Stockhausen and the Serial Shaping of Space by Paul Miller

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Supervised by Professor Dave Headlam Department of Music Theory Eastman School of Music University of Rochester Rochester, New York

2009

Part 1 Text

ii Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, Joseph S. and Rosemary Miller. Without their support, the present work would not have been possible.

iii Curriculum Vitae Paul Miller was born in Gloversville, New York on 9 April 1976. After attending Arlington High School in LaGrangeville, New York, he graduated in 1998 with an A.B. with honors in music from Vassar College in nearby Poughkeepsie. Along with studies at Vassar, Paul attended the New England Conservatory in Boston, MA for a year where he met and subsequently studied privately with Carl Schachter for two summers. Thereafter, Paul earned Masters degrees in Music Theory (2000) and Viola Performance (2006) from the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York. Thanks to grants from the Deutsche Akademische Austauschdienst (DAAD) and the Presser Foundation, the research for the present dissertation was successfully completed in 2006 and 2007. Paul attended the Stockhausen Summer Courses in Krten, Germany seven times. In 2005 he gave the world premiere of the viola version of Stockhausens IN FREUNDSCHAFT for viola in Krten. In addition, Paul attended the Darmstadt Vacation Courses in New Music three times, the second time winning a Stipendiumpreis for viola and viola damore performance. Along with his duties as Adjunct Professor of Music at the Boyer School of Music at Temple University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Paul performs violin, viola and viola damore regularly with baroque ensembles up and down the east coast. He appeared notably in 2008 at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City where he lectured and performed on the viola damore. In fall 2009, Paul will join the faculty at the University of Colorado in Boulder.

iv Acknowledgments There are many people without whom the present work would not have been possible. First, thanks are due to Karlheinz Stockhausen, whose work forms the subject of this dissertation, and whose muse continues to inspire me and many others. Although Stockhausen will never see this work in its final form, he was aware of some of its conclusions during his lifetime. I hope he would be as happy to read it as he was during the rich autumn of his life in Krten. Two ladies associated with Stockhausen deserve special mention. First, Suzanne Stephens helped to make the extensive archives of the Stockhausen archive open to my study in 2005, 2006 and 2007. Her support was indispensable to my work. Second, Maria Lukas, archivist of the Stockhausen foundation, assisted me in countless ways and shared a good many cups of Rozenbottel tea in Krten. My studies at the Stockhausen archive would not have been possible without the incredibly generous assistance provided by Gudrun and Gerd Papier, in whose house I spent many productive weeks. My dissertation adviser, Dave Headlam, helped me to see this project through to the end. For his kind and very practical assistance I will always be grateful. Aside from Professor Headlam, Jerome Kohl earned my gratitude and respect for helping to give final form to the dissertation. Kohls knowledgeable, humorous, and immensely helpful criticism helped to polish my work. Ciro Scotto also assisted in helping me to prepare the dissertation. I am very grateful to all three of these gentlemen. Assisting in many other ways was Stephen Zohn, who from his perch at the Boyer School of Music at Temple University provided much useful practical advise and

v encouragement. Renee Barrick, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City read through a draft of the dissertation, providing many helpful suggestions. Generous financial assistance provided by the Presser Foundation and the Deutsche Akademische Austauschdienst (German Academic Exchange Service) allowed me to complete research for the dissertation. I am grateful to Karli Molter, my neighbor, who was often called upon to use her borrowing privileges at the University of Pennsylvania Libraries to retrieve books and scores for me. Doris Dabrowski and Richard Stoy, neighbors and fellow music-lovers, fed and encouraged me in the city of Brotherly Love. Katharine Chandler helped out in various ways, as well. But my deepest gratitude goes to my parents, Joseph and Rosemary Miller, to whom this dissertation is dedicated.

vi Abstract In countless lectures, essays, and interviews, Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928-2007) emphasized the importance of spatial movement in his music. Throughout his over 50year compositional career, Stockhausen developed sophisticated techniques for spatialization in both his electronic and instrumental music. From early works such as GESANG DER JNGLINGE (1955-56) to his last major piece, COSMIC PULSES (2007), one can find extensive sketch material relating to spatial movement, as well as detailed indications of spatial motion in his scores. Although scholars such as Harley (1994), Nauck (1997), Misch (1999), Overholt (2006) and Hofmann (2008) have investigated spatialization in contemporary music, none have developed an analytical methodology for quantifying and measuring the speeds, shapes, densities, and structure of spatial movement in Stockhausens works, or any other music. Yet, in interviews with Jonathan Cott (1973) and others, Stockhausen suggested that such a methodology was necessary to understanding his achievements. In the dissertation, I develop a method for precisely locating the pathway of movement in spatial music. Then, drawing from the music-theoretic tradition of set theory and transformation theory, and the mathematical field of graph theory, I developed techniques to identify spatial structures and relate them according to mathematical transformations. I then characterized the symmetries that might be present in physical musical space using mathematical groups. Thanks to several computer algorithms I developed, I was able to find ways to calculate the statistical distribution of sounds within a performance space, as well as the speed and density of musical material. Applying this array of analytical tools to two major late works of Stockhausen, OKTOPHONIE (1991-2) and LICHTER-WASSER (1999), I uncovered spatial structures which were as subtle and intricate as Stockhausens formal, rhythmic, timbral or pitch languages. Apart from providing a wealth of new data relating to Stockhausens idiosyncratic compositional process, my analyses suggest new ways of hearing these

vii works which Stockhausen himself might not have been aware of. These techniques were then extended further, to assist in analyzing and better understanding the sonic storm in Xenakiss Terretektorh (1965/66). Finally, I use the methodology to argue for a spatial structure that significantly enhances the sophisticated multi-choir texture in Thomas Talliss (c. 1505 1585) famous 40-part motet Spem in alium. My analyses provide a new and provocative glimpse into a musical domain which has figured greatly into contemporary musical practice, but has so far proved elusive to methods of quantitative analysis. The analytical techniques I developed are flexible enough to provide theorists and performers with tools for a wide range of music, not just Stockhausens. Because of this, my work opens up many new paths of development in the fields of music cognition, music analysis, and musical spatialization.

viii Table of Contents Chapter 1. The Need to Confront Space ................................................. 1.1. Introduction 1.2. Spatialization in Stockhausens Music 1.3. Spatialization in Stockhausens Essays, Interviews and Sketches 1.4. Literature on Spatialization and its Role in Stockhausens Music 1.5. Argument for more analytical rigor Chapter 2. Analytical Methodologies ...................................................... 2.1. Analytical Orientation 2.2. Locating a sound in space 2.3. The Shape of Space in Spatial Music 2.4. Sets and Graphs in Spatial Music 2.5. Transformations in Space 2.6. Groups 2.7. Statistics 2.8. Conclusions Chapter 3. Stockhausens OKTOPHONIE ............................................ 3.1. OKTOPHONIE and LICHT 3.2. Elements of Sketches and Score that Pertain to Spatialization 3.3. Shape of the space in OKTOPHONIE 3.4. Spatial shapes in OKTOPHONIE 3.5. Other Spatial Relationships in OKTOPHONIE 3.6. Conclusions Chapter 4. Stockhausens LICHTER-WASSER .................................. 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Elements of the score that pertain to spatial movement 1 1 3 20 28 36 41 42 46 50 54 67 71 73 74 77 77 83 86 88 93 95 97 97 104

ix 4.3. Shape of the space in LICHTER-WASSER 4.4. Instrumental Motion 4.5. Vocalist Motion 4.6. Trends of Spatial Movement in LICHTER-WASSER 4.7. Relation of shapes in LICHTER-WASSER to each other 4.8. Group Structure 4.9. Conclusions Chapter 5. Further Applications of Spatial Analysis and Performance 5.1. Directions for research in spatial music 5.2. Other Stockhausen Works 5.3. Xenakis and Terretektorh 5.4. Spatialization in other musical repertoires: Talliss Spem in alium 5.5. Electronics and Spatialization 5.6. Concluding Remarks Afterword: Spatial Serialism ............................................................... Bibliography ............................................................................................. Figures and Examples .............................................................................. 106 113 127 129 134 138 141 143 143 144 151 156 163 165 169 171 183

x List of Figures Chapter 1 1.2.1a. Seating Plan for GRUPPEN 1.2.1b. Spatial Setup in KONTAKTE 1.2.1c. Spatial Setup in CARR 1.2.1d. Four Box Diagrams in CARR 1.2.1e. Spatialization of chords in HYMNEN 1.2.1f. Possible Rotation Table Configurations in HYMNEN 1.2.2a. Spatialization in Osaka 1.2.2b. Spatialization in SIRIUS 1.2.2c. Speaker setup for SIRIUS 1.2.2d. Podium design in SIRIUS 1.2.2e. Rotation loudspeaker for SIRIUS 1.2.3a. Spatialization in UNSICHTBARE CHRE 1.2.3b. Spatialization in KATHINKAS GESANG 1.2.3c. Spatialization in DER KINDERFNGER/ENTFHRUNG 1.2.3d. Spatialization in DER KINDERFNGER/ENTFHRUNG (Tonszene 36) 1.2.3e. Spatial setup in OKTOPHONIE 1.2.3f-h. Three Speaker Arrangements in FREITAG-VERSUCHUNG 1.4.3a. Naucks Hrpartitur 1.4.3b. Naucks Typologie Chapter 2 2.2.2a. Spatialization in a stereo panorama 2.2.2b. Calculation of the location of the sound between two loudspeakers 2.2.2c. Calculation of the location of a sound in quadrophonic panorama 2.2.2d. Final analysis of location

xi 2.4.1. The shape of sets in spatial music 2.4.3a. Distance between points in space 2.4.4.1. Basic Terminology and Properties of Graphs 2.4.4.2a. Isomorphism 2.4.4.2b. Isomorphism, Automorphism 2.4.4.3a. Path, Cycle 2.4.4.3b. Cutvertex, bridge, separator 2.4.4.4. Digraph 2.4.4.5. Tree, branches, root, leaves. 2.4.6.1a. Graph 1 2.4.6.1b. Graph 2 2.4.6.1c. Graph 3 2.4.6.3a. Adjacency Matrix A for Graph 1 2.4.6.3b. Adjacency Matrix A2 for Graph 1 2.4.6.3c. Analysis of path outflow for v13 in Graph 1 2.4.6.3d. The 64 sets of cardinality 3 in Graph 1 for each vertex. 2.4.6.4a. Adjacency Matrix A for Graph 2 2.4.6.4b. Adjacency Matrix A2 for Graph 2 2.4.6.4c. Analysis of path outflow for v11 in Graph 2 2.4.6.4d. Analysis of path outflow for v16 in Graph 2 2.4.6.5a. Adjacency Matrix A for Graph 3 2.4.6.5b. Adjacency Matrix A2 for Graph 3 2.4.6.5c. Analysis of path outflow for v9 in Graph 3 2.4.6.6a. Hamiltonian cycles through Graphs 1, 2 and 3 2.4.7a. Spatial orchestration 2.4.7b. An alternative graph structure based on a placement of different instruments in Graph 3. 2.5.1. Matrix representations of traditional transformations as applied to pitch-class 2.5.2a. Matrix representation of four basic transformations in a plane

xii 2.5.2b. The 8 spatial set classes of cardinality 3 with two moves, under rotational equivalence 2.5.2c. The 5 spatial set classes of cardinality 3 with two moves, under rotational and reflection equivalence 2.5.3a. A space with four sound sources 2.5.3b. Transformations in the space of Example 2.5.3a 2.5.3c. 9-vertex space (subgraph of graph 1) 2.5.3d. Directions of translation in Example 2.5.3c 2.5.3e. Mappings in Example 2.5.3c 2.5.3f. Multiplication/dilation in Graph 3 2.5a. Comparison of set-generating potential in Graphs 1, 2 and 3 2.5b. Use of spatial transformations to model listeners experiences of spatial music 2.5.2a. Group table of the dihedral group D4 2.6.3a. Group table of translation group Chapter 3 3.1.1a. Nuclear formulas in Stockhausens LICHT 3.1.2. Study for OKTOPHONIE 3.1.3a. Formal Structure of OKTOPHONIE, Part 1 3.1.3b. Formal Structure of OKTOPHONIE, Part 2 3.2.1a. Sketch for the spatialization of OKTOPHONIE 3.2.1b-e. Methodology for measuring spatial motion in OKTOPHONIE (Same as examples 2.2.2a-d) 3.2.2a. Bomb Analysis 1 3.2.2b. Bomb Analysis 2 3.2.2c. Bomb Analysis 3 3.2.2d. Combined Scatter Plot of Bombs in OKTOPHONIE 3.2.2e. Coordinates of Bombs 3.2.3a. General shot trajectories in different sections of OKTOPHONIE

xiii 3.2.3b. Shot Analysis 1 3.2.3c. Shot Analysis 2 3.2.3d. Shot Analysis 3 3.2.3e. Combined Scatter Plot of Shots 1-48 3.2.3f. Coordinates of shots 1-48 3.2.3g. Shot analysis 1 for shots in the second half of OKTOPHONIE 3.2.3h. Shot analysis 2 for shots in the second half of OKTOPHONIE 3.2.3i. Combined Scatter Plot of Shots in the second half of OKTOPHONIE 3.2.3j. Coordinates of shots 1-10 in second half of OKTOPHONIE 3.2.3k. Coordinates of shots 11-18 in the second half of OKTOPHONIE 3.2.4a. Crash analysis 3.2.4b. Combined scatter plot of crashes 3.2.4c. Coordinates of the crashes 3.2.4d. Shape of a descending crash 3.3.1a. Alternative loudspeaker arrangement for OKTOPHONIE 3.4.2a. Landing points for the 65 bombs 3.4.2b. Landing points for the 65 bombs - angle & distance measurements 3.4.2c. Angles of 2 degrees 3.4.2d. Obtuse angles 3.4.2e. Plot of distances and angles of the 65 bombs 3.4.3a. Endpoints for the first 48 shots 3.4.3b. Endpoint data for the first 48 shots - angle & distance measurements 3.4.3c. Acute angles of 2 to 3 degrees 3.4.3d. Obtuse angles 3.4.3e. Change in distance and angle for the endpoints of the first 48 shots 3.4.3f. Endpoints of the 18 shots in Part 2 3.4.3g. Distances & angles of shots in 2nd half 3.4.3h. Correlation of shots 1-4 in Part 1 of OKTOPHONIE with shots 1-4 in Part 2 3.4.4a. Distance from preceding bomb to the next crash 3.5.1a. Overall density of bombs, shots and crashes

xiv 3.5.2a. Spatial grouping of the first 48 shots 3.5.2b. Relationships between selected shots Chapter 4 4.1.3a. The Kernformeln or Nuclear Formulas in LICHTER-WASSER (central pitches) 4.1.3b. Division of the 29 musicians into two orchestras 4.1.3c. Formal Structure and Pitch Structure of LICHTER-WASSER 4.2.1a. Various spatial shapes Stockhausen considered using in LICHTER-WASSER 4.3.3a. LICHTER-WASSER, mm. 139-147 4.3.3b. LICHTER-WASSER, mm. 398-401 4.3.3c. LICHTER-WASSER, mm. 249-253 4.3.3d. LICHTER-WASSER, mm. 336-340 4.3.3e. LICHTER-WASSER, mm. 324-328 4.3.4a. Sequence of instrumental moves in wave sections (page 1 of 5) 4.3.4b. Sequence of instrumental motions in wave sections (page 2 of 5) 4.3.4c. Sequence of instrumental moves in wave sections (page 3 of 5) 4.3.4d. Sequence of instrumental moves in wave sections (page 4 of 5) 4.3.4e. Sequence of instrumental moves in wave sections (page 5 of 5) 4.3.4f. Sequence of instrumental moves in bridges 5 and 6 4.3.4g. Coordinates of the 29 instrumentalists in LICHTER-WASSER 4.4.1a. Speed of motion in LICHTER-WASSER (page 1 of 2) 4.4.1b. Speed of motion in LICHTER-WASSER (page 2 of 2) 4.4.1c. Statistical results of movement analysis 4.4.3a. Basic cycles 4.4.3b. M1 and E1 waves 4.4.4a. Second block of waves: M2, M3 + E2 4.4.5a. Third block of waves: M4, M5 + E3, E4 4.4.6a. Fourth block of waves 4.4.8a. Fifth block of waves

xv 4.4.9a. Sixth block of waves 4.4.10a. Seventh block of waves 4.4.11a. One Possible Exit-Tree for the Ausgang 4.4.11b. Second Possible Exit-Tree for the Ausgang 4.5.2a. Movement of singers through all wave and bridge sections 4.5.2b. Comparison of instrumental and vocal motion 4.6.1a. Number of times each instrumentalist is used in LICHTER-WASSER (according to data from Examples 4.3.4a-e) 4.6.2a. Amount of Time (in seconds) each instrumentalist is used in LICHTER-WASSER (according to data from Examples 4.3.4a-e) 4.6.3a. Most common instrumental moves in LICHTER-WASSER 4.6.3b. The A Matrix for LICHTER-WASSER 4.6.3c. The A2 Matrix for LICHTER-WASSER 4.6.4d. Connectivity out, based on LW A2 Matrix 4.6.4e. Connectivity in, based on LW A2 Matrix 4.7.1a. Most common paths, related by rotation or reflection, which originate in each of the four corner instruments 4.7.2a. M12 (black); basic M-cycle, rotated 90 clockwise (gray) 4.7.2b. Inner circle of Basic M-cycle detached and flipped in the horizontal axis 4.7.2c. Comparison of paths in E11 and E12 4.7.3a. Possible background structures in LICHTER-WASSER 4.8.1. Unrealized group structure of operations in LICHTER-WASSER Chapter 5 5.2.1a - b. Spatial notation in the sketches of KONTAKTE 5.2.4a. Distribution of Loudspeakers in COSMIC PULSES 5.2.4b. Transfer of Stockhausens sketch data to box diagrams 5.2.4c. Number of times each loudspeaker group is used in COSMIC PULSES 5.3.1a. Front page of Xenakis's score to Terretektorh

xvi 5.3.2a. Three spirals used by Xenakis in Terretektorh 5.3.2b. Maria Harley's analysis of spatial motion in mm. 1-74 of Terretektorh 5.3.2c. Coordinates of musicians in Terretektorh 5.3.2d. Coordinates of regions in Terretektorh 5.3.2e. Spatial movement in Terretektorh, measures 1-47 5.3.2f. Spatial movement in Terretektorh, measures 51-74 5.3.2g. Calculations of speed in Terretektorh, mm. 1-66 5.3.2h. Calculations of speed in Terretektorh, mm. 65-74 5.4.4a. Whittakers diagram of Talliss Spem in Alium 5.4.4b. Whittakers 1929 spatialization 5.4.4c. Detailed diagram of mm. 85-110, showing paired antiphonal passages 5.4.4d. Circular arrangement of choirs 5.4.5a. Principal spatial movements in Spem in Alium, mm. 1-85 5.4.5b. Principal spatial movements in Spem in Alium, mm. 86-end 5.4.5c. Operations that model spatial movements in a circular spatialization of Spem in Alium

1 Chapter 1. The Need to Confront Space 1.1. Introduction Spatial music is music in which the movement or distribution of sounds in the space around the listener play a role in the structure of the work itself. Among recent composers who have spatialized their music, Stockhausen developed an extensive body of theories and practices. He gave thought to spatial issues in nearly every one of his works, from KREUZSPIEL (1951)1 in which the arrangement of the musicians is analogous to a registral crossing2 to his last, incomplete work-cycle, KLANG (20052007). Stockhausens writing on the subject consisted of many different articles and essays over a lengthy span of time. Indeed, Stockhausen said that instrumental and electronic spatial composition have been my artistic mandate since 1951.3 In Stockhausens compositions, the structure of some musical dimensions often affected others in unusual ways. In connection with his work OKTOPHONIE (1990-91), Stockhausen wrote The simultaneous movements in 8 layers... demonstrate how... a new dimension of musical space-composition has opened. In order to be able to hear such movements especially simultaneously the musical rhythm has to be drastically slowed down; the pitch changes must take place less often and only in smaller steps or with glissandi, so they can be followed; the composition of dynamics serves the audibility of the individual layers i.e. dependent on the timbres of the layers and the speed of their movements; the timbre composition primarily serves the elucidation of these movements.4 This statement confirms that spatial movement and other musical dimensions, such as
1 Although it is not common practice to capitalize the names of musical works, Stockhausen did in almost all of his published works and analyses. I will follow this convention throughout the present study. 2 Texte 4, p. 49. See also the preface to the score to KREUZSPIEL. 3 Nauck 1997, p. 173. Instrumentale und elektronische Raumkomposition sind mein knstlerischer Auftrag seit 1951. 4 Stockhausen 1994, p. xxviii. The German version can be found in Texte 8, p. 374. Original boldface & italics.

2 pitch, rhythm and timbre, interact with one another in Stockhausens concept of his music. The ways in which these musical dimensions affect each other is a complex topic. But Stockhausen once said that ... any point in space should be precisely defined with respect to where the sound occurs and how it travels from one point to any other.5 Here, Stockhausen suggests that even though space is related to other musical parameters, it is still important to know what is going on in the spatial domain on its own terms by measuring the shapes, speeds, densities and directions of spatial movement. There are few, if any analytical tools to help us accomplish this, or precedents for doing so.6 Measuring events in the spatial domain will help us know better what is going in that dimension, and will ultimately allow us better to understand how spatial elements relate to pitch, rhythm, and form. Although Stockhausen employed an idiosyncratic method of serialism throughout his life to structure many aspects of his compositions, his spatial techniques evolved for the most part independently of strict serialism. Still, any analysis of Stockhausens music must be seen within the context of serial methods.7 The present study proposes first to find ways to measure and find shapes, speeds, directions and densities of musically relevant material Stockhausens spatialized music. Then, we will interpret the data. Analytical tools to do this will be developed out of well-established methods of musical set theory, transformation theory, and group theory, which have been fruitfully applied to the analysis of serial music. In addition, graph theory a field in mathematics which has undergone immense development in the last 30 years but which has not yet been used in
5 Cott 1973, pp. 202-203. 6 Roger Reynolds also lamented this fact, over thirty years ago: The equipment and much of the perceptual information that would allow an orderly examination of the geometry of sound already exists; what is lacking is informed strategy. (Reynolds 1978, p. 183) 7 Grant sees spatialization as increasing the experiential interest in serial compositions. The impossibility of preparing oneself mentally for the sounds which will occur in electronic music, which is an aesthetic ideal of serial music per se is enhanced by spatialization. Grant 2001, p. 99.

3 many musical studies will play a role.8 My analyses, which interact with these branches of music theory, will show that spatial motion in Stockhausen can not only be measured, but that interpreting the measurements reveals musically relevant and structurally important aspects in the music. I will show in detail the structure of spatial motion in two works of Stockhausen. Ultimately, I intend to demonstrate that the compositional use of physical space can be musical in and of itself. Through my work, I hope to show one composers approach to organizing physical space, while at the same time laying the foundation for more detailed music-theoretic study of spatial movement in music. 1.2. Spatialization in Stockhausens music Throughout his compositional career, Stockhausen composed 370 individually performable works.9 Most of these works have directions specifically relating to spatialization in the score.10 I divide these works into three groups, based upon a chronology that is determined both by the growth of technical means and the development of Stockhausens spatial imagination. 1.2.1. Spatialization of early works. Although the seating plan of the musicians in KREUZSPIEL (1951) was partially determined because of the way in which the registral fabric crosses over on itself,11 Stockhausens first notable experiment with
8 One notable area in which graph theory has played a part is in the numerous studies of neo-Riemannian theory. It has also been developed in relation to Klumpenhouwer networks. See Lewin 1990 and Cohn 1997. 9 Stockhausen Verlag 2008. 10 A survey which is less detailed but much broader than mine can be found in Conen 1991, pp. 26-33. 11 Texte 9, p. 595. Schon bei meinen ersten Kompositionen wie KREUZSPIEL und ZEITMASZE habe ich Zeichnungen im Vorwort der Partitur drucken lassen, mit denen ich angebe, wie die Musiker sitzen sollen. Already in my first compositions like KREUZSPIEL and ZEITMASZE, I made indications in the introduction to the score in which I indicated where the musicians should sit. The seating arrangement

4 spatial music is his electronic work GESANG DER JNGLINGE (1955-56). Originally this piece was conceived for six channels,12 but because of the difficulties involved with this realization it was composed for five. Finally, the fifth channel was mixed down and combined with the first channel.13 This is the version that is most often heard in a concert performance. Concerning the use of space in the composition, Stockhausen wrote: In my GESANG DER JNGLINGE, I attempted to form the direction and movement of sounds in space, and to make them accessible as a new dimension for musical experience. The work was composed for 5 groups of loudspeakers, which should be placed around the hall. From which side, by how many loudspeakers at once, whether with rotation to left or right, whether motionless or moving how the sounds and sound-groups should be projected into space; all this is decisive for the comprehension of this work.14 Despite Stockhausens relative inexperience in dealing with spatial music, the effect of the work on audiences of the time seems to have been quite overwhelming.15 However, the way Stockhausen spatialized this work suggests that the space is primarily used as a
of musicians in KREUZSPIEL may have originated several years after Stockhausen wrote it. 12 Misch 1999a, p. 148. 13 The 5th channel was played back on a mono tape recorder which started synchronously (by hand) with a 4-track tape recorder. Originally, this 5th channel should have been played back above the listeners over a loudspeaker hung at the center of the ceiling. However, even at the world premiere this was not possible, and the loudspeaker for the 5th track stood at the front, in the middle of the stage. The synchronization of the two tape recorders was unsatisfactory, so I decided after the world premiere to synchronize the 5th track onto the 4th track. Since then, GESANG DER JNGLINGE has been projected 4-track. Stockhausen 2001b (CD 3), p. 136. Although the original fifth channel for GESANG is completely lost physically, evidence of its material can also still be found in Stockhausens sketches. John Philipp Gather did important work separating the material of the original fifth channel from the first: although Stockhausen claimed the fifth channel was combined with the fourth, it is actually combined with the first channel. Unfortunately, Gathers useful work on GESANG did not make it into the final copy of his 2004 dissertation. 14 Stockhausen 1961, pp. 68-69. 15 In his review of the first performance of Gesang, Heinz-Klaus Metzger wrote that: ...Until now, no work has been so thoroughly conceived for the concert hall as Stockhausens Gesang der Junglinge, which counts five loudspeaker groups spread around the hall... (Metzger 1956, p. 222). Other listeners reacted less favorably: The performance provoked turbulent demonstrations in the hall as well as frenetic applause. Doors were slammed, one appalled listener yelled, thats blasphemy! (Kurtz 1992, p. 84.)

5 way of clarifying serial texture, and not as an end in and of itself.16 At the same time Stockhausen was working on GESANG, he conceived another way or organizing the space around listeners in his work GRUPPEN (1955-57). GRUPPEN employs three large orchestras set up in unusual horseshoe shape around the audience, an arrangement which is shown in Example 1.2.1a. Stockhausen took advantage of the spatial arrangement of the orchestras in several ways. First, antiphonal passages switch abruptly from one part of the performing space to another.17 In other passages (especially the Groups 71-73) one particular timbre in this case, the drum circulates around the audience in a way that suggests that a sound jumps from one area to another in discontinuous motion. These types of spatial motion are already present in GESANG DER JNGLINGE. But in GRUPPEN, a brass chord in Group 119 seems to rotate around the audience like a searchlight. This chord dynamically fades in and out of each orchestra as it is passed around the space, creating the illusion of continuous motion a technique that Stockhausen did not use in earlier compositions.18 Stockhausen further developed the techniques for rotating sounds around the listener in a later work, KONTAKTE. KONTAKTE (1958-60) is for two soloists (piano and percussion) and an array of four speakers set up around the audience. The arrangement is shown in Example 1.2.1b. In KONTAKTE, six forms of spatial movement, with differentiated velocities and directions, contact each other in ever changing ways: rotations, looping movements, alternations, disparate fixed sources (different sounds from each of the 4

16 Stockhausen 1961, pp. 69-70. 17 There is, of course, ample precedent for this type of spatialization in works of Gabrieli, Tallis, Berlioz, and others. Some of these effects will be explored later in 5.4. 18 Although cross-fading also occurs in individual notes within a chord in ZEITMASSE (1957), especially m. 187, the effect in this work is not as dramatic as in GRUPPEN.

6 loudspeakers), connected fixed sources (the same sounds in all the loudspeakers), isolated spatial points.19 The way in which Stockhausen accomplished the rotation movements in KONTAKTE was through the use of a rotation table. A single speaker was mounted on a platform that could be rotated. Four microphones were set up around the platform, and the music played back through the rotating loudspeaker was recorded by these microphones. Even though some other works from this period do not have specific instructions pertaining to spatialization, Stockhausen urged performers to create some spatial enhancement nevertheless. His comments regarding the works REFRAIN (1959) and ZYKLUS (1959) make this position clear: In REFRAIN AND KONTAKTE, all instruments are amplified and the electronic music is played over 4 groups of loudspeakers. ZYKLUS is also amplified. For ZYKLUS...the spatial projection...should sound in the auditorium approximately as the percussionist surrounded by the instruments hears the piece, but the direct sound should always be slightly louder than the amplified sound.20 This attitude towards amplification means that the sound projectionist, who oversees the spatialization, takes on a more significant role almost that of a performer.21 A further development in the technique of spatialization can be heard in CARR (195960). It is composed for four orchestras and choirs spread around the concert hall in the way shown in Example 1.2.1c. To compose out the musical details of CARR,

19 Stockhausen 2001b (CD 3), p. 174. 20 Stockhausen 1993b (CD 6), p. 128. Additionally in ZYKLUS, the instruments are arrayed in a circle which corresponds to their most prominent positions in the graphic score. 21 The role of the sound projectionist in Stockhausens works can also be found in MIXTUR (1964) where the mixing console operator has a significant effect on the ultimate sonic realization of the work. Another piece featuring performers in the role of sound projectionist is MIKROPHONIE I (1965). Here, sounds from a large tam-tam are picked up with microphones, and then electronically transformed by a group of performers using electronic filters. Texte 3, p. 51-53, 57-58.

7 Stockhausen relied on the British composer Cornelius Cardew,22 who realized the framework plan for the work that Stockhausen himself made. Each of the 101 musical groups in CARR contains a simple box diagram that shows which choir and orchestra groups play. The first four box diagrams are reproduced in Example 1.2.1d. These box diagrams became the standard way that Stockhausen represented spatial movement in his later works. Between some groups, there are musical insertions that have little or nothing to do with the main structure of the work. Cardew wrote that ...the insertions are certainly the most sensational aspect of the piece.23 The spatial motion in these insertions generally includes rotations around the hall. Cardew provided a considerable amount of information about the spatial aspect of CARR. The language of space in this work became complex enough that several rotations could be superimposed: [In Insertion 69X, for instance], a soprano D (a ninth above middle C) is passed around the four choruses at the rate of 12 changes per minute each chorus sustains it for five seconds plus one second after the next chorus has taken it up. Simultaneously, the strings and woodwind revolve in the opposite direction at the rate of 60 changes per minute...Soon all the percussive instruments (harp, piano, vibes, cymbalum) enter simultaneously with an extremely sharp ff chord, and the flimmer becomes a murmur as this dies away.24 But concerning the technique of composing rotating music for widely-spaced orchestral groups, Cardew wrote that our main problem chiefly because it was the most predictable one was that the sounds would always proceed by jerks around the room,

22 Cardew 1961a and 1961b. The more interesting information about space is in 1961b. Directions on how to realize the symbols that Stockhausen drew are in Cardew 1961a, p. 619. Cardews later fallingout with Stockhausen is expressed most vividly in Cardew 1974. 23 Cardew 1961b, p. 699. 24 Ibid., p. 698.

8 for between each orchestra there was a considerable space.25 If the rate of rotation was faster, the effect was less discontinuous, but these quick movements opened the door for performance error, which could annihilate the desired flimmer of rotating sound. HYMNEN (1966-7/1969) exists in three different forms: as electronic and concrete music (1966-7), as electronic and concrete music with four instrumental soloists (1966-7, withdrawn), and as electronic music with orchestra (1969).26 The first, four-channel electronic version is the most interesting from the perspective of music in space. Concerning the spatialization of HYMNEN, Stockhausen wrote The direction and movement of sounds through four-channel spatial projection is as important in this work as melody, harmony, rhythm, dynamic, color and semantic. One can discover many new techniques of sound-rotation, alternation, flow, and depth-layering as a further development of my composition KONTAKTE.27 Given Stockhausens remarks, it is particularly lamentable that there is no spatial information in the otherwise very useful 1968 score. But in Stockhausens Realization essay,28 he showed in detail how he used the Soviet anthem in Regions II and III of HYMNEN as a kind of structural background.29 Each vertical chord in the anthem was numbered. Then, the chords were synthesized electronically, filtered, and lengthened considerably so that in some sections, a quarter-note lasted as long as 24 seconds. These chords were the basic material that was spatialized. Stockhausen spatialized chords 1-22 in a way that makes them seem to rotate clockwise. Chords 23-47 were then rotated counterclockwise. Chords 48-83, in the third group, cross over each other while those in the last group (chords 84-112) move in a trajectory similar to the third group but rotated 90 counterclockwise. Brauns examples, which diagram the shapes that Stockhausen
25 26 27 28 29 Ibid., p. 698. Stockhausen Verlag 2008, p. 21. Texte 7, p. 91. Ibid., pp. 131-159; 160-162. Ibid., p. 134.

9 created,30 are reprinted in my Example 1.2.1e. In addition, Braun went one step further and showed exactly how these sounds move around the space by doing a waveform analysis of the four-track tape.31 Stockhausens essay on HYMNEN revealed more spatial shapes that he created, which are reproduced in Example 1.2.1f. The techniques used for spatialization in HYMNEN demonstrate that the increasingly sophisticated technology at Stockhausens disposal altered his music; in effect, Stockhausens compositional techniques evolved along with technology. If at first Stockhausens goal was to use space to clarify different layers of serial polyphony, it was now having the effect of giving the listener the impression of flying around in space in a way that was not physically possible.32 1.2.2. Second phase of spatialization. The year 1970 marked a turning point for Stockhausens spatial music. For the 1970 Osaka exhibition, the architect Bornemann designed a spherical auditorium for the German pavilion.33 Here, Stockhausens dreams of making music in such an unusual space were finally realized. Fifty speakers were mounted along the walls of the auditorium, as shown in the diagram reproduced in Example 1.2.2a. From March to September, there were 183 daily performances of Stockhausens music without one free day.34 The German company Siemens designed two rotation mills which Stockhausen used to control the location of the sounds in space.35 Among many other works, the process compositions SPIRAL (1968),
30 Braun 2004, pp. 55-56. 31 This analysis is exactly like the kind of score Stockhausen later printed in the score to the HELICOPTER QUARTET. 32 Kohl 2002 argues that the spatialization in TELEMUSIK (1966) another spatialized electronic work from this period is more like GESANG DER JNGLINGEN, and contrasts to KONTAKTE and HYMNEN. In my view, the idea of moving rapidly in a metaphorical space from one continent to another draws a connection between the spatialization of TELEMUSIK and HYMNEN. 33 Texte 3, pp. 153-155. Stockhausens essay Osaka-Project: Kugelauditorium EXPO 70 provides background information to this undertaking. His report on the setup can be read in Texte 3, p. 139. 34 The complete performance plan can be found in Texte 3, pp. 177-181. 35 The rotation mills were turned as if they were coffee mills. Stockhausen 2000b, p. 62. The extensive technical expertise needed to realize the project was provided not only by Bornemann

10 KURZWELLEN (1968) and POLE/EXPO (1969-70) were performed hundreds of times.36 Although these works do not specifically have any set directions for spatialization in their scores, Stockhausen improvised spatial motion at his console by creating horizontal circles, vertical circles, below-above, above-below. Or spiral movements of all different loops.37 During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Stockhausen did not just explore a new kind of concert hall the spherical auditorium but also, he took music outside of the traditional performing space of Western music. In FRESCO (1969), musicians performed in the closets, auditoriums, and other connecting hallways of the Beethovenhalle in Bonn.38 The musicians, divided into four groups, played several hours of music. The goal was to create wandering sound by arranging performers in lines corresponding to their tessitura: low on the left, high on the right. Like FRESCO, STERNKLANG (1971) also departs from the normal space of the concert hall. Here, Stockhausen moved the musical experience outdoors, into a park.39 Five groups of musicians play, while the audience sits on the ground or ambulates freely. The exploration of different preforming spaces in FRESCO and STERNKLANG marks a further departure from Stockhausens earlier works, which were typically performed inside concert halls. For the spatialization of SIRIUS (1975-77), Stockhausen arranged his soloists in a way
but also by Fritz Winckel, director of the Electronic Music Studio at the Technical University of Berlin, and Max Mengeringhausen. Winckel and Mengeringhausen designed a spherical controller which manipulated not only sound throughout the hall but also light. However, Stockhausen seems to have preferred using his own 10-channel rotary mill to the more sophisticated Berlin design. See Fllmer 1996, Sigel 2000, Custodis 2004, p. 180-181, and Stockhausen 2000b, p. 62. Michael Custodis wrote a history of the entire OSAKA 1970 undertaking from a financial, political and artistic perspective (Custodis 2004, pp. 161-186). He remarks that in addition to Stockhausens music, which was performed in the afternoon, works by Bernd Alois Zimmermann, Herbert Eimert, Boris Blacher, Erhard Grokopf, Beethoven and J. S. Bach were heard in the morning (ibid., p. 181). Hopps analysis of the theory, practice and performance of Stockhausens process compositions, especially KURZWELLEN, is exemplary. See Hopp 1998. Cott 1973, p. 46. Maconie 2005, p. 321. Texte 4, pp. 170-180. A diagram of one possible park setup is in Texte 4, p. 171.

36 37 38 39

11 that is reminiscent of CARR. In SIRIUS, four soloists stand on podia at each of the cardinal points of the space. In addition, the score calls for eight loudspeakers around the audience, through which electronic music is heard. Since the podia on which the soloists stand may not be the same height as the loudspeakers, there is the potential for musical interplay on different vertical levels.40 This marked the first time that Stockhausen composed electronic music for an eight-speaker array. Additionally, he employed a rotating loudspeaker to project some of the sounds at the beginning and end of SIRIUS. This rotating loudspeaker was electrically driven and could rotate up to 25 times per second.41 The spatial setup in SIRIUS is shown in Examples 1.2.2b-e. In SIRIUS, the possibility of vertical as well as horizontal interplay, taken along with the larger loudspeaker array is clearly a development from Stockhausens Osaka experience.42 However, the quadrophonic arrangement of soloists hearkens back to Stockhausens earlier days organizing four sound sources, symmetrically arranged around the audience. By combining these two spatial traditions with the possibility of outdoor performance, Stockhausen integrated a variety of earlier experiences in this work. 1.2.3. Spatialization in LICHT (1977-2002). Shortly after composing SIRIUS, Stockhausen embarked on the largest-scale project of his compositional career: a cycle of seven operas called LICHT (Light). In these operas, Stockhausen continued to explore new ways of organizing the space around listeners. The entire cycle is based on a single one-minute piece, called the Superformula.43 The structure of the Superformula is expanded, or projected over 29 hours. While there are specific elements determining pitch, rhythm, form, timbre and articulation in the Superformula, there is no spatial
40 Misch believes that SIRIUS includes more movement in the vertical plane, unlike earlier works such as KONTAKTE. Misch 1999a, p. 152. 41 Stockhausen 2000a, p. 43. 42 Stockhausen chose many unusual spaces for performances of SIRIUS, including a cloister in France. Other performances were given at the planetarium at the National Air and Space Museum and the Albert Einstein Spacearium, both in Washington DC. See Texte 4, pp. 438-439, and pp. 601-604. 43 Sketches for the Superformula can be found in Texte 5, pp. 147-160. For analytical studies, see Kohl 1990 and Texte 9, pp. 13-34 (Die Tonhhen der Superformel fr LICHT).

12 information. Thus, Stockhausen was free to construct the spatial elements for each opera without reference to any preexisting plan. Accordingly, the spatial design of each opera varies considerably. By examining the way Stockhausen treats space in LICHT we can gain insight to his developing compositional practice in a way not possible by turning attention solely to these other, determined musical dimensions. THURSDAY was the first LICHT opera that Stockhausen composed. In it, Stockhausen set the stage for the more consistent, thoroughgoing spatial planing that characterize all of his later works. One part, called UNSICHTBARE CHRE (1979) is scored for fourteen taped choir groups, which are projected through eight loudspeaker groups.44 The loudspeakers are deployed in the same circular arrangement as in SIRIUS. However, action in the opera occurs on stage, in front of the audience. UNSICHTBARE CHRE is performed twice during the THURSDAY opera first as background music for Act I, and then Act III. During Act III, the channels are reversed, as shown in Example 1.2.3a.45 This unusual channel reversal causes sounds to move to corresponding locations 180 apart from their original places. However, it does not cause the choir motions to change from clockwise to counterclockwise. Stockhausens plans for this piece allow us to determine that the spatial movement in UNSICHTBARE CHRE is usually clockwise by step from one loudspeaker group to the next adjacent one. Although one loudspeaker is usually associated with a single choir at any one point, a choir is occasionally heard in two adjacent speaker groups. This has the effect of emphasizing that choirs music, as listeners will hear it coming from a larger area of space (and presumably slightly louder, as well.) Once, a choir is heard split over two non-adjacent speakers. Occasionally, there are leaps across the space,
44 According to Stockhausen, the work cannot be performed live because of the polyphonic complexity; only from tape. See Texte 5, pp. 204-205. 45 The channel reversal corresponds to a peculiar and noteworthy aspect of the THURSDAY opera: in Act III scene II, there is a Schattenspiel during the section called VISION, where the actors and mimes gestures are projected upside-down simultaneously. A photograph can be seen in Texte 5, plate 206. This upside-down play is analogous to the channel swapping in UNSICHTBARE CHRE.

13 from one loudspeaker group to a more distant one. The essential pitch fluctuation in UNSICHTBARE CHRE is actually somewhat slower than the rate of spatial change.46 Although Stockhausen realized the pitch material of each choir in a way that makes it seem to be more rhythmically interesting, the spatial movement is more active than the structural pitch material. In general, Stockhausens spatialization procedure in this work helps to organize and isolate the complex polyphonic structure of the piece into different spatial areas. KATHINKAS GESANG (1983/2001) is the second scene of the next opera to be composed in the LICHT cycle, SATURDAY.47 The 1983 version is for solo flute and six percussionists. Each percussionist plays two sound plates (rectangular pieces of metal that have a pitched sound) and an array of homemade instruments that are hung from the their bodies. The percussionists are stationed symmetrically around the audience along the walls of the performance space. Each is amplified and projected through loudspeakers at his or her location. This spatial design is shown in Example 1.2.3b. Towards the end of KATHINKAS GESANG, the flutist must run from one percussionist to another, swapping some of the sound-plates. This swap has the effect of physically moving some plates that contain the notes of the Eve-formula, a motive associated with one of the operas protagonists.48 Toop theorizes that this is an emanation of Eve, guiding Lucifer (and potentially, anyone else,) to a possible rebirth.49 The sound-plate
46 The essential pitch structure can be found in the sketch printed in Texte 5, p. 210. 47 Although we focus here only on the work KATHINKAS GESANG from the SATURDAY opera, this opera has many novel spatial ideas. In a sense, the opera represents a large-scale opening up of space. The GREETING (opening) is played by four brass choirs in the four corners of the hall. Scene III, called LUZIFERS TANZ, is performed in a vertical array. Finally LUZIFERS ABSCHIED (scene IV) takes place in a cathedral where the choir surrounds the audience. Towards the end, choir and audience move outside, into the town square. 48 Toop 2005, pp. 101-128. The precise way in which the sound-plates are swapped is detailed in the 1983 score, p. xiv, and again in Toop 2005, p. 126. 49 Toop 2005, p. 126.

14 swapping is also a way to create a little spatial variety.50 In this way, spatial movement takes both a structural function and also a programmatic one within the opera. Stockhausens spatial language in DER KINDERFNGER (1986) is evidence of another development in the composers spatial design. This work, which is part of the Monday opera, is often paired with the next piece, ENTFHRUNG, when it is not performed in the context of the staged opera. For the Monday opera itself, Stockhausen selected a number of musique concrte sounds and arranged them into 55 Tonszenen (sound-scenes). The single-channel (mono) sounds were spatialized by using two stereo controllers and an uni-potentiometer joystick. This joystick is a further development of the rotation-table technique: Stockhausen wrote that it was relatively easy to rotate quickly.51 The Tonszenen appear in certain places throughout the entire Monday opera, and to make them easier to analyze, Stockhausen published diagrams of the way in which each one was spatialized.52 The explanation of his box diagrams is shown in Example 1.2.3c. In DER KINDERFNGER and ENTFHRUNG, Stockhausen used the most Tonzenen in any one section of the opera. During the 2002 Summer Courses in Krten, Germany, Stockhausen made many revealing comments about the way the spatial movements were composed. While the movements are not serial, they are statistically balanced throughout the space. The decision of how to spatialize each Tonszene came from the composers imagination: I found a movement that would fit.53 The freedom with which Stockhausen manipulated the spatial domain allows for striking effects, especially as many of the sounds are naturally exciting.

50 51 52 53

Ibid. Texte 7, p. 446. Texte 7, pp. 436-463. These transcriptions were made by the author in 2002. Stockhausens comments suggest that adopting analytical methods applied to serial music may not be wholly appropriate in some spatial music.

15 One Tonszene is reproduced in Example 1.2.3d. In Tonszene 36 there are four different sounds: an airplane, machine gun, lion and shattering flower-pot. Stockhausen has spatialized the first three sounds in a way that we might hear them in real life. The airplane emerges from the horizon behind us and flies quickly overhead; after it disappears in front of us, it is possible to imagine a machine-gunner appearing from the horizon in the same place. We might also imagine seeing a lion in front of us at a zoo. However, the sound of the shattering flower-pot has a spiral spatialization, which is not realistic. In this as in many Tonszenen, it is evident that Stockhausen mixed his sense of real with imaginary when spatializing the sounds in DER KINDERFNGER. It is possible to see a programmatic justification for the spatial motion in these Tonszenen in terms of the underlying plot of the pair of pieces DER KINDERFNGER and ENTFHRUNG. The mixture of realistic spatializations those that somehow reflect the way we would expect a sound to move around us, such as the airplane flying overhead with the imaginary freely composed movements that move in unrealistic ways blurs the line between reality and fantasy. Through this, the Pied Pipers victims eventually lose their ability to judge what is real and what is imaginary, making them easier to lead away to whatever fate awaits them. Although OKTOPHONIE (1990-91) and ORCHESTER-FINALISTEN (1995-96) are from different operas OKTOPHONIE is part of TUESDAY while ORCHESTRAFINALISTEN is from WEDNESDAY they share the same basic spatial setup. In both, Stockhausen set his speaker array in the shape of a cube. It is likely that he did this in order to try to recreate the effect of the spherical auditorium in Osaka.54 In this unusual octophonic setup, the loudspeakers are placed at the eight vertices of the cube, as shown in Example 1.2.3e. Listeners sit in the middle of the bottom four speakers.
54 Unlike Osaka, sounds cannot be spatialized below the listeners. This causes the audience to focus attention on activity overhead, which matches the programmatic choice of shots, bombs and crashes that we analyze in chapter 3.

