their company, from which six scales were created. ``Perception and stereotyping'' comprised eight items measuring the women's 36

perceptions of how men perceive women in their organization, i.e. ``The men I work with (my peers) see me as an equal''. ``Old boy network'' comprised five items measuring the extent to which women felt they are included in the informal network of the company, i.e. ``I am invited to informal gatherings along with my male peers, i.e. to play golf''. ``Career development: opportunity'' comprised five items measuring the extent women believed they received developmental opportunities in their companies, i.e. ``I am offered a wide variety of assignments in different areas of the organization''. ``Valuing women and tokenism'' comprised nine items measuring the extent to which women felt men valued women in their organization, i.e. ``I feel additional pressure to perform because I am a woman''. ``Management style'' comprised nine items measuring the extent to which women felt the need to adopt a ``male managerial'' style, i.e. ``I need to be aggressive in order to be taken seriously''. ``Work-family conflict'' comprised nine items measuring the extent to which women felt their family responsibilities conflicted with their chances for advancement, i.e. ``If I take a break from my career to have a child, my chances for advancement will suffer''. Table I presents descriptive statistics for each of the six barriers, including the mean and standard deviation, listed in descending order. The women in this study reported the most positive organizational experiences with perceptions and stereotyping. This scale suggests that women believe the men in their organizations respect women, hold favorable perceptions of them as potential leaders, and do not engage in stereotypical beliefs about women in the workplace. For example, the women reported that the men who report to them treat them with respect (4.1). However, they also reported that in their organizations, there is the perception that men are better
Table I Career barriers Variable Perception and stereotyping Work-family conflict Old boy network Valuing women and tokenism Management style Career development: opportunity Mean 3.39 3.19 3.18 2.94 2.93 2.85 SD 0.86 0.55 0.89 0.65 0.55 0.74

Notes: n = 47. Scale: totally disagree (1) to totally agree (5)

Women middle managers' perception of the glass ceiling

Janet Cooper Jackson

Women in Management Review Volume 16 . Number 1 . 2001 . 3041

suited for upper level management positions (2.7). It appears that these women are not experiencing a great deal of conflict between work and family (3.2). However, it should be kept in mind that this was an older sample of managerial women with mostly teenage or adult children. They did report the perception that they would be penalized if they were to request a more flexible work schedule (2.7). The literature reveals many examples of women being excluded from informal network opportunities. While these women reported that their male colleagues were fairly comfortable with their participation in informal gatherings (3.5), they were not invited to these informal gatherings along with their male peers (2.4). However, the respondents of this study did not perceive the ``old boy network'' to be a major career barrier (3.18). Women reported less favorable organizational experiences regarding the other three career barriers: valuing women and tokenism (2.94); management style (2.93); and career development: opportunity (2.85). While they reported having moderate access to highly visible committees and task forces (3.3), they were not offered opportunities to rotate job assignments to both line and staff positions (2.4), as recommended by the Glass Ceiling Commission (US Department of Labor, 1995b). It was reported that women who display a dominant and autocratic management style are negatively perceived by both men and women (2.3 and 2.4 respectively), while a feminine management style (i.e. cooperative, interactive) is seen as fairly weak and ineffective when used by men (3.1) and women (3.1). While these women reported feeling comfortable with adapting their management style according to the situation (4.1), they do perceive they are expected to conform to the norms and rules of the majority males (2.3). A total of 45 percent of the women surveyed reported they work longer than men. Not included in one of the scales, but important to the perception of barriers, is the variable on perception of equal pay to their male colleagues, which rated low at a mean of 2.5. There was moderate reporting that their male peers feared their advancement because it means reduced opportunity for them (2.8). Only 15 (37 percent) women reported currently having a mentor, and there was little 37

evidence of the respondents belonging to women's group either within or external to the organization. The mean for having a strong female role model in the company was 2.5. Perceptions of what organizations are doing to remove career barriers The second part of the survey asked respondents to rate 52 items according to the extent to which their company had implemented workplace initiatives designed to help women advance in their careers. A total of six scales were created from 40 items. Respondents were also asked to report whether their company had implemented each of 11 different work-family balance practices. ``Commitment and accountability'' comprised six items measuring the extent to which women believed that their company had committed to women's advancement, i.e. ``The CEO is fully committed to the advancement of women in my organization''. ``Diversity'' comprised nine items measuring the extent to which women believed that their company had supported diversity programs, i.e. ``Diversity is part of the long-term strategic plan''. ``Retention and recruitment'' comprised five items measuring the extent to which women believed that their company actively recruited women candidates and attempted to retain them in the company, i.e. ``There is targeted recruitment of female managers''. ``Career development and feedback'' comprised eight items measuring the extent to which women believed that their company actively supported the career advancement of women in their organization, i.e. ``Equal attention is paid to men's and women's preparation for senior positions''. ``Challenging assignments'' comprised five items measuring the extent to which women believed that their company provided women with developmental work opportunities, i.e. ``Women are encouraged to rotate assignments from department to department''. ``Mentoring'' comprised seven items measuring the extent to which women believed that their company encouraged women to participate in mentoring, i.e. ``There is a formal mentoring program in my company''. Table II presents descriptive statistics for each of the seven barriers, including the mean, and standard deviation, listed in descending order.