16

The TUESDAY opera is a dramatization of a conflict between two protagonists in LICHT, Michael and Lucifer. This helps to explain some of the spatial activity in OKTOPHONIE.55 Here, there are essentially two types of electronic music. Drones slowly rotate around the listener in various planes, while the more active sounds consist of shots, crashes, and sound bombs. Although the drones are a further development of Stockhausen rotation-table paradigm, the other sounds are meant to evoke the atmosphere of an aerial bombardment, possibly reminiscent of Stockhausens experiences as a young boy in World War II. The shots, crashes and sound bombs create much more vertical movement in the sound scene than is common in Stockhausens earlier music. While the electronic sounds pass from ceiling to floor and vice-versa, other scenes take place on stage. A thorough analysis of this complex spatialization will be offered later, in Chapter 3. The electronic and concrete music to ORCHESTER-FINALISTEN is in the WEDNESDAY opera, which in contrast to TUESDAY is the day of cooperation among the three protagonists: Eve, Michael and Lucifer. Although the octophonic loudspeaker setup in ORCHESTER-FINALISTEN is the same as in OKTOPHONIE, the way Stockhausen uses it is quite different. Instead of focusing attention on slow rotations and rapid directional spatial movement, Stockhausen composed relatively static music for each plane of the cube.56 In OKTOPHONIE, sounds move from point to point, allowing the listener to localize them in the space, whereas in ORCHESTER-FINALISTEN, listeners must be more attuned to hearing entire planes or walls of music. This is an important aural adjustment one has to make, and shows different compositional approaches to spatialization within the same loudspeaker setup.
55 A detailed explanation of the spatialization procedures, clarifying Stockhausens use of potentiometers and the QUEG, is in Stockhausen 1993a, pp. 150-170. 56 The swapping of layers that occurs in the three-dimensional space makes an important analogy to the swapping of layers in the special Wednesday-Superformula composed for the opera. Richard Toop pointed this out in a lecture at the 2006 Stockhausen Courses in Krten.

17

Between OKTOPHONIE and ORCHESTER-FINALISTEN, Stockhausen composed spatial music for the FRIDAY opera. Although the Tonszenen from FREITAG (199194) share the same appellation as those in the Monday opera, there are not many similarities. The music that is heard during the Friday Tonszenen is not sampled from a sound archive or from everyday experience; rather, it is composed of complex melodic lines derived from the Superformula.57 Moreover, there are only twelve Tonszenen in Friday, instead of the 55 in Monday. Finally, the speaker placement is significantly different than in the Monday opera. In FREITAG, a bank of twelve speakers is ideally set up as a pyramidal panorama in front of the audience. Examples 1.2.3f-h show three different ways of setting up the loudspeakers. The standard way of arranging the loudspeakers is shown in Example 1.2.3f. This was the arrangement during the 2001 Stockhausen festival in Krten. When the work was performed at the Leipzig opera, fourteen loudspeakers had to be used instead of twelve. This alternative arrangement is shown in Example 1.2.3g. In an uncharacteristic move, Stockhausen allowed for an alternative speaker setup for concert performance, where the speakers are arranged in a circle but in this arrangement, some speakers must be hung higher than others. The arrangement is shown in Example 1.2.3h. These three different loudspeaker setups mean that multiple spatial experiences are possible with the same music. In one respect, spatialization in the Friday Tonszenen is used to clarify a dense polyphonic texture. Each of the twelve loudspeakers is musically linked to a pair of dancer-mimes. The dancer-mimes make twelve entrances during the opera. Stockhausen created elaborate plans for the way in which these twelve groups of performers enter. A new couple is introduced in each successive Tonszene, but the order
57 Toop 2005, p. 146ff.

18 of entry of each couple always changes.58 Because of the way the couples are linked to loudspeakers, the spatial shapes created by their entry are always different for each Tonszene. Following this, different combinations of the speakers are used; in the first Tonszene, only one speaker is active, whereas at the end all twelve have music projected through them simultaneously. In another respect, spatialization is used to create unusual shapes in space. Not only are the loudspeakers used to project the music of the twelve couples, but also they are used for playback of the Friday electronic music. This music is projected through eight of the twelve loudspeakers that are used to amplify the music of the dancer-mimes. The channels are indicated by roman numerals in Examples 1.2.3f-h. Regarding one of the densest polyphonic passages, Toop remarked that even with the most sophisticated spatial projection, theres a point at which entropy has to set in, and it would make sense not to proceed that far.59 Despite this, Stockhausen insisted that there are clearly perceptible flight paths, forms of movement, and speeds in space.60 In the seventh and final LICHT opera, SUNDAY, spatialization is focused on the movements or shapes created by performers themselves. There are no purely electronic tape compositions in the opera at all, though the last scene (SONNTAGS-ABSCHIED) is scored for five electronic synthesizers. Although ENGEL-PROZESSIONEN (2000) and LICHT-BILDER (2002-03) both have sophisticated spatial languages, the most significant work of spatial music in the opera is LICHTER-WASSER (1999). In LICHTER-WASSER, spatialization is used not only to clarify contrapuntal structure, but also to paint various rotations, shapes, and forms in space. An orchestra of 29
58 See Toop 2005, p. 137 for an analysis of the order in which the couples enter for each Tonszene. Stockhausens sketches dated 27/28 December 1991 and 29 December 1991 show how Stockhausen decided on the ordering of the couples entries. The final synchronization plan for the couples entries can be found in the score to FREITAG-VERSUCHUNG (Stockhausen 1997), pp. vi-viii. 59 Toop 2005, p. 138. 60 Stockhausen 1997, p. xxxvii.

19 musicians is spread out in a geometric pattern around and within the seated audience. During the main section of the work, two monophonic melodies are passed around from player to player, each instrumentalist intoning a note or group of notes. The action of these two melodies winding their way around and through the audience sets up a two-part spatial counterpoint. As we will see in chapter 4, the speeds, shapes, directions, and densities of movement can be measured because of the detailed box diagrams in the score and the precise tempo indications. 1.2.4. Final works. Stockhausens last, incomplete work-cycle KLANG (2005-07), contains some remarkable spatialized music. The unusual work HIMMELS-TR (2005), which is performed on a special door by a percussionist, uses spatial location as part of the program. After beating on Heavens Door for a certain amount of time, the percussionist finally walks through it and plays on a battery of cymbals which cannot be seen by the audience. But one of Stockhausens very last works, COSMIC PULSES (2007), takes the composers lifelong interest in rotating sounds to the extreme. In COSMIC PULSES, 24 melodic loops...rotate in 24 tempi and 24 registers...each section of each of the 24 layers has its own spatial motion between 8 loudspeakers, which means that I had to compose 241 different trajectories in space.61 The effect of hearing a superdense spatial composition such as COSMIC PULSES surely causes some entropy to set in, of the kind Toop mentioned earlier with regard to the Friday Tonszenen. Still, the work is a kind of bookend, summing up a lifetimes experience with spatial music in a thrilling synthetic electronic space. 1.2.5. Conclusion. We can break down Stockhausens use of space into two categories. First, space can be used to clarify complex contrapuntal textures. Second, it can be used for sheer effect, either by rotation or by creating characteristic shapes for particular sounds. For Stockhausen, the performing space, or the space which his music
61 Stockhausen 2007a (CD 91), pp. 6-7.

20 illuminates, is a kind of filter. Whether one of his works is performed outdoors, in a concert hall, or in a cave far beneath the earths surface,62 Stockhausens music changes our perception of space, and space changes it. 1.3. Spatialization in Stockhausens Essays, Interviews and Sketches The evidence presented in the previous section overwhelmingly indicates that Stockhausen organized space as a compositional element. Both the quantity of spatialized works and the variety of ways that the space is organized in Stockhausens music support this claim. By surveying his essays, interviews and sketches, we can gain a deeper insight into how he regarded space and what it meant for the structure of his musical compositions. 1.3.1. Essays. Two essays published at critical junctures in Stockhausens career help to crystallize his orientation towards spatial music. The 1958 essay Musik im Raum (Music in Space) was based on a lecture by the same name.63 Here, Stockhausen asked why one should spatialize music in the first place. He writes that there was a compositional imperative in early serial music to treat all musical aspects equally. But, in such pointillistic music, the individual characteristics of different musical elements change so rapidly that one often finds oneself in a state of suspended animation. The music essentially stands still.64 Allowing one musical dimension to predominate could bring a renewed sense of temporality to the music; but by doing this, the spirit of equality among all parameters is lost. By spatializing compositional elements, the composer can highlight musical processes without contradicting the spirit which gave birth to the idea of equal valuation for all sound-characteristics.65 Thus, spatialization can clarify a dense
62 In November 1969, Stockhausens music was performed in the Jeita caves of Lebanon. See Texte 3, p. 377. 63 This lecture is now available on Stockhausens Text-CD 7. The English translation is in die Reihe 5, pp. 67-82 while the original is in Texte 1, pp. 152-175. 64 Stockhausen 1961, p. 69. 65 Ibid. Cages idea is similar: Rehearsals have shown that this new music...is more clearly heard when

21 serial texture; or, put another way, it can allow the composer to write a denser texture than is ordinarily possible. But how can spatialization be accomplished in a way that allows movements in space to relate to other musical elements, while, at the same time, allowing the spatial structure to maintain some sort of internal coherence? Stockhausen suggested three ways of quantizing space around the listener: the first is to set up sound sources in a line; the second in a triangle, and the third in a circle. The last solution is most favorable because of the greater possibility for continuous motion and the lack of associations with traditional musical space relations.66 Stockhausen proposed two different ways of quantizing the circle around a listener; the first method relies on a left-right symmetry (1 at the front, 0 at the back) while the other involves measuring proportional distances around the circle (such as 3:2, 1:2) which can be brought into correspondence with equivalent proportions in the rhythmic or pitch domains. In Music in Space, Stockhausen offered a practical guide both for composers wishing to organize the space around them, and for listeners trying to make sense of Stockhausens own musical works. The ideas in Stockhausens article explain both his own personal approach to spatialization in the 1950s, and also leave open avenues of exploration to other composers by inviting the reader through clear graphical diagrams and relatively simple language. Although he briefly considered how music might move in three dimensions, Stockhausen made no definitive statements about it in this early article. These questions are addressed in his next major article about spatial music.
the several loud-speakers or performers are separated in space rather than grouped closely together. Cage 1961, p. 12. Another sentiment is echoed by Henry Brant: The spatial procedure, however, permits a greatly expanded overall complexity, since separated and contrasting textures may be superimposed freely over the same octave range...with no loss of clarity. Brandt 1978, p. 224. Heikinheimo puts it differently: ...the use of multiple channels is a kind of emergency measure which helps the composer to create clarity in a compositional weave that is either too monotonous or too compact. Heikinheimo 1972, p. 86. 66 The association of the left side with low sounds and the right side with high sounds which comes from experience with keyboard instruments could make spatial lines problematic, according to Stockhausen, Texte 1, p. 169.

22

In an extemporized lecture from 1972, Stockhausen spoke at length about Vier Kriterien der Elektronischen Musik (Four Criteria of Electronic Music). This lecture was transcribed and printed a year later.67 Between Music and Space and the Four Criteria articles, Stockhausen had the intense experience of three-dimensional spatial auditory immersion during the 1970 Worlds Fair, as mentioned above in 1.2.3. Regarding spatialization, Stockhausens third criterion (Composition of multilayered space/Die Komposition mehrschichtiger Raumlichkeit) is the most important. Unlike his earlier Music in Space, there is no technical description and there are no diagrams. Instead of serving as a practical guide or proposing another system of spatial organization, Stockhausen concentrated his discussion on experiences, sensations, and the potential of aural imagination. Stockhausen focused on the possibilities of shapes that sounds create in the air, and their qualitative effect on the human organism. Through the integration of space in music, Stockhausen claimed one can be emancipated from the physicality of the body;68 thus, spatial music forms new people.69 Through spatialization, Stockhausen claimed he could form spatial constellations like chords, and bring them into relation with other constellations, compose spatial melodies, and describe all possible geometric configurations.70 According to Stockhausen, In the next few decades there will be no limits placed on the imagination to create new resources for music so that it progresses, emancipates itself, and becomes
67 The original publication was in Beuys and Herzogenrath 1973. The reprint is in Texte 4, pp. 360-424. The lecture is on Stockhausen 2007c (Text-CD 13). 68 Texte 4, p. 390 69 Ibid., p. 384. Other writers have echoed this sentiment: ...for as long as there is little encouragement or opportunity to acquire, let alone to develop, auditory spatial awareness, our society will surely have an impoverished aural architecture. Blesser and Salter 2007, pp. 331-332. 70 Ibid., p. 385. Ich knnte im Verlauf einer Komposition genauso rumliche Konstellationen etablieren wie Akkorde, und darauf andere Konstellationen beziehen; ebenso Raummelodien komponieren, die also durch das Hoch- und Tiefgehen von Klngen, durch das An-mir-vorbei-kommen in bestimmten Hhen oder Tiefen oder geraden oder gekrmmten Linien, alle mglichen geometrischen Konfigurationen beschreiben, wenn sie vom Komponisten strukturell benutzt werden.

23 free of the physical limitations that we have, up to now, accepted as natural.71 Many questions arise from statements in the Vier Kriterien essay. What are the spatial constellations Stockhausen used? What might a spatial melody sound like? What might constitute geometric configurations of space in music? While he never answers these questions directly, Stockhausens statements are strong guideposts that suggest ways of approaching his spatial music after 1970. Finally, Stockhausen recognized the ability to use microphones to amplify various sounds produced by musicians, and then project them into space using loudspeakers. In this respect, he wrote: The use of microphones is something quite new. It indicates another discovery, that every interpreter can have a wireless microphone, so that one can hear even the quietest consonants projected into the hall, and so that the sound of the performance can be projected throughout an auditorium by a sound projectionist who is responsible for the entire acoustic.72 This quote verifies that even works that are not specifically spatialized could be clarified by some spatialization during performance. As previously stated in 1.2.1, the sound projectionist is then responsible for the spatial design. In a third article, called Die Zukunft der elektroakustischen Apparaturen in der Musik [The future of electroacoustic apparatus in music]73, Stockhausen described two improvements that could be made to spatialization in music: the use of sound wanderers [Klangwndler] and better rotation tables. The proposals are further evidence
71 Ibid., p. 392. Da sind in den nchsten Jahrzehnten der Phantasie keine Grenzen gesetzt, um der Musik neue Hilfsmittel zu schaffen, damit sie weiterkommt, sich emanzipiert und frei wird von den physikalischen Grenzen, die wir bisher als selbstverstndlich hingenommen haben. 72 Texte 9, p. 594. Die Mikrophonierung ist etwas ganz Neues. Es bedeudet auch eine neue Entdeckung, da jeder Interpret einen Sender haben kann, so da man auch die leisesten Konsonanten in den Saal projiziert hrt, und da der Klang der Auffhrung rundum projiziert werden kann durch einen Klangregisseur, der die Verantwortung fr die gesamte Akustik hat. 73 Texte 4, p. 425-436. The article began as a radio lecture in 1972 and was first published in 1974 in Musik und Bildung, vol. 7/8.

24 of the crucial role rotation and movement played in Stockhausens concept of musical spatialization. 1.3.2. Interviews. In addition to the numerous comments about spatialization quoted throughout 1.2, Stockhausen made a large number of important statements during interviews. In his interviews, Stockhausen often underlines the importance of space to his compositional projects. Referring to the loudspeaker arrangement in GESANG DER JNGLINGE, Stockhausen said: The speed of the sound, by which one sound jumps from one speaker to another, now became as important as pitch once was. And I began to think in intervals of space, just as I think in intervals of pitch or durations. I think in chords of space.74 Stockhausen lamented that ...were used to sounds which have been fixed to objects that have produced sounds, like instruments or human voices. And we have lost the ability to fly like birds...75 These comments pertain most directly to his works TELEMUSIK and HYMNEN, where the overt musical program includes travel at superhuman speeds. Stockhausen remarked on the experience of projecting music in the spherical auditorium during the 1970 Osaka fair: This polyphony of spatial movements and the speed of the sound become as important as the pitch of the sound, the duration of the sound, or the timbre of the sound.76 In addition to creating a kind of spatial polyphony, Stockhausen was also interested in quantifying the sources, distances, and speeds of sound, to bring them under control
74 Cott 1973, p. 92. 75 Ibid., p. 44. 76 Ibid., p. 46.

25 through his serial working methods.77 Although we encountered part of this quote earlier, it is now presented in more context. ...any point in space should be precisely defined with respect to where the sound occurs and how it travels from one point to any other...what I have in mind is a situation where youd sit and project your sound in space with any given speed and draw the musical configuration of the sound in the air.78 In later sets of interviews, Stockhausen continued to emphasize his hope that listeners would perceive movement in his space-music. Referring to MICHAELS REISE (1978), Stockhausen revised his compositional priority somewhat, saying ...in my method of composition, the movement and the direction of the sounds are of paramount importance. They count as much as the volume and the timbre, and little less than the sound-frequencies.79 In a 1997 interview, which was conducted while he was working on the Sunday opera, Stockhausen remarked that ...I now use a series of constellations of sounds moving in space or standing in a certain constellation. I work with series of space constellations.80 Finally, Stockhausen had some hope that highly perceptive persons would, in the future, learn to listen to spatial music and find meaning in it just as they found meaning in music of the past. Listening to music which has been spatially and collectively perfected by modern acoustic equipment will assume a social weight of great importance, the weight of
77 Although Coenen 1994 defined several serial working methods in Stockhausens compositional paradigm, he did not address the issue of space. Comments such as those quoted in this section suggest that space should be elevated to a working method on nearly an equal footing as the other methods Coenen described. 78 Cott 1973, p. 202-203. 79 Tannenbaum 1987, p. 38. 80 Paul 1997.

26 a ritual.81 Stockhausens statements about the role of space in music give an idea of just how important it was for him to organize this aspect of experience. What evidence do we have for spatialization in his sketches? 1.3.3. Sketches. Countless sketches indicate that Stockhausen thought in terms of spatial forms and shapes while composing. One of the first indications of spatialization can be found in Stockhausens sketches for GESANG DER JNGLINGE. Appearing either as a schematic diagram of the speaker setup,82 or as a drawing with lines connecting different speakers from a perspective seen from above,83 these sketches show a certain tentativeness in dealing with the spatial issues. Heikinheimo remarked that composing for several channels...requires the creation of a very detailed work-plan made to meet the demands of a systematic working technique.84 We can observe a more elaborate spatial graphology than GESANG in the sketches for KONTAKTE (1959-60). Here, a repertoire of symbols denote a particular sequence of movements not individual movements on their own.85 The shapes are then deployed serially, along with other musical parameters. This system of spatial diagrams is found throughout the sketches for KONTAKTE.86 Once the motion was determined serially, Stockhausens sketches show detailed instructions or, performance plans for the rotation table. These plans are arranged precisely in seconds, and include annotations
81 82 83 84 85 Tannenbaum 1987, p. 41. Stockhausen 2001a, p. 31. Ibid., p. 23. Heikinheimo 1972, p. 83. A key page, which lends great insight to the spatial movements in KONTAKTE, is reproduced in Heikinheimo 1972, p. 131. Unfortunately, parts of this sketch are not entirely clear even after examining it at the Stockhausen archive. 86 The sketch-book for KONTAKTE is arranged in ten sections, each of which is designated by a Roman numeral. Each section has a number of pages ranging from 8 to 132. Some of these are subdivided (31.1, 31.2, etc.) These subdivisions are always given in Arabic numbers. The relevant sketches in which Stockhausen shows detailed plans for the rotation table [Rotationstisch] include sketch pages VI/67.1, VI/67.2, VI/68.1, VI/68.2, and VI/69. They deal primarily with formal sections XIV A-D of KONTAKTE.

27 such as accell rit and schnell. While the perspective of looking down from above the audience was briefly put to rest in KONTAKTE, Stockhausen returned to it in the sketches for CARR. These box diagrams which became standard in almost all of Stockhausens subsequent spatialization sketches are crucial for negotiating the spatial design of CARR. But in addition to the box diagrams, Stockhausen often made numerous Sitzplne or seating plans, both for the musicians and audience. Like the box diagrams, these seating plans are always from the perspective of looking down on the performance space. In sketches of the LICHT operas, spatial information is plentiful. For each of the works mentioned in 1.2.4, many sketches with spatial information are available for study. Most often, Stockhausens sketches contain box diagrams. In COSMIC PULSES, spatial movement was such a central concern that Stockhausen devoted at least seven sketch pages to planning the movement of 241 sounds in 24 layers around the audience.87 If anything, the attention given to space in Stockhausens music increased towards the end of his life, culminating in the hyperdense texture of COSMIC PULSES. We can see that Stockhausen put great emphasis on spatialization in his writings, interviews and sketches. Yet, most literature about Stockhausens compositional methods tends to focus on his techniques of organizing pitch, rhythm, and form. What literature is there that can help us to understand the spatial aspects of Stockhausens music?

87 These pages were on display at the 2007 Stockhausen Courses in Krten; the diagrams are reproduced in Stockhausen 2007a (CD 91). Three pages contain the 241 box diagrams while four contain related numerical sequences. We will investigate this work in more detail in 5.2.4.

28 1.4. Literature on spatialization and its role in Stockhausens music 1.4.1. Spatial Cognition, Perception and Psychoacoustic Studies. A large body of literature seeks to explain and discover the cognitive systems that humans use to perceive their acoustic environment, and how we make sense of it. These studies are useful because they can help guide us in interpreting the measurements we will make of spatial activity in music. Three authors who have surveyed a broad swath of literature in this field while also making contributions of their own, are Albert Bregman, Jens Blauert, and Blesser/Salter. Reporting on evidence that space is considered as a continuum by the auditory system,88 Bregman concluded that spatial location is in fact a grouping mechanism in auditory cognition. However, it is not always the primary one: Deutschs celebrated scale illusion studies showed that we sometimes prefer to group auditory stimuli by frequency range rather than by spatial location.89 Bregman writes that spatial location...seems to lose out when it is placed into conflict with other bases for grouping.90 Although his studies support the idea that we can analyze sounds moving from one place to another continuously (even if they are not actually moving themselves), they also suggest that we should keep pitch as well as spatial location in mind when grouping sounds together to form larger structures. While Bregman investigated the way in which auditory streams are segregated, Blauerts research focused more on the way in which we actually localize sound. His interest lies in the realm of the psychophysics of sound localization. Blauert summarized many studies that measured the precision of human sound localization for various frequency bands. He concluded that the localization blur is much greater in the median plane
88 Bregman 1990, p. 74. 89 Deutsch 1973, 1974; Bregman 1990, p. 76. 90 Bregman 1990, p. 82.

29 (above the listeners head, from front to back) than in the horizontal plane (around the listener in a circle).91 The implications for spatial music in three dimensions have been largely borne out by electroacoustic music practice. The relative sparseness of spatial music that moves above the listener can probably be attributed to the fact that we cannot establish the location of sounds above us with as much precision as those around us in the horizontal plane. Part of Blauerts goal is to establish head-related transfer functions, or mathematical functions that can be applied to auditory inputs in order to mimic the spectral distortions introduced by the ear structure. One use of transfer functions is to create simulations of room acoustics for architects. Composers can also use HRTFs to create synthetic spaces in their electronic music. The connection between sound and architecture is one critical aspect of negotiating the connection between sound and space one that Barry Blesser and Linda-Ruth Salter researched for their study. Blesser and Salters research is an attempt to synthesize many different disciplines that pertain to the relationship between sound and space. Their term aural architecture refers to the properties of a space that can be experienced by listening.92 Through the centuries, humans have created various spaces with different acoustical properties in order so that the quality of sound is altered. These range from ancient Greek amphitheaters to artificial spaces created by computers and loudspeaker arrays (such as the BEAST system).93 In crafting an interdisciplinary approach to the idea of selecting, designing, and experiencing spaces by listening,94 Blesser and Salter look to the fields of musicology, archeology, neurobiology, mathematics, anthropology, psychophysics, cultural evolution, religious ceremonies, theatrical sound, and virtual space simulation, to

91 92 93 94

Blauert 1997, pp. 41-44. Blesser and Salter 2007, p. 5. Ibid., p. 174 Ibid., p. 275.

30 name just a few.95 While they lose some focus by casting their net so wide, Blesser and Salter use aural architecture as a way to learn more about the sound qualities that a given culture values. Their study is valuable because it helps us to understand what people at a given time and in a given culture listen for in the sound world around them. 1.4.2. Category/Classification Studies. In her 1994 dissertation, Maria Harley/Maya Trochimczyk96 completed a thorough study which locates the concept of space in the Western philosophical tradition, while also covering a broad range of historical issues surrounding the use of space in music. Her analyses, which center around music of Henry Brant, Iannis Xenakis, and R. Murray Schafer, help to support her classification of spatial designs. This classification scheme consists of: 1. Acoustic environments, such as enclosed space, concert hall, open space, or headphones; 2. Sound-space types, such as vocal-instrumental or electroacoustic sound sources, or a mixture of the two; 3. Categories of static or mobile performers and/or audience.97 Harley also proposed a categorization of spatial theories. These categories are 1. An extension of polyphony (essentially, a way of heightened stream segregation); 2. Music built from sound objects projected into space; 3. Spatialization as a new parameter manipulated compositionally; 4. Spatialization as conceptual experimentation with performance rituals and their contexts.98 In addition, Trochimczyk proposed categories of different spatial arrangements of sound
95 Ibid., p. 367, note 1. 96 As a result of the authors 2001 name change, there is the potential for some confusion. Articles by Maria Harley and Maja Trochimczyk are by the same person. Citations are to the name under which a given work was published. 97 Harley 1994a, pp. 185-186; also Trochimczyk 2001, p. 40. 98 Harley 1994a, pp. 99-160; summarized in Harley 1994a, p. 341.

31 sources, ranging from point to sphere. Although the dimensions can vary from zero to three there is also the possibility of fractional or fractal dimensions. Simple geometric patterns of performers could be a point, line segment, triangle, square, circle, cube or sphere.99 Net-based designs, on the other hand, underlie the chaotic happenings of Cage and experiments with performance formats in which the traditional form of the concert has disappeared. In these centerless spatial designs, musical performances can take place outdoors or in unusual spaces...Here, the division between performer and audience disappears, standard musical notation gives way to written instructions, and the supratemporal musical work is replaced with a process or an action that cannot be repeated twice in the same way.100 Examples of such spatial designs include works by Boulez, Cage, Brant, Hlszky, Bryars, and others. Harley/Trochimczyks research into spatial music is primarily concerned with making categories or classification schemes that can be applied to a large number of musical pieces or sound designs. Her work is valuable because it helps us to see similarities between a variety of works, and differentiate spatial arrangements according to the general attitude towards space and the purpose of spatialization. 1.4.3. Analytical Studies. There are not many sustained or detailed analytical studies of spatial motion in the published music theory literature. Composers (such as Xenakis 1970 and Brant 1978) have explained some of their techniques when composing spatial movements, but do not provide much insight into how one might build an analytical methodology. The music of composers such as Varse has attracted a substantial amount of scholarly work, but little information remains of Varses actual spatialization schemes, making it difficult to know exactly what spatial effects his music might
99 Trochimczyk 2001, p. 41. 100 Trochimczyk 2001, p. 51.

32 communicate to audiences.101 Another class of writers, such as Imke Misch, recognize the importance that space plays for Stockhausen, but offer only general summaries of the spatial techniques that are used in his music.102 Three authors have made significant contributions to the field, however: Gisela Nauck, Boris Hofmann and Sara Overholt. Naucks study, Musik im Raum Raum in der Musik [Music in space space in music], is her 1997 dissertation from the Technical University of Berlin. She traces the history of modern theories of space composition from Beyers music of the future article103 through Webern and the Darmstadt school of the 1950s. According to Nauck, notable composers that contributed to this line of development include Varse, Boulez, Cage, Schnebel, and Stockhausen. Although she analyses several pieces of spatialized music, the most interesting work for our purposes is her analysis of the spatial structure in Stockhausens GRUPPEN. Nauck designed a Hrpartitur or listening score, which essentially is a graph showing when each of the three orchestras plays.104 In the tradition of visual analyses by von Burow and Silberhorn for STUDIE II,105 Nauks Hrpartitur is a valuable visual aid in forming an idea of the way the work engages the spatial domain.106 Part of the graph is reproduced in Example 1.4.3a. In addition to this graph, Nauck makes a typology of musical spatialization [Typologie musikalischer Rumlichkeit] in which she divides the various types of spatial movement into three categories. This is shown and translated in Example 1.4.3b. She further divides each of her three broad categories into subcategories. The categories are a quantization of spatial movement in and of itself, and range from very active motion (category A1a) to static (category C3c). Nauck links timbre with spatial motion in her concept of the sound field [Klangfeld], and considers
101 Meyer 2006, p. 342-343. 102 Misch 1999a, p. 149. 103 Beyer 1928. 104 Nauck 1997, pp. 215-218. 105 Von Burow 1973, Silberhorn 1980. 106 For more on Naucks analysis, see 2.1.3.

33 sounds with the same timbre less active than those whose timbres change. Thanks to her categories, Nauck can propose a hypothetical level of spatial activity and function for each of the 144 groups in GRUPPEN. This is all to show that there is a dramatic process going on in space. We reach a high point in this process during the last insertion (groups 114-122) by combining four different types of spatial motion, and by the simultaneous presence of a considerable amount of active motion.107 By tabulating the amount and type of motion through the twelve main sections (and four insertions), Naucks analysis of GRUPPEN shows how the spatial motion contributes to the overall musical drama in a complex serial work. Hofmanns work uses Naucks as a springboard to formulate some basic analytical approaches towards spatial music. Hofmann is primarily concerned with analyzing the relationship between tone-space and real-space [Tonraum vs. Realraum] in several Xenakis works.108 Although Hofmann suggests that in many of Xenakis works, sounds can be assigned an x- and y- coordinate in polar coordinate space, he never follows up on this very suggestive idea.109 Instead, Hofmann diagrams some general aspects of Xenakiss music, especially in the orchestra work Terretektorh, using a kind of tin can diagram. The tin can diagram allows Hofmann to relate pitch height to spatial location.110 Overholts 2006 dissertation attempts to apply a theory of shapes to two Stockhausen works, GRUPPEN and OKTOPHONIE. Her reading of Wrner 1973 and Maconie 1976 leads her to propose four categories of shapes, based on what she terms aural salience.111 She divides her shapes into those with motion and those that are static
107 Nauck 1997, p. 227. 108 Hofmann 2008, p. 79. 109 Ibid., p. 87. 110 Ibid., p. 85. 111 The passages Overholt cites in Wrner 1973 (p. 93, 169) are particularly laden with spatial imagery: Stockhausen makes a distinction between a motive (or theme) and shape. He only speaks of a musical motive when it actually motivates somethingwhen it leads to something, whether to variations, to transformations, to disintegrations, or anything else of the sort. When this does not happen, there will be

34 reminiscent both of Nauck and Harley/Trochimczky.112 Overholt terms her static shapes either points or blocks, while shapes with motion can be lines or wedges.113 Wedges can be further subdivided into different shapes whose boundary points involve various locations in the performance space.114 After proposing a reading of the entire shape structure of GRUPPEN using her classification, Overholt investigates the different spatial characteristics of seven larger sections, concluding that certain shapes are conspicuously absent from some sections.115 By removing the static shapes from her entire analysis, Overholt finds that there is a kind of alternation between sections in which wedges predominate versus those where lines constitute the main spatial language. Through the further application of this methodology, which has its roots in reductive techniques in tonal music, Overholt concludes that the spatial background of GRUPPEN is essentially wedge-line-wedgeline-wedge-line-wedge.116 Overholt advances her analysis of the spatial movement in GRUPPEN by proposing that there are certain magic spots in the space. Magic spots simply take a sound (usually a well-defined timbre) and move that sound linearly to a second location.117 According to Overholt, there are three techniques that Stockhausen uses to achieve this effect: (1) change of volume; (2) Doppler effect (change of pitch); and (3) sensory overload.118 In this last technique, Stockhausen overloads our senses with data so that we lose track

no motive but rather a unique shape, isolated and without any motivic character. (Wrner 1973, p. 93) 112 Unfortunately, neither of these two authors are cited in Overholts bibliography. Although Overholt does not mention the sketches for KONTAKTE, her idea of finding shapes to categorize spatial movement has precedent there, as mentioned above in 1.3.3. 113 Overholt 2006, p. 51. 114 Ibid., p. 54. 115 Ibid., p. 86. 116 Ibid., p. 91. 117 Ibid., p. 101. 118 Ibid.

35 of where a sound is, only to have it appear in another place shortly thereafter.119 Essentially, Overholt identifies and outlines a set of compositional devices that interlock with spatial processes to facilitate the effect of spatial movement. Finally, Overholt applies her shape theory to a later work of Stockhausens, OKTOPHONIE. This electronic music, mentioned above in 1.2.3, is composed in eight channels and serves as the background music to the second act of Stockhausens TUESDAY opera. During OKTOPHONIE, several shorter pieces are performed at the same time as the electronic music, including 1st Invasion, 2nd Invasion, Piet, 3rd Invasion, Explosion, Jenseits, Synthi-Fou, Abschied and Spiegelwelt. Overholt parses the piece into four sections: Section 1: 1st Invasion, 2nd Invasion Section 2: Piet Section 3: 3rd Invasion, Jenseits, Synthi-Fou Section 4: Abschied By applying her theory of shapes to this three-dimensional spatial work,120 Overholt concludes that there is four-part shape counterpoint in the first ivasion [sic]; two-part shape counterpoint in the second invasion; 3-D two-part counterpoint in the third invasion; and a single shape for all the materials in the last section.121 After Overholts analysis, we are left wondering how exactly this counterpoint might operate, or what rules govern the movements in it. Do the spatial voices interact at all like they do in the pitch world?

119 Ibid., p. 112. 120 According to Overholt, the aurally salient shapes in OKTOPHONIE consist not of the drones (which slowly rotate around the listener in various ways) but the shots, crashes and sound bombs that punctuate the electronic texture. 121 Ibid., p. 159. Stockhausen suggested spatial polyphony in his interviews with Cott (see 1.3.2) but later analyzed OKTOPHONIE as a work with eight-part spatial counterpoint (Stockhausen 2000b, p. 74).

36 1.5. Argument for more analytical rigor 1.5.1. Lack of knowledge of spatial musical constructs. The writers mentioned in 1.4 engage the spatial element of music in various different ways, reflecting the diverse approaches that have been taken by scholars. Although there have been many important contributions to the study of space in music, research has not yet engaged the idea Stockhausen had of measuring spatial motion. We return one last time to Stockhausens pregnant remark to Jonathan Cott, cited twice earlier: ...any point in space should be precisely defined with respect to where the sound occurs and how it travels from one point to any other. (Cott 1973, pp. 202-203) Were we to have the kind of stunted understanding of pitch that we have of space, it would be as if we were only able to make categories of clouds of pitches, and to say whether the general direction of a pitch complex is up or down. We would not have a very highly developed notion of a solitary pitch (in space: a point), or where it could or might move to. There would be no way to measure an interval (in space: a distance), or know much about melodies (in space: shapes). Other aspects of spatial music interact with traditional musical elements in more complex ways. The concept of velocity or, the rate of change in the location of sounds could apply to rhythm. However, the velocity of sounds in the space around us involves another aspect of experience which is difficult to capture in any way other than on its own terms. Although melodic contour has a shape, spatial melodies can have complex, multidimensional contours if they move around in three dimensions. These and other specific issues relating to spatial music have not yet been explored in a sufficiently rigorous way. 1.5.2. Objections to measuring elements of spatial composition. Is it even feasible to measure elements of music in space? Perhaps the most vocal opponents might come

37 from the music cognition camp. Experiments have revealed that reverberation has a great effect on our ability to localize sound.122 Thus, important structures in spatial music may be perceived wholly differently or not at all in different spaces. Yet, if spatial location is an integral element of the music, performers should and must seek out performance venues with low reverberation, allowing space to be perceived clearly. If a hall is like an instrument, a hall with a large reverberation time is like an out-of-tune instrument: it is simple not suited for performance. Another objection to measuring the distances, speeds and shapes in spatial music is that sound sources may be set up differently than what is specified in the score. This too may have a significant effect on the perception of the spatial design. However, the pieces we are studying by Stockhausen usually have very specific spatial designs which are clearly laid out in the score. Stockhausen often specifies even the distances between sound sources in his scores. To further the analogy with more traditional music: if the instruments in a symphony orchestra are slightly different from those that the composer would have had when the music was composed, the timbral profile of the work is still similar and recognizable. It is likely that even if sound sources are set up slightly differently from the composers specifications, much of the intended spatial design will remain intact. A third question relates to the issue of the location of the listener relative to the sound sources. If the spatial setup is such that sound sources are located in a ring around the audience, listeners near the edge of that ring will probably perceive spatial motion much differently than those seated near the center. Different listeners may have wholly different perceptions of spatial movement, owing to complex psychoacoustic phenomena. However, crafting an analytical methodology that would resonate with every listener
122 In a situation with a lot of echo, the largely incoherent ear input signals resulting from the reverberation generate a diffusely located auditory event whose components more or less fill the subjects entire auditory space. Blauert 1997, p. 279.

38 would be an impossible task, due to the many variables involved. What we propose here is to measure the spatial movement as it is composed in the score, not as it is necessarily perceived by any one listener. By analyzing and characterizing the structure that the composer intended to create, we may then follow up by speculating further about how or even if this structure is perceived by an engaged listener. 1.5.3. Weaknesses in published literature. Although Harley/Trochimczyk provides a valuable classification for spatial designs, her method does not engage spatialized works on a detailed level she only analyzes arrangements of sound sources and audiences. As a result, she rarely points to any specific techniques that operate within a spatial composition. Overholt, while courageously trying to develop techniques and vocabulary for analyzing spatial movement where there are few in existence, makes a error in assuming that the shapes which are primarily a tactile or visual sensation can be applied to those heard in spatial music. She creates her categories first, without first identifying the precise shapes that a category might contain. After making a shaky case for deciding on the form of her shapes, she applies reductive techniques developed for the analysis of pitch to her discussion, without thoroughly justifying them in the spatial domain. Her conclusion that the spatial motion in GRUPPEN reduces to an alteration of two shapes seems overly speculative, and it is not clear how this helps the listener to gain a greater appreciation of the spatial design. Moreover, to discard the rotating background sounds in OKTOPHONY is to ignore this development in one of Stockhausens main spatial techniques: the rotation table tradition. Naucks analytical work will be the most successful if we wish to create analytical techniques for spatial music. In her study, the goal is to make an interpretation of motion within a dramatic context in GRUPPEN. But her equation of timbre with spatial location is questionable, since a change in timbre may not necessarily imply a change of perceived

39 location. However, Naucks approach is stimulating because her methodology applies the same ideas of serial composition namely, quantization of the domain of spatial movement that were used to compose the piece in the first place. Still, she does not make precise measurements of the spatial motion, leaving her continuous arrangement of categories of spatial activity on a continuum from static to active open to some debate. Hofmanns starting point is Naucks classification schemes. He identifies many different general characteristics of spatial motion in Xenakiss music. However, Hofmann comes tantalizingly close to suggesting the quantitative approach used in this dissertation when he writes that every sound can theoretically be assigned an x- or y- coordinate in space. However he never follows up on this idea and only offers a descriptive analysis although this analysis is very useful in identifying the myriad possibilities of spatial motion in a piece. Hofmanns work is stimulating because he has close contact with spatialization techniques: his doctorate is in sound engineering. While his work on Xenakiss spatialization is extensively researched, offering great insight into its production methods and the kinds of events that happen in space, there is still much that is left unknown. 1.5.4. Statement of goals. In the following chapters, I intend to engage two specific spatial works by Stockhausen. To gather data, I rely primarily on a statistical approach, which is more neutral than methods dependent on inventing categories or reducing foreground layers of activity to their background progenitors. By collecting a large set of baseline measurements, we will have a foundation on which to build more complex analyses involving set theory, graph theory, transformation theory, and scale theory. I will propose some criteria by which we can determine a set of locations in the spatial domain, thereby laying the foundation for relating these spatial sets by mathematical transformations. Finally, I will use the mathematical structures of graph theory to characterize the various connections between different parts of the space in spatial music,

40 thereby unveiling the variety and subtlety of structure in the spatial domain. The goal of the study is not only to elucidate an important aspect of Stockhausens musical language, but also to point the way towards understanding other spatialized music. After applying analytical tools to two major Stockhausen works, I will briefly examine three other Stockhausen works in the final chapter, along with more selected works by Xenakis and Tallis. By applying my analytical methods to spatial music, we will better appreciate an already rewarding musical experience.

41 Chapter 2. Analytical Methodologies Introduction The impetus for measuring space is inspired by a statement Stockhausen made suggesting that it is an important factor in understanding his compositional practice. ...any point in space should be precisely defined with respect to where the sound occurs and how it travels from one point to any other.123 In response to Stockhausens idea, our goal is define the location of sounds in space, and then measure the movement of those sounds through space. This may be simple to do if the composer specifies exactly where a sound is located, but it becomes more challenging if we have to pinpoint the sounds coordinates between two or more loudspeakers. First, we will explore techniques of published analysis that have been applied to Stockhausens music. This will provide some basic orientation as we build our methods. Next, we will develop a method for locating sounds in space. Then, we will consider the shape of the space itself, and whether sounds must jump around or whether they move continuously from one place to another. Related to this is the question of whether modularity holds in spatial music in a similar way that it does in pitch. By exploring some of the basic properties of mathematical graph theory, we will find ways of expressing the structure of spatial music in a useful, abstract way. We then explore the idea that shapes traced out in physical space may be related to one another; for this we apply the notion of mathematical transformations. In certain spaces, these transformations may have symmetries which can be described by mathematical groups. Finally, we will find that the data we collect can be analyzed statistically. These analytical methods, when used together judiciously, can uncover a great deal of information about spatial music which otherwise would go unnoticed.
123 Cott 1973, pp. 202-203.

42

As we stated in the previous chapter, Stockhausen mainly uses space in two ways: first, to clarify dense musical texture; and second, as a compositional premise in and of itself. For the first case, we have to know what the musical texture is and why it might need to be clarified. If we were to analyze works that seem to use space in this way, we would have to go through a fair amount of analysis of the structure of pitch, rhythm, and form prior to tackling the spatial question. Works that treat space in the second as a compositional premise provide provide a more direct way of engaging the spatial question. 2.1. Analytical Orientation 2.1.1. Composition analysis. The method used in many published analyses of Stockhausens music is one that I call composition analysis. It is also the method that Stockhausen himself used most frequently. In a composition analysis, the writer typically begins by presenting the fundamental or generative idea for a given piece. This can be as abstract as a numerical series, or as prosaic as a vision of a squadron of helicopters containing the four musicians of a string quartet. Stockhausens numerous form schemes, which are common for works after GRUPPEN, often provide the key to the works basic structure, and are a convenient starting point for composition analysis.124 In the next stage of this type of analysis, sketch material is often consulted in chronological order, focusing first on the decisions that build the basic framework of the piece, and then progressively filling in more compositional detail. This stage is greatly facilitated by the voluminous sketch material that Stockhausen generously made available to scholars. The final analytical stage engages surface details such as embellishments, insertions, and foreground elements. The goal of composition analysis is to unveil the compositional process, and to elucidate
124 Toop 2005, pp. 165-207.

43 details that were relevant and important to Stockhausen himself. A successful analysis requires that the analyst has at his or her disposal a fair number of sketches, and a notion of how Stockhausen might have proceeded according to his typical working methods. Composition analysis has the distinct advantage of allowing us metaphorically to sit next to the composers work bench and get a glimpse of his sequence of decisions and problem-solving. 2.1.2. Score analysis. Composition analysis contrasts with another analytical method: score analysis. In score analysis, the printed score is the starting point. Here, the focus is not on the process of composition, but rather on the outcome of that process: namely, the score. One such analysis of Stockhausens music that has attained a kind of canonical status in the music theory literature is David Lewins essay on KLAVIERSTCK III.125 Lewin parses the musical surface of this brief work into pentachords. He then relates these musical objects through a sophisticated transformational network. The end result an abstract transformational network is far removed from what one obtains in a composition analysis.126 By mapping out a logically consistent way of hearing the work from the perspective of a well-informed composer and theorist, Lewin finds a persuasive way of structuring the piece that the composer himself might not have imagined. Gisela Nauck made a different kind of score analysis of the three orchestras in GRUPPEN.127 She created a visual transcription of the spatial information in the score. Although she calls her analysis a Hrpartitur, she approaches the task from a similar perspective, since her transcription clarifies aspects of the score that are difficult to discern even after a fair amount of study. Boris Hofmanns analyses which are rooted
125 Lewin 1993, pp. 16-67. 126 Blumrders analysis of the same piece (Blumrder 1993, pp. 109-154) follows the composition analysis method. The contrast in approach between Blumrder and Lewin is quite great. Whereas Lewin parses the surface into pentachords, Blumrder sees chromatic tetrachords. Lewins approach follows Harveys lead (Harvey 1975, p. 24). Other notable analyses of this brief piece are by Cook (Cook 1987, pp. 354-371), Maconie (Maconie 2005, pp. 118-120) and Stephan (Stephan 1958, pp. 6067). 127 Nauck 1997, pp. 215-218. The first page of her analysis is shown in Example 1.4.3a.

44 in Naucks methodology also suggest that one can relate spatial motion with pitch graphically.128 2.1.3. Listening analysis. Lewins work, while primarily falling under the rubric of score analysis, also flirts with a third kind of analytical methodology that has been applied to Stockhausens music: listening analysis, or Hranalyse. Listening analysis involves making a transcription of a performance, or reorganizing the elements of the composition in a way that is performable. As a method of aiding the reader in hearing his transformational networks, Lewin wrote a kind of aural skills exercise for the piano which rearranges the elements of Stockhausens music so that the transformations among them are easier to discern. For works where the score is not very specific, listening analysis is particularly useful. Hopps work on KURZWELLEN is an example.129 Since the musical material in this composition is not entirely determined, Hopp makes tables and charts of the events in various recordings. His listening analyses are essentially transcriptions of various unique and unrepeatable performances of a work. This is an effective way of helping one grasp what is actually happening during a realization/performance of this unusual piece. 2.1.4. Suitability of various analytical methods in spatial music. All three of these analytical methodologies have shed light on the principles at work in Stockhausens music. But since Stockhausen often left spatialization to his intuition in contrast to other aspects of the music there is often very little sketch material available for study. What does exist shows that Stockhausen was usually less concerned with exerting strict control of distances and speeds, and more apt to engage in a kind of playful discovery of the different possibilities within his chosen loudspeaker setup or performance
128 Although he does not present any graphic analyses himself, Hofmann 2008 does draw several suggestive diagrams which could visually relate space to pitch in novel ways. See especially Hofmann 2008, pp. 99, 125. 129 Hopp 1998.

45 arrangement.130 Form schemes, though crucial in providing a starting point for composition analysis, rarely if ever contain any specific information relating to spatialization. Therefore, this kind of analysis is not particularly suited for our goals. A serious drawback in listening analysis is that the ways we organize information visually in a Hranalyse may not be the same ways that we organize information acoustically. Making a visual transcription of an acoustic phenomenon has the potential to influence one mode of perception namely, hearing through another sight. In addition, listening analyses can have the side-effect of confining us to the current cultural limitations of hearing.131 While the listening analysis method can prove useful in clarifying analytical outcomes, such as with Lewins work, we must apply it with caution. Although Naucks graphical score analysis of GRUPPEN helps us to gain a better understanding of what is going on in the space around us in that work, we want to do more than simply transcribe what we are able to see in the score. Part of the goal of the present project is to stimulate people to listen in ways they might not otherwise be aware of; in other words, to develop the ability to hear spatial movement as music. Score analysis seems to be the most fruitful method for the present study, although tempered by the inclusion of any relevant source material and commentary by the composer. Similar to Lewins analysis, ours should result in an understanding of a work that might not be evident either by recreating the generative process from the ground up, as in compositional analysis, or by transcribing a performance. Our analysis should reveal information about the work that the composer himself did not necessarily anticipate. The first challenge in building such a methodology for spatial music involves pinpointing the
130 Gnter Peters argues that this underlying playfulness is tempered by an idiosyncratic and earnest element of spiritual devotion. Peters 2003, pp. 235-264. Stockhausens improvisational practice can also be observed in numerous insertions he added to many of his works, most famously perhaps in GRUPPEN. Misch 1999b tracks the various compositional vs. improvisational techniques in GRUPPEN. See Misch 1999b, pp. 142-153, 171-188, and 202-218. 131 There are, of course, limits to what our perception and cognition systems can process. It is important not to confuse cultural evolution with biological evolution. Cultural evolution can take place over the span of a decade; biological evolution takes millennia.

46 location of sounds in space, a task we will discuss in the next section. 2.2. Locating a sound in space 2.2.1. Methods of spatializing sounds. There are many different commercial methods of spatializing sounds. Stereo recording and playback is the earliest and one of the simplest ways of delivering a realistic spatial environment electronically. As stereo broadcasts and recordings gained commercial success in the 1960s, sound engineers began to search for ways of more accurately reproducing the sonic environments in real performance spaces.132 Stockhausens techniques of spatialization vary considerably, but
132 Various attempts to develop commercially viable multichannel sound systems existed before the twochannel compromise of stereo was reached. One notable early experiment, called Fantasound, was used in Walt Disneys film Fantasia (1940), which was originally released in three-channel sound for projection over approximately 80 loudspeakers (Garity and Hawkins 1941). Somewhat later, Dolby labs (which is highly invested in the theater industry) developed several systems for creating the effect of surround sound in the theater and home. Although Dolby has developed a bewildering number of standards, the two most commercially successful systems are called 5.1 and 7.1 surround sound. In both of these systems, the number before the decimal point refers to the number of full-frequency range loudspeakers set up around the listener, whereas the number after the decimal point refers to the number of required subwoofer speakers. In Dolby 5.1 surround sound, a speaker situated in front of the listener carries most of the spoken dialog, whereas the left and right speakers, placed at an angle of 22 30 from the front center, are used for most of the movie soundtrack. Speakers set up in back of the listener, at an angle of 90 110 from front center, provide ambient sound which help to create a better sense of space. The location of the subwoofer is less important, since the directionality of low-frequency sounds is more diffuse. A Dolby 5.1 speaker setup is shown in Example 2.2.1a. The system in Dolby 7.1 surround sound is much like that of 5.1. An additional pair of speakers is added further behind the listener at angles of 135 150 from front center. These speakers further enhance the ambiance of the sound environment. However, the main movie soundtrack is still heard through the pair of front speakers at 22 30 from the front center point. An ideal Dolby 7.1 setup is shown in Example 2.2.1b. While Dolbys surround sound system is primarily geared towards reproducing movie soundtracks, another system of spatialization is lumped under the term ambisonics. Ambisonics is a technique of spatialization that has a small, devoted following but has not had much commercial success. Many of the fundamental techniques of ambisonics were developed by the British engineer Michael Gerzon and in the 1970s and 80s. The standard format for ambisonic sound is called B-Format and includes four different channels: mono, front-back, left-right, and up-down. What is special about the ambisonic approach to spatialization is that the recorded signal is the same, regardless of the number of speakers in use. The signal is encoded in such a way that an ambisonic decoder can split the signal into different channels. The goal is to have a continuous sound-field where the precise location of the loudspeakers is not even noticeable. Further distinguishing this method from Dolbys is the fact that in ambisonics, it

47 he usually spatialized his electronic music by hand.133 He never adhered to any of the commercially available methods of spatialization, and despite the suggestions of many participants at the annual Stockhausen courses, he consistently resisted the idea of producing DVD versions of his spatialized works in Dolby surround sound. It is probably in the best interests of Stockhausens music that it does not get issued on these commercial formats, since they are primarily designed for home theater systems and not for the complex and finely-tuned sonic environments Stockhausen sought to create. In live performances, Stockhausen often arranged musicians in different shapes and patterns throughout space. In some works, such as TRUMPETENT (1995), musicians movements are less precisely defined, and vary according to the shape of the hall they are performing in. In other works, such as LICHT-BILDER (2002), the musicians movements on stage are precisely formulated according to symbols in the score. Seldom do musicians move rapidly from one place to another; movement is almost always at a slow or moderate pace. 2.2.2. Locating sounds in space: box diagrams. The locations of sounds in space are the basic building blocks of spatial music. Without the locations, we will have nothing to analyze. Fortunately, Stockhausen usually indicated the locations of the sounds using a method that I call the box diagram. Box diagrams, such as those in Examples 1.2.1d and 1.2.3d, show where sounds should ideally be located in the space. Often they indicate the actual physical moves Stockhausen made during the spatialization process, e.g., movements of a joystick. Box diagrams can be found in scores of both electronic
doesnt matter very much where the speakers are located. Rather, the crucial element is the direction that the speakers are pointing. Articles by Fellgett and Gerzon (Fellgett 1975, Gerzon 1975) describe the basic technology and early implementation of ambisonic systems. Like many niche technologies, ambisonics has a web site of enthusiasts that can be found at http://www.ambisonia.net. 133 Even when utilizing sophisticated electronic methods for spatializing sounds, Stockhausen still relied on motions of his hands to guide joysticks, rotation mills, rotation tables, or potentiometers. Stockhausens methods of spatializing electronic music are described in more detail in Chapter 1.

48 and instrumental music. Although the diagrams indicate the location of the sounds in the sound field, they do not generally show the sounds relationships to the listeners, and they never factor in cognitive perception issues. Stockhausen usually indicated the ideal location of listeners on other sketches or diagrams. By fixing the size of the performance space, we can overlay a Cartesian coordinate system onto box diagrams. Then we can find the coordinates of a sound source with reasonable degree of precision. Coordinates are essential to expressing the location of a sound source in space; they are like the frequencies of the fundamentals in pitch analysis. 2.2.3. Locating sounds in space: calculating the location. In other scores, Stockhausen notated information about where he imagined sounds are centered, but not in as precise a way as in his box diagrams. In the score to OKTOPHONIE, Stockhausen made diagrams which show how he controlled the decibel levels of speakers in order to nudge certain sounds around in space. Stockhausen wrote that Changes in loudness are the premise of (one) method to move sounds in space.134 With an efficient algorithm, it would be possible to calculate the coordinates of these sounds too. Example 2.2.3a shows one of Stockhausens decibel diagrams in a stereo panorama, along with a hypothetical space 14 meters in width that defines the performance space.135 In each case, the same sound is emitted by both loudspeakers, but at different volume levels. Examination of Stockhausens spatial diagrams for OKTOPHONIE shows that the greatest positive adjustment in speaker volume is +8 dB while the greatest negative modification (aside from - dB silence) is -25 dB. Using this information,
134 Stockhausen 2000b, p. 68. Other aspects of sound that Stockhausen says are important to the perception of spatial motion are phase difference and the Doppler effect. See Cott 1973, pp. 97ff. Stockhausen might have used the slight tendency of most instruments pitch to go higher when playing loudly to his advantage in GRUPPEN. The searchlight chords, which achieve their spatial effect through crescendo and diminuendo, are susceptible to slight variations in pitch, which through the Doppler effect could potentially heighten the perception of spatial movement. 135 The size of 14 meters is from Stockhausens diagram of the spatial setup. Stockhausen 1994, p. O XIX. This was the height of the hall in the Leipzig opera house (Stockhausen 2000b, p. 63).

49 we can weigh the dB settings so that a positive dB value will draw the hypothetical sound center towards the loudspeaker, while a negative value will push it away. Even though the same sound is technically coming from two loudspeakers, the dynamic balance should create the illusion that the sound is centered somewhere between them. Since the decibel scale is logarithmic, we can use a simple exponential function to make the calculation. An optimal exponential base can be determined for positive and negative decibel settings through trial and error. The difference of these attraction or repulsion factors can then used to estimate the location of the sound. The analysis of a typical stereo sound in OKTOPHONIE is shown in Example 2.2.3b. By extending this technique, we can localize sounds in a quadrophonic panorama as in Example 2.2.3c. We first determine the hypothetical center points for the dB values on each edge of the square. Then by connecting the points on opposite edges, we form two intersecting lines in the space. The point where these lines intersect (which can easily be determined algebraically,) is the theoretical center of the sound. This analytical technique is shown in detail in Example 2.2.2c. By combining the results of our calculations in Examples 2.2.3b and 2.2.3c, we can say with some confidence that the sound Stockhausen composed begins and ends on the path indicated in Example 2.2.3d. This method hinges on the illusion that a sound produced from several loudspeakers is localized at a certain point between them. In this type of spatial technique, the composer can in theory move a sound anywhere within the performance space. But in a performance situation, many listeners report that they perceive sounds to be moving more around the periphery of the space, and only to a limited degree towards or away from them.136 These perception issues are extremely important and worth investigating more rigorously from a cognitive viewpoint. Still, weighing Stockhausens decibel settings takes into account elements of the score that were painstakingly notated, but have been left unanalyzed by other writers. Furthermore, by analyzing the raw spatial data in the
136Thanks to Jerome Kohl for this important observation.

50 score, we may learn much about the composers basic intent, which can help us to craft more effective cognitive studies later on. Ultimately, our analytical methodology lies squarely within the tradition of score analysis, not listening analysis. The results of our analysis should give us a best guess result which takes advantage of these hitherto uninterpreted elements of the score. 2.2.4. Uncertainty. Many factors may cause listeners to perceive the location of a sound differently. Even so, we can say that the coordinates we determined through analysis are the most probable center of the sound, within a cloud of uncertainty of radius r. Factors involved in determining the value of r might include the amount of reverberation in the space, the position of the listener relative to the sound, and the physical qualities of the sound including frequency, timbre and duration. We have reason to believe that for a performance of a spatialized work, the sound projectionist has every incentive to limit the value of r to its lowest possible value for a given space. 2.3. The Shape of Space in Spatial Music 2.3.1. Continuity in space. Knowing the properties of the medium we are studying physical space is important. The shape of space will help to suggest analytical tools. If the composer uses space in certain ways, we may be able to relate places in it through mathematical transformations. The idea of the transformation, which we will develop later in 2.5, has been used to gain deep insight into many different phenomena in music, including the serial music that Stockhausen composed.137 Depending on the aspects of continuity and discontinuity a given performance space has, transformations applied to things in the space may form a mathematical group. If we are able to say that a given space and its transformations form a group, we can draw connections between the
137 Transformational analysis is particularly useful in works such as MANTRA, since the entire piece is essentially a series of transformations of the opening formula. See Stockhausen 2003, Conen 1996 pp. 59-100, and Toop 2005 pp. 73-98. Of course, Lewins 1993 essay is also an excellent analysis based on transformational principles.

51 structure of spatial music and other musical domains, such as pitch. 2.3.2. Dimension. The notion of dimension in space underwent significant changes in mathematics during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. For our purposes, however, dimension may be defined simply as the Euclidean space common in experience. We can say that the dimension of the space is equal to the number of coordinates, or parameters, needed to describe the location of a point.138 We define a one-dimensional performance space as one in which sound sources are arranged in a line, a two-dimensional space as one where sources are in a plane, and a three-dimensional space as one where sources are located in more than one plane around the listener. The dimension should be defined for every piece of spatial music. 2.3.3. Modularity of space. Modularity is an equivalence relation that defines elements of a set as the same under some operation (usually addition) and a modular interval.139 Why would we want to define space as modular? Often, spatial music is performed in places that have physical boundaries. Many of Stockhausens performance spaces have such horizons i.e., four walls, a floor and a ceiling.140 What if a continuous sound in spatial music moves outside the physical performance boundaries? If modularity in spatial music holds, points outside the boundary will wrap around to other points which are in the original space, but on the other side of the horizon. This would be analogous to the way pitch is perceived in much Western music. Similar to the way pitches are arranged on a one-dimensional continuum, we can place musicians along a straight line. If a sound were to move from one musician to another down to the end of the line, it could continue if we wrapped around to the other end of the
138 This is a somewhat naive definition, especially in light of the discoveries of Cantor and Peano in the early 19th century. Nevertheless, it corresponds well to everyday experience and is therefore appropriate for our purposes. 139 More precisely, a is equivalent to b modulo M if aMb. 140 Some performance spaces such as those outdoors may not exhibit such strong boundary limits.

52 space.141 The space would then have a modular interval that was equal to the length of the line of musicians. An analogous type of modularity can exist in two-dimensional spaces. In such spaces, sounds that moved off the edge of the plane would simply reenter at the other end. In three dimensions, the situation would be similar. In all three kinds of spaces line, plane, and volume space wraps around at the edges. While this may seem like it is a counterintuitive notion, there are precedents for modularity in spaces other than the pitch continuum in music theory. The Tonnetz, originally conceived of by Leonhard Euler in 1726,142 represents relationships of keys in a two-dimensional plane. Though their representations of it are slightly different, the Tonnetze of Euler, Oettingen and Riemann extend infinitely in all directions of the plane because all three utilize a just intonation.143 Richard Cohn, in generalizing the properties of an equal-tempered Tonnetz, remarked that such a structure should be generalized as a torus (or donut).144 Tempering the musical intervals results in modularity in the structure of the Tonnetz.145 Another instance of modularity in music theory plays an important role in Wayne Slawsons theory of sound color.146 Some of Slawsons transformations on sound color contours operate in a modular space. According to Slawson, the characteristics of sound colors essentially involve two variables, so the primary space he deals with is a twodimensional plane.147 In sound-color transposition, colors must sometimes move off
141 Although we are not as accustomed to this notion as we are to the more intuitive concept of the octave in the pitch domain, some composers have utilized a similar kind of wrap-around in their pitched music, especially Ligeti. 142 Eulers original Tonnetz is reproduced in Cohn 1997, p. 7. 143 Cohn 1997, p. 11. Hyer 1995, p. 102 reproduces Riemanns Tonnetz from his Ideen zu einer Lehre von den Tonvorstellungen (1914-15). 144 Cohn 1997, p. 18. 145 In the same way, the equal-tempered scale allows the circle of fifths to close by tempering the cycle of justly-tuned fifths (Schechter 1980, p. 41). 146 Slawson 1985. 147 The variables are the frequencies of the first two formants what Slawson refers to as F1 and F2. Ibid., p. 55.

53 the horizon of his continuum. A wrap around applies best to the sound colors he terms Acuteness and Openness.148 When transpositions (or translations) are applied to these sound colors, causing them to move off the edge of the plane on which they are defined, they simply wrap around to the other side. For the properties of Smallness and Laxness, this procedure does not work as well, so Slawson does not require complete closure.149 Although it may seem at first glance appealing to use modularity in analyzing spatial music, it is questionable whether applying it will be particularly useful. Consider a spatial shape that is wrapped around space so that part of it lies on one edge of the space and the rest has moved to the other side. It is likely that without considerable mitigating circumstances, a listener will perceive this shape as disconnected.150 For this reason, Stockhausen rarely if ever crosses over the edge of space in a way that is analogous to the pitch continuum. Rather, Stockhausen will wrap sound around to form a continuity that is more amenable to human perception. For example, a line is curved into a circle, and the audience sits in the middle; a plane is curved into a sphere. Thus, even though modularity often plays an important role in pitch analysis, we will find that it is usually not a particularly useful concept in spatial analysis except in the circumstances just described. 2.3.4. Internal structure of space. Does space contain a finite number of points from which sounds may originate, or can sounds move freely in an infinite continuum?151 Evidence from Stockhausens scores indicates an ambiguous attitude towards this question. In the composers box diagrams, discrete points in the performance space are usually clearly defined; the location of sound sources is typically indicated with a dot.
148 Ibid., pp. 72-76. 149 Ibid., p. 193. 150 Bregman understands space as an important grouping mechanism. It seems likely therefore that two sounds coming from opposite sides of the space would be perceived as discontinuous. See 1.4.1. 151 This question has, of course, been debated since nearly the dawn of philosophy. Zenos paradox is one early formulation of the question as to whether there are an infinite or finite number of points between any two positions in space.

54 But as we saw in Chapter 1, Stockhausen often intended for sound to have the illusion of moving continuously around the audience. The rotation table paradigm is a prime example.152 Stockhausens great spatial experiment at the spherical auditorium in Osaka supports the idea that even when there are a finite number of sound sources, they are only a means of circulating continuous spatial motion. The notation of motion in OKTOPHONIE, as we saw in 2.2.2, also suggests that the environment may best be thought of as continuous, even though only eight loudspeaker groups surround the audience. We can conclude from Stockhausens scores and writings that a continuous effect is intended even when a finite number of sources are available.153 However, we may still shed light on how the music might actually be perceived by focusing on points along the arc of movement. Any analysis that deals with these points will come close to modeling the shape of continuous motion anyway. 2.4. Sets and Graphs in Spatial Music We have discussed techniques of delivering spatialized music to listeners, determined how to find a point in spatial music, how to label the point with coordinates, and considered some properties of the medium of space, such as modularity. Grouping spatial events together into sets allows us to consider spatial shapes and spatial motives.
152 Even though Stockhausen took care to make the rotation effects audible in works like KONTAKTE, some listeners report a kind of flapping phenomenon especially when the rotation occurs at slow speeds. Cardew mentions this in a passage cited in 1.2.1. The discontinuous flapping effect seems to be mitigated by three factors: (1) sitting near the middle of the space; (2) increasing the number of independent channels and speakers placed around the horizon; (3) increasing the speed of the rotations around the listener. 153 Stockhausen 2000b, p. 62. Natrlich wollen wir nicht nur vier, acht oder acht mal zwei Lautsprecher oder 32 in einem Raum verteilen, sondern wir wollen, da eines Tages jeder Punkt im Raum lokalisierbar wird und da man dafr spezielle Auditorien baut.. Die werden kommen, wenn die Raum- Musik wieder wichtiger wird. [Naturally, we dont want to divide only four, eight or 8 2 speakers or 32 speakers in a space; instead, we would like one day to make every point in space localizable, and for this we need to build special auditoriums. This will happen, when spatial music is again important.]

55 This allows us to apply mathematical ideas of set theory and graph theory to develop a greater variety of analytical tools. In some spatial music, concepts from graph theory will help us to define the shape and quantity of sets there are for a particular spatial structure. Exploring these questions will not only benefit analysis but also composers. If we are able to grasp some of these aspects of the structure of a given compositional space, we will better know what kinds of motion are feasible. Then, we can understand more completely how a composer has or has not taken advantage of the available possibilities. 2.4.1. Dimension and spatial sets. In spatial music, a set can take different forms depending on the dimension of the space we are working in, and the cardinality of the set. The various possibilities are shown in Example 2.4.1. A spatial set can define a point, a line, an area, or a volume. We may add a fourth dimension time to differentiate between sets whose elements are heard successively or simultaneously. A set heard successively is comparable to a spatial melody while one heard simultaneously is analogous to a spatial harmony. This corresponds to the idea of ordered and unordered sets: a melody is an ordered set while a harmony isnt, with respect to time. This is the reason why determining the dimension of the space is an important step in understanding what kinds of sets are possible. 2.4.2. Measures of distance/interval. In spatial music, the distance between sound events is important because it is analogous to interval in pitched music. If we assign coordinates to points in space using the methods we outlined above, it is easy to determine the distance that is traversed, or the interval between two sounds by using the distance formula. For spatial music in 2 dimensions, the distance d between any two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on a Euclidean plane is simply the distance formula

d = [(x2 x1)2 + (y2 y1)2 ]

56 In some cases it may be useful to use a distance vector, which tells us distance and direction. Here, it is necessary to specify exactly the direction of motion. We can define directions as north or south even in works where Stockhausen conceived of the space as not having a definite front or back.154 For our analysis, it is most convenient to assign the top edge of a box diagram as the north end, and the bottom as the south end, since Stockhausen usually oriented listeners facing the top edge. This distinction takes into consideration the orientation of the audience in determining where north is. These questions will be explored in more detail later in 2.5.2. 2.4.3. Closeness and connectedness. While it is useful to have an absolute measure of distance, it is also helpful to introduce the idea of connectedness. A set of connected points could look like Example 2.4.3a. Here, the distance from r to s is less than the distance from r to t. But, sometimes it is advantageous to define s and t as somehow adjacent to r, since the difference in distance to point r is slight.155 Of course, points do not need to have the same, or nearly the same distances from each other to be considered connected; in fact, we may consider any two points in space connected as long as music passes from one to another. We can formalize the property of closeness that is indicated in Example 2.4.3a by
154 In works such as CARR or LICHTER-WASSER, the audience is seated facing the middle, and therefore the space is possibly conceived more in terms of polar coordinates from the listeners perspective. In works such as GRUPPEN, HYMNEN and OKTOPHONIE, the audience is seated facing the same direction (front), and the idea of the space having a front, back and sides is arguably more apt. However, we are most concerned here with analyzing elements of the score, without focusing greatly on the audience perception. Since Stockhausens box diagrams are very similar for all the works mentioned above, we may for the time being safely adopt the convenience of thinking in terms of front, back, and sides even in works where polar coordinates may ultimately seem more appropriate. In addition, adopting a consistent Cartesian coordinate system facilitates comparison among different works. 155 The same happens when we make an identity between fifths in a mean-tone system. Some perfect fifths in this tuning are different sizes than others, but they are typically all treated as equivalent even though some may be very dissonant.

57 representing the musical situation as a mathematical graph. Although mathematicians differ slightly in their definitions of a mathematical graph, in general a graph is a set of vertices (in our case, sound sources) and a set of edges that connect those vertices.156 Some works of spatial music can be represented abstractly by graph structures. A composer who (like Stockhausen) often tries to keep an illusion of continuous motion even when music is passing discontinuously from musician to musician will probably tend to make sounds move to closely-positioned instruments, because the movement will seem to be more connected to the listener as remarked in 2.3.5. Whereas small moves in the space will probably be more common, large moves are more likely to be perceived as disconnected events. Representing the situation in spatial music as a mathematical graph is an elegant mathematical abstraction that is useful for modeling the possible structures in this perceptual domain.157 2.4.4. Basic mathematical concepts of graph theory. In the previous section, we defined what a graph is and showed how it is a useful mathematical abstraction in some spatial music. Since graph theory is not commonly used in music theory, we will now build a vocabulary for talking about graphs by defining several basic terms.158 2.4.4.1. Fundamental definitions and terminology. Two vertices connected by an
156 More precisely, a graph is an ordered pair (V(G), E(G)) consisting of a set V(G) of vertices and a set E(G), disjoint from V(G), of edges, together with an incidence function G that associates with each edge of G an unordered pair of (not necessarily distinct) vertices of G (Bondy and Murty 2008, p. 2). Diestel 2005 defines a graph using different terms: A graph is a pair G = (V, E) of sets such that E [V]2; thus, the elements of E are 2-element subsets of V. (Diestel, p. 2). 157 The idea that spatial shapes will be be more well defined (and more memorable) if the intervals between their constituent elements are small is a fundamental difference between sets in pitch and sets in space. A widely-spaced voicing of the elements of a pitch-class does not necessarily impede the connection among them that causes us to regard them as a unit. Spatial sets whose elements are defined successively through time will probably be easier to perceive together as a unit if the intervals between their elements are small. Spatial sets whose elements are defined simultaneously as a chord or constellation may include internal intervals that are greater. 158 All of the definitions in this section (except the definition of a spatial set) are taken from Bondy and Murty 2008, and Diestel 2005.

58 edge are called neighbors; the term adjacent is used interchangeably. The number of vertices in a graph is called its order. There is no particular correct way of representing a graph on paper; however, in such a representation, edges should always connect the proper vertices. An edge is incident to a vertex if it connects that vertex to another vertex. If all the vertices in a graph have the same degree, the graph is regular. A complete graph is one in which any two vertices are adjacent, while an empty graph is one in which no two vertices are adjacent (thus, there are no edges). The degree of a vertex is the number of edges that are incident to it; thus, all vertices in an empty graph have degree 0, while the degree of all vertices in a complete graph are equal to the order of the graph itself. A loop is an edge that links a vertex with itself, whereas an edge that links two distinct vertices is a link. If a vertex has an edge that is a loop, that vertex is incident to itself. Two or more links that connect the same pair of vertices are parallel edges. A simple graph has no loops or parallel edges.159 The union of two graphs G and H is the union not only of their vertices, but also of their edges, and written as G H. In the same way, the intersection of G and H is the H. If G H= , then the intersection of their vertices and edges, and written as G

graphs G and H are disjoint. The difference of graphs G and H is obtained by deleting all the vertices and edges in H from G. Since it is impossible to have an edge that does not connect two vertices, some edges in G that are not in H may be removed under the difference operation. If V(H) V(G) and E(H) E(G), then we can write H G and we may say that G is a subgraph of H. The complement H of a graph G contains the same number of vertices in G, but it has no edge that is in H; rather, the complement of H has edges between all vertices that H does not. Graphs illustrating all the definitions in

159 While the graphs we will create to model Stockhausens spatial structures rarely have loops, they often have parallel edges, so they are not simple.

59 this section may be seen in Example 2.4.4.1.160 2.4.4.2. Isomorphic graphs and automorphisms. In general terms, two graphs are called isomorphic if they have the same structure. Thus, isomorphic graphs G and H must have the same number of edges and vertices, but in addition there must be a bijection161 from each vertex in G to each in H. If the graphs G and H are isomorphic, we write G H. In more precise mathematical language, two graphs G and H are V(H) and

isomorphic if there are bijections (or one-to-one correspondences) : V(G) : E(G) E(H) such that
G

(e) = uv if and only if

( (e)) = (u) (v).

Consider Example 2.4.4.2a. These two graphs are isomorphic because they have the same structure. Only their labels are different. In Example 2.4.4.2b, the two graphs have the same number of vertices and edges, but are clearly not isomorphic because there are some edges in G that are not in H. Unfortunately there is no simple general method, aside from brute force, to check to see if two graphs are isomorphic.162 A automorphism is an isomorphism of a graph to itself. In a simple graph, an automorphism is simply a permutation of its vertices which retains adjacency. Thus, the set of automorphisms of a graph are its symmetries. It can be shown that the set of automorphisms on a graph forms a mathematical group.163 2.4.4.3. Paths, cycles and connectivity. A path is a simple graph whose vertices can be arranged in a linear sequence in such a way that two vertices are adjacent if they are consecutive in the sequence, and are nonadjacent otherwise. Paths can be abbreviated Px, where x is the number of edges involved. In formal terms, a path is a non-empty graph P
160 These definitions are taken from Bondy and Murty 2008, p. 3, with several of my own explanations. 161 A bijection is a one-to-one mapping from one set to another. More formally, a bijection is a function f from a set S to a set T with the property that for every x in S, there is exactly one y in T, such that f(x) = y. 162 Bondy and Murty 2008, pp. 12-15. 163 Ibid., p. 15.

60 = (V, E) of the form V = {x0, x1, ..., xk} and E = {x0x1, x1x2, ..., xk-1xk}.164 The ends of a path are the vertices x0 and xk, while the number of edges in a path is its length. A cycle is a path whose last vertex is the same as its first vertex. Like paths, cycles can be referred to as Cx, where x is the number of edges involved. A cycle containing only one vertex is a loop, whereas a cycle with two vertices has parallel edges. A 3-cycle is often referred to as a triangle. A cycle need not include all of the vertices in the graph. Example 2.4.4.3 shows a path and a cycle on a graph. Two other terms relating to connections among vertices will be of use in describing and analyzing the graphs in spatial music. A set of vertices X is called a separator in a graph V if V - X is disconnected. More specifically, a single vertex which, if deleted, would cause the graph to be disconnected is called a cutvertex, and an edge separating the ends of two such cutvertices is a bridge. Examples of all of these properties are shown in Example 2.4.4.3b. The location of separators, cutvertices and bridges can be a factor in determining the potential density of musical activity in one or another area of space, since one may hypothesize that there will be greater activity around these structures due to the property of linking subgraphs. 2.4.4.4. Digraph (or, directed graph) and weighted graphs. In some graphs, we may limit the flow from one vertex to another so that it may be only in one direction. This structure can be useful in spatial music because the trajectory of a single melody from one point to another point may be unidirectional. In other cases, the flow in one direction may be significantly greater than in the other. In mathematical terms, a directed graph D is an ordered pair (V(D), A(D)) consisting of a set V := V(D) of vertices and a set A :=
164 The informal definition is from Bondy and Murty 2008, p. 4, while the formal definition is from Diestel 2005, p. 6.

61 A(D), disjoint from V(D)) of arcs, together with an incidence function

D

that associates

with each arc of D an ordered pair of (not necessarily distinct) vertices of D. The addition of the incidence function is critical because it allows us to say precisely that if a is an arc and
D

(a) = (u, v) then a must join vertices u and v. The number of arcs in a

directed graph D is referred to as a(D). Digraphs may conveniently be represented as graphs with arrows on their edges. A digraph is shown in Example 2.4.4.4. While in many cases it will be sufficient simply to refer to the connections in a graph in spatial music as edges, we will find that the concept of the digraph with its arcs allows us to gain a significant amount of precision in defining the properties and structures of spatial music.165 Weighted graphs are graphs that have some sort of weighting assigned to their arcs. In traversing a weighted graph, we incur more or less of a penalty by moving from one vertex to another. This kind of graph is part of what allows us to build models of the well-known traveling salesman problem in which the salesmen tries to determine the shortest path through a given town in order to reach the maximum number of customers, while minimizing the distance of his trip. Formally, each arc a is associated with some real number w(e) in a weighted graph. Although weightings can represent distances, we will also use them in a slightly different way in our analysis namely, to model the likelihood that a spatial melody moves from one point in space to another. 2.4.4.5. Trees/Forests. The general term forest is applied to a graph that has no cycles. A specific forest that is connected is a tree. Every nontrivial tree must have at least two vertices of degree 1. These vertices, which are at the most outlying parts of the tree, are called its leaves.166 Lying at the other end is the root of the tree, out of which its branches stem. There are many theorems and corollaries that arise through study of
165 The definitions in this section are related to Bondy and Murty 2008, p. 31. 166 Bondy and Murty 2008, p. 100.

62 trees, and later we will see one useful application of this structure in Stockhausens spatial music.167 The important thing about a tree is that it contains no cycle; in fact, a complementary way of defining a tree is that if we were to link any two non-adjacent vertices in a tree, that tree would contain a cycle.168 A graph demonstrating all these properties is shown in Example 2.4.4.5. 2.4.5. Adjacency and Incidence Matrices. How are graphs represented so that calculations can be done on them efficiently? Any graph can be represented by an adjacency matrix and an incidence matrix.169 An adjacency matrix of a graph G is the n m matrix AG := (auv), where auv is the number of edges joining vertices u and v. A loop counts as two edges in such a matrix. On the other hand, an incidence matrix of a graph H is the n m matrix MG := (mve), where mve is the number of times (0, 1 or 2) that vertex v and edge e are incident.170 We will find that representing graphs using adjacency matrices can yield significant analytical payoff in spatial music, since they allow us to calculate the number of possible paths from one vertex to another for a path of a given length. Having defined some of the basic concepts in mathematical graph theory, as well as a way of analyzing some of their properties by using matrices, we now see how they might apply to some structures in spatial music. 2.4.6. Musically interesting graphs and their structures. In the next section, we take a look at four different graphs which are musically interesting, showing how the definitions and properties from the previous section can tell us more about their structure and compositional possibilities. It is not easy to generalize about what characteristics might

167 See 4.4.11. 168 This property of a tree is defined in Diestel 2005, p. 14. 169 Chartrand 1977, p. 217. 170 Definitions from Bondy and Murty 2008, p. 6.

63 make up a musically interesting graph.171 However, we might hypothesize that graphs with only a few vertices probably do not provide enough structural possibilities to make them musically interesting. Furthermore, the amount of musical interest peaks when the degree of the vertex reaches a certain optimal range. Vertices with only one adjacent edge will not allow a great variety of spatial motion through them, whereas those with too many adjacent edges will allow only unpredictable, diffuse motion. 2.4.6.1. Three contrasting graphs. Consider Example 2.4.6.1a. Since we shall be making frequent reference to this graph in the following sections, we will call it Graph 1.172 Since all 25 vertices, including vertex r have eight edges, this is a regular graph of order 25 (but note that according to our definitions above, it is not complete). The graphs shown in Examples 2.4.6.1b (Graph 2) and 2.4.6.1c (Graph 3) are not regular. Graph 2 is similar to Graph 1 but it has a gapped structure, while Graph 3 resembles a kind of spider-web. In these graphs, one region is more or less connected to the graph than another. In Graph 2, s has the fewest edges of any vertex in the graph; as such it has the minimum degree of Graph 2. The situation is the reverse in Graph 3; here, t has the most edges of any vertex and consequently it has the maximal degree. 2.4.6.2. Definition of a spatial set in a graph. Although we have explored the shape and characteristics of a spatial set in relation to the dimension of the performing space in 2.4.1, no formal definition was attempted. The terminology we have developed and the graph structures we have examined in the previous section now make such a definition possible. We therefore define a spatial set of cardinality c in a graph G as a subgraph of order c-1. Whether this graph is a path depends on whether the set is heard melodically
171 Of course, the composer is responsible for finding musically interesting spatial structures in much the same way as he or she might also be expected to chose musically interesting scale structures in pitch. 172 It may seem like we are using a needlessly large graph in the case of Graph 1, consisting of 25 interlocked vertices and 200 edges to demonstrate some relatively simple principles. However, the arrangement of nodes in Graph 1 might be thought of as a musically interesting and practical arrangement because it allows for a fair number of musicians in a space that could be contained in a gymnasium or a rectangular black-box theater. Also, the work we analyze in Chapter 4 LICHTERWASSER has 29 musicians. We are setting the stage for the analysis of that piece.

64 or not. Since this subgraph will include information regarding not only its nodes, but also its edges, a spatial set contains considerably more information than a pitch or pitch-class set does. 2.4.6.3. Structures and sets in Graph 1. The adjacency matrix A for Graph 1 is shown in Example 2.4.6.3a. Multiplying A with itself creates another matrix called A2. This A2 matrix tells us how many paths of length 2 (cardinality 3) there are through the graph from va to vb.173 To generate the A3 matrix (not shown), we would multiply A A2. The A3 matrix would, of course, tell us how many paths there are through the graph of length 3 (cardinality 4). The sum of all the entries in Graph 1s A matrix equals 200, which by definition equals the number of edges in the graph. The A2 matrix for Graph 1 is shown in Example 2.4.6.3b. The sum of the entries in A2 equals 1600. This means that there are 1600 different paths of cardinality 2 in Graph 1. Since there are no values of 0 in the A2 matrix for Graph 1, we know that there is at least one path from any given point to any other given point in the graph for cardinality 3. We interpret one row of Graph 1s A2 matrix in Example 2.4.6.3c, which shows all the paths of length 2 for vertex v13. Here, the number of paths from v13 to every other vertex in the graph is indicated inside each box and can be confirmed by tracing the paths through the graph. The 64 paths of cardinality 3 that begin at v13 in Graph 1 are shown in Example 2.4.6.3d. 2.4.6.4. Structures and sets in Graph 2. Example 2.4.6.4a shows the adjacency matrix A for Graph 2, while Example 2.4.6.4b shows the graphs A2 matrix. We can discover more subtle structure by studying the entries of the A2 matrix. The paths of length 2 for the least well-connected point of the set v11 are found in Example 2.4.6.4c. Investigation shows that there is no way to get from v11 to the four edge vertices in this
173 Of course, path need not move from one vertex to another if there is a loop at a vertex. However, in Graphs 1, 2, and 3, there are no loops.

65 graph structure in two moves. However, there are some vertices such as v16, shown in Example 2.4.6.4d that have paths of length 2 that connect it to every other vertex. Thus, different parts of the space have different ability to reach other parts. 2.4.6.5. Structures and sets in Graph 3. Example 2.4.6.5a shows the adjacency matrix A for Graph 2, while the A2 matrix for the same graph is given in Example 2.4.6.5b. This matrix confirms our intuition that the center vertex, v9, has the most connections when two moves are involved. As shown in Example 2.4.6.5c, there are a total of 32 paths of length 2 that begin at v9. The A2 matrix reveals further shades of difference between vertices that seemed to have an equal number of connections in the A matrix. This is confirmed by comparing the data for v14 and v17. Both of these vertices had 4 edges in the A matrix. Because v14 is adjacent to v9, we hypothesize that it has more paths length 2 than v17, which lies more distant from v9. This intuition is confirmed by the A2 matrix: v14 has 20 different paths of cardinality 3, while v17 only has 16. We conclude that in Graph 3, the closer a vertex is to the hub (in this case, v9), the more places it can get to in two moves. Thus, in a spatial composition, it is likely any location in space that functions as a hub will have a higher density of spatial movement than other parts of the space.174 2.4.6.6. Hamiltonian Cycles in Graphs 1, 2 and 3. Suppose a composer wanted to move a pitched melody through each vertex of a graph, without ever touching a vertex twice, and end up at the starting point. This particular problem is classic in graph theory and is analogous to constructing a 12-tone cycle in pitch. A cycle that traverses all the
174 An analogy between space and scale can be made here. A complete graph is like a chromatic space, where each pitch in theory at least has the same value in non-tonal music. Graph 3, with its hub, is more akin to the structure of a a tonal space, where the tonic typically gets used much more than any other scale degree. The central vertex in Graph 3 could be considered analogous to the tonic in a tonal system. These speculations naturally lead us to wonder whether a graph structure could be isomorphic to a scale structure. Temperleys work suggests that it is extremely likely that a tonal practice could in fact be modeled by a weighted graph. See Temperley 2001, pp. 167-201.

66 vertices of a graph such that no vertex is touched twice is called a Hamiltonian cycle, or a Hamiltonian path. Example 2.4.6.6a shows a Hamiltonian cycle through each of our three graphs. Determining Hamiltonian cycles gets easier when more edges connect vertices in a graph; but in general, the task of finding these cycles is very difficult. In fact, the general task of finding Hamiltonian cycles in a graph has been shown to be NPcomplete,175 meaning that in many cases the only way to determine such cycles is to go through an exhaustive brute-force search. The complexity of this search increases exponentially with the addition of new vertices. 2.4.7. Other ways of determining spatial structure and sets. So far, we have explored graphs in which all the vertices have the same, or nearly the same degree. These graphs do not contain any bridges. We conclude this section by considering the ramifications in spatial music of a graph structure with several bridges. A variation on Graph 3, Graph 4 is shown in Example 2.4.7a. Here, we use five different instruments, representing three different instrumental families: strings (violin, viola), woodwind (clarinet), and brass (trumpet, trombone). If we draw edges between vertices according to their timbre, three disconnected subgraphs result. However, we might utilize one instrument in each subgraph as a bridge to another. These instruments will then have particular functions we might say spatial pivots. In Example 2.4.7b, edges connecting instruments with similar timbres are represented with solid lines, while bridges that function as spatial pivots are indicated with dotted lines. Ordering space in this way introduces variety of function into the edge structure. The instruments located at cutvertices (those that are incident to bridges) might experience a high density of spatial activity because of their function as links to other subgraphs. In other words, a spatial set would have to include one of the cutvertices in order to modulate from one subgraph to another. Of course, there are many other
175 Gary and Johnson 1983.

67 possibilities for connecting spatial structures such as these, limited only by the composers imagination. 2.5. Transformations in Space In the previous section, we investigated some properties of three different arrangements of sound sources. Through matrix multiplication, we were able to generate adjacency matrices, which tell us the number of sets available in these spaces for various walks through the graph. The possibilities are summarized in Example 2.5a. In all cases, we find that there are a large number of sets, particularly when the cardinality increases to 4. While this allows a vast quantity of raw material for composers, the variety could become unwieldy. Are there similarities among the shapes that would allow us to reduce the number in order to make the spatial possibilities more managable? In this section, we will develop the idea of transformations in space. This will have the by-product of allowing us to create classes of objects that are equivalent in some way. The question of relating motives also applies to listeners and the way they might hear the same shape. Certain shapes may sound similar for a listener depending on the spatial relationship of that listener and the musical shape. Consider a spatial set such as the one shown in Example 2.5b. Each listener faces towards the center of the space, and hears the same spatial set. Is it possible to relate the shapes that each listener hears? The answer to this question is yes. By developing the idea of spatial transformations, we will show that these four motives are indeed related. 2.5.1. Transformation in pitch. A transformation is a function that maps one thing to another thing. Examples of transformations are translations, rotations, and reflections. In pitch, transformations are usually referred to as transpositions or inversions. Multiplication (scaling) is also occasionally used. Transformations can be represented as

68 matrices. The three common types of transformations in pitch are defined in matrix form in Example 2.5.1. By multiplying a pitch-class by the matrix, we effect the transformation. 2.5.2. Transformations in a plane defined by matrices. It is also possible to define transformations by matrices in spatial music. Applying matrices in this way makes it unnecessary to specify a set of points in space where sound sources may be localized, though of course the matrix operates on sets of points. This kind of transformation models situations where the composer has exercised complete freedom to place a sound anywhere in the space. It is probably most practical for works such as OKTOPHONIE where sounds may be technically localized anywhere in a continuous space. The matrices of four basic transformations in a plane are shown in Example 2.5.2a. The transformation matrices shown in Examples 2.5.2a-b are 3 3 one order larger than the 2 2 matrices we used in pitch transformation. Transformation matrices for spatial music in three dimensions would be 4 4. Adding another spatial dimension simply makes the transformation matrix one order larger. The analytic and compositional payback for defining transformations in this way immediately becomes apparent when we try to relate the four different shapes shown in Example 2.5b. All four motives are related under rotation. Applying rotation equivalence to the 64 sets of cardinality 3 from Example 2.4.6.3d all of which involved pathways of length 2 yields only six distinct set-classes. These six set-classes are shown in Example 2.5.2b. Of course, the diagonal set whose edges are of length 2 does not exactly relate to the set going straight up and down, or to the right or left, where the distance between vertices is exactly 1. We must overlook these slight differences if we want the equivalence classes to hold.176 If we wish to further reduce the number of
176 We do this quite regularly when relating pitch structures in tuning systems other than equal temperament.

69 spatial set-classes, we may note that two of the six classes in Example 2.5.2b are equivalent under reflection. Under rotation and reflection, the 64 sets form only five setclasses, as shown in Example 2.5.2c. Knowing the basic shapes that are possible in a given space can help a composer to better grasp the spatial materials he or she has to work with. 2.5.3. Transformations in a plane defined by mappings. Instead of defining transformations as matrices, we may specify mappings from one element of a set to another. Suppose we have four sound sources set up around a listener, as shown in Example 2.5.3a. This structure can again be represented by a graph. Example 2.5.3b shows a set of transformations on the graph, consisting of four rotations r and four reflections f. These transformations preserve the symmetry of this graph since all of the eight rotation and reflection operations are automorphisms that is, isomorphisms of the graph onto itself. Examples 2.5.3a-b modeled the kinds of motion a composer might want to use on an arrangement of sound sources that is essentially a regular polygon.177 However, we can also define transformations in a space that is not a polygon. In Example 2.5.3c, we define a graph which is a subgraph of Graph 1. We may define transposition or translation for this graph. There are four ways of moving through the graph, which we will call east (transformation a), north (b), northwest (c) and northeast (d). The four directions are indicated in Example 2.5.3d. Nine transformations are defined on the space in Example 2.5.3e. Each transformation is a different path in the same direction through the graph.178 A third kind of transformation is defined on Graph 3 in Example 2.5.3f. The
177 A regular polygon is a polygon of n-sides in which the length of each side is the same. Examples include the equilateral triangle and the square. 178 Except, of course, for the identity transformation, whose path moves back to the same vertex where it begins.

70 transformation m1 defines movement originating in the center vertex, and expanding outwards through eight spokes to the middle ring. Transformation m2 continues moving outwards along a second set of spokes to the outer ring. Finally, m3 maps each vertex in the outer ring back to the center of the graph. The transformations are cycles through the graph; though each cycle starts with the same place (vertex 1). While the transformation m3 is a function (it is many-to-one), m1 is not (since it is one-to-many). Although these transformations express a useful technique in spatial music, their structure is unlike those defined above. We will formalize the structure of these different transformations in 2.6. 2.5.4. Application of spatial transformation to spatial music. The idea that shapes in spatial music are somehow transformed is an appealing concept. First, we are accustomed to transformations in music that apply to elements of the pitch domain. Second, we are used to making spatial transformations in everyday life. We mentally flip the image of something in a mirror, or we rotate the name of a book on its spine. It is not impossible to imagine that we can perform the same mental transformations to shapes heard in space. In this section, we have developed two ways of understanding transformations in spatial music. Defining transformations as matrices is probably most useful when the space is continuous and sounds may be localized anywhere. Defining them as mappings is probably more useful when there are a finite number of sound sources. Applying transformations to different spatial sets can show us relationships among sets, grouping them together into set-classes. Although we may occasionally have to overlook slight differences in the absolute distance between elements of the spatial set e. g., equating points with edges of length 1 with those of length 2 we do the same thing when relating sets of pitches in a tuning system that is not equally tempered. While further defining the structure of space, transformations in space aid us in appreciating the many structural possibilities of spatial music, while also suggesting ways of analyzing it.

71 2.6. Groups 2.6.1. Application of group theory. Groups, useful for studying symmetry, appear prominently in post-tonal theory.179 For instance, the set of twelve transposition operations is a group, as is the set of Tn and TnI operations. We shall explore the similarities between groups of pitch structures and groups of spatial structures below. 2.6.2. Dihedral groups. Each of the eight transformations of rotation and reflection on the graph in Example 2.5.3a are automorphisms.180 Together, they form an automorphism group.181 The four groups of these cycles form a Dihedral group, abbreviated D4. Their group table is shown in Example 2.6.2a. Many structures in music theory form Dihedral groups, and comparing them to our spatial group is useful for understanding the potential similarities between the structure of pitch and space. Consider the set of twenty-four Tn and TnI operations in pitch-class space, modulo 12. This set is a Dihedral group of order 24, abbreviated D24.182 Now imagine that we have twelve (instead of four) sound sources equally spaced around the audience in a circle. Clockwise spatial movement from one sound-source to an adjacent one is naturally

179 A group is a nonempty set S together with some binary operation following properties:

on the set which satisfies the

1. Closure. For all a, b, in S, a b is also in S ( is the group operation). 2. Associativity. For all a, b, and c in S, (a b) c = a (b c). 3. Identity element. There exists some element e in S such that for all a in S, e a = a e = a. 4. Inverse element. For each a in S, there exists some element a-1 in G such that a a-1 = a-1 a = e, where e is the identity element. (Rosen 1995, pp. 6-10). 180 Chartrand 1985, p. 231. 181 Properties of automorphism groups, including inner and outer automorphisms, are described in Morris 1987, p. 167 and Morris 2001, volume 1, pp. 129-131. They also play a role in the structure of Klumpenhouwer networks (Lewin 1990) and Carey and Clampitts definition of a well-formed scale (Carey and Clampitt 1989, p. 196). 182 Morris 2001, p. 17.