Women middle managers' perception of the glass ceiling

Janet Cooper Jackson

Women in Management Review Volume 16 . Number 1 . 2001 . 3041

Table II Workplace initiatives Variable Challenging assignments Career development and feedback Commitment and accountability Retention and recruitment Diversity Mentoring Mean 2.79 2.61 2.48 2.26 2.09 1.98 SD 0.88 0.82 0.91 0.81 0.93 0.90

Notes: n = 47. Scale: not at all evident (1) to fully evident (5)

Of the six initiatives examined, women reported that their organizations had made the most progress with ``challenging assignments'' (2.79); however, at this low mean, it corroborates the barrier of ``opportunity'' (2.85). While women are given assignments in line areas (3.6), and encouraged to participate on cross-functional teams (3.2), they are not encouraged to rotate assignments from department to department (1.9). In the area of ``career development and feedback'' (2.61), women reported receiving performance feedback on an equal basis to men (3.4) and on a fairly regular basis (3.0). However, there was little evidence that the women were on a specific career path that identifies the skills and knowledge needed to advance (2.1); nor was there training specifically geared to women's leadership and management development (1.8). The scale of ``commitment and accountability'' yielded a mean of 2.48. Within this category, the highest ranked variable was related to there being an affirmative action program available (3.2), however little evidence of sensitivity to issues concerning women and advancement into higher levels of management (2.0). Additionally, the women reported a mean of 1.9 to policies in place that remove barriers to the advancement of women. Also falling below the mid range are ``retention and recruitment'' (2.26), ``diversity' (2.09) and ``mentoring'' (1.98). Targeted recruitment of female managers is reported low (2.0), and recruitment does not include a variety of sources, such as minority and women-only colleges and universities (1.9). Policies that support the retention of qualified women is rated low (1.9). A total of 77 percent reported no evidence of a formal mentoring program in their organization, and there was only moderate evidence of employee-sponsored networks and affinity groups for women, mean of 2.4. 38

Most disturbing is the perception that the CEO is not committed to the advancement of women in their organizations (2.6), nor are there policies in place that remove barriers to the advancement of women (1.9). Diversity is not publicly recognized and rewarded (1.7), is not specifically mentioned in the company vision or mission statement (2.1), nor is it included in performance criteria, evaluation, and compensation for managers (1.9) or promotion decisions (1.9). Diversity training is not widely available within the organization (2.1), and employees are not encouraged to attend diversity training workshops and seminars (1.9). Work-family balance initiatives This variable asked respondents to indicate whether their company had implemented 11 different work-family balance programs. Table III presents frequency of ``yes'' responses for these initiatives. The highest ranked work-family balance initiatives that had been implemented were ``tuition reimbursement'' (68 percent), ``flexible hours for managers'' (66 percent), and ``cafeteria-style benefits'' (60 percent). Child-care centers were reported in ten cases and company supported child care was both reported in only eight cases. To what extent do the respondents rate the effectiveness of these practices in advancing women toward senior management positions? On a scale of 1 to 10, the mean for this question was 4.2. Of the practices listed on the questionnaire, the five most important that their organizations had implemented to advance women's progress (and their own career) were:
Table III Work-family balance initiatives Frequency Variable Tuition reimbursement Flexible hours for managers Cafeteria-style benefits Telecommuting for managers Professional part-time employment Spouse relocation assistance Elderly care benefits Job sharing for managers On-site day care center Company-supported child care Parenting classes Note: n = 47

n
32 31 28 19 18 11 10 10 10 8 4

% 68.1 66.0 59.6 40.4 38.3 23.4 21.3 21.3 21.3 17.0 8.5

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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

``tuition reimbursement''; ``flexible work hours''; ``cafeteria-style benefits''; ``telecommuting for managers''; and ``professional part-time employment''.