72 analogous to transposing a pitch-class n semitones. Reflections across the circle are the same thing as inversions in pitch-class space. Thus, the structure of this physical space, taken along with the rotation and reflection operations also form a Dihedral group of order 24. In this particular spatial configuration, spatial motion is isomorphic to the familiar transposition and inversion operations of pitch. 2.6.3. Cyclic groups. A related group structure is the cyclic group. The set of transposition operations defined on the space of pitch classes mod 12 is a cyclic group of order 12, abbreviated Z12.183 We could represent a similar group in the circular arrangement of twelve sound sources we previously imagined in 2.6.2. If we define only the operation of rotation in this space, we eventually arrive back where we started by completing one cycle around the circle. The transformation of rotation on this space forms a cyclic group Z12 which is isomorphic to the group of transposition on the twelve pitch-classes. The transformations we defined in Example 2.5.3c are somewhat more complicated. These translation operations form a rectangular point lattice which is a subset of the Euclidean plane. The group of these translations is a translation group. Their group table is shown in Example 2.6.3a. 2.6.4. Other structures. The three multiplication transformations defined on Graph 3 in Example 2.5.3f do not form a group because some of the transformations are not functions.184 Even so, these m-transformations and this kind of spatial arrangement of sound sources might be very useful for a composer. Even though Graph 3 and the mtransformations on it do not form a group, we can still analyze its structure and make predictions about its use in spatial music by generalizing its structure as a graph.

183 Ibid., p. 15. 184 This structure is strikingly similar to Slawsons sound-color contour of Laxness. Slawson 1985, p. 55.

73 If the space and the transformations do not form a group, we can also use statistical analysis to obtain a great deal of information about the work. Analyzing the density of spatial motion in the performance space is one way of proceeding along these lines. It may be possible to find hot spots in the space where a disproportionate amount of spatial activity occurs. If there is a weak or ill-defined graph structure, statistical measurements allow us to make measurements which are useful in determining the spatial structure of the piece. 2.7. Statistics 2.7.1. Use of statistics as an analytical method. The methods developed in the previous sections are geared towards analyzing a presumed motivic/transformational language in spatial music. But in some spatialized music, such a language may not be present. Even in music that does have such a language, there are relevant elements of a spatial composition that cannot be captured by these methods alone. By employing some very simple statistical techniques, we can fill in some of these gaps. Knowing how often a particular sound source, or in a graph, a vertex intones musical events is an important measure in a spatial composition. Listeners may have a vague impression that one part of the space may be used more frequently than another. Such determinations are impossible to verify unless we measure the number of times each musician is used. Above, we remarked that in spatial music that can be represented by a graph structure, some parts of the graph may be used more than others (such as cutvertices or bridges). These statistical analyses can tell us whether the composer has simply followed the latent structures in a graph, or worked against them. The amount of time each musician is used through the course of a composition may differ from the number of times he or she is used. Simply measuring the number of times each

74 musician is used does not tell us how long that musician is the focus of attention. Statistically calculating the amount of time music dwells in a particular section of space can give further nuance to our understanding of the overall spatial profile of a piece. We may also consider how certain locations in space function relative to other points in space. We might characterize a collector as a point in space that functions as the destination of a great variety of different spatial moves. A reflector directs spatial motion principally to one or two different places, whereas a diffuser passes motion on to a wide variety of different places. Statistical analysis of spatial data can tell us if different places in spatial music have different functions. 2.7.2. Relationship of speed and spatial motion. We have already described how the speed of a spatial motion can be calculated. But, the average speed of music over larger spans of a piece can yield useful information about the total speed profile of the work. One hypothesis that can then be tested pertains to the relationship of the speed of spatial motion and its complexity. Is there a greater variety of motion when the speed is slow? This seems probable, since listeners are perhaps more likely to hear subtle spatial motions when the speed is slow. At high speeds, motion may become more repetitive, making the overall spatial pattern easier to perceive. Relating statistical data for spatial speed with spatial motion can tell us more about perceptual strategies in spatial music. 2.8. Conclusions The sections in this chapter suggest the following method of approaching analysis in spatial music, along with questions that can be answered along the way. 1. Look principally to the score for things to analyze. (2.1) 2. Calculate the location (coordinates) of sound sources. (2.2) 3. Define the kind of space that is used. Is it continuous or discontinuous space?

75 Is there modularity? What is the dimension of the space? (2.3) 4a. If the space is discontinuous, catalog the moves that are used from one sound source to another, and determine the edges between vertices. Then, determine the number and shape of sets that are possible. It is possible also to calculate the probable density of spatial motion in a particular area of space by determining how connected a given vertex is to the graph as a whole. Does the composition reinforce the graph structure or work against it? Are there sound sources that function as hubs, spokes, portals or pivots to other parts of the graph? (2.4) 4b. If the space is continuous, determine the shape of sets by calculating their locations. (2.4) 5. By observing the kinds of motion around the space, define transformations, either through matrices or through mappings. Are there patterns or symmetries? (2.5) 6. If so, define a group structure of the transformations on the space. A group structure may possibly operate on a subset of the space or a subset of the transformations. Is the structure of space analogous to the structure of other musical dimensions, such as pitch? (2.6) 7. Use statistical data to obtain more information about the way space is used in the work. (2.7) Using these methods, we can learn a great deal about spatial motion in a composition. They also open many avenues for further exploration. One possible direction for future research is to make further use of graph theory. There has been a significant amount of mathematical research in this field ever since Euler made his first studies in the 1730s. Composers may wish to develop graph structures in their spatial music more thoroughly. While we have only scratched the surface of graph theory in this chapter, a more

76 thoroughgoing approach could open up many new avenues of musical possibility and analytical insight.

77 Chapter 3. Stockhausens OKTOPHONIE 3.1. OKTOPHONIE and LICHT. 3.1.1. Stockhausens LICHT project and the TUESDAY opera. Beginning in 1974, Stockhausen embarked on a trio of works reflecting cycles in the natural world. The first work, SIRIUS (1975-77) is a four-part work structured on the seasons of the year. Second, Stockhausen tackled the days of the week with his seven-opera cycle, LICHT (1977-2003).185 Finally, Stockhausens KLANG project left unfinished at the time of his passing was to include one piece for each hour of the day. Of these works, LICHT contains a section from the Tuesday opera called OKTOPHONIE that features spatialization among its many compositional elements. This chapter is concerned with the elements of spatialization in OKTOPHONIE. After an overview of LICHT and its compositional basis in a Superformula we will turn to these spatial elements. Virtually the entire structure of the LICHT cycle is derived from a one-minute composition called the Superformula [Superformel]. The basic building material for the Superformula consists of three nuclear formulas [Kernformeln]: one has 13 pitch classes, the second 12, and the last 11. These nuclear formulas, which contain the basic kernel pitches, are shown in Example 3.1.1a. Each of the three nuclear formulas corresponds to a protagonist in the opera: Michael, Eve and Lucifer. Each also has characteristic intervals a perfect fourth for Michael, a rising major third for Eve, and an
185 Though SIRIUS has been performed in its entirety many times, LICHT has not yet been heard as a seven-day opera cycle. While Thursday, Saturday, Monday, Tuesday and Friday have been performed as entire operas, Wednesday and Sunday have not yet been performed as a whole work; only sections have been heard. The same is true of KLANG: only individual works from this cycle have been performed as of this writing. Although the comparison with Wagner is almost inevitable, some scholars have speculated that Stockhausens motives for composing the enormous LICHT cycle were influenced by the prevailing economic climate facing many composers today. Claus-Steffan Mahnkopf describes the aggregate of individual works in the LICHT cycle as resembling a cunning mercantile strategy for introducing incoming commissions and performance conditions into a formally completely open, and thus far from binding totality (Mahnkopf 2002, p. 49f).

78 ascending major seventh for Lucifer).186 Although these intervals occur often in the three formulas, the general contour of the lines also sets them apart from each other. The overall contour of Michaels formula is falling. Eves rises, has a sudden fall in the middle, then rises again. Lucifers formula twice leaps up and falls back again. To create the Superformula from the nuclear formulas, Stockhausen added rhythm and various Akzidenzien.187 The five types of Akzidenzien used by Stockhausen are variation, echo, scale, modulation, and wind or anteconsonants. The Akzidenzien provided general categories for embellishment and extension that Stockhausen used to add musical subtlety to the kernel pitches. Although Stockhausen also added other embellishments such as gefrbte Pausen (colored pauses) and yodels, these are not, strictly speaking, Akzidenzien.188 Stockhausen further increased the rhythmic subtlety in his Superformula by adding tempo changes to nearly every measure. These tempi are derived from his well-known chromatic tempo scale.189 As remarked before, there is no spatial information in the Superformula. The finished Superformula, or master plan for LICHT, is shown in Example 3.1.1b. It is essentially a combination of the three nuclear formulas, with added layers of embellishment and compositional design just described. The seven segments are called limbs or Glieder. A system of transpositions (both for pitch and tempo) derived from
186 Characterizing a simple group of pitches is a technique Stockhausen had already developed to a considerable degree of subtlety in works such as MANTRA. Pitches in MANTRA are associated with other musical elements such as form of attack and duration. See Stockhausen 2003a. 187 The German word Akzidenzien is the plural form of Akzidenz. While it can mean accidental, as in a sharp, flat or natural, in Stockhausens case it also means supplement or additional profit. The list of Akzidenzien can be found in the Superformula sketches in Texte 5, pp. 15455. Thanks to Jerome Kohl for pointing out this subtlety. 188 For a much more comprehensive analysis of the Superformula design, see Die Tonhhen der Superformel fr LICHT, Texte 9, pp. 12-28. Analyses of the Superformula can be found in Schwerdfeger 1999 and Bandur 1999a. The sketches for the Superformula can be found in Texte 5, pp. 147-160. Jerome Kohls analysis of the Superformulas structure (in Kohl 1990) provides another crucial angle on the design. 189 Stockhausens tempi are derived from an equal tempered division of a tempo octave (i.e., twelve equal logarithmic divisions of the tempo scale from quarter = 60 to quarter = 120). See ...wie die Zeit vergeht... (...how Time Passes...), Stockhausen 1963, pp. 99-139, translated in Stockhausen 1959.

79 elements of the Superformula, determine the center of the overall tempo and pitch scale for each individual opera. In principle, one quarter note of the Superformula is expanded to 16 minutes in each final composition of LICHT.190 When expanded, events in the Superformula create formal boundaries in the structure of individual component works. Each composition in LICHT theoretically shares some material with every other composition, yet each is also derived (on the deepest level) from a brief section of the Superformula. Unique in the LICHT cycle, the TUESDAY opera is not entirely derived from the Superformula. Stockhausen composed the first act called JAHRESLAUF in 1977, before the Superformula was even composed. It is only Act 2, written from 1990-1991, that stems from the Tuesday limb of the Superformula. The official name given to Act 2 is INVASION EXPLOSION mit ABSCHIED (Invasion Explosion with Farewell), but this 74-minute-long piece of music (listed as No. 61 in the Stockhausen catalog) is subdivided into many smaller works. OKTOPHONIE is the background electronic music for the entire second act. Like several other lengthy, spatialized works of electronic music by Stockhausen, OKTOPHONIE is meant to be coordinated with and played back during live musical performance.191 3.1.2. Premise of OKTOPHONIE. The TUESDAY opera is the day of conflict between the characters Lucifer and Michael. The action of the second act takes the form
190 Following this logic, one would expect the duration of all seven operas to equal approximately 960 minutes or 16 hours. In practice this is not the case, not only because of the countless nuances in tempo (which Stockhausen often added only in rehearsals), but also because of the addition of the many insertions, or Einschbe. Because of this, the total duration of LICHT is approximately 29 hours (Stockhausen 2005, p. 4). Even so, by the time Stockhausen was working on the Monday opera, Jerome Kohl concluded that on the whole...LICHT...exhibits an almost unprecedented strictness in carrying out the form-plan (Kohl 1983-4b, p. 175). 191 Stockhausen first attempted synchronization of electronic and live music in KONTAKTE (1966). The technique can be found throughout his LICHT operas. For example, UNSICHTBARE CHRE is meant to be played back during the first and third acts of the Thursday opera. Electronic and concrete music is also intended to be heard during performance of ORCHESTER-FINALISTEN in the Wednesday opera. Similar procedures can also be found in the Monday and Friday operas.

80 of open warfare between two armies one representing Michael and the other Lucifer. The Michael army repels two invasions, but a trumpeter representing Michael is wounded. A lament called Piet mourns the fallen soldier. Thereafter follows the third invasion, culminating in three rather dramatic explosions. Here, Lucifers troops successfully break through whatever defenses were erected, and reach the defenders. Lucifers forces are represented by trombone-wielding characters who, in the Leipzig premiere, gradually made their way from the back of the hall to the stage on raised gangway. After the three explosions, there is a section called JENSEITS/BEYOND. Following this is a piece for synthesizer called SYNTHI-FOU (also known as KLAVIERSTCK XV). In the final ABSCHIED/FAREWELL section, the spatial activity dies down and thirteen chords, symbolizing Lucifers number, close out the opera.192 During OKTOPHONIE, the idea of warfare is audibly represented as a nighttime aerial bombardment. Shots, bombs, and crashes punctuate the musical texture. The sound-bombs actually correspond to an enormous augmentation of the rhythm in the Lucifer formula, whereas the shots correspond to the augmented rhythm of the Michael formula.193 These sounds are spatialized so as to heighten their dramatic effect. Simultaneously, slow drones rotate around the audience. The drones suggest the idea of squadrons of bombers. Stockhausens informal sketch Studie zur Oktophonie (Example 3.1.2)194 gives some idea of the overall composite impression of all these drone movements without the added sound bombs, shots, and crashes. Wirtz observed that the second act of TUESDAY is an example of the way in which musical
192 A more detailed summary of the staged and concert version can be found in Texte 9, pp. 217-230 and 231-236. 193 More specifically, the deep middleground structure in the first half of OKTOPHONIE that is, up to PIET is based upon the augmentation of the Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday limbs of the Superformula. From PIET to JENSEITS, the Friday and Saturday limbs of the Superformula form the background material. SYNTHI-FOU is based on an extension of material from the end of JENSEITS, while the Sunday limb determines the structure for the final section of OKTOPHONIE, namely, ABSCHIED and SPIEGELWELT. 194 Frisius 1996, p. 333.

81 forming can be generated by scenic design; it shows an unusual variant of scenic music in the LICHT cycle.195 According to Maconie, the sonic design reminds one of the kind of warfare Stockhausen himself experienced in his childhood, and thus has autobiographical components.196 3.1.3. Formal Structure of OKTOPHONIE. As stated, elements of the Tuesday limb from the Superformula determine the length of the subsidiary sections in the second act of the opera.197 Essentially, OKTOPHONIE consists of two halves which are roughly equal in duration. The first one, which is about 36 minutes long consisting of the two air battles and two invasions, includes the most dynamic spatialized elements. The second half, which is nearly 32 minutes in duration, contains the subsections PIET, the 3rd INVASION/EXPLOSION, SYNTHI-FOU and ABSCHIED. There are far fewer dramatic spatial events in this section; the spatial language dwindles down to the slowly rotating drone sounds mentioned earlier. The entire temporal structure of OKTOPHONIE is shown in Examples 3.1.3a and 3.1.3b, which is a kind of Hrpartitur for Act 2 of the Tuesday opera. 3.1.4. Analytical and Critical Literature on OKTOPHONIE. In a lecture he gave in 1998, Stockhausen spoke extensively about the actual techniques he employed while spatializing the sounds in OKTOPHONIE.198 Other writers, such as Misch, describe the use of space without making any significant attempt at analysis.199 The only independent analytical work that appears to have been done on the shapes of the bombs, shots and crashes is by Overholt.200
195 Wirtz 2000, p. 48. 196 Maconie 2005, p. 484. Of course, the THURSDAY opera is perhaps the most clearly autobiographical work Stockhausen ever wrote. In OKTOPHONIE, Maconie found the sounds anything but terrifying, gigantic, or realistic...the synthesizers Stockhausen is relying on have failed to deliver. 197 The sketches that show the development of smaller-scale structures are in Texte 9, pp. 177-184. Richard Toops lecture of 3 August 2004 at the Stockhausen Courses illuminated the structure and logic behind one of the parts of OKTOPHONIE, PIET. 198 Stockhausen 2000b. 199 Misch 1999a, pp. 152-155. 200 Overholt 2006, pp. 134-167.

82

Overholt employs a system of shapes to categorize the bombs, shots and crashes in OKTOPHONIE. The same four main categories of shapes points, blocks, lines, and wedges are found in OKTOPHONIE [as in GRUPPEN], but the individual shapes are considerably more complex, and, through the use of electronic technologies, they are much more clearly delineated and no longer left to illusion.201 Overholt suggests that different sections of OKTOPHONIE are characterized by different deployments of her shape repertory.202 The first part along with Invasion 1 contains four-part [spatial] counterpoint, involving blocks, points, lines and wedges altogether. During the final section, (JENSEITS, SYNTHI-FOU, ABSCHIED), spatial activity has dwindled down to a single spatial motion: blocks, or drones. Overholts contribution is twofold: first, she categorizes spatial events in OKTOPHONIE according to their generic spatial shape. Then, she analyses the order of the shapes or events given in the score. Therefore, her conclusion that ... unlike GRUPPEN, in which the shapes outlined a mirror form in the overall plan for the work, in OKTOPHONIE the shape deployment seems to start with great complexity and then dwindle down to just the background block formations203 is useful but evident from the score. To gain a more nuanced understanding of the spatial aspects in OKTOPHONIE, we will apply some of the analytical techniques we defined in Chapter 2 to elements of the score. We are interested in determining the level of precision Stockhausen had over the spatialization of the sounds in OKTOPHONIE. We will also explore the internal spatial structures in event groups like the distribution of shots in different parts of the space.

201 Ibid., p. 140. Compare the first four shots in Example 2.5.5c with her analysis in Overholt p. 145. Each shot or bomb appears to be a block; each crash a triangle. 202 Ibid., p, 159. 203 Ibid., p. 166.

83 3.2. Elements of Sketches and Score that Pertain to Spatialization 3.2.1. Basic approach to analysis. We begin from one particular detail from a sketch, to orient our analytical questions.204 This lower-left corner of the sketch, boxed in Example 3.2.1a, shows how Stockhausen conceived of the various shots (Spur 3+4) [Channel 3+4] and bombs (Spur 3) [Channel 3] moving in the cubic space.205 Although the decibel levels which allowed him to create the movement shown in the sketch are notated in the score, Stockhausen did not make any more sketch diagrams for the spatialized sounds.206 A diagram for one spatialized sound from OKTOPHONIE first shown in Examples 2.2.3a-d is reproduced here as Examples 3.2.1b-e to facilitate this expanded discussion. 3.2.2. Bombs. After performing the calculations described in Example 3.2.1b-e on the score data in OKTOPHONIE, we can determine the theoretical location of spatial events in the cubic space. Examples 3.2.2a-c show the location of each of the total number of 65 bombs as it lands on the floor. Example 3.2.2d combines these data on one graph to show where all of the bombs fall. Example 3.2.2e gives the decibel settings of each bomb and the coordinates where the bomb falls, in a 14 14 square floor area. In this example, the coordinate (0,0) is at the center of the space whereas (-7, -7) is in the back-left corner. It is clear from a cursory examination of the data that the majority of bombs fall in the back half of the space. Whereas 15 bombs fall in the front half, 49 fall in the back half. Significantly, one bomb (the first) falls exactly in the middle of the space. This event may serve to help orient listeners at the beginning of a complex sequence of spatial
204 Along with sketches pertaining to the temporal structure of OKTOPHONIE which were cited in footnote 11, Stockhausen made an additional series of sketches for the Verrumlichung. Texte 9, pp. 521-524. 205 This example is from Texte 9, p. 521. 206 Although he was clearly aware that other sonic elements such as phase difference and the doppler effect contribute to the perception of spatial location, Stockhausen exclusively used changes in loudness among the speakers to spatialize sounds in OKTOPHONIE. Lautstrkevernderungen sind vorlufig die einsige Methode, Klnge im Raum zu bewegen. (Stockhausen 2000b, p. 68).

84 events. Although a great many bombs fall close to the center of the space, there is a noticeable concentration about two-thirds of the way back, along the center axis of the space. Bombs 7, 23, 24, 29, 34, 37, 38, 43, 51, 56 and 64 all fall in an area of increased spatial activity towards the bottom-back-center. This distribution already suggests ways of interpreting the spatial activity in OKTOPHONIE which we will return to in our analysis. 3.2.3. Shots. 48 shots occur in the first half of OKTOPHONIE, while 18 occur in the second half. All of the shots end on the ceiling (loudspeakers V-VIII), and are meant to be anti-aircraft fire. In the first half of the piece, shots start at the front-floor pair of speakers (II/III). During the second half, shots are subdivided into two groups. The first ten shots begin from the floor array (I-IV), while the last eight begin from the front array (II, VI, VII, III). In order to make this more clear, the shapes of these three groups of shots is shown in Example 3.2.3a. The spatial location for each of the 48 shots is shown in Examples 3.2.3b-d. In Example 3.2.3e, the individual data are combined on one graph. Example 3.2.3f shows the decibel settings and the calculated coordinates of these first 48 shots in a table. An analysis of the starting points of the shots again shows several clumps where a disproportionate number of shots begin along the bottom-front edge of the cubic space. The endpoints of the shots are strongly skewed towards the back of the hall. Only six shots make it to the front half of the ceiling, whereas 39 end at the back half. Three shots end exactly in the middle of the ceiling, directly above the sound-projectionist. Surprisingly, there is also a fairly dense area of shot activity in exactly the same place where a disproportionate number of bombs fell. The endpoints of shots 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 21, 32 and 34 are located towards the bottom-back-center. There seems to be a relationship between shots and bombs in this area of the space. We will further refine our measurements in the following sections to determine exactly what this relationship is.

85

Of the eighteen shots in the second half of OKTOPHONIE, the endpoints are once again highly skewed towards the back half of the space. Not one of the eighteen shots in the second half end at the front half of the ceiling. The starting and ending points of the first ten shots are shown in Example 3.2.3g; the last eight are shown in Example 3.2.3h. Their combined distribution can be seen in Example 3.2.3i, and the coordinates in space are given in Example 3.2.3j-k. 3.2.4. Crashes and Explosions. A crash occurs when a shot hits an imaginary aircraft dropping the bombs. The beginning and end points of the eleven crashes are shown in Example 3.2.4a. The aggregate spatial distribution is graphed in Example 3.2.4b, and the calculated coordinates can be found in Example 3.2.4c. Stockhausen added eight superimposed crashes later in the first half of OKTOPHONIE, but the exact spatial data for these crashes is not recorded in the score.207 The analysis of starting and ending points is probably the most speculative of the analyses done so far from the perspective of perception. As the crash sound descends from the ceiling to the floor, it moves around the space in a kind of corkscrew shape. The corkscrew can be seen from Stockhausens diagram, shown in Example 3.2.4d. Because of the rapid movement around space, it is likely that unless special precautions are taken by the sound projectionist, the starting and ending points of the sound may be difficult for listeners to localize. With this caveat, however, the crashes present an important opportunity for our analysis. In the dramatic context of OKTOPHONIE, a crash occurs only as the result of a shot successfully hitting an imaginary aircraft. There is a trivial correlation between the
207 Stockhausen 1994, p. O XXII. For the 8 superimposed crashes from 24:02.3 to 26:42.3, 8 individual rotations were controlled manually. Stockhausen clearly relished this part of the score, with its curving lines descending from one staff to another, since he made a color postcard of it. The postcard is called 8 Abstrze aus INVASION, 08. 10. 1990.

86 ending points of the shots and the starting points of the crashes. This can easily be verified by comparing the top part of Example 3.2.3e (endpoints of the shots) to the bottom portion of Example 3.2.4b (starting points of the crashes). Unlike other spatial activity, the endpoints of the crashes tend to be distributed more towards the front half of the floor, as can easily be seen in the bottom portion of Example 3.2.4b (Ending points). Eight of the eleven crashes end in the front half of the floor. Perhaps the spatial distribution of the crash endpoints was intended to give somewhat more balance to the overall spatial design of the piece, since so many other events are skewed towards the back half of the space. Although our analyses of the location of spatial activity have been informal in this section, they raise several suggestive questions. While there is a trivial cause-and-effect relationship between the shots and the crashes, is there any such relationship among the shots and the bombs? And, is there an internal structure to the pattern of bombs and shot endpoints? In order to decide how best to approach the problem, we will define the shape of the space in OKTOPHONIE. 3.3. Shape of the space in OKTOPHONIE 3.3.1. Arrangement of sound sources. An extended correspondence between Solf Schaefer, director of the Darmstadt Ferienkurse fr Neue Musik from 1995-2008, and Stockhausen indicates how important the correct speaker arrangement was for the composer of OKTOPHONIE.208 In the exchange, Stockhausen emphasizes how crucial the correct height is for the top bank of four loudspeaker groups. Stockhausen later claimed that he could follow movements even when sitting outside the space defined by the cube.209 When performed in an opera house, some of the audience would almost certainly be seated outside this cube. For emergency situations, Stockhausen allowed
208 Misch and Bandur 2001, pp. 571-615, especially p. 566. 209 Texte 8, p. 583.

87 an alternative speaker arrangement. Concerning this arrangement, Stockhausen wrote If it is impossible to have a cubic octophonic arrangement of the loudspeakers, one can possibly choose a quadrophonic arrangement (whereby of course half of the composed spatial movements are lost). One then balances the eight channels of the tape with help from a panorama-regulator in the following four loudspeaker groups... Even so, one should avoid this emergency solution.210 The alternative arrangement is shown in Example 3.3.1a. Stockhausen left this suggestion out of his score, published in 1994 (the citation is from 1998, after the correspondence with Schaefer). Stockhausens suggestion invites speculation about how music such as OKTOPHONIE might be perceived in this loudspeaker arrangement. Instead of sounds moving from the floor to the ceiling, they would spiral around arcs in the space. Instead of moving in three dimensions, the spatial motion would be squashed down to a plane. Needless to say, our analysis of the sounds would have to be significantly altered if such an arrangement were in place. We do not speculate on the results of such an analysis, first because, in the authors experience, the use of this alternative loudspeaker arrangement is exceedingly rare, and second, because Stockhausen considered it only permissible in emergency situations. Therefore, the shape of the space is a cube, and its dimension is 3. 3.3.2. Drones. In section 3.2, we located and informally analyzed the bombs, shots and crashes in OKTOPHONIE. While these sounds start and end in particularized locations, the drones cycle about in a continuous fashion.211 Clearly the idea of the drones is to give the impression of continuous spiraling motion. In the score, Stockhausen indicates the shape of these sounds with continuous closed shapes. There can be no doubt that despite the discontinuous arrangement of speakers, Stockhausen wished to give the impression that these sounds were in continuous movement around the listeners.

210 Texte 9, pp. 308, 319. 211 A pitch analysis of one of the layers of drones can be found in Kohl 2004, pp. 12728.

88 3.3.3. Other sounds. On the other hand, there are discrete points where bombs, shots and crashes start and stop. Although these sounds can be placed anywhere within the boundary of the cube, their endpoints are specified. Since Stockhausen manipulated the relative decibel settings of the speakers through balancing the amplitude of the sounds assigned to them with a potentiometer, these starting and ending points can theoretically be centered anywhere in space. Therefore, these sounds have elements of both discontinuous motion (their starting and ending points) and continuous motion. 3.4. Spatial shapes in OKTOPHONIE 3.4.1. Spirals/Drones. Although the drones consist of slow rotating sound, their shape actually varies considerably: some are like corkscrews while others are like figure 8s. In the first half of OKTOPHONIE, Stockhausen composed three different layers of spirals or drones. The first layer, identified as layer 5 in the score, moves from the front plane of the space (speakers II-VI-VII-III) to the rear (speakers I-V-VIII-IV). Later in this level, drones spiral from the left plane to the right, and then back again. In layer 6, two looping movements traverse loudspeakers V-III-VIII-II and I-VII-IV-VI. Finally, in layer 7 there is very slow clockwise rotation around the floor in speakers I-II-III-IV. The second half of OKTOPHONIE has considerably more complex drone activity. In PIET, there are four layers of drone motion (identified in the score as layers 1-4). These include very slow spiral rotation at a 20 second rotation rate; slow counterclockwise rotation; slow looping movement and very slow cross rotation. Through the remainder of the second half of OKTOPHONIE, the complexity of drone movement increases. There is double-rotation, lateral counter-movement, alternating loop rotations, and more conventional rotation movements as well. These movements are always quite slow in relation to the shots, bombs and crashes. For example, the drone in

89 layer 11.4 takes 10.9 seconds to traverse loudspeaker groups V-VIII-VII-VI; layer 12.1 takes 10.7 seconds to complete one circuit of alternating loop rotation, and in layer 12.2 a complete cycle takes 13 seconds. Since the looping movements occur at so many different asynchronous rates, and involve not only circular patterns but also figureeights, the compositional technique is strongly reminiscent of the asynchronous talea employed by Messiaen in the first movement of his Quartet for the End of Time. It could certainly be said that the affect Stockhausen tried to evoke in this layer of spatialization one of a certain timelessness is somewhat analogous to Messiaens. 3.4.2. Bombs. The spatial locations of the bombs are the same at the level of the ceiling and the floor; in other words, they fall straight down.212 In order to show the shapes that the successive bombs create on the floor, the 65 bombs are divided into four groups (for greater legibility) and shown in Example 3.4.2a. We may begin to identify any patterns by calculating the angle between each set of three bombs. This is easily accomplished using simple trigonometry. At the same time we can calculate the distances, in meters, of points between consecutive bombs. The result of these calculations is shown in the table in Example 3.4.2b. Analysis of the simplest forms those with three points and one angle shows that there is a great variety of shapes that do not readily lend themselves to simple transformational relationships. Example 3.4.2c shows the three shapes with the most acute angles: all three successive points create paths whose central angles are near 2, yet, the distances between the points are all quite different. Analysis of the most obtuse angles, shown in Example 3.4.2d, yields similar results. How does the angle and distance measurement change over time? Plotting the distances
212 Stockhausen 2000b, p. 72. Klang-Bomben fallen von der Decke und sind Einschlge 1 bis 24 in dem Quadrat, in dem Sie sitzen. This is surprising, since if the bombs were dropped from moving aircraft, their descent pattern would be parabolic, not straight down. Perhaps Lucifer is dropping the bombs from stationary Zeppelins, balloons or helicopters!

90 and angles between each of the 65 bombs yields the graphs shown in Example 3.4.2e. We might hypothesize that bombers concentrate their runs on one particular target. If this is the case, we might expect to see several dense clusters of bombs with large distances separating clusters, similar to the way aerial bombardment was conducted in various historical air campaigns. While there most certainly are clusters of bombs in the space, they occur only over the entire course of the composition, and do not appear to occur in any obvious temporal sequence. 3.4.3. Shots. As we have seen, the first group of 48 shots begins in the front pair of speakers and lands on the top surface of the cube of speakers. However, we will now analyze the sequence of shot ends. This will determine whether there is an internal structure to the end locations of the shots. The first sequence of 48 shot endpoints is divided into three groups and shown in Example 3.4.3a. The results of calculating the angles between each set of three shots is shown in Example 3.4.3b. Analysis of the angle and distance measurements over time yields somewhat different results from the previous bomb analysis. The plots of distance and angle for the first 48 shots are shown in Example 3.4.3e. From examining these graphs, we could conclude that there is perhaps some logic in the change of distance between each shot. Whereas the first seven shots are very widely spaced, the average distance between shots decreases over time.213 We could interpret the data to suggest metaphorically that those who are directing the counterattack gradually focus their antiaircraft fire on specific areas on the ceiling. The distance between the end of one shot and the end of the next becomes somewhat smaller as targeting becomes more effective. But, by the time shot 40 has occurred and the distances between shot endpoints have really noticeably decreased, the bombs have long since stopped falling. Even though there is an overall trend in the shot
213 The angles of the first seven shots also are fairly small. We may hypothesize that large distances result in small angles, since a large distance will tend to move the sound off to a corner of the space thus increase the likelihood of the next sound doubling back on itself. While this is a logical assumption, the correlation between distance and angle is anything but clear in Example 3.4.3e.

91 plot towards smaller distances between end-points, it seems that ultimately the data are inconclusive in this respect; there is nothing to fire at by the end.214 Like the first group of 48 shots, we will only analyze the ending points of the second group of 18 here. As in the first group, these shots also end on the ceiling. The sequence of shot endpoints is shown in Example 3.4.3f. It is immediately apparent that these shots are even more densely clustered around the top-back-center part of the space than the previous group. The angles formed by each set of three shots are all acute except for one, as the analysis in Example 3.4.3g shows.215 The predominance of acute angles gives the impression that the shots are constantly circling around, doubling back on themselves. There is little here to indicate a strategy of shot targeting. One clear relationship between the shapes of the shot ends in the first and second groups is that the first four shots in each group trace out approximately the same pattern. The four shots in the second group are slightly contracted in comparison to those in the first. Dilating them by about 140% without any significant translation, rotation or flip would cause the first three shots to approach almost exactly the same shape as the shots in the first group. This could be thought of as analogous to starting out two sections of a musical work with a similar pitch-motive. This close relationship without showing dilation is highlighted in Example 3.4.3h. Our attempt to relate shapes yielded few useful results when we examined the internal structure of the shapes created by the bomb ends. This also seems to be the case with the shot ends. It was either too difficult for Stockhausen to organize these internal relationships given the way he spatialized the sounds, or he chose not to. However, we
214 In this case, the structural necessity of correlating spatial activity with events from the expanded Superformula has overridden the dramatic principle that ideally would associate shots with bombs in temporal proximity. 215 Since several shots occur in exactly the same place, the angle between several groups of three shots is undefined.

92 can say with some certainty that for the most part, the shots do target areas of high bomb density. Our analysis confirms that these aspects of spatial composition were, for the most part, very likely left to chance by Stockhausen, who only managed the general distribution within tolerances of several square meters. 3.4.4. Crashes. A crash occurs as a clear cause-and-effect relationship; the cause, of course, is a shot which has successfully hit one of the imaginary bombers overhead. As we have mentioned above, the the corkscrew shapes of the crashes are probably the most difficult to perceive. Still, we can examine their shapes in some more detail to answer one of our fundamental questions: is the targeting scheme of the shots at all related to the location of the bombs? If the targeting scheme of shots is related to the bombs, then it seems most logical to hypothesize that the location of the start of the crash would be near the previous bomb. As Example 3.4.4a shows, the distance from the top point of the crash to the immediately preceding bomb (which, of course, lands on the floor) varies considerably in each case. Although the first crash occurs exactly in the same place as the first bomb, we can probably discount this as insignificant because all of the initial spatial events occur directly in the center of the space. At the extreme, we find that the distance between bomb 61, which occurs 5.1 seconds before crash 23, is 10.61 meters a very large distance considering the overall dimensions of the cubic space. The average distance between a bomb and the crash that follows is 3.7 meters, which is far enough apart from the crash in a 14 14 14 cube that it is difficult to support a spatial connection. We can conclude from this that the location on the ceiling of the beginning of a crash has little or no relationship to the location on the floor of the bomb immediately preceding it. The antiaircraft fire is not, therefore, taking cues from the location of the bombs that land on the floor.

93 3.5. Other Spatial Relationships in OKTOPHONIE 3.5.1. Atemporal Relationship Between Shots and Bombs. In the previous section, we traced the pathway through space of bombs, shot endpoints and crashes. We found that crashes which begin on the ceiling do not have a significant relationship to the bombs that precede them. But taken out of time, we noticed that they do have a relationship; the shots tend to hit the same general region as the bombs below. How close is this out-of-time relationship? We can tally up the number of shots and bombs that occur in each vertical 1 1 14 slice of the space and create a ball diagram. This diagram is shown in Example 3.5.1. Crosses indicate the location of a crash. This diagram underlines the most important conclusion from our data, which we informally stated in section 3.2.4. The diagram brings to light several significant characteristics of Stockhausens spatialization techniques at this time in his career. While he could spatialize the general location of sounds in a three-dimensional space, he either could not make strong connections between specific starting and ending points of sounds, or chose not to. 3.5.2. Trajectories and routes through space. Because of the precision and quantity of our data, we can subject it to one last analysis. In sections 3.4.2 and 3.4.3, we established that there are few, if any patterns in the shapes formed by the endpoints of bombs and shots. Are there certain common trajectories that the shots themselves traverse as they move through the space from floor to ceiling? To answer this question, we may consult one last pair of graphic aids of this chapter, beginning with Example 3.5.2a. Here, the 3dimensional paths of shots 1-48 are shown in a two-dimensional representation. Examining Example 3.5.2a in more detail reveals that there appear to be three main groups of shots, based on their starting points on the floor. Group 1 begins from between

94 -5 and -1 meters left of center-front-bottom. All of these shots end in the upper-right-rear octant of the ceiling, with only two exceptions (shots 35 and 39). Group 2 includes all shots starting from the center-front of the space and extending 2 meters to the right. These shots end in more unpredictable places on the ceiling, but their endpoints tend to land along a diagonal extending roughly from the upper-right-front corner to the upperleft-rear (from loudspeakers VII to V). The third group, comprising shots starting between 3 and 5 meters right of center, all land without exception in the upper-left octant. Since the difference between shot beginnings and ends of Groups 1 and 3 is the most significant, the shots in Group 2 can be interpreted as serving a mediating role between these two contrasting extremes. Highlighted in Example 3.5.2b are some shot trajectories that are significant for other reasons. Shots 5 and 6, whose endpoints are both very distant from the centers of spatial activity in either direction, also begin nearest the corners of the space on the floor. To transform shot 5 into 6, we would need to translate the sixth shot 12.6 meters to the left (towards the left wall, in the x axis), and rotate it by 44 degrees in the plane that the two lines have in common.216 Clearly, these shots are very distantly related a translation of 12.6 meters and a rotation of 44 degrees is large for this space. Because shots 5 and 6 begin on completely opposite ends of the cubic space, they may be interpreted as an aid to framing the subsequent spatial activity in OKTOPHONIE. On the other hand, several shots which have close endpoints also have close starting points. In addition to the distantly related shots 5 and 6, two pairs or sets of shots are highlighted in Example 3.5.2b. Shots 30 and 38 are very closely related. In order to transform shot 30 into 38, we need only nudge it 0.2 meters to the left, and then rotate it by about .7 degrees in the plane that the two shots have in common. Similarly, shot 20 transforms into shot 24 by moving only 0.1 meters to the right and rotating 1.8 degrees in
216 The angle of rotation was computed simply by trigonometry and is always in the plane that both lines are in. A transformation matrix could be derived from this relationship as well.

95 their common plane. Although there are several other examples of shots that are closely related to each other, there are also examples to the contrary. For instance, the three shots that end at the center of the ceiling (shots 1, 31, and 33) all originate from very different places on the floor. Transforming one shot into another like this raises important questions about how relevant translation versus rotation is in our ability to relate spatial shapes aurally. Are two shots that are closely related by rotation, but distantly related by translation more aurally similar to each other than two shots that begin near to each other but are not closely rotationally related? Answering such questions would involve significant discussion of perception which are unfortunately beyond the scope of the current study. However, by measuring and quantifying the many different relationships among shots, we have not only learned much about the way space is composed in OKTOPHONIE, but also laid the groundwork for a far deeper understanding of the way spatial music behaves on its own terms. 3.6. Conclusions Computing the location of spatial events in Stockhausens OKTOPHONIE has allowed us to uncover a significant amount of information about the structure of that domain. The most important discovery we have made as a result of our study of the spatial composition in OKTOPHONIE is the statistical distribution of shots, bombs and crashes throughout the cubic space. Although the shots and bombs are not precisely coordinated, we have conclusively established that regions of spatial activity on the floor correlate loosely with regions directly above, on the ceiling. Through analysis of the distances, angles and distances between shot ends, and between bomb targets, we found only weak internal structure. Yet we can still see that there is

96 some ordering process that affects the general statistical distribution of shots in the space. If the spatial motion in OKTOPHONIE can be said to be unified in some way according to one overriding principle as so many other compositional elements in Stockhausen are we can say that the shots, bombs and crashes are spatialized within the performance space of the cube. Since the motion takes place inside the cube, we have a boundary between what is the piece and what is not. But the principal benefit of our analysis is that we have been able to learn exactly how far Stockhausens compositional control of the spatial domain extended. By showing how Stockhausen ordered the general distribution of shots, bombs and crashes and leaving the very specific endpoints and starting points more to chance, we have learned a great deal about this composers compositional techniques in the spatial domain.

97 Chapter 4. LICHTER-WASSER 4.1. LICHTER-WASSER and LICHT 4.1.1. Place of SUNDAY and LICHTER-WASSER within the LICHT project. The Sunday opera was, chronologically, the final opera that Stockhausen composed in the LICHT cycle. SUNDAY is the day of mystical unity between Eve and Michael, out of which the new life of Monday proceeds.217 The opera itself is made up of six parts. The first, LICHTER-WASSER, is given the dual appellation Scene 1 and SundayGreeting, and with its extensive spatial aspects, forms the main topic of this chapter. Composed for 29 instrumentalists, two vocal soloists and a synthesizer, LICHTERWASSER contains the most complex spatial motion in the opera. The second scene, ENGEL-PROZESSIONEN, is for a capella choir. This work also includes a fair amount of spatial motion. The choir, divided into seven smaller ensembles, processes around the hall in groups during the piece while singing in seven different languages. The third scene, LICHT-BILDER, is scored for basset-horn, flute, tenor, and trumpet, with synthesizer. The flute and trumpet are ring-modulated, but the other instruments are not. Here, abstract images (Bilder) are projected on large panels behind the soloists, while the instrumentalists move around the stage in stylized patterns which are notated in the score.218 Scene 4 called DFTE-ZEICHEN is a work for seven singers, boys voice, and synthesizer. Solos, duets, or trios are sung while different types of incense are burned. HOCH-ZEITEN, which forms Scene 5, calls for five-part choir and five-part
217 Texte 6, p. 156. Sonntag ist der Tag der mystischen Verinigung Evas und Michaels, aus der das neue Leben des Montag hervorgeht. Also ibid., p. 175: Und Sonntag ist der Tag der mystischen Vereinigung von EVA und MICHAEL, der die Voraussetzung schafft fr die Neugeburt des Montag. Und so ist LICHT ein Zyklus, der weder Anfang noch Ende hat....Sunday is the day of mystical union between EVE and MICHAEL, which serves as the prerequesite for the rebirth in Monday. Thus, LICHT is a cycle, which has neither beginning nor end. 218 An crucial aspect of LICHT-BILDER is the text, which Stockhausen described as venerations of EVA-Maria (Stockhausen 2005, p. 5). The naming of varieties of spheres of life -- such as stones, fruits, human saints, and star constellations echos Goethes maxim no. 539: Ich glaube einen Gott! Dies ist ein schnes, lbliches Wort; aber Gott anerkennen, wo und wie er sich offenbare, das ist eigentlich die Seligkeit auf Erden. [I believe in a God! This is a beautiful, praiseworthy phrase; but to recognize God in all of His manifestations, this is the true holiness on earth]. <http://www.wissenim-netz.info/literatur/goethe/maximen/1-09.htm#539>, accessed 10 January 2008.

98 orchestra. While the five parts of each texture are simultaneously in different tempi, the choir and the orchestra are designated locations in two different halls. The sounds of choir and orchestra are linked together electronically so that listeners in each hall occasionally hear a mixture of both.219 The final scene, SONNTAGS-ABSCHIED, is essentially a wordless transcription for five synthesizer players of the choir portion of the music of HOCH-ZEITEN. All of these scenes have the Sunday limb of the Superformula as their formal background structure. This limb, along with the entire Superformula, is shown in Example 3.1.1b. But unlike the other LICHT operas, Stockhausen decided to omit part of the Superformula in realizing the fundamental structure of SUNDAY.220 Since SUNDAY is the mystical union of Michael and Eve, the Lucifer formula is not used as the background structure in any of its scenes.221 Although this Lucifer material is not present in the background level, it does play a part on a more surface level in the Sunday opera most memorably, perhaps, in the comic elements of the vocal solo Ud (Samstag-Duft) in DFTE-ZEICHEN, which is derived from it. 4.1.2. Premise of LICHTER-WASSER. In English, LICHTER-WASSER means Lights-Waters. According to Stockhausen, life depends completely on light and
219 Stockhausen 2003b and 2004. 220 The special Sunday-Superformula sketch, which can be found in the LICHTER-WASSER analysis booklet pp. 40-41 (hereafter referred to as Stockhausen 2001b), shows six polyphonic lines. The three on top are the projection of only the Sunday limb of the Superformula over all of the Sunday opera, while the three lower lines are the projection of the entire Superformula over the Sunday opera. Although the Lucifer formula is present in this sketch, it is clearly intended to be omitted in the actual realization of the Sunday works. Stockhausens notes indicate that the work which was to involve the Lucifer formula LUZIFERIUM would have been performed in a prison, or underground. LUZIFERIUM would have been separated spatially from the other parts of the opera. This technique is reminiscent of HOCH-ZEITEN and the HELIKOPTER STREICHQUARTETT (of WEDNESDAY), where different parts of the ensemble are not in the sample physical location. This conscious separation is yet another facet of Stockhausens interest in spatial relationships over large distances. 221 This Lucifer limb remains the only part of the Superformula which was not elaborated upon in Stockhausens LICHT project. Originally Stockhausen planned a work called LUZIFERIUM that would have been based on this material, but the composition never materialized. For more on the planned composition LUZIFERIUM, see the LICHTER-WASSER lectures, day 1.