Chances for career advancement in their organizations This variable measured the extent to which the respondents rated their chances for achieving an executive level position in their organizations. Several questions addressed their self-perception of their leadership potential. A total of 83 percent reported positive selfperception as a leader in their organization; however, they did not see their chances for advancement in a positive way. They reported a mean of 2.6 for their chances for moving into higher management. Only 17 percent of the respondents reported a high level of support from their management to move to the next job level; 79 percent reported a medium or low level of support for advancement. The mean response for the question, ``Rate your chances for achieving a position at the executive level'' was 3.0, out of a potential 5. Fifty-three percent reported they did not see themselves moving into executive management, i.e. vice-president, president and CEO. However, 66 percent felt they have the requisite skills to reach the executive level, and 51 percent reported they have the opportunity to develop the requisite skills to reach the executive level. As might be expected, women with five or more years in a management position rated their chances for achieving an executive level significantly higher than women with less managerial experience (f = 5.80, p = <0.05). Interestingly, women who were 35 years of age or greater rated their chances for achieving an executive level lower (2.9) than younger women (3.6); however, this was not significant (f = 1.14). Women holding an upper or middle management position rated their chances almost equally (3.0) to those in lower level positions (2.9).

Implications
Several interesting findings emerged from this study of middle managerial women's perceptions of career barriers and their organization's initiatives to remove these 39

barriers. First, it is apparent that there has been some progress regarding barriers related to the glass ceiling the combined barriers category yielded a mean of 3.1 (of a possible 5). However, with the highest mean in these scales being 3.4, it appears that the women in this study do perceive several barriers to career advancement in their organizations. With none of the initiative scales reaching the 3.0 mean (implementing the initiatives to a moderate extent), it appears that the women in this study do not believe that their organizations have successfully implemented initiatives to help women overcome barriers to their career advancement. Only six of 40 items fall at a mean of greater than 3.0, and only one item (women are given assignments in line areas) of the 40 falls at mean greater than 3.5 (all items within category m = 2.3). Rosener (1995) placed a ``wake-up call'' to executives, informing them of the need to place a higher priority on addressing the under-utilization of women in organizations. She suggested that rather than seeing higher turnover rates for women than for men, or the difficulty in recruiting and retaining women as human resource issues, they should be addressed as major management strategy concerns. What can organizations do so that women believe that their chances of achieving an executive level position are high? This study supports the Glass Ceiling Commission (US Department of Labor, 1995b) recommendations that organizations should provide preparation for senior positions, including a variety of challenging assignments. Additionally, commitment to reducing or removing the glass ceiling on the part of the CEO and practices that recruit and retain highly talented women were found to be related to perceptions of advancement. An investigation of the initiatives recommended by the Glass Ceiling Commission (US Department of Labor, 1995b), while geared to eliminating barriers at the top levels of organizations, also offers women at lower levels the opportunity to have meaningful and valuable careers. Perhaps one does not need to be ``tagged'' as ``upwardly mobile'' to benefit by these initiatives. Perhaps organizations can benefit by the professional and career development of those who realistically will make it only to lower and middle levels of management. This is an important point because attention to this

Women middle managers' perception of the glass ceiling

Janet Cooper Jackson

Women in Management Review Volume 16 . Number 1 . 2001 . 3041

topic can not only affect how organizations make choices for those revered top slots, but how they develop women to successfully fill lower level management slots. I would suggest that enabling those who occupy those slots to be more effective and valuable resources to the organization is significant to the economic and psychological health of the organization. The National Foundation for Women Business Owners (1998) reports that women cite the glass ceiling as a key reason for their move to entrepreneurship because they felt their contributions were not recognized or valued. Through this preliminary analysis, some interesting findings have emerged. However, what is needed is a larger and wider sample of men and women for examination. It may well be that males in middle management positions find similar barriers to their career advancement, particularly given the flattening of the hierarchy within many large organizations. The limitations of this small-scale study are acknowledged, but the author believes that the findings open an area of inquiry in the arena of middle-management career development. In addition, it has generated a number of scales for measuring the concept further. Finally, the results of this study may not be generalizable to other samples of women in organizations. The experiences of older, primarily Caucasian, managerial women who have ``made it'' in their organization may indeed be unique. Although these women have ``made it'' to a certain extent, it is apparent that even they are experiencing career barriers. It is valuable to examine their perceptions of the glass ceiling, so that ultimately their experiences may be compared with the organizational experiences of other women and men. As evidenced in this study, advances have been made, however there is room for growth. As Redwood (1996), former Executive Director of the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, asserted:
Corporate leaders must recognize that they need the talent and input of women and minority men at the highest levels to better address the changing consumer markets, the changing work force demographics, and international competition in today's global economy. By the year 2005, women and minorities are estimated to be 62 percent of the US workforce. Breaking glass ceilings is an economic imperative. It is a bottom line issue for every business in America

and internationally . . . When glass ceilings are forever shattered, we will have succeeded in using our greatest asset the people to their fullest potential. And we will have come a long way to achieving the full promise of our society by making its bounty equally available to all.

Notes
1 Women hold 75 percent of all managerial positions in medicine and health, over half the managerial jobs in finance, personnel and labor relations, accounting and auditing, and buying, and over 60 percent of jobs in personnel, training, labor relations specialists, and underwriters (US Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, 1997). 2 The Federal Glass Ceiling Commission's (US Department of Labor, 1995a) research found that, of persons holding senior-level management positions in Fortune 1,000 industrial and Fortune 500 service companies, 95 percent were men. Of that 95 percent, almost 97 percent were white. Of the 5 percent of women in these executive positions, only 5 percent were women of color. At that time, women represented 45.7 percent of the workforce, and women and minorities represented 57 percent of the total workforce. 3 The Federal Glass Ceiling Commission (US Department of Labor, 1995a) was chartered to research five target groups that historically have been under-represented in private sector, top-level management women of all races and ethnicities and African American, American Indian, Asian and Pacific Islander, and Hispanic American men. 4 Executive, administrative and managerial occupations are projected to increase by 17 percent from 1994 to 2005. Expectations in the service industry are for an increase in jobs for managers of over 60 percent (US Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, 1997). 5 The list of initiatives offered in this article was developed based on the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission's (US Department of Labor, 1995a; 1995b) reports.

References and further reading

Castro, I.L. and Furchtgott-Roth, D. (1997), ``Should women be worried about the glass ceiling in the workplace?'', Insight on the News. Deal, T.E. and Kennedy, A.A. (1982), Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Davidson, M.J. and Cooper, C.L. (1992), Shattering The Glass Ceiling: The Woman Manager, Paul Chapman, London. Gordon, J.R. and Whelan, K.S. (1998), ``Successful professional women in mid-life: how organizations can more effectively understand and respond to the challenges'', Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 8-27.

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Women middle managers' perception of the glass ceiling

Janet Cooper Jackson

Women in Management Review Volume 16 . Number 1 . 2001 . 3041

Hymowitz, C. and Schellhardt, T.D. (1986), ``The glass ceiling: why women can't seem to break the invisible barrier that blocks them from the top jobs'', The Wall Street Journal, March 24. Jackson, J.C. (forthcoming), ``An exploratory study into the current perception of gender-based challenges women face in organizations and what organizations are doing to remove these barriers'', (manuscript submitted for publication). Klenke, K. (1996), Women and Leadership: A Contextual Perspective, Springer, New York, NY. Maier, M. (1997), ``Invisible privilege: what white men don't see'', The Diversity Factor, Summer, pp. 28-33. Morrison, A.M., White, R.P., Velsor, E.V. and The Center for Creative Leadership (1992), Breaking the Glass Ceiling, revised ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. National Foundation for Women Business Owners (1998), ``Entrepreneurial ideas motivate women to start businesses'', February 24, http://www.nfwbo.org/ rr018.htm Ragins, B.R. and Cotton, J.L. (1996), ``Jumping the hurdles: barriers to mentoring for women in organizations'', Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 37-41. Ragins, B.R., Townsend, B. and Mattis, M. (1998), ``Gender gap in the executive suite: CEOs and female executives report on breaking the glass

ceiling'', Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 28-42. Redwood, R. (1996), ``The glass ceiling'', excerpted from a speech held by Women in Technology International (WITI), Philadelphia, PA, September, available at the Motion Magazine Web site. Rosener, J. (1995), ``Women: a competitive secret'', Business Quarterly. Rosener, J.B. (1990), ``Ways women lead'', Harvard Business Review, Vol. 68, pp. 119-25. Schein, E.H. (1985), Organizational Culture and Leadership, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. Schwartz, F. (1989), ``Management and the new facts of life'', Harvard Business Review, Vol. 67, pp. 65-76. Schwartz, F. (1996), ``The competitive advantage'', Journal of Accountancy. US Department of Labor (1995a), Good For Business: Making Full Use of the Nation's Human Capital, Glass Ceiling Commission, Washington, DC, March. US Department of Labor (1995b), A Solid Investment: Making Full Use of the Nation's Human Capital, Glass Ceiling Commission, Washington, DC, November. US Department of Labor, Women's Bureau (1997), ``Facts on working women'', No. 97-3, April, http://www. dol.gov/dol/wb/public/wb_pubs/wmgt97.htm (updated 5/19/98).

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