99 water;222 thus, the work is a kind of celebration of life on Earth and presumably extraterrestrial life. Stockhausen wanted to compose a work about our solar system223 and spent a considerable amount of time learning about the different aspects of it in order to prepare for composing LICHTER-WASSER. In LICHTER-WASSER, the rotations of the notes in space are related to the rotations of the nine planets and 61 moons of our solar system, whose names, astronomical characteristics and significances are sung.224 Although Stockhausen later gave up on precisely coordinating the rotations of heavenly bodies with his music, LICHTERWASSER is still closely related to our solar system, the planets, moons with their rotations, [and] timings.225 In the piece, instrumentalists are spread around the hall in a geometric pattern. During the central sections of LICHTER-WASSER, a note (or group of notes) in a melody is played by one instrumentalist, who then hands off the melody to another instrumentalist. At the same time, two vocal soloists move around the space at a slower rate of motion. While the actual speeds of planets, moons and other elements of the solar system as they cycle around the sun are not literally reflected in the music, Stockhausen imagined that there was nevertheless an indirect relationship.226 Its premise being a kind of artificial solar system of music, LICHTER-WASSER is a work of almost ritualistic meditation in which very little dramatic action happens. The text of the work reflects this meditative inactivity; the words mostly describe or state the physical properties of different elements of the local solar system. Stockhausen described LICHTER-WASSER as the Sunday Greeting. Stockhausens tradition of starting an opera off with a Greeting dates back to the first opera in the
222 LICHTER-WASSER lectures, 2001, day 1. 223 Ibid. 224 Stockhausen 2001b, p. 5. Of course, at the time Stockhausen composed LICHTER-WASSER, Pluto was still a planet. In a personal conversation that took place in December 2006, Stockhausen mentioned that he felt it was a mistake to demote Pluto: it will only confuse people. 225 Stockhausen 2004b, p. 4. 226 Many works by Stockhausen reflect this connection between music and the cosmos, perhaps most notably SIRIUS. For more on this, see Peters 2003, pp. 233ff.

100 cycle, Thursday. Greetings often take place in a performance space other than the main space for the hall (such as a foyer), and vary considerably in length.227 Their tonal material is generally derived transparently from the Superformula. In this way, the audience is reminded of the basic material which is then expanded (or projected) over the course of the ensuing opera. Compared with the other Greetings, LICHTERWASSER is not very unusual in terms of length, but it is more complex musically than most of the others. LICHTER-WASSER is most notable because it is the only Greeting that is also designated Scene 1.228 4.1.3. Formal Structure of LICHTER-WASSER. The basic pitch material of LICHTER-WASSER is derived from the Michael and Eve nuclear formulas, which are shown in Example 3.1.1a. These nuclear formulas can form the pitch material for Greetings in other operas. Over the course of LICHTER-WASSER, characteristic intervals from the Eve formula gradually migrate to the Michael formula. Curiously, Stockhausen did not indicate in his sketches a reverse process, where intervals from the Michael formula migrate to the Eve formula, except in the sense that some characteristic intervals from the Michael formula are used as auxiliary decorations in the Eve formulas. This technique is a way of blending one formula into another, which musically expresses the mystical union between the two characters. The complete sequence of twelve pitch blendings is shown in Example 4.1.3a.229 During LICHTER-WASSER, each of these pitches in the nuclear formula is itself treated as a pitch center, and is embellished or expanded in various ways.

227 Although the Thursday greeting is relatively short, the Friday greeting is as long as the entire first act of the opera. 228 The very idea of a Greeting to begin with has a connection with Christian religious services, where the celebrant often greets the congregation (an introit) before the ceremony proper begins. 229 In the case of the Eve formulas, Stockhausen transposed the formula in his sketches but the blendings are limited to embellishments around formula notes. The composer employed an electronic version of this technique in DER KINDERFNGER, in the MONDAY opera. Stockhausen 2002, p. 10. Other uses of the technique are in MONDEVA (THURSDAY opera, act 1 scene 2), and the MISSION UND HIMMELFAHRT section of MICHAELS REISE (Act 2 of the same opera).

101 In contrast to OKTOPHONIE, which was made of two roughly equal parts but then subdivided into several unequal smaller sections the formal structure of LICHTERWASSER is based on a framing structure which surrounds a lengthy central structural complex. The tenor and soprano soloists begin LICHTER-WASSER with a brief Anfangs-Duett. This duet is followed by the entrance (Eingang) of the 29 instrumentalists, who slowly move to preassigned positions either along the walls of the performance space or in the aisles. Each instrumentalist belongs either to the Eveorchestra or to the Michael-orchestra. Orchestra membership is indicated by a lit candle inside a green or blue glass bowl, which is placed near the musician. Near each musician is also a glass of water. The Eve-Orchestra tends to include instruments of a low range complementing the soprano singer, whereas the Michael-Orchestra contains instruments of higher range, contrasting with the lower range of the tenor singer. There are seventeen musicians in the Michael orchestra, each corresponding to a note of the full (embellished) Michael nuclear formula. Twelve instrumentalists make up the Eve-orchestra, corresponding exactly to the notes of the Eve nuclear formula. The arrangement of musicians in the space is shown in Example 4.1.3b.230 In addition, Stockhausen sequenced the instrumentalists in both orchestras; we will refer to these paths as basic cycles in the analytical sections below. The audience sits in the triangular spaces between aisles, all facing towards center. Following the Anfangs-Duett and Eingang, which serve expository functions in the opening frame, the central sequence of interlocking waves and bridges begins. During these sections, sequences of notes and segments of motives from the embellished nuclear formulas get passed around instrumentalists in various shapes and at varying speeds. In the twelve waves, the durations of the two formulas are gradually enlivened, from undivided durations of the formula notes in the first wave to maximally subdivided

230 Following the terminology we defined in chapter 2, we can say that the intersection of the Eve orchestra and the Michael orchestra is the empty set.

102 durations in the twelfth wave.231 In the following discussion, these twelve Michael and twelve Eve wave sections will be abbreviated as M1 or E7, etc. Corresponding Michael- and Eve-wave sections are not always of the same duration; they only align six times. Where they do align, a bridge section gets inserted. The spatial motion is less active during most of the bridge sections. The pitches used in the bridge sections usually are the nuclear formulas that will be heard in the next block of waves; thus, bridges serve a dual function both as a contrast to the more active spatial motion of the wave sections, and as an exposition of the pitch material that will occur in the next block of waves. One bridge the fourth is repeated and interleaved between a series of three announcements in which the musical texture becomes very much like a vocal recitative. At the end of the twelfth and final wave, the instrumentalists ritually process out of the hall in a section appropriately named Ausgang. Before leaving, the musicians take a drink of water from the glass set next to them. Finally, the two vocal soloists sing a modified reprise of the opening Anfangs-Duett, simply called Schluss-Duett. In this way, the central structural complex comprised of alternating sets of waves with bridges is neatly sandwiched between vocal and instrumental entrances and exits. The entire structure of LICHTER-WASSER is shown in Example 4.1.3c. The example also clarifies the different pitched nuclear formulas that are used in each section. 4.1.4. Analytical and critical literature on LICHTER-WASSER. There is very little analytical or critical literature on LICHTER-WASSER. The most extensive analysis of the piece is by Stockhausen himself, and consists of the analysis booklet published for the 2001 Stockhausen Courses in Krten. This booklet reproduces several important
231 Stockhausen 2001b, p. 5. Stockhausen made elaborate calculations relating to the number of notes in each wave section during the planning stages of LICHTER-WASSER. These predictions, which can be seen in a somewhat cryptic but important sketch, can be seen in Stockhausen 2001b, p. 25. In most cases, Stockhausens predictions come fairly close to the ultimate realization in the score.

103 sketches for the work, and explains most of the essentual structural elements from the composers perspective. Stockhausens analysis booklet is an indispensable artifact in that it contains information that is crucial to forming a basic understanding of the premise and methods of the work. A second important body of source material is the series of seven lectures Stockhausen gave in 2001. The present author made transcriptions of these lectures, which also aided in developing a sense of the works scope and structure. Robin Maconies commentary on the piece is useful in that it places LICHTERWASSER in the context of Stockhausens other works. Aside from noting the obvious similarity of LICHTER-WASSER to Xenakiss Terretektorh (which we will investigate more closely in Chapter 5), Maconie notes that there are certain tonal implications and passages of undisguised tonality that seem to resolve the dramatic and philosophical contradictions of movement and cadence.232 The work is infused with a sense of discretion and tact and iridescent color. Stockhausen returns to a sense of spiritual purity...in which the spatiality of Brant and the lyricism of Webern are reconciled.233 LICHTER-WASSER was commissioned for performance by the Southwest German Radio Orchestra (SWR) for the Donaueschingen festival. It required extensive rehearsal time and preparation;234 as of this writing, the orchestral version has not been performed at all after the premiere. Although an eight-channel tape exists, its effect is not as interesting spatially as the live performance, since loudspeakers are set up around the audience in a ring.235 Consequently, many of the spatial effects which rely on instrumentalists stationed in the aisles of the performance space are lost. The two232 Maconie 2005, p. 532. 233 Ibid., p. 531. 234 For the premiere, Stockhausen rehearsed two weeks with the orchestra and two weeks with the singers. Three combined rehearsals followed before the premiere. LICHTER-WASSER lectures, 2001, day 4. 235 Stockhausen described how he mixed down the 29-track recording of the musicians to make an 8channel tape in Stockhausen 2001b, p. 10. Stockhausen wrote that when performed in this way, it is absolutely necessary to inform the audience in the program book that the movements of the notes from instrument to instrument as compared to a performance with orchestra are greatly reduced, but simulated to a certain extent [bold in original].

104 channel stereo recording, available on CD from the Stockhausen-Verlag, does even less justice to the works complex spatial language. LICHTER-WASSER does not consist of smaller, self-contained works that can be split up and performed individually with less substantial musical forces. Ultimately, the very aspect of LICHTER-WASSER that makes it a stimulating piece in performance that is, its spatialization is difficult if not impossible to capture in reproduction. This lends the work an certain aspect of musical theater which is common in many other Stockhausen pieces. All of these factors contribute to the difficulty of mounting an effective performance. 4.2. What elements of the score of LICHTER-WASSER pertain to spatial movement? 4.2.1. Sketches for LICHTER-WASSER. The sketches for LICHTER-WASSER consist of 153 pages of material. The development of the work through many stages of composition can be fairly well understood through studying the material available at the Stockhausen archive. Concerning the spatial arrangement of the musicians, Stockhausen imagined many different possibilities before settling on the final configuration. These sketches show that he arrived at the general spatial layout of the 29 musicians236 fairly early on, but changed the instrumentation several times. In the early sketches, musicians were moved around to different locations several times. One very early sketch shows that Stockhausen briefly conceived of the idea of putting similar instruments on opposite walls of the hall.237 Another shows that he considered using a tape with sampled sounds of tennis shots, baseball hits, billiard shots, and different kinds of motion of spheres.238

236 This prime number is also the number of piano chords in the color of the first movement of Messiaens Quartet for the End of Time. 237 Lichter-Wasser sketch book, sketch 50 (dated 27 June 1996), middle-top sketch. 238 Lichter-Wasser sketch book, sketch 51 (dated 18 July 1996).

105 Once Stockhausen finally settled on the arrangement of musicians and the orchestration, he began to draw shapes coursing through the space. Many of these shapes are symmetrical, such as stars, circles, polygons, and lines. This sketch is shown in Example 4.2.1a.239 Initially, Stockhausen grouped his shapes according to the number of musicians, or (in graph-theoretical language) vertices, that they involved. He then created a series of decisive sketches in colored pencil showing the planned motion through each of the twelve waves and bridges. These sketches, too numerous to reproduce here, are in the 2001 analysis booklet. Movements for the vocalists appear as well, on separate sketches. These motions were probably finalized after Stockhausen determined the pitch and rhythmic detail, since he needed to know how many moves there would be before expanding the nuclear formulas in each wave. The compositional process Stockhausen went through, from deciding on the arrangement of musicians, to composing the shapes, to integrating the shapes into the music, is unusually well-documented and highly interesting in and of itself. Further study of this compositional process could reveal important principles relating to Stockhausens spatial preferences, as well as other practical necessities which spatial music must engage. 4.2.2. Revisions of spatial motion during rehearsals. During the rehearsals of the work, Stockhausen made a considerable number of revisions and changes to the spatial motion of melodies in LICHTER-WASSER. Most of these seem to be practical in nature. Concerning an instrumental substitution made to the very first note in E2, Stockhausen observed that the note in question was originally intended to be played by the second trombone. In rehearsal, the second trombone could not play the note, so he asked the first trombone to take over.240 These revisions and many other changes are

239 Reproduced from Stockhausen 2001b, p. 21. 240 Stockhausen explained this on day 4 of his 2001 LICHTER-WASSER lectures. This change occurs in bar 152. The original sketch, with the second trombone part indicated, is in Stockhausen 2001b, p. 28, top-right. Stockhausen did not explain why the trombonist could not play the note.

106 detailed in a series of six pages of notes in the sketch-book.241 4.2.3. The final score to LICHTER-WASSER. Considering the complex process Stockhausen went through in developing the spatial arrangement and distribution of instruments, and the large quantity of revisions he made during the rehearsals, there are often contradictions between the sketches and the final score. While considering all the different implications of Stockhausens alterations would certainly shed much light on the composers idiosyncratic method of composing, we must settle on one version of the score to analyze here. The present analysis is based on the final published score.242 It is drawn carefully in Stockhausens own hand, and is generally very clear and unambiguous. The instrumental movements are indicated above each note with an abbreviation for each instrument. In addition, box diagrams for both the instrumentalists and vocalists litter the score. While the box diagrams are an important aid for the conductor, they are also extremely helpful for analysis because they clearly show the direction and shape of the movement. Since Stockhausen incorporated all his revisions from the lengthy rehearsals and first performances into this score, we can consider it to be a highly accurate representation of the composers intentions. 4.3. Shape of the space in LICHTER-WASSER 4.3.1. Normal spatial conditions - Instrumentalists. The instrumentalists begin to play during the Eingang section. As they process into the performance hall, each takes an assigned place. Once reaching their places, each plays a single note of either the first Michael nuclear formula or the first Eve nuclear formula, depending on the orchestra they are in. The notes are irregularly repeated in a manner that Stockhausen commonly used,
241 These sketches are numbered pages 147-152. 242Stockhausen 1998-1999.

107 which he described in the score as somewhat akin to morse code. This continues until all 29 instrumentalists are in their places. Throughout the wave sections, instrumentalists do not move from their places. Under normal conditions, two melodies each based on their progressively cross-influenced nuclear formulas continually cycle around the space. Usually there is one single trail through the space for each orchestra. Since there are two orchestras, the prevalent musical texture is like a two-part spatial counterpoint in other words, an invention in two parts. The entire work LICHTER-WASSER could be thought of as a sequence of twelve two-part spatial inventions with six bridges sandwiched in between. During the bridge sections, the normal spatial activity among instrumentalists is quite different and generally more diverse than the wave sections. In the first three bridges, instrumental solos are fairly prominent, even if there is still something of a spatial hangover of rapid motion from the previous waves. During the fourth bridge, twelve woodwind and brass instrumentalists move to the balcony and the entire ensemble of 29 instrumentalists is divided into two quartets. The eight polyphonic lines in these two quartets contain instruments situated both on the floor and in the balcony, allowing for a complex spatial interplay. In addition, the fourth bridge includes several brief instrumental solos and ensembles. The fifth and sixth bridges feature more short instrumental solos counterpointed against a fairly stable homophonic texture. In general, the spatial activity in all six bridge sections is considerably less complex than in the waves. The bridges are like islands of calm within the more frenetic spatial activity in the surrounding waves. In the Ausgang section, the instrumentalists resume their morse-code style. At a determined point, given in the score, each pauses for a moment to take a drink of water. The instrumentalists then move, one by one, towards the exit. As they exit, they continue

108 playing until they are all outside the hall. Since each instrumentalist starts at a different location and proceeds to the same door, the spatial movement can be represented as a tree graph. Throughout the wave sections and most of the bridge sections, music moves disjunctly from one instrumentalists to another. But given Stockhausens idea that the spatial motion should represent the planets, moons and other objects in the solar system, we can conclude that even though the shape of the space in the instrumental music is normally discontinuous, it is meant to be perceived as continuous. The one time when the motion is actually continuous occurs in the Ausgang section, where musicians move towards the exit door while playing. 4.3.2. Normal spatial conditions Vocalists. There are several significant differences between the normal spatial motion of the two vocal soloists and the typical implied continuous motion of the instrumentalists. First, the vocalists motion is altogether much slower than the instrumentalists, since they must actually walk around the space instead of handing off a melody to a nearby musician. Moreover, the vocalists cannot move through the audience; they can only walk around the edges of the hall and through the aisles. The vocalists spatial motion can be represented as a graph with considerably fewer edges than the instrumental graph. During the Anfangs-Duett, the tenor and soprano sing on opposite sides of the hall, facing each other along the horizontal aisle. They begin to move around the hall during the Eingang section, where each shows the members of the other orchestra to their places and either personally lights the musicians... lamp...or gives a sign to the musician to light the lamp himself.243 In addition, the vocalists sing musical fragments as they gradually usher in the instrumentalists. The two vocalists sing from a different spatial position during each wave and bridge section. In the course of a wave or bridge section, they remain stationary until near the
243 Stockhausen 2001b, p. 7.

109 end. The precise moment where they should begin to move to the position for the next wave or bridge is indicated in the score. Stockhausen timed how long it took each singer to move from place to place. Based on these timings he suggested when movement should begin in preparation for the next wave or bridge.244 During the Ausgang section, the singers perform more of a ritualistic role than a musical one. They walk around the space, bidding each instrumentalist to drink from their glass of water. After the musicians have left the hall, the vocalists move into position for the Schluss-Duett. They perform the closing duet facing each other along the same horizontal aisle as the Anfangs-Duett. However, the singers are considerably closer to each other than they were in the beginning. The way in which the vocalists are closer to each other than in the beginning is yet another subtle way of expressing the idea mystical unity of Michael and Eve through the spatial design of LICHTER-WASSER. 4.3.3. Exceptions in spatial movement. In LICHTER-WASSER, there are several exceptions to the usual type of spatial motion outlined above. Detailing the irregularities is important because we should construct an analytical methodology that does its best to take as many events as possible into account, but at the same time does not lose sight of the most important elements of spatial design. During the wave sections, there are occasionally instrumental solos at the same time as one of the two melodies continues to cycle around the room. One of these solos occurs towards the end of M1. The first violist plays several notes of the pitched melody while the principal melody continues to cycle around the space. This passage, beginning at measure 141, is shown in Example 4.3.3a. Another type of solo occurs when a single instrument plays notes that are not doubled by the instruments that continue the main spatial path. An example is the E-flat clarinet solo in M7. Beginning in measure 398, the
244 The fact that these timings are so precisely indicated again suggests constraints on the size of the hall in which LICHTER-WASSER is to be performed.

110 E-flat clarinet articulates pitches that are more related to the tenor soloist than instrumental material. This passage is shown in Example 4.3.3b. A group of instruments may momentarily play the same melodic line in a kind of spatial canon. An example of this can be found at bar 252, and is shown in Example 4.3.3c. In this case, the structure of the spatial movement really is a three-part canon, as there is only one path traversed through the space. Another example of a three-part spatial canon begins in measure 337, and is shown in Example 4.3.3d. While the two melodies cycle around, groups of musicians occasionally perform musical material in unison, especially after the third bridge section. Stockhausen imagined some of these passages, which take the form of rapid chromatic scales, as comets in his solar system analogy. A comet occurs in measure 325, and is shown in Example 4.3.3e. Most of the comets are brief, whirlwind occurrences which may be played with irregular rhythm or pitch (as in mm. 351-352, mm. 386-387). The most consistent exception in the general style of spatial movement occurs in the twelfth (final) wave section. This wave is punctuated by seventy-two chords of between three and seven pitches. However, there are often doublings in the chords, so that even though there are only seven pitches, they may be played by up to twelve instrumentalists. Often, the string instruments play the inner notes of the chords pizzicato, while wind instruments play the lowest and highest notes. Although the spatial melodies continue throughout the twelfth wave in both orchestras, the addition of the chords adds an element of spatial complexity towards the end of this already highly intricate work. 4.3.4. Analytical methodology in LICHTER-WASSER. Although we have explored several exceptions to the normal spatial conditions, they are not so many nor so great that we cannot develop a simple, coherent and systematic approach to analysis. The most

111 useful way to measure spatial motion in LICHTER-WASSER is simply to filter out the most unusual or exceptional events, and focus on the two continually moving spatial paths. There are several reasons to believe that the most important spatial structure is expressed in these two counterpointed lines, heard during the twelve wave sections. First, Stockhausens sketches clearly show that these two spatial paths are the most basic motions in the work.245 Second, two spatial paths are consistently notated throughout the score, and the greatest number of box diagrams relate to them.246 Third, Stockhausen decided on the number of moves in each wave section early on in the composition process, indicating that consecutive movement is part of the more fundamental compositional structure.247 Exceptional events, such as instrumental solos and canons, were added later to enliven the basic two-part spatial texture. In sections where one instrument plays a short solo while the instrumental motion continues, we will simply continue analyzing the more active spatial motion. The solo instrument will be considered irrelevant after the principal melody moves to a different location because it usually either doubles the music cycling around, or plays along with a singer. In passages that are in spatial canon, we will simply follow the leading canonic line (dux). When groups of musicians play comets, we will ignore them and continue to focus on the unbroken spatial motion among other instrumentalists. The greatest difficulty in crafting an analytical methodology in LICHTER-WASSER is encountered in the twelfth wave section. The large number of chords which interrupt the spatial motion breaks up the continuity in the previous eleven wave sections. However, Stockhausen circled one particular instrument that is either the lowest- or highest245 The diagrams Stockhausen made, reproduced in Stockhausen 2001b, pp. 27-33, show the great importance he attached to these two principal spatial pathways. 246 There are very few box diagrams for instrumental motion during the bridge sections, none for the comets, and very few for the other exceptional spatial elements. 247 The crucial structural sketch of LICHTER-WASSER that shows this can be found in the Stockhausen 2001b, p. 25. My own analysis has shown that Stockhausens estimates of the number of movements he would need for each wave structure come quite close to the number present in the final score.

112 sounding voice in most of the chords. These are the instruments we include in our spatial trail. Even so, we will analyze the chords on their own terms in this exceptional section. The result of our methodology is to find a single strand or trail of instrumental motion through each wave section. The sequence of 3856 moves in the twelve wave sections used for analysis is shown in Examples 4.3.4a-e. In conjunction with sequencing the moves during the wave sections, calculations were made which associate the exact number of seconds that the spatial melody lasts at each instrument. This meant that the duration of every note or group of notes played by each instrument was determined, taking into account the current tempo and rhythmic value. Because of their less quantifiable quality, fermatas, ritards and accelerandos were not taken into account. First, durations in seconds were computed for all the different rhythmic values in LICHTER-WASSER, in each of the 22 tempos used from quarter = 35.5 to quarter = 120.0. Then, these durations were applied to the score. If an instrument played several notes, or had a note followed by rest, all of the individual durations were summed to determine the total amount of time that the spatial melody lingered at each instrumental location. The bridge sections present some aspects of spatial motion that complement or contrast with the wave sections. However, there are few box diagrams in the bridges, indicating that the motion that takes place in them is probably less important than in the waves.248 Even so, we can look for the most active spatial lines in some of the bridge sections to analyze. In comparison to the motion in the wave sections, there is very little spatial motion in the bridges that behaves as single paths. The sequence of instruments in the fifth and sixth bridges, where the motion is most consistent, is shown in Example 4.3.4f. Finally, the coordinates of each instrument in a 30 27 meter space were estimated. This was the size of the space used in the premiere of LICHTER-WASSER and probably
248 The box diagram in the first bridge at measure 148 is an exception.

113 cannot vary too much.249 The coordinates used for analysis are shown in Example 4.3.4g. This example also shows an important structure in the arrangement of instruments. If one compares the location of Eve- and Michael instruments, it is obvious that there is an axis of symmetry in the space along the horizontal aisle, which is shown with an arrow. The repercussions of this axis will be explored further in the following analysis. Having determined the sequence of events in LICHTER-WASSER, the amount of time each of those events takes, and each events location, we can feed the data into a database and create computer programs that calculate information about the spatial motion. 4.4. Instrumental Motion 4.4.1. Speed of Spatial Motion. By relating the sequence of events, their duration, and their location, it is possible to create the detailed graph shown in Examples 4.4.1a-b. This graph shows the changing speed of the two melodies which move around the space throughout the course of the entire composition. Average values for the speed in each section (wave, bridge) are shown in the table in Example 4.4.1c. The graph and chart contain a great amount of information which we shall refer to in the sections below. 4.4.2. Anfangs-Duett and Eingang. Apart from the synthesizer, whose sound comes from each of the speakers in the four corners of the room and is meant to be stationary, there is no instrumental music to accompany the singers Anfangs-Duett. Once the duet is over, the instrumentalists enter the space from the door. The order of instrumental entry is the same as the sequence of the basic M- and E-cycles shown earlier in Example 4.1.3b. Since the musicians enter silently, and only start to play their repeated note when
249 Stockhausen wrote that there was enough room for 728 seats in the auditorium (Stockhausen 2001b, p. 6). A space much smaller would make it impossible to fit as large an audience, while a larger space would make it much more difficult for the musicians to synchronize their melodic hand-offs, which often occur quite rapidly. A larger space would also make it impractical for the vocal soloists to move about in a reasonable amount of time.

114 they reach their place, there is no instrumental movement in this part of LICHTERWASSER either. However, it is significant that the order in which the instrumentalists enter and take their places is the same as the two basic cycles because this helps to reinforce the basic cycle sequence. Variants of the M- and E- basic cycle will be heard several times in different variations during the following wave sections, so the entrance of the instrumentalists functions as a silent spatial exposition. 4.4.3. First block: M1 and E1. The first wave sections in LICHTER-WASSER exhibit spatial motion that is similar to the basic M-cycle and basic E-cycle shown in Example 4.1.3b. For reference, these two basic cycles are traced in Example 4.4.3a. The most common motions through the orchestra during M1 and E1 are shown in Examples 4.4.3b. In this and most of the diagrams of individual wave sections that follow, only motions between instruments that happen two times or more are shown. Although they may be significant on a local level, moves that happen once are not shown unless otherwise stated, since these infrequent moves are less important within the large-scale structure of spatial movement. During M1 and E1, the general scheme is that melodies in each orchestra usually move only among instruments in their own orchestra. The spatial motions, which closely resemble the basic cycles, allow the membership of the two orchestras to be clearly defined in a secondary spatial exposition.250 Consulting the part of Example 4.4.1a that shows the fluctuations in speed of M1 and E1, we find that in general the speed of the melodies as they cycle around the hall is relatively slow, but still quite lively. The Morchestra melody moves at an average rate of 9.4 m/sec while the Eve-orchestra melody

250 We may consider the importance Stockhausen attached to defining the two basic cycles of spatial movement as similar to the importance that classical twelve-tone composers such as Schoenberg attached to defining the basic row. By specifying both that musicians enter according to the basic cycle sequence, and then reinforcing these cycles of movement in the M1 and E1 waves, Stockhausen created a basic set of expectations that may then later be transformed or modified in a way that engenders more meaning for the listener.

115 moves at 8.89 m/sec.251 The only wave with slower rate of movement is M4, where the melody moves at about the same speed 9.4 m/sec. According to one of Stockhausens spatial principles, quoted at the very beginning of Chapter 1, we might hypothesize that a slower rate of movement would allow for greater variety and complexity of spatial movement. In the M1 and E1 sections, movement is slow and predictable, further suggesting that Stockhausen thought of the function of these sections as expository. In M1 and E1, the M-orchestras melody moves at a slightly faster speed than the Eorchestras melody. However, the M-orchestras melody, if stretched out in one long line, would be slightly shorter than the Eve-orchestras. We would expect that a melody that moves further over the course of the same time would also move faster. How is it that the M-orchestras melody moves faster? The reason has to do with the length of the nuclear formulas. Because the M-nuclear formula used in LICHTER-WASSER has 17 notes instead of 12, Stockhausen must move the M-orchestra notes at a slightly faster rate than the E-orchestra notes in order to get through the entire nuclear formula in the same amount of time. The overall shape of the motion in M1 tends to be around two concentric circles, while the motions in E1 generally trace out two large circles that are adjacent to each other. The shape of the movement in these waves, as well as the speed, are crafted so as to give each orchestra differentiable spatial characteristics, even though the complex arrangement of instruments causes the spatial shapes to interweave such that it can really be said that a spatial counterpoint obtains.252
251 The speed of 9.4 m/sec corresponds to 21 miles per hour, while 8.89 m/sec corresponds to about 20 miles per hour. 252 On day 3 of his 2001 LICHTER-WASSER lectures, Stockhausen said that in these two waves, the tendency of motion is to move from the edges to the center, and then back out to the edges. It is like a breathing wave. Our observations confirm this general observation. The idea of cyclically expanding and contracting is a trope in Stockhausens work which comes to the surface most notably in ATMEN GIBT DAS LEBEN of 1974-77 (Maconie 2005, pp. 360-363). A very memorable and lengthy passage at the end of HYMNEN also reflects Stockhausens continuing interest in the sounds processes of breathing.

116

4.4.4. 1st Bridge, Second Block M2-3 and E2. As discussed above, the spatial motion in the bridge sections is generally less active than in the waves. The first bridge is no exception. In relation to the preceding waves, the first bridge is quite short only seven measures long. In that time, a spatialized melody weaves its way around the M-orchestra but it is partially obscured by the instrumental solos that predominate in this section. The real function of the bridge sections, as stated above, is to introduce the nuclear formulas for the next wave sections; however, only the M2NF (second Michael nuclear formula) and E2NF are introduced here even though the next block of waves includes M3 as well. Example 4.4.4a shows the most common spatial motions in the next block of waves, which includes M2, M3, and E2. As we can see from the incomplete graph structure in this example, the motions in these sections tend to be less frequently repeated as in M1 and E1. Many of the connections between parts of the space are made only once. Some moves, such as f2k, kf2, and ehf1 are explored that were seldom articulated in M1.253 The spatial movement in M3 is even more fragmentary than in previous wave sections. As can be seen from his sketches, Stockhausen designed the movement in this wave to resemble a kind of coiled-up shape similar to the letter M. Because of this, motion tends to start near the conductor, moving away and then back again, traversing the space along the vertical aisles. M3 is the first wave to include spatial movement that is significantly different from the basic cycle that predominates in M1 and M2. E2 includes a particular use of the instrumentation that seems unusual at first, but becomes extremely important in LICHTER-WASSER. Although the spatial motions kept mostly within their respective orchestras in M1 and E1, this is not entirely the case in E2. Stockhausen designed the motion to cross over on itself through a relatively frequent diagonal motion which traverses the instruments fa1saxva1fa2thva4. Two
253 For an explanation of the instrumental abbreviations used here and elsewhere in the following discussion, see Example 4.3.4g.

117 of these instrumentsva1 and thare part of the M-orchestra, yet here they play a more important role in the E-orchestra. These instruments are circled in Example 4.4.4a. Stockhausen clearly felt that the importance of articulating a spatial shape (here, the diagonal) justified the use of these instruments in the wrong orchestra. We find that in these wave sections, the rate of spatial motion has sped up, especially in M2 and M3. In particular there is a real burst of speed about two-thirds of the way through M2. As the shape of motion begins to develop and less resembles the basic cycles, the speed of the motion increases too, posing additional challenges to the instrumentalists and the listeners. As we become more accustomed to the spatial motions in LICHTER-WASSER, Stockhausen composed new and different structures to listen for as the piece progresses. 4.4.5. 2nd Bridge, Third Block: M4-5 and E3-4. While the second bridge is considerably longer than the first, the spatial activity is less active. The bridge is dominated by instrumental solos accompanied by a homophonic three-part string texture. We hear three nuclear formulas introduced here M4NF, M5NF and E3NF. The moves that occur more than twice in these waves are shown in Example 4.4.5a. Stockhausen described the motion of M4 as a spiral that proceeded from the edges of the space and in towards the middle.254 In fact, we can see the faint outlines of a spiral in our diagram of M4, but most of the moves that define this shape do not occur frequently. The average length of a move in M4 is the shortest of any wave. This would lead us to predict that the average speed of motion is slower, since the melody must move through so many instruments. In fact, the average speed of motion in M4 is considerably slower than M2 or M3. This conflicts with Stockhausens plan that the speed of motion should increase from wave to wave. Despite the spiral design, the most dense spatial activity is clustered around the edge of the space in M4. Two instrumentsva3 and va1serve
254 See the 2001 LICHTER-WASSER lectures, day 4.

118 as bridges to help pass the spiral motion from the edges towards the center of the space. The instrument in the center of the space, fa2, plays an important role in this M-wave even though it is in the E-orchestra. Since this instrument is used in the wrong orchestra, it is circled. Although there is some basis for concluding then that the motion in M4 does indeed outline a spiral, it seems to be only faintly defined. The spatial structure of E3 is extremely tenuous since almost no moves occur more than once. This is not only because E3 is a short wave, but also because it includes by far the fewest number of moves of any wave. Because of this, moves on the graph in Example 4.4.5a are shown even if they occur only once. These infrequent moves are shown in dotted lines. Stockhausens spatial strategy here seems to be to reinforce the basic cycle but to concentrate spatial activity at certain instruments in remote parts of the hall. Almost 50% of the spatial motion passes through six instruments h1, p1, fa2, h2, eu and fa1, while the remaining twelve instruments involved in E3 are used more infrequently. Like M4 and M5, the average speed of the motion in E3 is actually slower than previous E-waves. M5, like E3, is short in duration and includes the fewest movements of any M-wave. Like M4, the average speed of motion in M5 is slower than M2 or M3. As in E3, we show all spatial moves in M5, since most of them happen only once. The activity in M5 has a remarkable amount of variety for such a short wave: all instruments are used at least once except for Eu and Tu. Here, orchestral membership is clearly blurred. Although the average length of a move is quite short in M5 8.29 meters it is by no means the wave with the shortest moves among instrumentalists. Still, we find evidence to support the conclusion that in M5, Stockhausen made an effort to compose a wide variety of nonrepetitive, short moves from instrument to instrument. The E4 wave emphasizes motion in the two right-hand quadrants of the space. The

119 instruments fa2h2eutup2fa2 and fa2va2p2saxfa1p1fa2 are used frequently in this wave. While these cycles are not literally traversed sequentially, the denser motion that is centered around them is related by rotation around the center instrument fa2. The M-instrument involved in these structuresva2plays a vital role in E4 because of the amount of motion to and from it. In comparison with previous E-waves, E4 has the fastest average speed 11.60 m/sec.255 Still, many of the movements in E4, especially those that traverse the central vertical aisle, are similar to E3.256 4.4.6. 3rd Bridge, Fourth block: M6-8 and E5-9. In this section we consider the longest and most complex sequence of waves. However, this block of waves begins with a bridge that is spatially quite inactive. The third bridge is the longest of the bridges up until now, probably because it introduces all of the eight M- and E-nuclear formulas that will subsequently be heard. Since it is almost entirely scored for instrumental and vocal solos, the melodic motion through space if it can even be said to be perceived as motion at so slow a rate slows to almost a complete stop in the third bridge. Diagramming the more common spatial motions in this lengthy block of waves is accomplished in Examples 4.4.6a. In these waves, the pitches in the M-orchestra and the E-orchestra are transposed up and down an octave, respectively. Also, Stockhausens aforementioned comets begin. Thus, we have an enlargement of the metaphorical tonal space along with a new kind of spatial event. Spatial structures in these waves, which are more distantly related to the two basic cycles, also correspond to the expanded vocabularies. In M6, the central fa2 instrument is studiously avoided, in favor for predominantly clockwise motion around the edges of the space. M7 introduces a surprising shape a star which will be discussed in more detail later. A large proportion of spatial motion in M7 flows through two instruments f1 and t2. M8, like
255 The speed of 11.60 m/sec equals about 26 miles per hour. 256 Stockhausen suggested that some movements might be similar across waves in his LICHTERWASSER lectures. 2001 LICHTER-WASSER lectures, day 4.

120 M6, avoids the central area of the space while continuing to explore edge movements. We notice in these three M-waves that although the motion through space resembles the basic M-cycle less, it has also become more repetitive, with frequent moves often ten or more strongly linking some instruments together. The motion has sped up considerably too M6 and M8 clock in with considerably faster spatial movement (25.64 and 27.06 m/sec respectively)257 than any previous M-wave. While the M-orchestra tends to cycle around the edges of the space, the five E-waves in this block also share some structural spatial characteristics. Many paths through E5-E9 include much longer hand-offs than before. One path, va5bf1fa2, is extremely common through all of these E-waves, and is a subgraph of the basic E-cycle. In E6 the clockwise circular cycle h1bp1saxp2euh2va4h1, which is a distinguishing characteristic of this wave, comes to prominence. E5 and E9 have the longest average move of any waves (11.09 and 12.21 meters, respectively). The fastest average speed of any wave up until now E9 whizzes around the hall at a rate of 44.76 m/sec.258 Paths though these E-waves often include the two corner instruments fa1 and tu, move to b, and then through the area closest to the conductor. Surprisingly, th plays a significant role in all five of these E-waves. Although th is an M-instrument, it may have a more prominent role in these waves because of Stockhausens tendency to create large circles around the center point. But th is not the only instrument to have a significant amount of crossover here; in E8, three-quarters of the instruments in the inner circle including va3, th, v2, v1, va2, and va1 figure prominently in the E-orchestra. The way that instruments are shared from the M-orchestra in this block of E-waves again points to the concept of mystical unity that Stockhausen tried to express in LICHTERWASSER. In this block of waves, there is a surprising and unexpected relationship between the M257 These speeds correspond to 57 and 60 miles per hour, respectively. 258 Slightly over 100 miles per hour.

121 and E-orchestras in the speed of their spatial motion. Stockhausen took pains in his sketches for spatial movement to give each wave its own special spatial forms and shapes. Following Stockhausens plans, we would expect that each M- and E-wave has its own patterns of change in speed. This is clearly not the case in E5. As we can see by referring back to the long graph in Example 4.4.1b, the part of E5 that occurs during M6 shares the pattern of extremely rapid moves followed by slower ones. But as soon as M7 begins (about two-fifths of the way through E5,) the rate of change in speed abruptly matches M7. This analysis shows how even though the shapes of the motion the Mwaves and E-waves can be considerably different, some of their characteristics such as the rate of change in speed match quite closely and change in order to match each other.259 4.4.7. 4th Bridge/Announcement block. The central block of announcements, which alternates with the fourth bridge again brings the spatial motion to a virtual standstill. During the first and third announcements, motion literally does come to a complete stop. The soprano, accompanied by the synthesizer, sings self-referential texts containing a certain witty semantic content. At the same time, twelve of the twenty-nine instrumentalists leave their places on the floor, and move to the balcony. Thus, the fourth bridge contains musical sources both on the floor and above the audience; thus, is has the distinction of being the only spatial structure in LICHTER-WASSER that takes place in three dimensions. The fourth bridge is quite densely scored and is made of groups of instruments playing two homophonic parts together, punctuated by occasional brief solos. After the second announcement and the repetition of the fourth bridge, the soprano sings the third and final announcement. Here, she asks the instrumentalists to come back down to the floor. Finally, she literally requests that the music continue (Na, ihr Lieben, was

259 One might interpret this modification in the pattern of speed to be yet another expression of Stockhausens idea of mystical unity between Michael and Eve.

122 sagen sie den nun?! / Stockhausen, wir knnen beginnen).260 After a brief pause, we launch immediately into the next wave sections, M9-10 and E10. 4.4.8. Fifth block: M9-10 and E10. Having introduced the three nuclear formulas M9, M10 and E10 in the fourth bridge, we are ready to progress to the fifth block of waves. Although these sections have the highest average speeds compared to any previous waves, they also have the most repetitive moves through space, especially in the case of E10. As can be seen in Example 4.4.8a, motions in M9 continue to outline the shape of a star as in M8, with va1 serving as a kind of hub.261 Common motions in M10 can be interpreted as defining two large circles: one on the left side of the space, including the path fa2f2v5kobv4fa2, and the other on the right side, comprising the instruments fa2kbt2f1v3fa2. At the same time, E10 moves around the space in another circular pattern which recalls the previous block of waves E5-E9. Again the path va5bf1fa1 is traversed very often; again th plays a role as an important vertex in the E-path thh2tueufa2p2fa1p1b h1th.262 4.4.9. 5th bridge, Sixth block: M11 and E11. The frenetic activity in the previous block of waves comes to an abrupt stop at the fifth bridge. This bridge is scored so that some melodic material travels through the space while other instruments hold three-note chords. This is perhaps a preparation or foreshadowing of the many three-note chords in M12 and E12. Unlike most previous bridge sections, Stockhausen used box diagrams in the fifth bridge to show spatial motion. Therefore, we can easily trace paths through the space and calculate data telling us more about the motion. The average speed in the fifth
260 Now, my dears, what do you say?! / Stockhausen, we can begin. 261 Stockhausen highlighted va1 on his sketch in M9. Analysis shows that a great variety of spatial moves originate from va1 and point to va1. Its function as a hub is similar to fa2s function as a hub in other waves. 262 This cycle is traversed in its entirety several times during E10.

123 bridge is significantly slower than in the previous wave sections; in fact, it is comparable to what it was in M1 and E1. Example 4.4.9a shows the common spatial motions through M11 and E11. Here the speed of motion through the two orchestras reaches its measurable peak, moving at the rate of 46.01 and 48.47 m/sec respectively.263 At this rate of speed, spatial motion would probably be impossible to distinguish if the paths traversed through the space were not highly repetitive and predictable. Can the cycles through each orchestra during these waves can be interpreted as variations of the basic cycles? The spatial motion in M11 is almost exactly the same as the basic M-cycle, but reflected in the horizontal aisle. Significantly, this motion abandons the instrument th, which though technically an Minstrument, plays such an important role in the E-orchestra. The spatial motion in the Eorchestra is less like its basic cycle, mostly because of the oft-repeated motion clear across the performance hall, from h2 to p1. However, the E-orchestra picks up th, incorporating it even more decisively into its movement pattern. Also, movement along the diagonal va4thfa2saxfa1 is very similar to E2, but in the opposite direction. The M- and E-cycles through the space in M11 and E11 are highlighted with a special gray line in Example 4.4.9a. 4.4.10. 6th bridge, Seventh and final block: M12 and E12. Although the bridge sections always articulated a contrasting musical texture from the waves around them, this difference is greatest with the sixth bridge. This short bridge is almost entirely homophonic and involves all of the instrumentalists and vocalists. The purpose of the sixth bridge is to introduce an additional astronomical object called MICHEVA, which has symbolic importance in the mystical universe of LICHT. Since the spatial motion in this bridge is clearly defined (although there are no box diagrams, the instrumental sequence is clearly written into the score), we can analyze the speed of motion through it, as we did in the fifth bridge. Unlike the fifth bridge, the motion in the sixth bridge is
263 These speeds are 103 and 108 miles per hour.

124 quite rapid and only slightly slower than the preceding block of M11 and E11 waves. Therefore, the contrast it provides to the surrounding wave sections is principally through texture, not spatial motion. The spatial motion of the melodies in M12 and E12 is diagrammed in Example 4.4.10a. Like the previous examples, we find that one principal path is traversed through both of these waves. The average calculated speed of melodic motion through M12 and E12 is fast, but not quite as fast as M11 and E11. This is because the way that chords interrupt the texture. We find that the rate of spatial motion has a number of extreme bursts followed by moments of calm.264 The path traversed through the space in M12 again appears to be very similar to the basic M-cycle, but this time rotated 90 degrees clockwise around the center point, represented by the instrument fa2. The cycle through E12 is very similar to E11 but motion occurs in the opposite direction in other words, compared to E11, E12 is, almost instrument for instrument, a retrograde. The diagonal fa1saxva1f2thva4 again traverses a familiar path through space heard in E2 and E11, and also in E12. However, the most commonly traversed path in E2 is the same as in E12. There is a close relationship between these E-paths which helps frame the blocks of wave sections. The chords that interrupt spatial movement during M12 and E12 present an analytical opportunity which unfortunately is not possible to explore in sufficient detail within the bounds of the present work. However, the chords are such an important part of the texture during these two exceptional waves that they are worth at least a cursory examination. Of the 72 chords identified, the most common type occurring some 30 times includes seven notes played by 12 musicians. Ten of these musicians are always the same and include the five violas and violins, playing pizzicato. The other instruments
264 The most rapid calculated motion in LICHTER-WASSER occurs in the second half of measure 654, where a 20-meter move from t2 to t1 during a sixteenth-note triplet at the tempo quarter = 71 takes .141 seconds. This move clocks in at 141.9 m/sec, or 317 miles per hour.

125 in each 12-part combination are pairings of two of the remaining nineteen wind and brass. These pairings always involve different combinations of instruments except for two chords, which combine f2eu and kbfa2 twice.265 These 30 chords, which we will call 7/12 chords from now on, always come after a crescendo; they are always forte or fortissimo; and, they are only of a quarter note duration. They function almost as clicks or articulation marks at the end of a very rapid sequence of movements. The next most common type of chord involves three notes played by three musicians. There are 24 of these 3/3 chords. All of them occur among members either the Morchestra or the E-orchestra. Often the 3/3 chords are held for considerably longer than the 7/12 chords and may even include glissandi. Because of these differences, the 3/3 chords clearly have a different function than the 7/12s and due to their longer duration may play more of a timbral role than the 7/12s. The third group of chords involves six instruments playing six notes. These 6/6 chords are related to the 3/3 chords because they are always made up of an additive combination of two 3/3s. The 6/6 chords, like the 3/3s are usually held longer than the 7/12 chords. In addition to the 7/12, the 3/3, and the 6/6 chords, our data show that six chords are irregular. They have varying numbers of notes ranging from 4 to 7. These irregular chords seem to function along the same lines as the 3/3 and 6/6 chords because of their longer duration and irregular instrumental combination, they may have a timbral function as well. Analyzing the chords by the number of pitches they contain and the number of instrumentalists they involve allows us to see the different functions they serve in this section. 4.4.11. Ausgang and Schluss-Duett. In the Ausgang section, each instrument leaves his or her position, one after the other, and walks out to the door while repeating a single note.266 The structure of exits can be represented by a tree graph. It is quite likely that
265 The first f2eu chord is in m. 650 and the second is in m. 691. The first kbfa2 chord is in m. 640 while the second is in m. 680. 266 Each takes a drink and then walks out to the right (as seen by the conductor), playing . Stockhausen 2001b, p. 8.

126 anyone wishing to perform LICHTER-WASSER would want to map out the path each instrumentalist takes while exiting, in order to avoid any unfortunate collisions or uncertainty among the instrumentalists themselves. Knowing something of the structure of motion in the wave and bridge sections can aid a conductor or designer in crafting an exit pattern that relates to the other structures in LICHTER-WASSER in a meaningful way. One proposed exit structure is shown in Example 4.4.11a. Here, a number of musicians move first to the center of the performance space. Since the instrument at the center fa2 tends to receive a considerable amount of motion from a variety of places (something we will explore further in 4.6), it makes sense that a number of instruments physically move towards it at this point. In the proposed structure, there are 12 paths from a leaf to the root; these paths are numbered 1 through 12 on the graph. As the paths traverse the graph structure to the root, eight instrumentalists move through vertices of alternating Mor E- membership. Paths 1, 8, 9 and 11 each move through similar E- or M- spaces only once. The advantage to having the musicians exit in this way is that their movements are symmetrical with respect to the horizontal axis along the kp2 aisle. An alternate arrangement, shown in Example 4.4.11b, allows each and every instrument to traverse spaces which always alternate between M- and E- instruments. The structure involves fewer paths from the leaves to the root nine instead of twelve. However, this exit structure does not always move each instrument in the most efficient manner towards to door, nor is it symmetrical with respect to the horizontal axis. However, it could be argued that this exit structure is desirable in keeping with the theme of mystical unity between Michael and Eve. The pains Stockhausen took to mix Michael and Eve structures together in LICHTER-WASSER are reflected in the way each instrument always moves through spaces of alternating orchestra membership on the way to the door. Whatever the conductor or director decides, he or she can make a more informed

127 decision about how to manage this important section by analyzing the tree structure as we have done here. 4.5. Vocalist Motion 4.5.1. Vocal movements in the Anfangs-Duett and Eingang. Since the singers stand motionless during the Anfangs-Duett, there is no spatial motion to analyze. However, their position in the space is important during this section. While the tenor stands at the position k, the soprano sings from p2. The two singers are both oriented on the central horizontal aisle the horizontal axis of symmetry where they will eventually return in the Schluss-Duett. During the Eingang section, the vocalists show instrumentalists to their positions. They do this in the same sequence that the instrumentalists enter, corresponding to the two basic cycles. While the vocalists show most of the instruments to their places, they give signals to others to begin playing. The path through space traced by soprano and tenor is therefore a simplified version of their corresponding basic cycle. 4.5.2. Vocal movements through the twelve waves and six bridge sections. The movements of the soprano and tenor through the twelve wave sections and six bridges are shown in Example 4.5.2a. Calculations show that an average move from one section to another for the soprano is 10.3 meters, which is slightly shorter than the average moves in the E-orchestra over all 12 waves and bridges 5 and 6. The average length of a move by the tenor is somewhat greater (9.7 meters) than the average move in the M-orchestra but by less than a meter. In this respect, the individual moves of the tenor and soprano resemble the spatial activity in the two orchestras.267
267 The distances measured here are the closest possible distances between the singers starting and ending points. Our measurements do not take into account the fact that the singers will in fact have to walk somewhat further, since they can only move through aisles and not directly across parts of the audience. But, since the distance between starting and ending points is important, we are making a relevant spatial

128

Aside from their much slower rate of motion, a crucial parameter sets the movements of the soprano and tenor apart from the instrumental movement. Several of the vocalists moves between instruments are never or extremely infrequently traversed during the waves or bridges. The data in Example 4.5.2b show how many times each move that occurs by the vocalists happens in the instrumental music. We find that five of the twenty-two moves (23%) by the soprano and eight of the nineteen moves (42%!) of the tenor never occur or occur only once in the instrumental motion. Even though the soprano finds herself on paths that are frequently taken by instrumental melodies towards the end of her traversal through the space, the tenor walks through more common instrumental paths towards the beginning of his movement sequence. These data show exactly what sets the motion of the soprano and tenor apart from the instrumental ensemble, and in which ways their motion is related. Although the overall rate of their spatial motion which is assumed to be so slow that it is not calculated here differs considerably from the instrumental motion, we have expressed several crucial relationships between vocal and instrumental music through our analysis. 4.5.3. Vocal movements in the Ausgang and Schluss-Duett. During the Ausgang, the vocalists again approach most all of the instrumentalists as they drink from their glasses of water. Like the Eingang, the vocalists motion is a simplified version of their respective basic cycles. A walk through the entire space would probably take too long for the vocalists to complete at this point. We may also consider the effect of performance fatigue; during the wave and bridge sections alone, the singers have each traversed distances of at least 200 meters while performing difficult music. During the final Schluss-Duett, the tenor and soprano again sing facing each other near the center of the hall. Their positions at locations va3 and va2 are along the same
measurement.

129 horizontal axis that they sang from in the Anfangs-Duett. Once their duet is over, they too move slowly towards the door and exit the hall. At this point the work LICHTERWASSER is over. 4.6. Trends of Spatial Movement in LICHTER-WASSER 4.6.1. Number of Moves Between Instruments. Having measured, analyzed and described the spatial movement in LICHTER-WASSER, several questions regarding the use of the space can be explored in further detail. First, how many times is each musician used through the course of the work? Knowing the answer to this question can tell us more about the kind of spatial activity that occurs in different parts of the space. In order to accomplish this, the use of instruments is taken out of time, and summed so that we can view spatial structure in its totality. Example 4.6.1a shows the number of times each instrumentalist in LICHTER-WASSER plays. The graphs beside each instrument show the corresponding number of times that instrument plays in the Michael orchestra and the Eve orchestra. The black bar shows the total number of times that instrument plays. The squares around the instruments abbreviation are shaded according to how often the instrument is used; the darker the shading, the more times that instrument is heard. This graph opens a remarkable window into the nature of spatial activity in LICHTERWASSER. We find that one area of the space is used considerably less frequently than average. This lower-right quadrant includes the instruments v2, v1, t2 and kb. At the quadrant diagonally opposite, instruments such as b, va5 and p1 get used much more frequently than average. The difference is significant: v2 is used only 101 times but b is called upon 156 times. This represents a difference which is probably noticeable during performance. While listeners may have the aural impression that one quadrant is used

130 more often than another, our data shows exactly how much and where spatial activity peaks. Lying in the center of the hall, fa2 receives a considerable amount of spatial attention as well. In fact, this instrument is the most frequently used of all, totaling 171 times. Clearly, the second bassoons function is more than just one of the twelve instruments in the E-orchestra; it also has a special importance because of its strategic position in the middle of the spatial structure. It functions as a direct way of getting from one side of the space to the other. Another discovery that can be made from examining Example 4.6.1a relates to the proportion of times each instrument plays in the two orchestras. We saw in our analyses in 4.4 that the instrument th is used very often in E-wave structures, despite the fact that it is technically a member of the Michael orchestra. Our present analysis confirms that all of the M-instruments play more often in M-structures except for th. While this should not be surprising considering our findings in 4.4, it is striking to learn the proportion of times this instrument is used in the E-orchestra: th plays only 21 times in the M-orchestra but 124 times in the E-orchestra! We may conclude that th is essentially an E-instrument, not an M-instrument. Examining the E-orchestra, we find that all of the E-instruments play more often in the E-orchestra except for va5. Va5 is a second crossover instrument; it plays 57 times in the E-orchestra but 93 times in the M-orchestra.268 4.6.2. Amount of Time Each Instrumentalist Plays. Knowing the number of times each musician plays revealed a surprising amount of information about the way different parts of the space are used in LICHTER-WASSER. Another measure of spatial density is the amount of time each instrument is used. Example 4.6.2a, which looks similar to Example 4.6.1a, correlates this aspect of space and time.
268 The way in which these two instruments are borrowed from one orchestra to the other further expresses Stockhausens idea of mystical union between Eve and Michael.

131

Although we are measuring a different aspect of spatial density in this analysis, many of the statistical data here are similar to the previous graph. The instruments b, fa2, fa1 and p1 are all used for the most amount of time. Instruments in the quadrant including v1, v2 and t2 are similarly used for a relatively short amount of time. However, two cold spots emerge along the top edge of the space: v5 and v3. Although these instruments are used at about an average rate, the amount of time they play is considerably lower than average. Using this measure, the center of spatial activity is located more towards the middle of the space and along the diagonal extending from fa1 to ob. Considering that this diagonal is used so frequently during E2, E11 and E12, this finding should not be surprising; however, the data from both this analysis and the previous one clearly show that the fa1 ob diagonal is traversed considerably more frequently and used for a greater proportion of time than the other diagonal, from v5 to tu. Examining the data in Example 4.6.2a reveals that there are again some crossover instruments. It should not come as a surprise that th is a crossover instrument by this measure as well. Va5, which was a crossover instrument from the E-orchestra to M, plays about the same time in both orchestras, but is slanted slightly towards its home orchestra. Va4 emerges as the third crossover instrument. Although it is in the Eorchestra, it plays for a little longer in the M-orchestra. This is probably because much of the E-orchestra activity in its quadrant which might have involved va4 instead goes to th. However, va4 is not enormously skewed towards the M-orchestra, like th is; it is used only about five seconds longer in the M-orchestra than in the E-orchestra out of 79.7 total seconds of playing. 4.6.3. Connectivity. In 4.4, we examined the most common spatial movements in each wave section individually. Example 4.6.3a is a composite of all those motions. This example is a kind of weighted graph. Thick lines denote movements that happen

132 extremely frequently while thin lines indicate that motion is rare. Moves that occur only one time are again omitted. Through examining this graph, we are able to make several positive statements about the overall trends of spatial motion in LICHTER-WASSER. Many instruments appear to have different functions judging from the way in which the spatial melodies move to them, and are subsequently passed on. Fa2, located in the center, is a kind of hub in that it receives melodic motion many times from a great variety of different places. Fa2 also tends to send motion out to an equally great variety of places. In contrast to the hub structure is a conduit. A conduit receives a high percentage of melodic motion from only one or two sources, and subsequently passes most of that motion on only to one or two other sources. Instruments around the edge of the space tend to be conduits. P1, v5, v3 and f2 have strong conduit characteristics. While this is partially due to their location in the space, there was probably a compositional determination made in these functions as well. The absence of modularity in the space gives these instruments fewer options for spatial movement. Further analysis of the shapes in Example 4.6.3a indicates that a great deal of instrumental motion circles around both the outer ring and inner ring. The instrument th partly functions as a bridge between the outer and inner rings, and has a characteristic conduit function in relation to the central fa2 position. This spatial function may help to explain why th has such an unusual use as a crossover instrument: it helps to provide a way for the E-orchestra to get back and forth between inner and outer ring structures without having to make large spatial leaps over M-instruments. By keeping the distances between moves smaller, more spatial continuity is achieved. We can take our analysis to a deeper level of abstraction by considering each move between instruments that happens more than once as an edge on a graph. We can

133 represent all the edges in the graph with a matrix, which I will call the LICHTERWASSER Matrix (hereafter abbreviated LW Matrix). The A1 LW Matrix is shown in Example 4.6.3b, and the A2 LW Matrix is given in Example 4.6.3c. Analysis of the A2 LW Matrix yields several new insights into the potential connections that could be made among instruments, given the links Stockhausen chose to make. Examples 4.6.3d and 4.6.3e interpret the data in the A2 LW Matrix visually. Example 4.6.3d shows the potential connections each instrument might have with other instruments over pathways of degree 2 (cardinality 3) for motion that begins from the given instrument. Stockhausen created this structure through the moves that he made over the course of the work. The darkest instruments in Example 4.6.3d are the ones from which the greatest potential variety of paths of degree 2 originate, while the fewest potential degree-2 paths originate at the lightly shaded instruments. The example shows how cosmopolitan or provincial each instrumental location is.269 We interpret Example 4.6.4e in a similar way; here, the darkest instruments are those where the greatest number of 2-edge paths end, and similarly the fewest number of degree-2 paths end at the lightly shaded instruments. Examples 4.6.3d and 4.6.3e show how Stockhausens choices of spatial movement around the hall cause spatial paths which originate at the center instruments, especially fa2, to have the most potential variety of shape. The spatial shapes that originate in the corners that is, v5, fa1, tu, and ob exhibit the least potential variety of different spatial shape. This is what we might expect from a space that does not have the property of modularity as we defined it in Chapter 2.270 Under these conditions, edge instruments simply have fewer places to go to than instruments situated closer to the center. Because
269 While the terms cosmopolitan and provincial are somewhat prosaic, they effectively express the number of inward and outward connections each instrument has with the rest of the graph, much like a transportation network links cities to other cities. 270 If the space were modular, nodes (instruments) located around the perimeter of the graph could move off the edges and wrap around to other outlying areas of the graph, allowing them to make as many (if not more) potential paths as centrally located nodes.

134 of this analysis, we have learned many things not only about the structure of the space in LICHTER-WASSER, but also the variety of spatial motion that is possible at various locations. 4.7. Relation of shapes in LICHTER-WASSER to each other 4.7.1. Short paths. Using the A2 LW Matrix, we have made some predictions about the potential density of degree 2 paths, given the connections of degree 1 that Stockhausen drew between instruments. What about the actual paths and spatial shapes of degree 2? Analysis of the wave sections shows that there are approximately 400 different paths of degree 2 that are traversed two or more times in our LICHTER-WASSER data set. Some of these paths are related by rotation, reflection, or scaling (multiplication). Finding paths that are related through these operations would reveal any symmetrical structure to the movements in the piece. Although there are many paths to explore, we can focus our observations by looking for related paths of degree 2 which start at the corners of the space. There are two reasons for this. First, we already know that the paths which start at the four corners of the space are limited in where they can move to, because they have only a few neighboring instruments, and there is little if any sense of modularity in the space. This means that we will have fewer paths to compare, making our job easier. Second, even though the membership of instrumentalists in the E- or M- orchestras is not symmetrical along the vertical (p1h2) axis, we know that the E-orchestra and Morchestra are arranged symmetrically along a horizontal axis. Therefore, we can hypothesize that if the melodic motion among instrumentalists in LICHTER-WASSER exhibits a high degree of symmetry, it will be easiest to identify by comparing movement around four corners of the space. Analysis of spatial motion in M1-M10 and E1-E10 shows that surprisingly few paths of

135 degree 2 which originate at the four corner instruments are related by rotation or reflection.271 The paths that are related, along with the number of times they occur, are shown in Example 4.7.1a. For instance, the path a (v5kob) is related to b (fa1p2tu) reflected in the vertical axis; c (fa1p1b) is related to d (tuh2va4) reflected in the horizontal axis, as is e (fa1saxfa2) related to f (tueufa2). G (fa1saxp2) is related to h (obva4k) reflected in the diagonal axis v5tu; these two shapes bear some resemblance to i (obva2kb) reflected in the other diagonal axis. But j (va5v5f2), a motive that occurs extremely often (29 times) in the sampled wave sections, has no corresponding motives related to it by reflection or rotation in the horizontal, vertical, or diagonal axes. We can conclude from this analysis that although there are some paths of degree 2 that occur often in LICHTER-WASSER which are related by rotation and reflection, Stockhausen was probably more concerned with differentiating the spatial vocabulary in the four corners of the LICHTER-WASSER space than he was with creating symmetrical shapes. Although the four corner instruments share some characteristics of spatial motion, these regions do not systematically show a strong degree of symmetry. From examining another aspect of the spatial movement of the instrumental melodies, we can conclude that an obvious compositional strategy in LICHTER-WASSER is to keep the spatial motion moving continuously around the room. In other words, motion rarely turns back on itself and reverses direction. During M1-M10 and E1-E10 there is only one cycle of degree 2 that occurs twice (saxfa1sax, in M8). No other cycles of degree 2 occur more frequently. Longer cycles, however, do play a significant role in the spatial language of the work, as we shall see in the following section. 4.7.2. Long paths. Two challenges arise in analyzing larger paths in the space of
271 Because E11, E12, M11 and M12 are so highly repetitive, the paths in these wave sections are omitted from the present analysis, lest they skew the results. Aspects of these wave structures are examined in more detail in 4.7.2.

136 LICHTER-WASSER. First, the computational complexity of analyzing and comparing paths grows exponentially as we increase the cardinality of the spatial shape (or, the length of the path). This is a difficulty which is unfortunately unavoidable. A second challenge has to do with the number of elements in a set. When analyzing relations among pitch sets or pitch-class sets, we rarely have to deal with more than nine or ten elements in a set, and almost never with twelve-element sets. However this is not the case with sets of spatial locations, which at least in LICHTER-WASSER can involve up to twenty-nine musicians. Moreover, the angle at which motion moves from one instrument to another is a property of spatial motion that has no corresponding meaning in the pitch world. Finally, the large number of intervals between elements in these sets makes them more difficult to compare than the smaller sets we are accustomed to in pitch analysis. However, there are certain relationships among paths of up to seventeen elements in LICHTER-WASSER. Some lengthy spatial shapes in LICHTER-WASSER are obviously similar to others. We can identify these because they are so repetitive, thus avoiding more complex computational analysis. These paths are mostly related in some way to the two basic cycles that we showed in Example 4.1.3b. Consider the basic M-cycle and the most common cyclic path in M12. These are shown in Example 4.7.2a. Both of these paths traverse the same number of instruments seventeen. First, both of these paths have a certain aspect of self-similarity; they are essentially a set of two concentric circles.272 But how are the two paths related to each other? It is clear that the path in M12 is similar to the basic M-cycle but it is rotated 90 counterclockwise, with respect to the center node fa2. After rotating the basic M-cycle,
272 The idea of self-similarity is in fact a common theme in Stockhausens music. This can be observed most clearly in the LICHT-project itself, in which the Superformula is usually present at multiple structural levels (background, middleground and foreground) of musical composition. Self-similarity might have been a way Stockhausen counteracted criticisms of serialism and comprehensibility articulated by Leonard Meyer (Meyer 1994, pp. 245-316).

137 as shown in Example 4.7.2b, and overlaying the M12 cycle, we find that the two paths are similar in shape but not necessarily in direction. The main difference is that the basic M-cycle traverses the inner circle counterclockwise, while the path in M12 moves around it clockwise. If we split the M12 path and rotate the inner circle of movements, the basic M-cycle and M12 are nearly the same. In this way we can combine the operations of rotation and reflection to relate differences between long spatial paths with some degree of success. How might we describe the relationship between spatial shapes with different cardinalities more precisely? A situation of this kind arises in comparing the spatial paths in the E11 and E12 waves. These two waves are shown in Example 4.7.2c. Here, the repeating path in E11 is of degree 13 while E12 has degree 12. But the shapes of the two paths are very nearly the same; the difference of E11 E12 is only 3 (h1, va5, va1). A similarity index correlating the two shapes would have to take into account the distance each move traverses, the intervals of spatial motion, the angles created by changes in direction, and possibly even the speed at which the cycle traverses the space. While it is conceivable that such a similarity index would be possible to calculate, it is beyond the scope of the current study. Still, the ability to relate shapes in this way would be a useful tool, and developing such a measure could be a goal of further research. 4.7.3. Hidden Shapes. Although superficially the horizontal aisle is an axis of symmetry with regard to the arrangement of instruments in M- or E-orchestras, our observations in 4.7.1 showed that little symmetrical motion occurs at the corners of the space that is related by this axis of symmetry. Based on the arrangement of musicians in the space, and informal observations from M1-M12 and E1-E12, the two path structures shown in Example 4.7.3a seem conceivable. This weighted graph shows how many times each edge in the graph is traversed. Therefore, the shapes in the graph are the result of a large number of movements over the course of the entire piece. Although

138 subpaths of these cycles are very often traversed, the paths themselves are never walked through as a cycle. However, both of these paths are symmetrical with respect to the horizontal axis. The M-path roughly traces out a star with seven points; paths in M7 and M9 traverse these edges very often. The M-path is appealing because of the way each of the seven points of the star could represent one of the days of the week in LICHT. However, the instrument th disrupts the symmetry in the M-cycle, and is therefore shown in black. In addition, some moves which trace out arms of the star are seldom traversed. The pattern of E-movements in the example trace out a circle with small bulges at both ends. All of the E-waves but especially E5, E6, E7, E8 and E10 outline the motions shown in this example. As we know, the diagonal from NE-SW is traversed much more often than the NW-SE diagonal, disrupting the symmetry here as well. While both of these patterns show an appealing symmetry, neither of them are traversed regularly enough to be considered a strong background structure to the movements of LICHTER-WASSER. However, both of the structures are present (at least faintly) in the works spatial motion. Both structures also have an appealing relationship to the overall symmetrical plan of instrument arrangement and thus, the background structure of spatial motion. 4.8. Group Structure There are two characteristics of the spatial motion in LICHTER-WASSER that make developing any kind of group structure challenging. First, there is a lack of any apparent use of modularity in the space. Modularity is one condition under which mathematical closure can operate in the pitch domain. As we have seen, Stockhausen was extremely reluctant to move spatial shapes off the edge of the space and back onto the space from

139 a different side. Stockhausen sketched the dramatic path p1h2, which could be interpreted as a modular move (since it goes clear across the space from the north to the south location,) always moving through the center of the space, not off the edge. If the space does not exhibit modularity, spatial movement in closed rings around the center of the space could create a situation where closure exists. While many such circular or nearcircular paths exist in LICHTER-WASSER, they are by no means the only kind of motion that we have found. A second hindrance in developing a mathematical group has to do with the transformations that would need to be used in order to move musical melodies from one instrument to another. Some transformations that work well at some points in space would not be possible if applied to other instruments, since the transformation would move that location to another location where no instrument is situated. Stockhausens early sketches for LICHTER-WASSER, shown in Example 4.2.1a, exhibit many symmetrical structures of motion which would have group properties, were they used consistently. It might be tempting to develop groups of transformations that model these spatial movements, and then combine them in some way. But these symmetrical geometric shapes are very seldom used in the actual score to LICHTER-WASSER, as the individual wave analyses from 4.4 show. Stockhausen seems instead to have been stimulated by the many possibilities of asymmetrical movement in the space he designed. If there were a group structure to transformations which model spatial movements in LICHTER-WASSER, it might look like Example 4.8.1. Unfortunately, the operations in this structure are very limited; they can only model a few kinds of spatial motion. The addition of the reflection operations
v

d1

and

d2

do little to expand the ability of

these operations to model the variety of movements we have found in the piece. The main problem is the lack of any kind of operation for spatial movement that radiates out

140 from or collapses back towards the center. As we saw in Example 2.5.3f, this would result in transformations that were many-to-one and one-to-many. This kind of transformation is not part of the definition of a mathematical group. The evidence presented in this chapter suggests that there is no clear group structure to the transformations that might operate in the physical space of LICHTER-WASSER. Perhaps the kinds of spatial motion that would create such a structure were not interesting to Stockhausen. As mentioned above, Stockhausen seems to have focused on exploring asymmetrical shapes instead of symmetrical ones. The lack of a group structure means that a compelling transformational language that could be isomorphic or at least similar to the structure of pitch transformation is unlikely to be found in this work. On the other hand, Stockhausen may have had questions of perception in mind when he constructed the patterns of spatial movement in LICHTERWASSER. As we have already theorized, it is doubtful whether a spatial shape that moves off the edge of a space, and lies straddled between two distant regions, will be perceived as similar to a shape that is the same but occurs in the center of the space. The fundamental difference between space and pitch is decisive here. Whereas pitch is customarily perceived as a one-dimensional continuum in Western music, space does not lend itself as easily to being wrapped around in a similar fashion. The question of perception is one we have purposely not explored, for reasons explained in Chapter 1. However, the data we have collected and the conclusions we have been able to draw from our analysis of LICHTER-WASSER provides a basis for investigating the question of perception of spatial shapes in spatial music. Measuring the kinds of movement in a radically spatialized composition, as well as investigating the more theoretical possibilities of movement that are possible will allow us to approach perceptual questions in a much more informed manner.

141

4.9. Conclusions Stockhausen stated his goals clearly in composing the spatial motion of LICHTERWASSER. First, each of the twelve wave sections was to speed up, and symbolically reflect the speeds of heavenly bodies orbiting the sun, relative to the sun. Second, there was to be a kind of mystical unity between Michael and Eve, each represented by a vocal soloist and by a group of instrumentalists. The data which I have analyzed in this chapter show that although there is not a constant increase in the average velocity of spatial motion in each wave, there is a clear general trend towards faster motion. I have also uncovered ways in which Stockhausen might have expressed the mystical unity.273 I proposed an exit structure that might subtly reinforce the concept of mystical unity by interpreting the spatial structure of the musicians exit as a tree graph. By exploring the structure of the instrumental layout Stockhausen chose, and the shapes he created, I have been able to illuminate some of the choices Stockhausen made in composing spatial music. Finally, in examining some of the possible symmetries of spatial motion, I have concluded that even though there is little reason to believe that transformations relating spatial shapes form a mathematical group, there are still some possible background structures involving symmetry in the movements of the instrumental melodies. The understanding we have gained of the spatial motion in LICHTER-WASSER would not have been possible had we not measured the shape, speed and direction of spatial movement throughout the piece. In this way, we have finally made this crucial aspect of Stockhausens music more amenable to analysis. But the approach we took to this work
273 Crossover instruments such as th and va5 are the most direct metaphor for mystical union in the spatial structure of LICHTER-WASSER. MONDEVA, from Act 1 of the THURSDAY opera, and the HIMMELFAHRT duet at the end of MICHAELS REISE UM DIE ERDE also contain elements of blending that foreshadow those in SUNDAY.

142 and the knowledge we gained tempt us to apply similar methods to other pieces which also have sophisticated spatial structures. In the next chapter, we will apply the techniques we have used here to shed new light on works by Stockhausen, Tallis and Xenakis, while speculating on further directions of spatial research and analysis.

143 Chapter 5. Further Applications of Spatial Analysis and Performance. 5.1. Directions for research in spatial music In the previous two chapters, we applied the analytical methodology outlined in Chapter 2 can be applied to measure and analyze spatial motion in two later works of Stockhausen, OKTOPHONIE and LICHTER-WASSER. However, much more remains to be learned about the structure of spatial movement. This chapter extends the techniques we have developed so far to three additional areas. First, these methods can be applied to the analysis of many other works by Stockhausen himself. Second, it is possible to use the methodology to analyze recent spatial music by other composers which is similar in the treatment of the spatial domain to Stockhausens music. Third, it is possible to develop a spatial structure in additional works which have certain elements of spatialization, but for which no specific or overt scheme exists. In this chapter, we will investigate each of these three areas in turn, with the goal not only to show how diverse spatial analysis can be, but also to open up new areas and ideas in a field which is still quite young. To conclude our study, we will survey some technical innovations in spatialization available to contemporary composers. Just as the limitations of analogue studios affected Stockhausens spatialization techniques, spatialization in todays music has particular characteristics formed mostly thanks to the digital techniques used to create it. Much modern spatialization owes its existence to decades of research in human perception, algorithm development, and ever-increasing computational processing power. By understanding better what techniques are available to composers today, we will identify specific issues that suggest routes for future research.

144 5.2. Other Stockhausen Works As indicated in Chapter 1, nearly all works of Stockhausen have a specific spatialization scheme, or are intended to be spatialized through some kind of amplification or sound projection. Many, if not most of these works lend themselves to spatial analysis using the methods we have developed in Chapter 2. In the following section, we will lay out a course of analysis for several works that seem to offer the most interesting questions regarding spatial movement and its connection with compositional structure. 5.2.1. KONTAKTE (1958-60). We briefly described the basic spatial idea of KONTAKTE in 1.2.1. According to Stockhausen, KONTAKTE includes six different forms of spatial movement realized in four speakers set up around the audience. In addition, two soloists one pianist and one percussionist perform on stage, in front of the audience. The composers extensive sketches to KONTAKTE, which are as yet unpublished, show in detail how the work was composed.274 The sketches are valuable since little of the information found within them can be gleaned from the published scores for the piece.275 A cursory examination of the sketches shows that the relationship between space and other musical domains in KONTAKTE is unlike of the works we analyzed in Chapters 3 and 4, OKTOPHONIE and LICHTER-WASSER. Stockhausens sketches for KONTAKTE suggest that he thought of space in an uncharacteristically close relationship with the other musical parameters. Moreover, Stockhausen appears to have composed the spatial movements at the same time as other parameters, which is unusual for him. For example, Stockhausen assigned series to musical dimensions including intensity, form, register, speed, and instrument, all on the
274 The sketches for KONTAKTE are available for study in the Stockhausen-Archive in Krten. They consist of 611 pages grouped in ten bundles. 275 While the new 2008 edition of the Realizationpartitur for KONTAKTE sheds some light on the spatialization, it lacks the detail present in the sketches. It also seems to have been assembled rather hastily, lacking the detailed translations and commentary which are often useful in Stockhausens other scores.

145 same sketch-book page.276 Speed (Geschwindigkeit) is the most directly analogous idea of spatial motion. In another sketch, Stockhausen developed his ideas concerning the speed and the shape of the sounds which move around the audience.277 In addition to the other musical parameters, there are rows labeled Geschw. (Geschwindigkeit) and Raum (space). As a result of seeing spatial information just above other material pertaining to pitch and rhythm, we are tempted to look for relationships between these different aspects of the piece. But before any such relationships might be considered, we must penetrate a special spatial shorthand that Stockhausen developed to represent the spatial movement in this sketch. This shorthand indicates a specific trajectory that sounds follow as they move around the room. Sequences of spatial moves are represented by tetrahedrons.278 Two key sketches, reproduced in Example 5.2.1a and 5.2.1b, show this notational shorthand, which is only used in sketches to KONTAKTE.279
276 KONTAKTE sketch III/30. 277 KONTAKTE sketch III/16.1. 278 It is possible that Stockhausen got the idea for using tetrahedrons to represent spatial movement from Schaffer and Henry, who in 1950 devised a way of routing five channels of sound to four loudspeakers. The loudspeakers are arranged in a tetrahedral formation. See Barrett 2007, p. 242. The tetrahedrons used to represent the spatial motion in KONTAKTE also bear a resemblance to Walter OConnells graphical methods of representing all-interval class tetrachords (OConnell 1968, p. 53ff). Although it seems unlikely that OConnell was influenced by Stockhausens novel use of tetrahedrons since his work predates Stockhausens, the way that musicians as diverse as Schaffer, Stockhausen and OConnell all used the same abstract geometrical structure in diagramming musical relationships points to the complex relationship that existed between abstract pitch structures and shapes in real physical space that developed during the 1960s. 279 The sketch in question is reproduced by Heikinheimo 1972, p. 131. Heikenheimo explains Stockhausens shorthand: The hearing of two consecutive sound-phenomena from the same loudspeaker does not entail any change. This would have the transformation value 0. The smallest change for two consecutive sound phenomena is for them to be heard first from one loudspeaker and then from two loudspeakers...If the first loudspeaker is used only in the first stage we have a larger degree of change, or transformation, which receives the value 2. The next value, 3, signifies a soundphenomenon presented first in one loudspeaker and then in three; value 4 signifies a sound transmitted through one and then through two other loudspeakers; value 5 signifies a sound transmitted from one to four other loudspeakers (still with the first, of course); and value 6 signifies the sound phenomenon transmitted from one to three other loudspeakers (the fourth loudspeaker in the diagram is marked with an in the center of the triangle). The transformation alternatives marked in the upper left corner of the diagram are calculated on the basis of the transformation beginning in one loudspeaker. (Heikiheimo 1972 p. 129)

146 Analysis of this sketch suggests that certain sounds had particular patterns of spatialization, opening up the question of whether Stockhausen intended that a specific location in space is associated with a particular sound or category of sounds. Many similar sketches follow.280 No published analysis of KONTAKTE has yet analyzed the spatial elements in the sketches or the score using quantitative methods. It also has yet to be determined the relationship between the planned spatial movement in the sketches and its ultimate realization on tape. Further study of the copious sketch material would shed considerable light on the complex and quite innovative spatial language in this influential work. 5.2.2. Osaka Pieces. In 1.2.2, we summarized some of the conditions in the spherical auditorium Stockhausen used during the 1970 Osaka worlds fair. Many works of his were performed there including SPIRAL, HYMNEN, AUS DEN SIEBEN TAGEN, KONTAKTE, CARR, GRUPPEN, MIKROPHONIE I, PROZESSION, KURZWELLEN, TELEMUSIK, and STIMMUNG.281 Some of these, such as GRUPPEN, were played back on electronic tape. Analyzing the three-dimensional spatial movements Stockhausen improvised at the mixing console would yield further insight into his techniques of spatialization. As previously remarked, Stockhausen claims to have created horizontal circles, vertical circles, below-above, above-below. Or spiral movements of all different loops.282 Unfortunately any such analysis would be hampered by the fact that it seems there is no definitive record of exactly what spatial structures Stockhausen improvised at the console. If we knew the sequence of the shapes in a spatial improvisation, we could calculate their size and speed based on the architectural plans for the spherical
280 These include, but are not limited to KONTAKTE sketches III/17, III/19.1, III/20. 281 The daily performance schedules can be found in Texte 3, pp. 177-181. 282 Cott 1973, p. 46.

147 auditorium. But lacking such information, we could still estimate the possibilities by examining the wiring diagrams,283 interviewing performers, and studying any possible video footage from the actual performances that might survive. Despite the difficulties involved in obtaining spatial data for the Osaka project, we could at the very least gain a better understanding of whether different works were spatialized in different ways. Did the various acoustic and formal structures in each work cause Stockhausen to spatialize them differently? Or, did each work performed in Osaka have a similar spatial structure, despite its different formal and pitch structure? Answering these questions would help us better to understand how Stockhausens idea of spatialization was linked to the formal structure of a work, or whether he used a repertoire of spatial movements in a more general way, simply to intensify the experience of listening. 5.2.3. HELIKOPTER STREICHQUARTETT (1992-93). At first glance, it would appear that analysis of the spatial motion in this work poses challenges for reasons similar to those examined in the previous section. In this extremely unusual piece, the four instrumentalists of a string quartet perform in separate helicopters. The musicians are also linked together electronically, so that they can precisely coordinate their parts while they are in the air.284 The audience, seated in an auditorium, can see the musicians through a video link, while the sounds of the rotors and string quartet are projected around them through eight loudspeakers set up in a circle. While the movements of the helicopters in the sky are not defined in the score, they do
283 The wiring diagram for Stockhausens uncompleted HINAUF-HINAB, which shows how the 50 speakers in Osaka were connected to the mixing console, can be found in Texte 3, p. 163. 284 An important structural element of the way Stockhausen interpreted the Superformula segment in the HELICOPTER QUARTET is the almost constant use of a kind of hocket technique. Thus, musicians in the helicopters must coordinate their rhythms very precisely, despite being in different helicopters. This expresses the basic idea of the work communication and complex musical synchronization over large distances.

148 have to be planned in advance, in order to conform to flight paths and to avoid venturing into airspace used by other aircraft. But it is unlikely that the movements of the helicopters in the air above the performance hall would be of great musical interest, since the audience does not really perceive their flight paths while seated. The audience gets only a vague sense of ascent at the beginning of the piece, and descent at the end. Turning to the score, as we have in previous analyses, we find material which allows us to make more definite statements about the role of space in this work. The spatialization of the quartet and helicopter sounds around the seated audience in the hall is musically relevant. The sounds of helicopter rotors and string quartet are blended together and spatialized though the eight loudspeaker groups which surround the listeners. Ultimately, this is the acoustic experience that the piece is intended to create. The spatialization inside the hall, like in Osaka, is essentially an improvisation created at the mixing console. Multi-track tapes exist of helicopter and quartet sounds. The spatialization on these tapes can be inferred by analyzing the peaks and troughs in a simple waveform analysis.285 In fact, Stockhausen took the unusual trouble to analyze and print the waveforms for the entire quartet in the score, suggesting that he might have imagined such an analysis would be possible and, potentially useful. With careful examination of this waveform analysis, the improvised spatialization of this work could be interpreted. With this analysis, we would better be able to characterize Stockhausens improvisational practice in the spatial domain. 5.2.4. COSMIC PULSES (2007). In 1.2.4, we described the basic spatial setup in one of Stockhausens final works, COSMIC PULSES. In brief, eight speakers are set up around the audience in a circle. The loudspeaker layout is given in Example 5.2.4a. Through the loudspeaker array, loops of synthesized sound circulate around the audience
285 Thomas Manfred Braun did just this in his analysis of HYMNEN. Braun 2004, pp. 57-58.

149 at various speeds. Like OKTOPHONIE, which we analyzed in Chapter 3, COSMIC PULSES is so strongly oriented towards spatial movement that the actual electronic sounds themselves are not as interesting as some of Stockhausens other synthesized works. Unlike OKTOPHONIE, a superdense musical texture results from the spatial overlapping of many similar electronic sounds in COSMIC PULSES. The texture overwhelms the listener to such an extent that the individual trajectories of each sound may become lost in hearing. However, Stockhausen subsequently composed a series of works, each of which is based on three textural layers of COSMIC PULSES, presumably in an effort to clarify the texture.286 For the time being, we will not be concerned with the actual sounds in the loops themselves. Instead, we will examine the 241 spatial pathways around the eight loudspeaker groups.287 These 241 paths are grouped into 24 layers. Each layer includes between 8 and 12 paths.288 The paths were written out numerically in a series of four sketches. Stockhausen then drew the pathways around the space in his usual box diagram format in a series of three additional sketches. Example 5.2.4b shows how paths 1 and 2, which were presumably first worked out numerically, were then converted to box diagrams. The box diagrams also give information which relates to the amount of time each path takes to complete one cycle. Although almost all of the paths are different, a few are the same.289 Since COSMIC PULSES was still a new work for Stockhausen at the time of his passing,
286 COSMIC PULSES, the 13th hour of Stockhausens last work-cycle KLANG, gave rise to eight works, each of which is based on three layers of the parent work. These pieces, some of which have not yet been performed, are called HAVONA, ORVONTON, UVERSA, NEBADON, JERUSEM, URANTIA, EDENTIA, and PARADIES. 287 Stockhausen may have used the number 241 to memorialize the 241 United States service members killed in the Beriut bombing on 23 October, 1983. Stockhausens comments regarding the September 11 World Trade Center attacks, which were widely misinterpreted by the international press, might have provided the impetus for this subtle musical reference. Thanks to Dave Headlam for suggesting this idea. 288 Layer 24 is the only one that includes 8 paths, while layer 2 is the only one with 12 paths. 289 For example, paths 192 and 205 trace the same path through space, and each lasts one second.

150 he was unable to provide the kind of in-depth analysis of his compositional methods that exist for many of his other works.290 However, after examining the spatial characteristics of his earlier works, we can make hypothesizes about how he created the spatial motion in this late piece. Although it might seem that Stockhausen used a mathematical formula for systematically deriving the 241 paths through space, this appears to be less likely after examining them, since some of the paths are same. It is more likely that he improvised the pathways like so many of his previous spatial structures. Whatever characteristics Stockhausen was looking for in his paths are, for the time being, elusive. Preliminary analysis of the distribution around the hall of all 1928 moves291 (241 8) shows that some loudspeaker groups are used more often than others. For example, loudspeakers 3 and 8 are used only 226 times each, but loudspeaker 4 is used 268 times. The number of times each loudspeaker group is used can be seen graphically in Example 5.2.4c. From our data, we can conclude that sounds emanate most often from the front pair of loudspeakers (groups 4 and 5). This would make sense from a psychoacoustic perspective: human spatial localization ability is most acute in the area directly in front of us.292 Our brief analysis unfortunately does not take into account the speed at which the loops move around the listeners. Applying more of the methodology developed in Chapter 2 would allow us to do this. If we add this aspect into the analysis, we may find that the amount of time sounds are projected from each loudspeaker group may emphasize different groups in a way that is different from the results obtained by simply tallying up the number of times each group is used.293 However, limitations of time and space prevent us from doing this more detailed analysis. Another question that should be
290 However, analyses by Richard Toop, Joachim Haas and Gregori Garcia Karman helped to elucidate many of the details pertaining to the shapes of the paths during the 2008 Summer Stockhausen Courses. 291 The year 1928 was, of course, the year Stockhausen was born. 292 Blauert 2001, p. 41. 293 We analyzed spatial motion from both perspectives in LICHTER-WASSER. See Examples 4.6.1a and 4.6.1b.

151 considered is the character of each of the 24 spatial layers. Did Stockhausen combine paths on purpose so that when nine, ten, eleven or twelve of them were heard together in a layer, the layer itself would have certain distinctive characteristics? Concerning this piece, Stockhausen remarked that If it is possible to hear everything, I do not yet know it depends on how often one can experience an 8-channel performance.294 Further analysis of COSMIC PULSES could help us to find ways of listening to this difficult piece, while uncovering more layers of structure which would enrich our understanding of Stockhausens use of space. 5.3. Xenakis and Terretektorh 5.3.1. Background. Terretektorh (1965/66) is a work for 88 musicians written by the Greek composer Inneas Xenakis (1922-2001). The seating arrangement of the work is extremely unusual. As shown in Example 5.3.1a, 85 instrumentalists are seated among audience members, while three percussionists play towards the edge of the circular space. The work was first performed in 1966 at the Royan Festival in France, under the conductor Hermann Scherchen.295 A circular Casino hall was available for the premiere.296 Although Xenakis favored a circular hall, he later allowed the piece to be performed in a more traditional rectangular space.297 The ideal dimensions for a circular hall, according to Hofmann, are a space with a radius of 7 meters and area of 154 m2.298 Approximately 63 m2 is needed for the musicians; 91 m2 is left for the audience,
294 Stockhausen 2007a (CD 91), p. 7. 295 Harley 2004, p. 46. 296 Hofmann 2008, p. 81. 297 The English premiere, in Oxfords Town Hall, was rectangular, with dimensions of approximately 23.8 12.7 meters. Thus is slightly smaller than the 14 meter diameter Xenakis intended. Dennis reviewed the Oxford performance favorably (Dennis 1967). 298 A large ball-room having (if it were circular) a minimum diameter of 45 yards [sic] would serve in default of a new kind of architecture which will have to be devised for all types of present-day music... (Xenakis 1992, p. 236). The 45 yards must certainly mean 45 feet, in which would be equal to about 14 meters. Thus, Hofmanns claim of a radius of 7 meters is correct.

152 which could include 290 seats or 546 standing places.299 The dimensions of the space for Terretektorh are considerably smaller than for Stockhausens LICHTER-WASSER, even though there are almost three times the number of musicians that have to play in Xenakiss piece. The loser is the audience; in Stockhausens work, there was room for 728 seats (see 4.3.4); there is considerably less space for the audience which presumably stands during the performance of Terretektorh. What were Xenakiss reasons for writing a piece for such an unusual and in many ways impractical spatial arrangement? The composer wrote that The scattering of the musicians brings in a radically new kinetic conception of music which no modern electro-acoustical means could match... The speeds and accelerations of the movement of the sounds will be realized, and new and powerful functions will be able to be made use of, such as logarithmic or Archimedean spirals, in-time and geometrically. Ordered or disordered sonorous masses, rolling one against the other like waves... etc., will be possible.300 Unlike Stockhausens LICHTER-WASSER, sounds in Terretektorh dont jump from one place to another. Instead, they move like the sounds in COSMIC PULSES around the space like a searchlight. This is because each instrumental group responsible for articulating a part of the spatial shape has a crescendo and diminuendo, with a loud segment at the middle articulating the central point of the sound. This is similar to techniques used in spatializing electronic music around listeners and is a clear example of the cross-fertilization between electronic and acoustic music in the 1960s. In addition to their normal instruments, each musician has a maraca, a whip, wood-block, and a small siren-whistle. These are used to create clouds of percussive sound which interrupt the musical texture at certain points in the piece. In an often cited quotation,
299 Hofmann 2008, p. 81. 300 Xenakis 1992, p. 236. It can hardly be said that the concept of the Archimedian spiral is new, but Xenakiss point is that this is not the only way of ordering elements of spatial music a point which is taken in the current study to mean that many other more complex structures are also possible.

153 Xenakis relates how he conceived of the orchestra in this work as a kind of particle accelerator of sounds: Terretektorh is thus a Sonotron: an accelerator of sonorous particles, a disintegrator of sonorous masses, a synthesizer... The orchestral musician rediscovers his responsibility as an artist, as an individual.301 5.3.2. Analysis of mm. 1-74 of Terretektorh. In the first 74 measure of the work, the pitch E moves around the space in a series circles. The pitch is played only by string instruments who, thanks to their ability to create long smooth crescendos and diminuendos, create the illusion of gradually passing the sound from one group of players to another. Twice, the motion is overlayed with tutti maraca rattles. An early reviewer of Terretektorh was able to follow the circles that moved around the room, even though the piece was performed in a rectangular hall.302 Maria Harley noted the general shapes of the motion and the rate of motion around the outer edges of the circular space in the first 74 measures, and parsed her data into eight categories of events. We will call these eight categories structures 1-8. 1. mm. 1-9; circle 2. mm. 8-24; Archimedean spiral, acceleration 3. mm. 23-34; Archimedean spiral, deceleration 4. mm. 32-45; hyperbolic spiral, acceleration 5. mm. 45-47; angular motion in group H 6. mm. 51-60; logarithmic spiral, acceleration, new direction 7. mm. 60-65; similar logarithmic spiral with steeper curvature 8. mm. 65-74; six logarithmic spirals with increasing curvature, increasing acceleration of movement.303 The spirals Xenakis uses Archimedean, hyperbolic, and logarithmic each are
301 Xenakis 1992, p. 237. 302 However, it was easier to hear the revolutions when standing within the orchestra: This kind of linear circular movement with the instruments of a given kind not grouped together but situated at regular spacings around the instrumental arena could not nearly so easily be assimilated from the gallery, so that the second performance was for me, having moved from my former position on the floor, definitely less effective. Dennis 1967, p. 27. 303 Harley 1994, p. 305.

154 characterized by different mathematical formulas, and are shown in Example 5.3.2a. Harleys analysis of these shapes led her to draw the graph reproduced in Example 5.3.2b. However, it is crucial to note that the spatial motions Harley identified are not literally present in the space. Rather, the spirals describe the rate of acceleration or deceleration of the sounds. All the sounds, with only one exception, move in circular motion around the center point of the space. Much like we did in LICHTER-WASSER, we can estimate the size of the space in Terretektorh using Hofmanns and Xenakiss suggestions, taking a diameter of 7 meters to represent the ideal dimension of a circular space. Then, we can identify the coordinates of each instrument. This analysis is shown in Example 5.3.2c.304 While these coordinates would be useful for precisely analyzing spatial motions later in the work, it is more practical to find the central point of each slice of the space, since Xenakis typically used two or three instruments in each wedge for each element of his spirals in the first 74 measures. Example 5.3.2d shows the central coordinate of each slice of each wedge. It also shows the midpoint between some areas, since Xenakis often coupled two slices of the space together. We know that each page of Xenakiss score equals 30 seconds, so a half-note ideally lasts one second. With this information, we can calculate the time-point where each crescendo/diminuendo structure peaks by examining Xenakiss score notation. In Examples 5.3.2e and 5.3.2f, we estimate the time-points at which sounds peak in volume at each place in space. Also, the density of orchestration in each wedge is indicated by shading different slices of the space, though this does not significantly affect our present analysis. Finally, we can combine the coordinates of each area in space with the time-points we
304 Among other things, this shows that the arrangement of musicians is asymmetrical. We will return to this in 5.3.3.

155 just found. These calculations are shown in Examples 5.3.2g-h. They show some extraordinarily rapid movements. In segment 8e, the calculated speed is an astonishing 253 m/sec. Partly as a result of the very short rhythmic durations involved, Xenakis appears to have reached the limits of his notational precision around structure 8c.305 Past this point, the speed of motion can be estimated, but not precisely calculated. When the motion is so rapid around the space, the musicians themselves must be relied upon to coordinate the spatialization. Thus, Harleys diagram (previously shown in Example 5.3.2b) is an idealization of what is supposed to happen in structures 8c-8f, and does not reflect any rhythmic notation in the score. 5.3.3. Comparison of Terretektorh with Stockhausens LICHTER-WASSER. By measuring the speeds of spatial music in LICHTER-WASSER and Terretektorh, we can make several comparisons which allow us to begin to identify stylistic traits in the treatment of the spatial domain. Although the top speeds in Terretektorh are faster than in LICHTER-WASSER, the average speeds are similar. There is less variety of spatial movement in Terretektorh than in LICHTER-WASSER, since the movement in Xenakiss introduction is almost always in a circle. Stockhausens arrangement of musicians is symmetrical, but Xenakiss is not though it is close. His quasi-stochastic sprinkling306 of musicians would create many irregular shapes were we to follow through and analyze further sections of spatial movement, whereas Stockhausens symmetrical arrangement allows for more regular shapes to be brought into play. Whereas Stockhausen jumps his melodies from one instrument to another, Xenakis blends one into another, utilizing the technique Stockhausen employed in GRUPPEN and COSMIC PULSES. This probably makes the effect of continuous space much more
305 Obviously, Xenakis could have notated his music more precisely. However this would probably have necessitated very small rhythmic divisions, which would not fit on a page that was calculated to hold exactly 30 seconds of music. Xenakiss priority was clearly not to notate his final few accelerations with utmost precision, rather to create a score that was more readable. 306 Xenakis 1992, p. 236.

156 directly perceptible in Terretektorh. The audience might not at first hear the complex spatial movements in LICHTER-WASSER as a result of the absence of any blending technique. Ultimately, the two composers aesthetic goals are different, but they use similar means to achieve them. Xenakis essentially wanted a listener to think he or she is either perched on top of a mountain in the middle of a storm which attacks him from all sides, or in a frail barque tossing on the open sea, or again in a universe dotted about with little stars of sound, moving in compact nebulae or isolated.307 On the other hand, Stockhausen wanted to express the awe of contemplating the beauty and complexity of our solar system, with all its simultaneously rotating moons, planets and other objects. Although their aesthetic goals are different, the means by which Xenakis and Stockhausen composed in the spatial domain have many similarities. 5.3.4. Conclusion. The techniques we have used to measure the rate of spatial motion in OKTOPHONIE and LICHTER-WASSER can be used to calculate spatial motion in other contemporary music. Data gleaned from score analysis can then be used to compare composers techniques in the spatial domain. In works where space plays such a prominent role, the data we have collected and the conclusions we have drawn are critical to the makeup of the work; in works where space is not the principal focus of interest but still plays a part, spatial data can still add richness and subtlety to a musical analysis. 5.4. Spatialization in other musical repertoires: Talliss Spem in alium 5.4.1. Premise. Although our analytical techniques have so far been applied to spatialization in contemporary music, the methods we have used have quite deliberately remained general in scope. Might we be able to engage music of other historical periods
307 Ibid., p. 237.

157 or cultures using these techniques?308 To better explore the limits of our methodology, we will investigate a work of Renaissance polyphony in the following section. But instead of analyzing the spatialization scheme provided by the score as our starting point, we will work in the opposite direction: starting with the score, we will develop a spatial scheme from it. In this way, we will propose a way of manifesting a complex musical structure that seems to be ideally expressed through spatial means. 5.4.2. Development of Spatialization in Western Music. Evidence of spatialization can be found in Greek ampitheaters. Typically, bronze or ceramic urns were placed around the Greek stage in various configurations to resonate with the singers voices. The urns helped to amplify the sound on stage. Written evidence of this practice can be found in the writings of the Roman architect Vitruvius.309 Physical evidence of resonating urns or cavities can be found in Medieval churches from the British isles as far east as Russia. Unfortunately, most urns were melted down for cannon in the Renaissance; however, the holes or niches that held them in place still exist and their relative size can be estimated based on measurements. Research into the placement of the urns in Greek ampitheaters and Medieval churches suggests that urns that resonated at specific frequencies were arranged according to coherent spatial plans.310 Evidence of spatialization can be found in many different traditions of early music. In the early Christian era, the practice of antiphonal psalm singing developed. This technique of performing liturgical chant allowed for the alternation between two choirs which could have been spatially distant from one another. As polyphony developed in the Middle Ages, methods of spatialization did not lag far behind. Research has suggested that the widespread medieval practice of hocket developed out of the improvised singing of Gregorian chant melodies. However, scholars have neglected to
308 Blesser and Salter 2007 suggest a cross-disciplinary approach towards spatial research. 309 Lewcock 2001, pp. 81ff. 310 Arns and Crawford 1995.

158 point out that hocketing adds a distinct element of spatial interest to Medieval polyphony.311 The Renaissance technique of cori spezzati (broken choirs) is a later development of experiments with composing for two or more independent choirs in order to create special effects.312 By splitting choirs, spatial relationships could emerge in the polyphonic texture even if the choirs were not separated from each other by any great distance. This practice was so common that by the time of Gabrieli, almost all Italian composers were actively using cori spezzati. While the technique of cori spezzati originated in Italy, English composers developed the technique in ways that suggest even more sophisticated control over the spatial design of their music.313 In the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods, composers attention generally focused on elements of music such as harmony, orchestration, and form. While seating plans in orchestras occasionally allowed for antiphonal effects in orchestral music, overtly spatial music such as Berliozs Requiem were exceptional. In other works of the nineteenth century, off-stage soloists or ensembles create an added feeling of distance or separation between the music and the audience, or add an extra dimension to the dramatic effect of opera.314 While some writers suggest that spatialization plays a role in large orchestral works of the late nineteenth- and early twentieth centuries,315 the technical breakthrough of magnetic tape and the loudspeaker spawned an interest in creating more abstract and sophisticated structures in space during the 1950s.
311 Dalglish 1969, Sanders 1974, and Dalglish 1978. Although Dalglish writes that vocal performance practice of the late Middle Ages was one characterized by fantasy, variety and color (Dalglish 1978, p. 20), neither he nor the Medieval writers he quotes realize the implicit spatial aspect in the practice of hocketing. 312 Willaert pioneered the technique of cori spezzati in the mid-sixteenth century and Zarlino defined the term in Le istitutioni harmoniche. Bryant 1981; see also Arnold and Carver 2008. 313 Rastall argued that spatial design is important in works of English Renaissance consort music. He suggested that in works printed in a Tafelmusik layout, a spatial structure is implied. Composers such as Dowland, Shepherd, Gombert, Tye and Byrd all printed music in this format. See Rastell 1997. 314 The sonic effect of distance in Mahler, noted by Adorno in the beginning of the first symphony, is more overtly exploited in the fifth movement of the second symphony (Adorno 1991, p. 4). In Gtterdmmerung, Wagner intensified the dramatic effect by employing several off-stage stierhorns. The technical issues involved with spatializing the Decca recording are vividly described in Humphrey Burtons 1965 documentary The Golden Ring. 315 Brelet 1967.

159

From this brief historical sketch, we can see that the idea of spatialization is not new. In fact, it goes back to the very origins of the Western musical tradition. Indeed, the historical foundation on which contemporary spatialization is based is so widespread and rich that it seems likely that earlier repertoires of music may be amenable to the techniques of measurement and analysis we have developed and applied to Stockhausens works. 5.4.3. Talliss spem in alium. Thomas Talliss (c. 1505 1585) famous 40-part motet Spem in alium is a well-known example of a remarkable and effective use of multiple choirs in the English Renaissance.316 Using some of the techniques we have applied to Stockhausens spatial music, we can analyze a spatial arrangement of the choirs in Talliss work. This will allow us to evaluate the effectiveness of one particular spatial design, while also learning something of the spatial structure of the work itself. 5.4.4. Methodology and Spatialization. Talliss choral pieces raises many questions related to the use of space. Do we focus attention on each choir as a self-contained spatial source, or do we analyze particular registral lines? The tradition of cori spezzati suggests that each choir should be treated as one independent sound-source complete in and of itself.317 This is the track we will take in the following analysis. However, when listening to Spem, we are often most aware of the highest note in the composite texture. Future analyses may interpret the spatial structure in connection with register. In both methodologies, sounds typically jump from one place to another and are not really
316 Asked to compose a work rivaling Striggios 40-part Ecce beatam lucem, Tallis responded at the encouragement of the Duke of Norfolk with a work that utilizes eight choirs of five voices each. The first performance of Spem was probably in the late 1560s in the Arundel house, which stood between the Strand and the Victoria Embankment in present-day London (Stevens 1982, p. 175ff.) The room, called the Long Gallery, was large enough to provide space for all the singers plus a number of instrumentalists. A drawing of the long gallery at Arundel can be found in Parry 1980. Coope 1986 describes the more general physical characteristics of long galleries in Elizabethian England. 317 In Talliss spem in alium, each choir generally sings in its full five-part texture. The only notable exception occurs in the sopranos solo in choir 7 in mm. 50-56.

160 meant to move continuously. Although it is not known exactly how the eight choirs were arranged in Talliss day, we can infer by the shape of sixteenth-century long galleries what the original spatialization of Spem might have been. The choirs, along with whatever instrumentalists might have doubled the parts, were probably arranged along a line down one side of the room. However, we do not know exactly whether the choirs were arranged in a row (I next to II, etc.) Whittaker, a noted English musician in the first half of the 20th century, mounted a performance of Spem in 1929. He described his reactions to the work and his spatialization in a brief published report.318 He also drew a diagram showing exactly when each choir enters and how long it sings for. This useful diagram is shown in Example 5.4.4a. Spatialization emerges as a virtual necessity in Spem because of the great density of the contrapuntal texture. Spatialization also adds an extra dimension of musical interest which would substitute for the overall lack of harmonic fluctuation in the motet.319 In his scheme, Whittaker clumped his choirs together at one end of the performance space. This arrangement would tend to muddle the texture in a way that fails to do justice to Talliss choral writing. Whittakers spatialization is shown in Example 5.4.4b. Other spatial arrangements which take advantage of Talliss specific compositional structure are possible. During the first 35 measures of Spem the choirs enter one by one, and generally stop singing when a third choir enters. This sequential opening strongly suggests that arranging the choirs in a circle around the audience would create an effective spatial effect. Lending support to this notion is the complex antiphonal passage in mm. 87-105, where the effect of alternating choir groups across the space would be
318 Whittaker 1940, pp. 86-89. 319 The motet essentially circles around the triads of G major/minor, D major/minor, A major/minor, and includes a certain amount of C major, F major, B-flat major and e minor.

161 heightened in a circular arrangement. Measures 87-105 are diagrammed in great detail in Example 5.4.4c. After examining the spatial structure of this passage, it is clear that choirs 1 and 2 are paired, as are 3 and 4, 5 and 6, and 7 and 8. This analysis emphasizes the fact that Tallis tends to pair choirs that would be next to each other in a circular arrangement.320 One surmises that Whittakers arrangement of choirs would do violence to Talliss choral pairings. As our analysis suggests, an effective spatial arrangement for the choirs in Spem is a circle, as shown in Example 5.4.4d.321 Constructing a spatial layout for the eight choirs can be aided by further examining the way Tallis employs the groups of singers. There are essentially three different techniques. The first is a staggered or sequential entry, such as in the opening. This texture is always contrapuntal. The second technique is a block texture where all eight choirs sing together. It is treated either contrapuntally or homophonically. The third technique makes the most direct reference to the cori spezzati tradition in its antiphonal treatment of choir groups. In this technique, the texture is almost always homophonic. Tallis thus mediates between textural and spatial extremes, and also associates certain contrapuntal techniques with spatial techniques. The tutti choir is usually reserved for climactic moments, or when a particular word of text (such as respice) is emphasized. 5.4.5. Analysis. Following our observations from the previous section, we can divide the spatial structure of Spem into four large sections. Each section, except for the first, begins with all 40 parts singing together. The four sections are diagrammed in Examples 5.4.5a-b. Although only the main spatial structures are shown, they correlate closely with Whittakers analysis of movement. Assuming the spatial setup is a circle, section 1 is dominated by two slow rotation
320 However, the way in which notes are passed around within the paired choir groups adds complexity to the treatment of space. 321 Evidence from Rastalls study of Elizabethan consort music indicates that arranging musicians in a circle (around a table) was not at all uncommon at the time.

162 sequences. In the first spatial sequence, music moves around the audience in a clockwise direction. After moving clockwise almost one complete time around the circle, the spatial motion is interrupted briefly by a flip. Here, two choirs unrelated to the clockwise movement briefly sing. This is followed by a brief 40-part tutti section. A counterclockwise rotation then follows and slowly swings the music back to the same point where the piece began choirs 1 and 2. A 40-part tutti announces the second section, which begins at m. 69 and lasts only to m. 85. This section features paired choirs whose spatial relationships can be described as flips across the circle or rotations around it. Section 3 begins with another choral tutti, and, in exploring a more elaborate cori spezzati technique serves as evidence of more flip movements. The fourth and final section, which again starts with a choral tutti, draws a close parallel with section 2. Measures. 110-121 and 81-85 pair the same choirs and same spatial motion, drawing long-range connections in the spatial domain. The motet closes with a full tutti section on the text humilitatum nostrum. If choirs are set up in a circle around the audience, we find that the movement of musical material around the space can be modeled by a set of rotation and reflection (flip) transformations. These sixteen transformations form a Dihedral group of order 8. The operations, as well as the group table can be found in Example 5.4.5c, which is the final graphical example of the dissertation. 5.4.6. Conclusion. While there is no strong evidence to support the idea that the choir groups were arranged in a circle around the audience in Talliss time, we find that the composers strategies for dealing with eight choirs in Spem can be interpreted in a way that brings us surprisingly close to the spatialization employed by composers in the late 20th century. Spatializing Spem in the way described not only clarifies the texture, but also articulates a layer of structure spatial structure in a work which seems to call for it. Spatialization makes the experience of hearing the piece richer and more rewarding

163 perceptually. We also can find a wonderful connection between modern performance practice and Renaissance practice in the fruitful combination of old and new. Other works of Renaissance polyphony, while perhaps not as sophisticated as Talliss, could also conceivably benefit from careful analysis of the advantages or disadvantages of spatialization in performance.322 5.5. Electronics and Spatialization 5.5.1. Role of Electronic Hardware in Spatial Music. In music since 1950, electronic apparatus has played the most important role in developing spatial music in the history of Western culture. These technical developments in turn have inspired composers to experiment with new configurations of instrumentalists in performance spaces, initiating a kind of feedback loop from which both electronic and instrumental music has developed. But in order to get a more complete picture of how spatialization worked in its early years, we must understand better the electronic devices that were in use during that period. Their limitations define the boundaries of what was possible, while spurring technicians and composers to push beyond the limits and invent new procedures. Learning about these electronic techniques is difficult because few of the devices survive, having generally been relegated to the trash heap whenever newer technologies replaced them. One aspect of Stockhausens scores to which we have given too little attention is the many wiring diagrams he published. Stockhausen was both a composer in the traditional sense of the word, and a sound-engineer; the links between these two roles are vividly represented by his wiring diagrams. Though we briefly alluded to Stockhausens diagrams in connection with the massive speaker array that was installed
322 Other works of this period that profit from spatialization include the 40-part Missa Salisburgensis (attributed to Biber), Josquins 24-part Qui habitat, Striggios 40-part Ecce beatam lucem, Gabrielis 16-part Exaudi me Domine, and various works from the Eton Choirbook by Browne and Wylkynson.

164 in Osaka, they contain a wealth of information that has received little, if any attention in the published literature. Yet the fact that they are included in so many Stockhausen scores is a testament to how important the composer believed they were. Research into Stockhausens technical means, and the way in which he employed them, would no doubt add depth to our understanding of his spatialization practices. 5.5.2. Software for Spatialization. We summarized and described one popular approach to electronic spatialization, called ambisonics, in 2.2.1. Engineers at the Institute for Computer Music and Sound Technology in Zurich, Switzerland have developed software that allows ambisonic spatialization for one of the most popular composition packages available, Max/MSP. Their software includes a graphical user interface called an ambimonitor which allows both real-time control of spatialization and out-of-time, algorithmic control. It also allows sounds to be spatialized in three dimensions.323 These tools are appealing from the perspective of the composer since they are readily available and make possible complex spatial patterns that would be difficult to achieve otherwise. One of the most important electronic studios in the world is IRCAM (Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique) in Paris, France. Engineers at IRCAM have developed software called Spat (Spatialisateur) which allows composers to spatialize sounds regardless of the type of method used to synthesize them. Spat allows users also to specify room acoustics, setting various characteristics such as reverberation and reflection. Spat is versatile enough to be used in real-time environments, as postproduction, or in virtual reality situations. Like the software designed in Zurich, Spat will also work with Max/MSP.324

323 http://www.icst.net/files/ICST_Ambisonics_ICMC2006.pdf. Accessed on 2 November 2008. 324 http://www.ircam.fr/745.html?&L=1&tx_ircamboutique_pi1[showUid]=199&cHash=8094c8f4ed. Accessed on 2 November 2008.

165 Other engineers have developed less ambitious, but useful tools for spatialization as well. Karen Bryden, at the Communications Research Centre of Canada, developed simple software to spatialize sounds in a 2-dimensional sound field, heard through headphones. This was accomplished by taking measurements made of dummy heads at the MIT Media Lab in Cambridge, Massachusetts and utilizing an HRTF (Head-Related Transfer Function) to to calculate the spectral distortions needed for the illusion of spatial movement.325 Even though Brydens software is less sophisticated than that developed in Zurich and Paris, it shows that there is great interest in spatialization among audio engineers, and that a variety of software is available for use by the general public. In COSMIC PULSES, Stockhausen employed a piece of software called the OCTEG (OCTophonic Effects Generator), which was an outgrowth of the earlier hardwarebased QUEG (Quadrophonic Effects Generator). Stockhausen used the QUEG in SIRIUS and in OKTOPHONIE. The OCTEG was created at the Experimental Studio for Acoustical Art (formerly known as the Heinrich Strobel Institute) in Freiburg, Germany, when it was under the direction of Andr Richard. Although the OCTEG is not available for the public to use at present, it is yet another example of a sophisticated piece of software developed at a professional sound studio for use in the spatialization of contemporary music. 5.6. Concluding Remarks 5.6.1. Directions for Further Study. As we find ourselves towards the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century, it could be argued that the novelty of the early decades of listening to strange sounds emanating from loudspeakers has passed.326 Although audiences of contemporary music may have indeed become inured to new sounds emanating from loudspeakers, it could also be argued that the experience of
325 http://web.ncf.ca/aa508/Software/spatial. Accessed on 2 November 2008. 326 Barrett 2007, p. 232.

166 space in music still has the potential to shock and delight. The drastic change in spatialization that occurred during the 1950s327 still remains relatively unexplored terrain in composers vocabulary in comparison to pitch, rhythm and timbre. Yet, as we have seen, composers have created complex compositional structures not only by spreading musicians around (or within) the audience in various ways but also through sophisticated electronic and computer techniques. Today, software allows for the creation of intricate spatial designs even on a moderately-priced computer apparatus. A program of further research should focus on four areas. First, more emphasis should be placed on cognition. Unfortunately, navigating this enormous field is made more difficult because of the extremely complex interrelated variables that room acoustics, pitch, rhythm, and timbre introduce in spatial localization and perception. Still, the question remains: how much spatial movement can listeners perceive in a composition? In developing this area of knowledge, we should not become mired in minute technical details, but rather seek to devise some general rules or guidelines by which composers could know better what audiences would expect in certain acoustic environments with certain sounds. These guidelines would allow a composer to make a rough estimate the general percepts of an audience when listening to his or her composition. As we research this question, it is necessary to consider architecture and other musical parameters as they relate to spatial perception. Second, more spatial compositions dating from circa 1950 to the present day could be analyzed using the methods we have developed. As we have seen, a number of concrete differences emerged when contrasting data gleaned from spatial works by Xenakis and Stockhausen. These contrasts allowed us better to appreciate each composers individual approach to space. How might these composers spatial compositions compare to music by Edgar Varse or Henry Brant? Or, how might they compare with other Stockhausen works? Because of the simplicity and versatility of our analytical methods, they can be
327 Reynolds 1978, p. 181.

167 applied to a great deal of spatialized music. Third, a great deal of knowledge can be gleaned by examining technical data from composers experiences in creating or synthesizing spatialized music. Stockhausens works are an ideal place to begin, since he notated and published so many of his wiring diagrams in scores. These questions can be answered through historical study of audio engineering, which though not typically a field studied by music theorists can and must play a greater role in understanding how the technical limitations influenced the development of spatial music in the 1950s, 60s and 70s. It is not inconceivable that composers experience with spatialization influenced their composition in pitch, rhythm, or other musical domains. Finally, works from the past could be brought into dialog with modern spatial technologies. How might polychoral works from the centuries-old cori spezzati tradition be performed today using modern techniques? While the integrity of the original work must of course be respected, we can find new inspiration in these centuries-old works by spatializing them in ways their composers never could have imagined. This dialog between old and new would both enhance our appreciation for masterpieces of the past while making them more relevant for todays listeners. 5.6.2. Conclusion. Although the field of spatialization has been around for centuries, composers, researchers and theorists have begun to develop this aspect of musical experience in radically new ways only during the past few decades. Their efforts promise to open up new realms of experience and enjoyment for the listener. They also enable more sophisticated compositional structures which have yet to be fully appreciated or even described. In this dissertation, I have proposed several simple and general methods for measuring spatial motion as a first step towards enlarging our knowledge of past compositions, and stimulating ideas for new ones. They have been applied to works of

168 Stockhausen and, all too briefly, to two other composers. The results have shown that a great deal can be learned by measuring spatial motion in these compositions information that cannot be obtained through any other means. While telling us much about these compositions that we did not yet know, my analyses open up a number of questions which are relevant not only to music of the present and recent past, but for works composed centuries ago. It seems clear that this field has an exciting future ahead of it, for it already has an impressive and fascinating body of music behind it.

169 Afterword: Spatial Serialism The title of this dissertation, Stockhausen and the Serial Shaping of Space, contains the word serial. Serial music, according to Paul Griffiths, is a method of composition in which a fixed permutation, or series, of elements is referential (i.e. the handling of those elements in the composition is governed, to some extent and in some manner, by the series). Griffiths continues, Most commonly the elements arranged in the series are the 12 notes of the equal-tempered scale. He adds that [Babbitt, Boulez, Nono and Stockhausen] sometimes extended serialism to elements other than pitch, notably duration, dynamics and timbre.328 Stockhausen claimed unequivocally throughout his life that he was a serial composer. Yet in this dissertation we have not made much study of referential series of elements, or the serial number squares that feature so prominently in many excellent analyses of his works.329 Nor have we dealt with issues of pitch, duration, dynamics or timbre to any significant degree. Instead, we have investigated spatial motion around listeners, analyzing and quantifying the structures it creates. In the course of analysis, we found that the shapes, densities and speeds of spatial motion have their own structures, which are governed more by intuitive or improvisatory processes, not strict permutations of series of elements. Does this mean that spatial motion is not serial? I suggest that the answer to this question is no. Spatialization is Stockhausens music is indeed serial, but the composers spatial structures often behave in a more stochastic, or probabilistic way. As I have shown, the motion of sounds in space is such a crucial part of Stockhausens compositional project that it cannot be neglected in favor of other,
328 Griffiths 2001, p. 116ff. Other definitions, for instance in Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, tend to emphasize parametricization in serialism more than Griffiths does, but agree in general with basic principles (Frisius 1994). 329 It might be argued that the basic cycles in LICHTER-WASSER are referential in some sense (see 4.1.3). Still, these cycles are not permuted in the same way that Stockhausen typically made use of number squares and other serial ordering techniques.

170 more familiar parameters such as dynamics, rhythm, pitch or timbre.330 The fact that the structure of spatial movement in Stockhausens serial music behaves differently from the structure of other musical aspects suggests that Griffiths definition could be more nuanced. By considering intuitive spatial structures along with more intellectual ordering principles, we set up a dualism. The tension between more ordered aspects and more improvisatory ones helps to mitigate the cold logic of mathematics in serialism with the human and organic process of artistic creation. Stockhausen often masterfully negotiated the boundaries between these two extremes, creating music that is on the one hand logically structured, but on the other hand filled with unexpected twists and turns of originality that break established patterns. While this dualism is present in Stockhausens pitch and formal structures,331 it is experienced most directly in his spatial composition. Integrating this dualism into a more nuanced definition of serialism will help us to appreciate the variety of techniques and the complexity of thought that went into designing these intriguing musical compositions. I hope that by examining the practices of serial spatialization, I have added a wrinkle to future discussions of this music, which continues to fascinate many perceptive listeners today.

330 As quoted in 1.1, Stockhausen once said that instrumental and electronic spatial composition have been my artistic mandate since 1951 (Nauck 1997, p. 173). 331 This is particularly true of GRUPPEN. See Misch 1998a and 1999b.

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180 . 1998b. Texte zur Musik 1984-1991 (Volume 8): DIENSTAG aus LICHT; Elektronische Musik. Ed. Christoph von Blumrder. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 1998c. Texte zur Musik 1984-1991 (Volume 9): ber LICHT; Komponist und Interpret; Zeitwende. Ed. Christoph von Blumrder. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 1998d. Texte zur Musik 1984-1991 (Volume 10): Astronische Musik; Echos von Echos. Ed. Christoph von Blumrder. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2000a. Kompositions-Kurs ber SIRIUS. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2000b. Neue Raum-Musik: OKTOPHONIE. In Komposition und Musikwissenschaft im Dialog I (1997-1998), Signale aus Kln 2, ed. Imke Misch and Christoph von Blumrder, pp. 6079. Saarbrcken: Pfau Verlag. . 2001a. Gesang der Jnglinge: Elektronische Musik. (Facsimile reproduction of the sketches from 1955-56). Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2001b. Kompositions-Kurs ber LICHTER-WASSER. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2002. Kompositions-Kurs ber DER KINDERFNGER. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2003a. Introduction to MANTRA. Tr. John McGuire. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2003b. Kompositions-Kurs ber HOCH-ZEITEN (for choir). Stockhausen Verlag. . 2004. Kompositions-Kurs ber HOCH-ZEITEN (for orchestra). Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2005. Kompositions-Kurs ber LICHT-BILDER. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. Tannenbaum, Mya. 1987. Conversations with Stockhausen. Tr. David Butchart. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Temperley, David. 2001. The Cognition of Basic Musical Structures. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.

181 Toop, Richard. 1974. Messiaen/Goeyvaerts, Fano/Stockhausen, Boulez. Perspectives of New Music, vol 13, no. 1, pp. 141169. . 1975. Karlheinz Stockhausen: from Kreuzspiel to Trans . In Atti dal terzo e quarto Seminario di studi e ricerche sul linguaggio musicale, agosto-settembre 1973, agost-settembre 1974: corsi straordinari per italiani e stranieri. Edited by. R. Shackelford, pp. 5886. Padua: G Zanibon. . 1979. Stockhausen and the Sine-Wave: The Story of an Ambiguous Relationship. Musical Quarterly, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 379391. . 2005. Six Lectures from the Stockhausen Courses Krten 2002. Krten: Stockhausen Foundation for Music. Trochimczyk, Maja [formerly Maria Harley]. 2001. From Circles to Nets: On the Signification of Spatial Sound Imagery in New Music. Computer Music Journal, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 3956. Whittaker, William Gillies. 1940. Collected Essays. Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries Press. Wirtz, Markus. 2000. Licht. Saarbrcken: Pfau-Verlag. Wrner, Karl H. 1973. Stockhausen: Life and Work. Tr. Bill Hopkins. Berkeley: University of California Press. (Revised and expanded from Karl H. Wrner, Stockhausen: Werk und Wollen 1950-1962. Rodenkirchen/Rhein: P. J. Tonger, 1963.) Xenakis, Iannis. 1992. Formalized Music: Thought and Mathematics in Composition. Revised Edition, Harmonologia Series No. 6. Additional material compiled and edited by Sharon Kanach. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press. Scores, CDs, and Other Sources Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1957. ZEITMASSE (score). Vienna: Universal Edition. . 1960. KREUZSPIEL, No. 1/7 fr Oboe, Bassklarinette, Klavier und 3 Schlagzeuger (1951). Vienna, London, New York: Universal Edition (reprinted 2007). . 1966. KONTAKTE. Fr elektronische Klnge, Klavier und Schlagzeug (score). London: Universal Edition.

182 . 1969. TELEMUSIK (score). Vienna: Universal Edition. . [1990]. 8 Abstrze aus INVASION, 08. 10. 1990. Postcard of a sketch, printed in color. Cologne: Gebrder Knig Postkartenverlag, Breitestrasse 93. . 1993b. Compact Disc 6: ZYKLUS, REFRAIN, KONTAKTE. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 1994. OKTOPHONIE (score). Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 1997. FREITAG-VERSUCHUNG (score). Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 1998-9. LICHTER-WASSER (score). Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2000c. Compact Disc 58: LICHTER-WASSER. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2001c. Compact Disc 3: ETUDE, STUDIE I, STUDIE II, GESANG DER JNGLINGE, KONTAKTE. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2001d. HELIKOPTER-STREICHQUARTETT (score). Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2007a. Compact Disc 91: KLANG: Thirteenth Hour, COSMIC PULSES. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2007b. Text-CD 7: MUSIK im RAUM, Text 1958. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2007c. Text-CD 13: Vier Kriterien der Elektronischen Musik (Four Criteria of Electronic Music), Lecture 1963. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. . 2008. KONTAKTE: Elektronishe Musik. Realisationspartitur (score). Krten: Stockhausen Verlag. Stockhausen Verlag. 2008. Stockhausen Work List. Krten: Stockhausen Verlag.

Stockhausen and the Serial Shaping of Space by Paul Miller

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Supervised by Professor Dave Headlam Department of Music Theory Eastman School of Music University of Rochester Rochester, New York

2009

Part 2 Examples

Example 1.2.1a. Seating Plan for GRUPPEN.

184

Example 1.2.2a.
Spatialization in Osaka.

187

195

Example 2.2.1a. Dolby 5.1 Surround Sound

Example 2.2.1b. Dolby 7.1 Surround Sound

both diagrams taken from Dolbys official web site, http://www.dolby.com/consumer/home_entertainment/roomlayout2.html

Example 2.4.6.3a.
v1 v6 v11 v16 v21 v2 v7 v12 v17 v22

Adjacency Matrix A for Graph 1

v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 v22 v23 v24 v25

v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 v22 v23 v24 v25 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0

v3 v8 v13 v18 v23

v4 v9 v14 v19 v24

v5 v10 v15 v20 v25

202

Example 2.4.6.3b
v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 v22 v23 v24 v25 8 4 3 3 4 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 4 8 4 3 3 2 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 4 2 2 2 3 4 8 4 3 2 2 4 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 4 2 2 3 3 4 8 4 2 2 2 4 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 4 2 4 3 3 4 8 2 2 2 2 4 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 8 4 3 3 4 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2

Adjacency Matrix A2 for Graph 1

Example 2.4.6.3c.
Analysis of path outflow for v13 in Graph 1
3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 8 4 3 3 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 4 2 2 2 4 8 4 3 3 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 4 2 2 3 4 8 4 3 2 2 4 2 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 4 2 3 3 4 8 4 2 2 2 4 2 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 4 8 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 8 4 3 3 4 2 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 4 2 2 2 4 8 4 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 4 2 2 3 4 8 4 3 2 2 2 4 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 4 2 3 3 4 8 4 2 2 2 2 4 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 4 8

v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 v22 v23 v24 v25 2 4 2 2 2 4 8 4 3 3 2 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 4 2 2 3 4 8 4 3 2 2 4 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 4 2 3 3 4 8 4 2 2 2 4 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 4 8 2 2 2 2 4 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 8 4 3 3 4 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 4 2 2 2 4 8 4 3 3 2 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 4 2 2 3 4 8 4 3 2 2 4 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 4 2 3 3 4 8 4 2 2 2 4 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 4 8 2 2 2 2 4 2 1 1 2 3

(Total number of paths of cardinality 3 = 64.)

203

Example 2.4.6.4a
v1 v6 v9 v14 v17 v18 v10 v2

Adjacency Matrix A for Graph 2

v1 v3 v7 v11 v15 v19 v20 v12 v4 v5 v8 v13 v16 v21 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21

v1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

v2 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

v3 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0

v4 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

v5 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

v6 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

v7 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

v8 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

205

Example 2.4.6.4b.
v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 7 3 2 3 4 3 1 2 2 1 0 1 2 3 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 3 7 3 3 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 3 6 3 2 1 2 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 3 1 2 2 4 2 2 3 3 3 7 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 4 3 2 3 7 2 1 3 2 1 0 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 2 2 4 3 1 1 2 2 7 2 4 3 1 1 2 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 6 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 3 2 1

Adjacency Matrix A2 for Graph 2

Example 2.4.6.4c.
0 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 3 2 2 1 1 3 4 2 7 2 2 1 1 3 4 2 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 1 0 1 2 3 1 2 7 3 2 3 4 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 7 3 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 1 3 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 2 3 6 3 2 2 2 2 4 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 3 3 7 3 2 2 2 2 4 2 1 3 2 1 0 1 2 2 1 3 4 3 2 3 7

Analysis of path outflow for v11 in Graph 2

1 1 0

v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 2 2 1 1 3 4 2 7 2 2 1 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 1 2 6 2 1 3 4 3 1 2 2 1 0 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 6 2 3 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 1 2 4 2 1 1 2 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 3 2 6 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 0 1 2 2 1 3 4 3 1 2 6 2 1 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 1 2 2 7 2 4 3 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 6 2 1 1 2 1 1

Example 2.4.6.4d.
2 1 1

Analysis of path outflow for v16 in Graph 2

2 3

206

Example 2.4.6.5a
Adjacency Matrix A for Graph 3
v1 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 v2 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 v3 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 v4 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 v5 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 v6 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 v7 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 v8 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 v15 v17 v12 v14 v13 v16 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v5 v2 v4 v6 v1 v3

207

Example 2.4.6.5b.
Adjacency Matrix A2 for Graph 3

Example 2.4.6.5c.
Analysis of path outflow for v9 in Graph 3
1 1 2 1

v1 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 4 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 0

v2 0 4 1 2 0 0 0 2 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 2

v3 0 1 4 2 0 0 2 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 2

v4 0 2 2 4 1 1 0 2 2 2 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

v5 2 0 0 1 4 2 2 1 2 1 0 2 1 1 0 1 0

v6 2 0 0 1 2 4 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 0 0

v7 1 0 2 0 2 0 4 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 2 1

v8 0 2 0 2 1 1 0 4 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 0 0

v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 8 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 4 0 1 1 2 0 2 0 1 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 0 4 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 0 4 2 1 0 0 2 0 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 1 2 2 4 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 2 2 0 1 1 4 2 2 0 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 0 2 0 0 2 4 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 2 0 0 0 2 1 4 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 4 1

1 1

208

Example 2.4.7a.

Spatial orchestration.

tr1 trb3 vla4 tr3 vn4 vla3 cl3 tr2 vn1 vla1 vn2 vla2 tr2 cl2 vn=violin vla = viola tr =trumpet tb = trombone cl = clarinet tb1

cl1

vn3

Example 2.4.7b.

An alternative graph structure based on a placement of different instruments in Graph 3.

tr1 trb3 tb1

vla4

vn1

vla1

vn4

vn2

cl1

cl2

tr3

vla3

vn3

vla2

cl3 tr2

tr2

210

Example 2.5a.
Comparison of set-generating potential in Graphs 1, 2, and 3. Graph 1 Number of vertices Number of edges Type of graph Sets of cardinality 1 Sets of cardinality 2 (A Matrix) Sets of cardinality 3 (A2 Matrix) Sets of cardinality 4 (A3 Matrix) 25 200 regular 25 200 Graph 2 21 136 irregular 21 136 Graph 3 17 72 irregular 17 72

1600

892

320

12,800

5868

1408

211

Example 2.5.1. Matrix representations of traditional transformations as applied to pitch-class

Type of Transformation
Transpose (T)

Description
Transpose a pitch-class x by an interval a

Algebraic Notation
x =x+a x 1

Matrix Notation
= 1 a 0 1 x 1 Transpose PC 5 by 9. 1 9 0 1

Example
5 1 = 5+9 1 = 2 1 result: 2

Invert (I)

Invert a pitch-class x around PC 0 (or 6)

x = mod 12(-x)

x 1

-1 0 0 1

x 1

Invert PC 5 around PC 0.

-1 0 0 1

5 1

mod 12(-5) 1

7 1 result: 7

Invert a pitch-class x around PC b Multiply (M) Multiply PC x by a scalar s.

x = mod 12(x - 2b)

x 1 x 1

1 -2b 0 1 s 0 0 1 x 1

x 1

Invert PC 5 around PC 9. Multiply the PC 5 by 9.

1 -18 0 1 9 0 0 1

5 1 5 1

mod12(5 -18) = 1 1 1 result: 1 (sum 6 relationship) mod 12(45) 1 = 9 1 result: 9

x =s x

213

Example 2.5.2a. Matrix representations of four basic transformations in a plane

Type of Transformation
Translate (T)

Coorelation with pitch

Transpose (T)

Description

Algebraic Notation

Matrix Notation

Example

Move a point to the right a units, and up b units.

x =x+a y =y+b

x y 1

1 0 a 0 1 b 0 0 1

x y 1

Translate (2,1) by (3, -1):

1 0 3 0 1 -1 0 0 1

2 1 1

2+3 1-1 1

5 0 1

result: (5, 0) Rotate (R) counterclockwise none Rotate the point counterclockwise with respect to the origin Rotate the point clockwise with respect to the origin In general, invert in either of the two axes, using the unit vector (ux, uy) Or, where = the angle from the x axis, and the line goes through the origin x = xcos - ysin y = xsin + ycos x y 1 x y 1 x y 1 x y 1 = cos sin 0 cos -sin 0 2u2x - 1 2uxuy 0 cos2 sin2 0 -sin cos 0 sin cos 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 x y 1 x y 1 x y 1 x y 1 Rotate (2,1) 90 degrees counterclockwise: Rotate (2,1) 90 degrees clockwise: Reflect (2,1) around the x-axis (using the unit vector 1 ) 0 Reflect (2,1) across a diagonal line 26.566 degrees from the x-axis; should produce an involution: 0 -1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 -1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 = -1 2 1

result: (-1, 2)

clockwise

none

x = xcos + ysin y = -xsin + ycos

1 = -2 1 2 -1 1

result: (1, -2)

Reflect (F)

Invert (I)

x = x(2u2x - 1) + y(2uxuy) y = x(2uxuy) + y(2u2y - 1)

2uxuy 2u2y - 1 0 sin2 -cos2 0 0 0 1

result: (2, -1) x = xcos2 + ysin2 y = -xsin2 + ycos2 = 0.600 0.800 0 0.800 -0.600 0 0 0 1 1.2 + .8 1.6 - 0.6 1 = 2 1 1

(sin 53.132 = 0.800; cos 53.132 = 0.600)

result: (2, 1) 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 = 1 2 1 -1 -2 1 4 2 1

Reflect across the line x = y

x =y y =x

x y 1 x y 1 x y 1

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 -1 0 -1 0 0 0 0 1 sx 0 0 0 sy 0 0 01

x y 1 x y 1 x y 1

Reflect (2,1) across the line x = y: Reflect (2,1) across the line x = -y: Scale (multiply) the point (2,1) by 2:

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 -1 0 -1 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1

result: (1, 2)

Reflect across the line x = -y

x = -y y = -x

result: (-1, -2)

Scale (S)

Multiply (M)

Scales the point with respect to the origin

x = sx x y = sy y

result: (4, 2)

214

Example 2.5.3a. A space with four sound sources

1

Example 2.5.3b. Transformations in the space of Example 2.5.3a.

Rotation: r0 Flip: f1

( (

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

) (
r1

1 2

2 3

3 4

4 1

) )

r2

( (

1 3

2 4

3 1

4 2

) (
r3

1 4

2 1

3 2

4 3

) )
216

1 4

2 3

3 2

4 1

) (
f2

1 2

2 1

3 4

4 3

f3

1 3

2 2

3 1

4 4

) (
f4

1 1

2 4

3 3

4 2

219

Example 2.6.2a.
r0 r0 r1 r2 r3 f1 f2 f3 f4 r0 r1 r2 r3 f1 f2 f3 f4

Group table of the dihedral group D4. r1 r1 r2 r3 r0 f3 f4 f2 f1 r2 r2 r3 r0 r1 f2 f1 f4 f3 r3 r3 r0 r1 r2 f4 f3 f1 f2 f1 f1 f4 f2 f3 r0 r2 r3 r1 f2 f2 f3 f1 f4 r2 r0 r1 r3 f3 f3 f1 f4 f2 r1 r3 r0 r2 f4 f4 f2 f3 f1 r3 r1 r2 r0

The graph and its transformations are defined in Example 2.5.3b.

Example 2.6.3a.
e e a aa b bb c cc d dd e a aa b bb c cc d dd

Group Table of Translation Group

a a aa e d cc b dd c bb

aa aa e a c dd d bb b cc

b b d c bb e dd a cc aa

bb bb cc dd e b aa d a c

c c b d dd aa cc e bb a

cc cc dd bb a d e c aa b

d d c b cc a bb aa dd e

dd dd bb cc aa c a b e d

220

Example 3.1.1a.
Nuclear Formulas in Stockhausens LICHT

221

Example 3.1.1b.

Superformula for LICHT

Monday

Tuesday

(Tuesday)

Wednesday

Thursday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

222

Example 3.1.2.

Study for OKTOPHONIE.

Example 3.1.3a. Formal Structure of OKTOPHONIE, Part 1

= crash = explosion

A thick line indicates the bomb takes longer to descend

Part 1 Time 0 (minutes): bombs: shots:

1
1

2
10

4
20 23

5
24

10

11

12

13

14
50

15
55

16
60

17
65

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 37

40 44 45 46

10

13 14 15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

1st Luftangriff/ 1st Air Strike

1st Invasion

2nd Luftangriff/ 2nd Air Strike

18 (continued) shots:

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36:18 36

25

26 27 28

30

34 37

38 39

41 42 43 44 45

48

2nd Invasion

Kampf/Battle 223

Example 3.1.3b. Formal Structure of OKTOPHONIE, Part 2

= crash = explosion

Part 2 3rd Invasion with Explosions 1 Time (minutes): 0

10

11

12

13

14

shots:

1 4 5 6 9

11 15 1617

Piet

10:00

3rd Invasion

13:00

Jenseits/Beyond...

15 (continued)

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

...Jenseits/Beyond

17:14

Synthi-Fou (Klavierstck XV)

22:36

Abschied, Spiegelwelt/Farewell, Mirror World

(31:54) 224

Example 3.2.1a. Sketch for the spatialization of OKTOPHONIE

225

228

Example 3.2.2a. Bomb Analysis 1

229

Example 3.2.2b. Bomb Analysis 2

231

Example 3.2.2d.
Combined Scatter Plot of Bombs in OKTOPHONIE.

232

Example 3.2.2e.
Coordinates of Bombs

Decibel settings
id 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 NW (II) 5 -3 0 6 -3 2.5 -5 3 -16 -5 0 -16 3 -7.5 5 2 -10 -12.5 6 3 -7.5 1 -14 -8 -12 1.5 -8 -12.5 -7 6.5 0 -11 -10 -10 10 7 -6.5 -12.5 2.5 6 1 -10 -25 -9 -5 -10 2 -11 3.5 -2 -13 4 -11 -2.5 1 -10 0 0 -2.5 -1 -11 -12.5 -3 -10 -12 NE (III) 5 -1 6.5 -2.5 -4 4 -9 -10 -7 2.5 -10 -1 2 3 -11 -7 -10 3 -8 -8 1.5 -10 -14 -9 -10 1 -8 -10 -11 -4 0 3 0.5 -8 10 -7 -5.5 -8 2.5 6 0 -10 -25 2.5 -9 2.5 -7 5 -11 -12 -14 3.5 -1 -1 1 -11 -12.5 -7.5 -4 1 -6 0 -2.5 -10.5 -6 SW (I) 5 5 -12 -12 5 -7 3.5 -15 -8 4 3 -4 3.5 7 -8 -12 3 -5 2.5 -10 5 0.5 0.5 2 -6 3 3 0 2 -3 2 -12 2 2.5 -4 7.5 3 5 3 6 4 -1 -1 4 -10 1 -10 -12 -12 5 -2 1 -14 -4 0 0 2.5 -8 0 -5 -9 -10 2.5 4.5 -6 SE (IV) 5 -9 -4 -10 3 -0.5 2 5 2.5 -6 -6 2.5 2.5 -12 -1 5 3 0 5 3.5 -6 -8 -2 1.5 2.5 1.5 -5 5 2 6 -2.5 3 -9 2.5 5.5 5 5 5 4 7.5 1.5 7.5 0 -5 4 -7 4 5 -2 -2.5 1 2 2.5 1 0 1 -7 2 0 3 7 0.5 2.5 4 1 intersection point (0, 0) (-3.1, -1.7) (2.6, 4.6) (-3.3, 5.8) (-0.7, -3.3) (1.3, 2.7) (-0.7, -4.1) (3.5, -2.9) (3.8, -3.6) (-0.8, -0.6) (-3.9, -1.1) (3.6, -1.9) (-0.4, -0.2) (-6.1, -5.4) (-3.8, 3.3) (2.6, -1.9) (0, -5.1) (4.2, 0.4) (-2, -1) (0.5, -0.2) (-1.7, -2) (-4.1, 0) (-1.1, -4.5) (-0.2, -4.2) (3, -4.1) (-0.4, -0.4) (-2.7, -3.5) (1.8, -5.5) (-0.2, -4.4) (-0.5, 0.2) (-1, 0.2) (5.5, 0) (-0.7, -0.9) (0.1, -4.7) (0.9, 4) (-3.1, -1.6) (0.7, -4.4) (0.1, -6) (0.2, -0.4) (0.4, -0.4) (-0.7, -0.9) (3.5, -6.2) (0.6, -5.9) (-0.4, -1.2) (4, -3.8) (1, 0.5) (1.5, -1) (6.3, 0) (-3.3, 3.4) (-3.3, -3.1) (1.2, -4.6) (0.1, 0.9) (4.9, -1.2) (1.6, -0.3) (0, 0.4) (0.3, -4.3) (-4.3, -1) (0.8, -0.7) (-0.3, -1.7) (2.2, 0.1) (6, -5.3) (4.4, -0.3) (0.1, -2.4) (-0.2, -5.8) (2.7, -2.7)

234

Example 3.2.3b. Shot Analysis 1

235

Example 3.2.3c. Shot Analysis 2

236

Example 3.2.3d. Shot Analysis 3

237

Example 3.2.3e. Combined Scatter Plot of Shots 1-48

238

Example 3.2.3f.
Coordinates of shots 1-48
id 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

Decibel settings
Front left (II) 0 -8 3 -6 -7 5 5 -12 -4 2 2 3 5 -6 0 5 -2 4 -2.5 -2.5 0 -12.5 -4 -2 5 4 -10 5 -9 3 3 0 -5 0.5 2 0 1.5 1 7 -7 -2 3 -11 -2 0 0 -5 -0.5

Decibel settings
SW SE (VIII) intersection (V) point 0 0 (0, 0) 3 -15 (-4.7, -2.4) -16 3 (4.8, -1.6) 4 2 (-0.8, -3.5) -4.5 -12.5 (6, 6) -14 5 (6.1, 0.1) 5 5 (0.5, -5.3) -16 -2 (-0.4, 4.6) -6 5 (0.5, -1.7) 1 -1 (0.1, -3.5) -2 3 (3.2, -1.2) 5 1 (-2.1, 0.6) 5 1 (0.2, -3.5) 8 2.5 (-2.4, -4) -6 3 (1.8, -2.2) 5 3 (-0.1, -4.3) -2.5 3 (2.6, -3.4) -2 4 (1.6, -4) 3 -2.5 (-3.2, -0.6) -5 2.5 (0.3, -2.5) 5 3 (-0.1, -4.3) 5 0 (-0.8, -0.6) 5 -11 (-4.6, -4.9) 4 -9 (-4.2, -4.8) 6 6 (0, -2.4) -12 5 (3.4, -2.6) 2 -10 (-1.1, -1.1) -5 0 (1.8, -0.5) -1 -6 (-2.2, -1.5) -12 -1 (1.3, -0.4) 0 0 (0, 0) -1 -1 (0.4, -4.5) 0 0 (0, 0) -2 -2 (-0.4, -4.1) 0 -25 (-3.9, -1.8) -19 0 (2.6, -0.4) 0 0 (0, -2.8) -13 -1 (1.3, -0.5) -1 -9 (-0.8, -0.8) -5 0.5 (1.8, -1.3) -12.5 -1 (3.2, -1) -5 1.5 (3, -1.6) -1 -4 (-1.6, -2.3) -2 -4 (0, -2.1) -7 0.5 (3.2, -1.9) -6 1 (3.8, -0.7) -5 -8 (-3.1, 0.5) -7 -7.5 (1.8, 2.2)

Front stereo NW (VI) NE right (III) location (VII) 0 0 0 0 2 4.2 -4 -9 -5 -3.6 -8 -2 2 3.5 -4 -6 7 6 -13 5 -12.5 -6.6 -8 5 -4 -4 -17 -3 0 4.5 5 1.5 -0.5 1.7 4 -14 -11 -5 -16 -4 -4 -2.8 -10 1.5 4 0.4 7 1 1 -1.6 -17 1 5 4.8 -1 -7 0 0 -2 -8 0 -1.9 -10 -2.5 2.5 2 -14 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -4.5 -11 -1 0.8 2.5 -7 0 1.4 0 -25 -5 -2.5 -10 -2.5 0.5 4.8 1 2 0 2 -12.5 -1 -1 0.5 -12.5 -7 -5 -4.4 0 0 -2 -2.6 0 -7 2.5 5 -10 0 5 0 -4 -2 -5 1.3 -4 -11 -5 -3.6 -3 -7 -7 -4.3 0 0 3 1.1 -25 -10 4 4 0 0 -5 -2.6 -11 -25 -7 -3.9 -7 -7 5 1.9 -3 -5 2.5 0.4 -6 -6 -8 -3.8 -3 -8 4 -1.3 -9 -3 -2 2.1 -5 -3.5 -12 -3.4 -11 -4 -0.5 -1.4 -10 -2 1 4.6 -6 -12 1 1.5 -12 -6 -12 -4.5 -14 -3.5 -5 -2.5 -12 0 2.5 3.4 -1.5 -21 0.5 0.5 -6 0

239

Example 3.2.3g. Shot analysis 1 for shots in the second half of OKTOPHONIE.

240

Example 3.2.3h. Shot analysis 2 for shots in the second half of OKTOPHONIE.

241

Example 3.2.3i. Combined Scatter Plot of Shots in the second half of OKTOPHONIE
Endingpoints of shots 1-18. (celing)

Starting points of the first group (shots 1-10, floor)

Starting points of the second group (shots 11-18, front)

Example 3.2.3j. Coordinates of shots 1-10 in the second half of OKTOPHONIE

Decibel settings
ID 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 bottom sw I -16 -19 -15 -10 -13 0 -7 -7 -9 -14 bottom nw II 0 -2.5 0 0 -6 -7.5 -18 -18 0 -7.5 bottom ne III 0 0 -7 -2 0 -7 -16 -16 -5 0 bottom se IV -15 -11 -28 -16 -12 -5 0 0 -11 0 top sw V 0 0 -12.5 -4 0 -5 0 0 -19 0 top nw VI 0 -6 -7.5 -11 -0.5 -10 -4 -4 -8 -4 top ne VII -1 -9 -5 -7.5 0 -7.5 -12 -12 -9 -13 top se VIII 0 -13 0 0 0 0 -12 -12 -4 -9 bottom top intersection intersection point point (0, 5.1) (-0.3, -0.3) (1.4, 4.3) (-3.3, -1.8) (-2.9, 4.5) (3.1, -1.5) (-1.1, 4) (1.7, -2.9) (2.2, 3.6) (0.1, -0.1) (-1.6, -2.3) (1.9, -2.7) (2.6, -4.3) (-3.7, -1.5) (2.6, -4.3) (-3.7, -1.5) (-1.9, 3.1) (1.7, -0.2) (4.1, 0.3) (-3.4, -1.7)

Example 3.2.3k. Coordinates of shots 11-18 in the second half of OKTOPHONIE

Decibel settings
id left bottom II 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 -2.5 -12 -5 -8 0 0 -5 -15 left top VI 0 -2.5 -8 0 -10 0 0 -7 right top right bottom III IV -0.5 0 0 -14 -2 0 0 0 -2 0 -3 0 -13 0 -5 0 top sw V 0 -1 -5 -11 0 0 -3 -3 top nw VI -7 -6 -10 -10 -10 -10 -15 -15 top ne VII -7 -4 -12 -2 -9 -9 -15 -15 top se VIII 0 -8 -2 0 0 0 -3.5 -3.5 front intersection point (-0.1, 1.1) (2.7, 1) (2.3, 0.7) (-0.4, -0.4) (-1.4, -1) (0, 0) (0, 2.5) (4.1, 0.4) top intersection point (0, -3.2) (-1.2, -0.7) (0.7, -2.6) (3.7, -0.8) (0.1, -3.9) (0.1, -3.9) (-0.1, -3.4) (-0.1, -3.4)

242

243

Example 3.2.4a. Crash Analysis

244

Example 3.2.4b.
Combined scatter plot of crashes

Starting points (on the ceiling)

Ending points (on the floor)

Example 3.2.4c. Coordinates of the crashes

id 1 4 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 bottom sw I 6 3 -7.5 -5 0 -16 -5 -12 -5 -27 -10 bottom nw II -2 10 0 5 0 -9 -9 -6 -11 -15 0 bottom ne III -2.5 -1 -6 -3 -1 0 0 0 -8 4 0

Decibel settings
bottom se IV 6 0 -15 -8 0 0 -14 -7 0 -7 -8 top sw V 0 4 -6 -2.5 -2 3 -5 5 5 5 4 top nw VI 0 -4 -2 -14 -4.5 2.5 0 -10 1 -12.5 -12.5 top ne VII 0 -6 -8 -4.5 -11 -7 -25 -2.5 2 -1 -7 top se VIII 0 2 3 3 4 -2.5 2.5 3 0 -11 -8 bottom intersection point (-0, -3.6) (-3.7, 2.4) (-2.5, 3) (-2.9, 3.7) (-0.3, -0.3) (4.5, 0.3) (1.8, 2.6) (2.3, 2.7) (2, -2.9) (6, 4.4) (0.1, 3.7) top intersection point (0, 0) (-0.8, -3.5) (1.8, -2.2) (2.6, -3.4) (1.6, -4) (-3.2, -0.6) (0.3, -2.5) (-0.1, -4.3) (-0.8, -0.6) (-4.6, -4.9) (-4, -4.7)

Example 3.2.4d.

Shape of a descending crash

Example 3.3.1a. Alternative loudspeaker arrangement for OKTOPHONIE.

245

Example 3.4.2e. Plot of distances and angles of the 65 bombs

12 distance separating consecutive bombs (in meters) 10 8 6 4 2 0 180 Angles between sets of three bombs (in degrees) 150 100 50 0 8 16 24 32 Bomb number 40 48 56 64 249

16

24

32 Bomb number

40

48

56

64

Example 3.4.3e. Change in distance and angle for the endpoints of the first 48 shots
12 10 Distance between consecurive shots (in meters) 8 6 4 2 0 180 Angles between sets of three shots (in degrees) 150 100 50 0 8 16 24 Shot number 32 40 48 253

8 crashes

16

24 Shot number

32

40

48

Example 3.4.4a.
Crash Time pt of crash

Distance from preceeding bomb to the next crash

Preceding Bomb 1 23 24 34 36 43 45 51 54 61 64 Time pt of bomb 1:00 4:46.7 5:36 10:42.1 11:04 12:25 12:56.3 14:11.8 14:41.2 15:59.2 16:38.4 Coordinates of start of crash X-cord Y-cord 0 -0.8 1.8 2.6 1.6 -3.2 0.3 -0.1 -0.8 -4.6 -4 0 -3.5 -2.2 -3.4 -4 -0.6 -2.5 -4.3 -0.6 -4.9 -4.7 Coordinates of bomb X-cord Y-cord 0 -1.1 -0.2 0.1 -3.1 0.6 4 1.2 1.6 6 -0.2 0 -4.5 -4.2 -4.7 -1.6 -5.9 -3.8 -4.6 -0.3 -5.3 -5.8 Time from Distance bomb to from bomb crash (m:s.s) to crash (m) 00:00.00 00:00.10 00:41.60 00:00.00 00:18.40 00:04.50 00:13.50 00:05.10 00:16.00 00:05.10 00:06.20 0 1.04 2.83 2.82 5.28 6.52 3.92 1.33 2.42 10.61 3.96

1 4 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

1:00 4:46.8 7:17.6 10:42.1 11:22.4 12:29.5 13:09.8 14:16.9 14:57.2 16:04.3 16:44.6

256

260

Example 4.1.3a.
The Kernformeln or Nuclear Formulas in LICHTER-WASSER (central pitches)

M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6

M7

M8

M9

M10

M11

M12 M13

261

Example 4.1.3a (continued).

The Kernformeln or Nuclear Formulas in LICHTER-WASSER (central pitches)

E1

E2

E3

E4

E5

E6

E7

E8

E9

E10

E11

E12

262

Example 4.1.3b. Division of the 29 musicians into two orchestras.

Eve instruments are in light grey (normally, green); Michael instruments are in dark grey (normally, blue). These cycles are refered to as the basic cycles throughout.

Example 4.1.3c. Formal Structure and Pitch Structure of LICHTER-WASSER

Wave sections are abbreviated M1, E1, etc. Nuclear formula material is abbreviated M1NF, M2NF, etc. v = vertical; h = horizontal

AnfangsDuett

Eingang

M1*

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6

M7

M8

M9 M10

M11

M12

Ausgang

SchlussDuett

M1NF E1NF

M1NF E1NF

E1* 1st Bridge M2NF E1NF

E2

E3 2nd Bridge E3NF M4-5NF

E4 3rd Bridge M6-8NF E5-9NF

E5

E6

E7

E8

E9

E10

E11 6th Bridge M12NF E12NF

E12

5th Bridge M10NF E10NF

M1NF (v) M13NF (h) E1NF (v) E12NF (h)

M1NF E2NF

4th Bridge 1st Announcement M9NF? E10NF M9-10NF E10NF 2nd Announcement E10NF (M9NF)

4th Bridge (repeated) M9-10NF E10NF 3rd Announcement M9NF

* Each wave section (M1E1 etc.) is based on its corresponding nuclear formula. The nuclear formulas are given in Example 4.1.3a. , ,

263

264

Example 4.2.1a. Various spatial shapes Stockhausen considered using in LICHTER-WASSER

Example 4.3.3a. LICHTER-WASSER, mm. 139-147.

265

Example 4.3.3b.

LICHTER-WASSER, mm. 398-401.

266

Example 4.3.3c. LICHTER-WASSER, mm. 249-253.

267

Example 4.3.3d.

LICHTER-WASSER, mm. 336-340.

268

Example 4.3.3e.

LICHTER-WASSER, mm. 324-328.

269

Example 4.3.4a. Sequence of instrumental moves in wave sections (page 1 of 5)

mwave1(106) f2 kb ewave1(101) tu v5 t2 p2 k f1 f1 eu va5 k v3 va3 b t1 h2 v5 f2 v2 th va3 t1 tu eu v5 th p2 va5 k eh t1 v2 tu va3 b f2 v1 v5 k k f2 v5 b kb va5 t1 t2 f1 t1 va3 k v3 eh va3 th t2 h1 p1 v1 k v2 kb v2 h2 f2 v5 eu fa1 v3 f1 v4 p2 va4 ob eu t2 va5 va5 f1 b v5 h1 kb k ob v4 t1 v2 v1 va2 f1 va5 b h1 h2 va4 v2 v2 v1 v3 t2 va1 va2 v1 va3 t1 ob v4 va3 th fa1 v3 eh tu tu p2 eu eu va3 v2 eu th v1 va2 va1 eh tu va2 v1 va1 v3 f2 t1 va3 th

For a key to the abbreviations, see Example 4.3.4g.

th fa2 ob v3 v4 kb t2 t2 kb kb v4 h2 ob k v4 ob v5 v4 f2 h2 va2 va1 eh fa1 f1

fa1 p2 tu eu

fa1 sax p1 b tu fa1 p1 fa2 eu eh eh th

va5 b va4 h1

p1 sax fa1 p2 kb va5 b

tu

eu

fa2 b

va5 b

p1

sax fa1 p2 p1 b mwave2(106) v5 f2 eh t2 ewave2(105) t1 f1

fa2 b

p1 sax fa1 p2 tu p2

fa2 b b k

va5 h1

va3 th

va4 h2

p1 h2

fa2 sax

va5 h1 k v1 ob f1 f1 v3 p2 f2 k

va4 h2 v4 th v2 kb va2 f1 sax p1 eh

fa2 eu v4 t2 b

fa1 sax p1 th f2 k h1 ob h1

va5 h1 va4 h2 t1 t1 fa2 va3 t1 eh t2 va1 v3 kb v2

ob va4 h1 f1 v3 eh p1 f1

va1 t2 t1 v4 ob

f2

f2

t1 p1

eh eh

va2 v1 f1 t2 tu

v2

kb

v1

va2 va1 p2 f1

va3 th

v5 va5 b va3 th th f2

va3 th

va5 v5 f2

fa1 f1 kb p2 h2

v3 f1 v2 v1

va1 f1

va1 t1

va2 va3 v1

p1 fa1 tu v3 p1 va2 t2 t1 eu

h1 va5 f2 va5 v5 k

va4 fa2 h2 eu v1 h1 h2 tu k

va2 va1 sax fa1 va2 tu eu p2 sax v3 va4 kb h2

fa1 sax fa2 va1 f1 h1 th fa2 h2 eu

fa2 eh va1 sax

va3 b

va4 v4 t1 ob v2

fa1 va1 fa2 va2 h2 p1 t2 p2 fa1 eu va2 v1 eu t2 tu

fa1 p1 eh

fa1 eh b f2 t1

sax p1 eh va3 th v4

va5 v5 k p1 h2 ob

va3 v4 t1 h2

mwave3(85)

k f1

va5 v5 h1 tu h1

va4 h2 v2

fa2 va1 eh v2 v4

v3 fa1 sax f1 ob va4 v4 eu va2 eh ob

kb

tu t1

h2 eu va3 b p1

t2 t1

tu f2

kb b

v1 v5

eu

v1 va2 f1 v5 k

p2 va5 th

sax fa1 v3 h2

sax fa1 p1

v3 eh p2 tu

fa2 eh p1

fa2 h2

h1 va4 th eu b

h1 va3 th p1 eh

va5 f2

h1 k ewave3(44) eu

fa2 p1 va2 eu th h1 ob p2 tu p1 v4 t2 t2

fa1 va1 sax fa1 p1 fa2 p2

va3 k

fa2 va5 b

fa2 th

h1 fa2 va3 k

va4 h2

va3 k mwave4(116) f2 v5

va5 k

h2 kb eu tu

tu kb

t2 h2

va2 f1 v4 h1

fa1 v3 k

p1 v5

b p1 k

v4 eu

sax eh

t1

va3 th t1 b p1 eu

v2 v1 b eh th f2 t1

va2 va1 fa2 va3 t1 v5 va5 k

va1 va2 v1

v1 v1 eh

v2 th v2 v4

va4

p1 v3 ob v4 ewave4(117) th h1 va3 eu

sax fa1 f1 h2 kb eu f2

va5 v5 f2 va4 ob h1 th f2 eh p1

v3 fa1 f1 va5 v5 k eu h1 h2 f2 th

sax va1 eh p1 v3 eh

va3 fa2 va2 p2 t2 v2 t1 kb v4 f2 h2 h2 kb

va4 h1

p2 f1 h2 h2

fa1 sax va1 fa2 th va4 h1 fa2 p2 fa2 h2 tu eu va5 v5 b p1 tu

va3 fa2 va2 v1 k tu b p1 eu va2 fa2 eh

fa1 h2 va5 v5

va4 h1

va3 th tu eu

va4 h1

fa2 h2 tu

fa2 b

va4 h1

va3 fa1 h1

p1 va5 va3 eu fa2 va2 p2 p1

p1

va3 b fa1 sax

va1 fa1 va3 k

fa1 sax p2

va2 fa2 va1 eh fa2 va2 p2 tu

fa1 p2

fa1 sax p2 sax va1 fa2 p1

p2 va1 p1

sax fa1 p2

fa2 va2 p2

h2 fa2 va2 p2

270

Example 4.3.4b. Sequence of instrumental moves in wave sections (page 2 of 5)

mwave5(68) eh th ewave5(134) b t2 f1 v3 b va1 va2 v1 va5 k h1 h2 h2 h1 eu h1 tu kb v2 eh h2 f2 kb b t1 eh v2 va4 th h1 k v1 va5 v5 t1 f2 p1 v2 eu th v3 fa1 f1 va3 k tu p2 t1 p2 t2 va1 eh p2 v3 b fa2 tu h2 p1 eu b th tu f2 fa2 tu h2 v3 th h2 h1 eu p1 b tu fa1 va5 t1 kb p1 va2 va1 sax fa2 eh v2 h2 v4 va4 va3 t1 p1 ob v4 tu b eu h2 kb va4 h1 th sax eu p2 p2 tu va2 p2 h2 eu v3 fa2 th eu fa1 sax fa1 tu h2 h1 v2 f1 ob fa1 sax fa2 fa1 tu fa1 sax p2 fa2 eu p2 tu eu h2 h2 va4 th th va4 b fa2 b va5 b h1 th p1 fa1 sax p2 fa1 p2 tu eu tu eu h2 fa2 th h1 b va4 h1 p1 va3 va5 b p1 eu b sax p1 h2 th v3 kb fa1 p1 fa2 tu eu fa1 va4 va3 ob k t2 kb v2 va5 v5 f2 v4 va1 f1 va2 v1 f2 kb v2 v4 f1 va4 va3 k va1 va2 v1 va5 v5 v2 kb f1 va1 v1 k va2 kb ob va4 va3 va5 v5 k v3 eh v4 va4 ob va3 va5 v5 p1 fa2 b fa2 eu h1 th b p2 tu sax fa1 fa2 sax p1 tu b p2 fa1 p1 h1 va5 b p1

p2 fa1 sax fa2 p1 fa1 b p2 tu mwave6(91) k fa2 th f2 p1 fa1 sax fa2 va2 p2 va5 v5 v4 eh v3 f1 v2 ob f2 ewave6(83) v3 va4 k

h1 fa2 th

sax fa1 p1

fa2 h1

h2 eu

sax eu

va4 h1

fa2 va3 va5 b fa2 th

fa1 p2 tu ob v4

fa2 h2 th

sax fa1 p2

va1 v1 va2 kb

va3 va5 v5 f2 va2 v1 t2 va4 h1 b th

va1 va2 v1

va1 v3 f1 eu eu tu tu h2 h2

fa1 sax p2 sax fa1 p2 tu h2 fa2

fa2 p1 p1

h1 fa2 b

sax p1

h2 fa2 th

sax fa1 p2

fa2 eu

mwave7(402)

ob v4 eh t1

va4 k t1 f1 v3

va3 va5 v5 va5 v5 va2 v1 t2 v2 f2 t2 v4

f2 eh kb

t1 v3 v2

eh f1 v4

v3

f1

va1 va2 t2 v1 v2 va3 k f2

f1

v1

v2 ob f2

va4 v4 k eh t1

ob

va3 va5 v5 f2 eh t1 eh va1 f1 v2

f2

t1

eh v1

v3 v2

f1

va1 t2 v2

v1 v4

va2 v2 va4 ob t1 f2 t2

kb k

v4 va4 ob va3 va5 v5 eh

k f2 v3 t2 v4

va3 va5 eh

va1 va2 t2 va4 ob k va3 t1 v5 f2 f1

va4 v4 va5 v5 eh

va3 va5 v5 va1 v3 va2 t2 v2 v4

v3 va1 va2 f1 va2 t2

v1 t2 v4 ob k t1

va4 va3 k t1 eh

va5 v5 f2 v3

va1 f1 v1 kb

va2 v1 v2 v4

ob va4 k va3 va5 t1 eh t2 t1 v1

va5 v5 eh v3

va1 v3 t2 ob f2 f1 p1 f1

fa1 f1 va2 v1 va4 k t1 eh

v1 kb va4 ob

v4 va3 va4 ob va5 v5 f2

va5 v5 eh v1 v3 t2

va1 va2 f1 v2

ob va4 k va5 v5 eh th f2

va1 va2 f1 t2 v2 v4

va3 k t1 eh t2

va1 f1 kb k eh

va2 v1 f1 ob f2 f2 v5 va4 k v3 eh eh f2 v3 v3

ob va4 va3 k f2 f1 eu t1 v2 va1 v3 v1 v4 v1 h2 kb

va1 v3 v2 h1 v4 k

va2 v1

va3 va5 v5 f2 v3 v2 va1 f1 t2 kb

va1 va3 va2 f1 f1 v2 k ob th v4 t1

v2 v4 va5 v5 v3 f1 b v5 b

va5 v5 t1 p2 f1 va1 t2 va1

va2 f1

ob va4 k eh t1 b va5 b va5 v5

va3 va5 v5 t1 v5 f2 va1 v3 f2 eh eh v3

va2 v1 v4 v2 v1 v2

va4 va3 ob va5 v5 f2 h1

va2 t2

v2 va4 v4 v2 v4 ob

ob k va4 k

va3 va5 v5 f2 va3 t1

va2 v1

va3 va1 t2 t2

va4 ob va2 v4

va1 va2 v1

fa2 va3 va4 ob

v3 va1 va2 f1 va1 va2 v1

va4 k

va3 va5 t1

va2 t2 eh ewave7(99) f2

fa2 va3 k

va4 v4 ob

va5 t1

fa1 p1

fa2 b th

p1

fa1 sax p2 b

eu p1

tu

kb

h2

h1 eu

th tu

fa2 va3 va5 b h2 fa2 th va3 t1

p1

fa1 sax p2

eu

tu

h2 h1 eu tu

th h2

fa2 va3 va5 v5 fa2 b p1

p1

fa1 sax p2 eu eu tu

tu

h2 v4

va4 h1

fa2 va3 va5 t1

fa1 sax p2 tu h2

h1 va4 b va5 b p1

p1 fa1 sax p2 sax

sax fa1 p2

h2 fa2 th

h1 va3 va5 b

p1 sax fa1 p2

fa2 va1 va2 eu

va4 h1 th

271

Example 4.3.4c. Sequence of instrumental moves in wave sections (page 3 of 5)

mwave8(255) f2 k v5 t1 va5 k va3 v4 b v5 ob eh ob v4 va4 ob k va3 t1 f2 v5 f2 f2 va5 t1 v3 eh v4 v1 ob va3 k f2 ob ob v4 va4 ob t1 k v5 f2 v3 p1 f2 eh t1 v5 va5 va3 v2 v4 va4 va3 va5 v5 f2 k t2 va3 t1 v1 v5 f1 va5 b v5 eh v3 va5 v3 f2 ob va4 k va5 k v4 kb t1 va5 v5 v4 eh kb t1 v5 t2 v5 va5 k va4 f1 va3 v4 va5 t1 ob t1 va4 ob k va5 eh v4 kb b t2 va5 v5 v3 f2 f1 va1 va2 v1 v4 ob va4 ob p1 eh va3 va4 ob t2 f1 v3 v1 kb va3 kb va5 k f1 va3 k v5 f1 v1 v5 va5 k v3 eh t1 v5 t2 v4 va4 va3 kb va2 va1 f1 va5 k v3 eh ob t1

v5 va5 k t2 f1 v3

va2 va1 f2 v4 t1 kb t2

va5 k v3 eh

va3 v2 v1 va5 k f1 ob

va2 va1 f2 v4 t1 kb t2

va4 kb va3 v2 v5 va5

va3 v1

va2 va1 f2 ob v4 eh eu t1 tu v2

va3 v2 v1 v5 va5 k

va2 va1 f2 ob v4 kb

v1 va2 va1 f2 k ewave8(214) ob v4 kb

v5 va5 k t2 th tu va1 v3 h1 p2 h2

sax eh

va3 v2

va2 va1 f2

v3 eh

va3 v2 v1

va2 va1 f2

va3 v2 p2 b

v1 va2 va1 va1 fa2 th va4 ob h1 h2 v4 h2 eu eu h1 tu tu p2 p2 fa1 sax p1 b sax fa1 f1 h2 eu eh tu t2 fa2 th h1 h2 eu tu b va2 p2 va1 sax fa1 p1 h1 va4 h2 eh eu b tu h1 va5 va3 t2 p2

sax b th h1

fa2 p1 h2 v2 p2 h1 v1 v3 eu

fa1 p1 b fa2 th h1

sax fa1 p1 sax p1

sax fa1 f1 p2 tu p1

sax fa1 p1

va5 va3 th b

va2 v1 eu b mwave9(140) tu th

fa2 va1 va2 v1 sax fa1 p1 h2 eu eu tu tu p2 b p2

fa1 sax p1 b h1 eu b

va5 va3 fa2 th h2 tu va2 p2 h1 k

va4 v4

v1 v2 fa2 h1

fa2 va2 va1 sax p1 th h2 eu tu p2

va5 va3 fa2 th b

va4 h2

va5 fa2 va3 th t2 kb t2 p2 v2 v1 fa1 p1 va1 v4 kb v2

va1 sax fa1 p1 va4 fa2 h2 va5 v5 eh v5 eu

fa2 b

sax fa1 sax p1 t1 eh

fa1 sax p1 va4 th va5 v5

fa2 k fa1

va3 th

p2 va2 va1 sax fa1 sax fa1 p1 b v3 sax f1 v3 f1 kb t2 va2 va1 v1 v1 v2 kb kb v4

va5 k v4 ob ob

fa2 va3 h1 k

h2 v2 va1 f1 f2 f1 eh

va2 va1 sax fa1 p1

va5 b v4 ob t1

va1 va2 t2

va1 v1

ob va4 va3 va1 t1 va4 t1 k t1

va1 f2 f2 eh

va4 va3 va1 t1 va3 t1 t1 eh eu

sax va1 va2 f1 kb v1 th v1 v2 v2 v4 b tu p1 h2 th v4 ob

va1 va3 va5 k f2 f1 p1

sax va2 va1 t2 v2 v4

va4 k f2

va1 va3 sax

va2 t2 kb

ob va4 va3 va1 eh va4 va3 k h2

va5 v5 v3 va1 sax v3 th b

sax f1 va2 fa2 fa1 p2

va2 t2

va1 v1

va4 ob

va3 k

va5 v5

v3 va1 sax f1

va2 t2 ewave9(124)

va5 v5 f2

fa1 sax eu b th p1 p1

fa2 p2 tu

va4 h1 fa2 sax eu th t1 sax p2

tu

h2 th tu

va4 h1 b p1

fa2 sax eu fa1 p2 tu

th h2

p1 fa1 p2

tu

h2 va4 h1 th tu b h2 p1

fa2 sax eu fa1 p2 tu

th h2

fa1 p2 sax p1

va4 h1 fa2 sax eu p1 fa1 p2 tu h2

h2 va4 h1 th b

fa2 sax eu p1 fa1 p2

va4 h1 fa2 sax eu th b p1 fa1 p2

va4 h1

fa2 sax eu

va4 h1

fa2 sax eu

h2 va4 h1

fa2 sax eu

va4 h1 fa2 sax eu

272

Example 4.3.4d. Sequence of instrumental moves in wave sections (page 4 of 5)

mwave10(156) fa2 t1 va1 eh ob v4 f1 ewave10(292) v3 va3 v2 f2 kb f2 h1 h1 h1 h1 v5 t2 v5 th th th th v1 va2 va1 eh k f1 k ob v3 v4 t1 kb f2 v5 k f1 v1 f1 ob v4 v3 t1 kb t2 f2 v5 h2 h2 h2 h2 b f1 v3 fa2 t1 ob v4 va3 v2 f2 v5 kb t2 v1 k t2 f1 b b va2 va1 eh fa2 ob f1 v3 v4 t1 f2 kb v5 t2 k f1 v1 ob v3 v4 kb t1 t2 f1 v1 f2 fa2 v3 v5 k t1 ob va3 v2 f2 v1 v5 va2 k t2 fa2 t2 va3 v2 v1 va2 va1 eh v5 k ob k tu tu tu tu eu eu eu eu va3 v2 va2 va1 fa2 eh fa2 va3 v2 v4 kb fa2 p2 fa2 p2 fa2 p2 fa2 p2 va4 th p1 t2 t2 t2 va2 va1 eh v3 fa2 f2 b b b b h1 h1 h1 h1 p1 th th th th h1 fa2 v4 fa2 kb va3 v2 k tu tu tu tu v5 eu eu eu h2 fa2 va2 va1 eh v4 fa2 kb fa1 p1 fa1 p1 b b v4 fa2 kb

fa2 ob eu eu eu eu h2

v3 fa2 f2 h1 th h1 th h1 th h2 h2 h2 eu p1 eu t2 v1 t2 v1 f1

fa2 ob fa2 p2 fa2 p2 fa2 p2 va4 th p1 tu th v5 t1 v5 t1 k

fa2 t2 h1 h1 h1 p1 eu th th th tu

fa2 fa2 h2 h2 h2 h2 tu tu tu eu eu eu eu fa2 p2 fa2 p2 fa2 p2 tu h1 h2 fa1 fa1 fa1 va4

p1 b p1 b p1 b p1 b th h1

h2 tu h2 tu tu h2

fa1 p1 fa1 p1 fa1 p1 fa1 p1 tu h1 h2

fa2 p2 fa1 p1 fa2 p2 fa1 p1 fa2 p2 p1 fa2 sax p2 tu h1

fa1 b eu tu th

p1 fa1 b h1 va5 b fa1 sax p2 eu h2

h2 tu eu tu h1

fa2 p2 fa1 p1 h2 va4 h1 va5 b p1 t1 v5 t1 v5

fa1 sax p2 va5 b

fa1 sax p2 h1 va5 b fa1 sax p2 va2 va1 eh f1 f1 v3 v3 f2 f2 va2 va1 eh

va5 b

p1 fa1 sax p2 eu

va4 th

va5 p1

h2 va4 th

h1 va5 b fa1 sax p2 tu f1 f1 h2 v3 v3 tu f2 f2

va4 th

va5 b

p1 fa1 sax p2 eu th t2 t2 tu h1 f1 f1 h2

va5 b

fa1 sax p2 eu tu k ob h2 ob k va4 th v4 v1 kb kb t2 t2 v4 v1

va4 th p1 v1 t2 v1 t2

p1 fa1 sax p2 eu t1 t1 tu h2 va4 kb v4 kb v4 f1

va4 th t1 t1

va5 b kb kb

fa1 sax p2 eu tu f1 f1 h1 v3 v3 eh f2 f2 v5 t1 v5 t1 v5

fa1 sax p2 va3 v2 kb k k ob v4 ob v4 kb t2 va3 v2 kb

h1 va5 b k k ob ob v4 kb v4 kb v1

va5 b v3 v3 f2 f2

p1 fa1 sax p2 eu va3 v2 ob ob va3 v2 v5 k v5 k t1 v4 v1 v4 v1 kb t2

mwave11(211) v1 va2 va1 eh v1 va2 va1 eh

va2 va1 eh f1 f1 v3 f2 v3 f2 va2 va1 eh

va3 v2 ob ob t2 va3 v2

va2 va1 eh va2 va1 eh f1 v3 f1 h2 p1 b f2

va3 v2 va3 v2 k ob

va2 va1 eh va2 va1 eh v3 f2 v5

va3 v2 va3 v2 ob v4

v5 k v5 k

v1 va2 va1 eh v3 f2 ewave11(166) va5 h1 v5 k

va3 v2 v1

v4 v1

va2 va1 eh

va3 v2

va2 va1 eh

va3 v2 kb

ob v4

va2 va1 t1 eu h2 p1 b

va4 th

fa2 sax fa1 p2 tu tu eu eu h2

p1 b b

va5 h1

va4 th

fa2 sax fa1 p2 tu eu h2

tu eu h2 p1

eu

h2

p1 b

va5 h1

va4 th

fa2 sax fa1 p2 tu tu eu eu h2

eu h2 p1

h2 p1 p1 b b fa1 th

va5

h1 va4 th va4 th th h2 p1

fa2 sax fa1 p2 tu eu

va5 h1

va4 th

fa2 sax fa1 p2 tu eu

h2 p1 p1 b b v5

va5 h1

va4 th tu

fa2 sax fa1 p2 tu b eu h2 p1

va5 h1 va4 eu tu

fa2 sax fa1 p2 b v5 va5 b

va5 h1

va4 th

fa2 sax fa1 p2 tu

va5 h1 va4 th va5 h1 fa1 th

fa2 sax fa1 p2

va5 h1

fa2 sax fa1 p2 tu

h2 p1

va5 h1 va4 th

fa2 sax fa1 p2

v5 va5 h1

273

Example 4.3.4e. Sequence of instrumental moves in wave sections (page 5 of 5)

mwave12(360) f2 h1 ob v4 kb eh t2 v1 v2 va3 t1 v3 f2 ob v4 t1 f1 eh v3 v5 kb f2 h1 eh va2 f1 h1 v3 ob v3 v5 h1 t2 f2 v4 kb ob v1 v5 va5 k kb t2 v1 v5 ob t2 ob h1 ob v4 kb eh ob t1 v5 t2 v1 v2 v3 t2 h1 ob v5 va3 t1 f2 v5 eh va2 f1 v3 f2 v4 v5 kb va5 k t2 eh t1 v1 h1 v1 ob v4 t2 t1 v4 eh v5 v1 h1 f2 f1 va2 va5 v2 ob v5 v1 v2 f1 k eh v3 h1 f1 va3 t1 f2 ob v4 t2 t2 h1 t1 h2 v5 v4 kb f1 v1 ob va2 f1 h1 k eh v5 va5 k t2 v5 ob v3 f2 h1 v2 va3 t1 va5 k v4 kb kb k ob f2 eh v1 t1 h1 f2 f2 v5 va2 f1 v4 kb eh va5 k h1 va5 k eh v5 kb t2 h1 f2 h1 ob t2 v1 ob v5 k h1 ob v1 v2 h1 f2 k va5 k kb t2 t2 t1 v1 v2 v3 f2 va5 k v4 kb f2 v5 v3 f2 h1 v4 kb v2 kb v1 v2 ob v4 v1 t1 v3 f2 ob v4 v4 kb va5 k v3 va3 t1 ob t1 v4 k eh ob ob v3 p1 h2 va2 f1 f1 v3 v4 v3 v3 f2 f2 kb f2 v5 t2 k v3

va2 f1

va5 k

va2 f1

va5 k

va5 k

h1 ob

h1 ob va2 f1 t1 eh

v3 f2

va5 k eh

va5 k

v2 va3 t1 v4 kb va5 k va5 v5 t2 h1 f2

v4 kb va5 k va2 eh ewave12(281) b th eu p1 th

v2 va3 t1 kb f1 eh t2

va2 f1 v3 ob

va5 t1 h1 f2 p2

va3 t1 kb t2 eh

va2 f1 v2

v3 f2 eh

va2 f1 t2

va2 f1 kb v4

v5 va5 k k va5 v5 p1

va3 t1

va2 f1 kb p2

v4 kb f1

v1 v2 t1

va3 ob k

va3 v2 v1 eu p1 h2 tu p2

v3 va2 f1

va3 v2 va4 b p1 h2

v1 t2 p1 b eu p2

v4 ob

va2 eh p2

va3 f2

fa1 sax va1 fa2 th tu b va4 b p1 h2 eu

va4 b tu p2

fa1 sax va1 fa2 th p1 h2 h2 p2 eu eu va4 b tu

fa1 sax va1 fa2 th p1 h2 p1 eu h2 tu h2 tu

va4 b p2 p1

h1 eu tu

fa1 sax va1 fa2 va4 b p1 h2 p1 eu h2 tu p1 va4

va4 b p1

h2 eu fa1 p1

p2 fa1 sax va1 fa2 th h1 fa2 h2 va4 th va1 p1 va4 b b fa2 th p1

va4 b p1 tu

fa2 sax va1 fa2 th

va4 b

fa1 sax va1 fa2 th va4 b

sax va1 fa2 th

fa1 sax va1 fa2 th

fa1 sax va1 fa2 th va4 b

va4 b

sax fa1 sax va1 fa2 th

va4 b p2 p1 fa2 h2 b p2 p1

va4 b eu

fa1 sax va1 fa2 th va4 b p2 h2 p1

sax fa1 sax va1 fa2 th p2 fa1 b p1 h2 p2 eu p1

fa1 sax va1 fa2 th eu h2 tu eu p2 fa1 h1 h2 fa2 th

fa2 h2

p2 fa1 sax va1 fa2 th p1 fa2 h2 eu va4 b tu p1

fa2 h2 eu

fa1 sax va1 fa2 th tu h2

va4 b

fa1 sax va1 fa2 th p1 h2 eu p2

va4 b

fa1 sax va1 fa2 th eu p2 tu

va4 b

p2 fa1 sax va1 fa2 th tu eu p2

fa1 th

va1 fa2 th

p2 fa1 sax va1 fa2 b

fa1 sax va1 eu

Example 4.3.4f. Sequence of instrumental moves in bridges 5 and 6

5th_bridge_mwave(12) 5th_bridge_ewave(13) 6th_bridge_mwave(31) 6th_bridge_ewave(29) fa2 eu eh f1 b th t2 fa2 v1 fa2 eu eh h1 eh kb ob k fa2 eu fa2 eu b eh eh v1 p1 eh f2 eu t1 va5 sax eh va5 t2 kb ob k f2 t1 eh f1 t2 k ob k f2 t1 b ob kb f1 ob k eu f2 b k f2 h1 fa2 h2 p2 eu tu sax fa1 p1 th h1 fa2 h2 th eh f1

h1 fa2 h2 th

p2 tu

sax fa1 p1 b

274

Example 4.4.1a. Speed of motion in LICHTER-WASSER (page 1 of 2)

Data have been coorelated with the timings on the CD recording.
Scale
0 10 Seconds 20 30 40 50 1 minute 60 70 80 80 100

Anfangs-Duett 200
Velocity in m/sec

Eingang

150 100 50 0

M-Wave 1 Average speed: 9.4 m/sec

1st Bridge

M-Wave 2 Average speed: 16.1 m/sec

M-Wave 3 Average speed: 13.8 m/sec

2nd Bridge

200
Velocity in m/sec

150 100 50 0 0 1:53

E-Wave 1 Average speed: 8.9 m/sec

E-Wave 2 Average speed: 9.4 m/sec

6:46

10:30

10:52

12:53

14:07

15:13

Time (in minutes)

200 150 100 50 0

M-Wave 4 Average speed: 9.4 m/sec

M-Wave 5

3rd Bridge

200 150 100 50 0

E-Wave 3 Average speed: 9.0 m/sec

E-Wave 4

15:13

16:29

17:41

19:03

20:34

276

Example 4.4.1b. Speed of motion in LICHTER-WASSER (page 2 of 2)

200 150 100 50 0
M-Wave 6 M-Wave 7 M-Wave 8 4th Bridge

200 150 100 50 0

E-Wave 5

E-Wave 6

E-Wave 7

E-Wave 8

E-Wave 9

20:34

21:29

22:56

24:34

25:56

27:30

28:40

29:45

36:26

200 150 100 50 0

M-Wave 9

M-Wave 10

5th Bridge

M-Wave 11

6th Bridge

M-Wave 12

Schluss-Duett Ausgang

200 150 100 50 0

E-Wave 10

E-Wave 11

E-Wave 12

36:26

37:42

39:27

40:09

41:21

41:54

45:47 48:09 49:53

277

Example 4.5.2a (continued).

tenor position M1 f2 h1 B1 soprano position tu E1 va1 v1 E2 M2 k M3 va5 b B2 t2

Movement of singers through all wave and bridge sections (chart)

M4 t1 M5 eh fa1 B3 eu E3 th E4 f1 k E5 b E6 fa2 E7 sax E8 fa1 E9 M6 p2 M7 k M8 v2 va2 va3 M9 va1 M10 fa2 eu B5 p1 E10 eh v5 E11 M11 v1 ob B6 va5 k-h1-ob-v4 E12 M12 v3

A1 B4/1 A2 B4/2 A3 v3 f2

296

297

Example 4.5.2b.
Comparison of instrumental and vocal motion
Moves by Number of Direct Soprano Corresponding Distance Instrumental (meters) Moves Tu Va1 V1 T2 Eu Th F1 K B Fa2 Sax Fa1 V3 F2 P1 Eh V5 Va5 K H1 Ob Va1 V1 T2 Eu Th F1 K B Fa2 Sax Fa1 V3 F2 P1 Eh V5 Va5 K H1 Ob V4 0 5 13 3 13 0 0 1 9 25 41 4 35 7 9 0 42 38 26 24 63 17.1 18.75 8.84 8.29 4.48 13.98 20 25.77 9.57 12.5 12.5 5.18 6.25 12.5 6.25 6.25 13.98 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 10.3m Moves by Number of Direct Teonor Corresponding Distance Instrumental (meters) Moves F2 H1 H1 K K Va5 Va5 B B T1 T1 Eh 1 12 26 28 6 29 0 33 0 14 1 1 4 26 5 1 0 0 10.4 19.76 6.25 6.25 4.48 6.25 4.78 13.98 12.5 13.98 8.84 8.84 12.5 11.55 6.25 12.5 6.25 18.75 31.25 9.65m

Eh Fa1 Fa1 P2 P2 K K V2

V2 Va2 Va2 Va3 Va3 Va1 Va1 Fa2 Fa2 Eu Eu V1 V1 Ob Ob V3 Averages:

Averages:

Example 4.6.1a. Key 1

100 110

Number of times each instrumentalist is used in LICHTER-WASSER (according to data from Examples 4.3.4a-e)
200 150

200

Shading For Each Instrument Based on the Number of Times it is Used

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

100 50 0

Key 2
200 150 100 50 0

= times used in M-Orch. = times used in E-Orch. = total times used = Instrument in Michael Orch. = Instrument in Eve Orchestra = Location of a loudspeaker
200 150 100 50 200 150 100 50

200 150 100 50

9 8 7 6 5 4 Ob

10 0

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19 K

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29
200 150 100 50

30 V5

200 150 150 100 100 50 0 50 0 200 150 100 50 200 150 100 50 200 150 200 100 50 0 200 200 150 100 50 0

F2
200 150

B
200

P1

Va5
200 150 100 50 0

V3

100 150 50 100 0 50 0

Fa1 Sax
150 100 50

T1
200 150

Eh
200 150 100 50 0

150 100

200 150 200 100 50 0

Va3
200 150 200 150 100 50

100 50

Va1

50 0 200 150

F1

Fa2

H1

150 100 50

Th

100 50 0

Va2 P2 V1
200 200 150 100 150 100 50

100 50 0

200 150 100 50 0

Va4

V2

3 2 1 0

200 150

V4

100 50 0

200 150

50

T2

0 1 mixing console 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12 13

H2 conduc tor

100 50

200 150

Eu

synth.

100 50 0

14 1 5 16 17 1 8 19 20 2 1 22 23 2 4 25 26 2 7

Tu

298

299

Example 4.6.1a (continued). Data For Each Instrument

instrument violin 5 flute 2 trombone 1 violin 3 bassoon 4 bass clarinet saxophone viola 5* english horn flute 1 trumpet 1 viola 1 clarinet viola 3 bassoon 2 viola 2 trombone 2 tenor horn** violin 1 horn 1 violin 2 trumpet 2 viola 4 euphonium oboe violin 4 horn 2 e-flat clarinet tuba abbreviation V5 F2 P1 V3 Fa4 B Sax Va5 Eh F1 T1 Va1 K Va3 Fa2 Va2 P2 Th V1 H1 V2 T2 Va4 Eu Ob V4 H2 K Tu M Orch. 117 122 14 108 14 20 16 93 109 116 111 93 128 107 32 103 9 21 105 40 97 100 56 8 121 117 16 97 6 E Orch. 8 6 151 4 140 136 121 57 14 6 8 40 12 28 139 22 132 124 6 104 4 8 80 138 2 5 132 6 127 totals 125 128 165 112 154 156 137 150 123 122 119 133 140 135 171 125 141 145 111 144 101 108 136 146 123 122 148 103 133

*Although this the viola 5 is technically in the Eve-Orchestra, it actually plays more notes in the Michael-Orchestra. **Although Tenor Horn is in the Michael-Orchestra, it actually plays more notes in the Eve-Orchestra.

Example 4.6.2a. Key 1

60 70

Amount of Time (in seconds) each instrumentalist is used in LICHTER-WASSER (according to data from Exs. 4.3.4a-e)
27 28

29

30 V5

150 100 50 150

Shading For Each Instrument Based on the Amount of Time it is Used

150

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

100 50

Key 2
= times used in M-Orch.
150 100 50 0
150 100

= times used in E-Orch. = total times used = Instrument in Michael Orch. = Instrument in Eve Orchestra = Location of a loudspeaker
150 100 50 150 100 50

9 8 7 6 5 4 Ob

10

11

12

13

14

16 0 15

50

17

18

19 K

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

150 100 50

F2

100 50

150 100 150 100 50 150 100 50 0

B
150 100 150 50 100 0 50 0

P1

50 0

Va5

V3
150 100

Fa1 Sax
150 100 50

150 100 50 0

T1
150

Eh

150 100

50 0

Va3 Fa2
150

100 50 0

150 100 50 0

Va1

50 0

F1
150

150 100

H1

150 100 50

50 0

Th

100 50 0

150 100 50

Va2 P2 V1
150 150 100 50

100 50 0

Va4
150 100 50 0

V2

3 2

150

100 50 150

1 0

V4

100 50 0

T2

0 1 mixing console 2 3 4 5 conduc 6 7 tor 8 9 10 1 1 12 13 1 4 15 16

H2

Eu
150

100 50

synth.

100 50 0

Tu

17 1 8 19 20 2 1 22 23 2 4 25 26 2 7

300

301

Example 4.6.2a (continued).

Data For Each Instrument

instrument violin 5 flute 2 trombone 1 violin 3 bassoon 4 bass clarinet saxophone viola 5 english horn flute 1 trumpet 1 viola 1 clarinet viola 3 bassoon 2 viola 2 trombone 2 tenor horn* violin 1 horn 1 violin 2 trumpet 2 viola 4** euphonium oboe violin 4 horn 2 e-flat clarinet tuba abbreviation V5 F2 P1 V3 Fa4 B Sax Va5 Eh F1 T1 Va1 K Va3 Fa2 Va2 P2 Th V1 H1 V2 T2 Va4 Eu Ob V4 H2 K Tu M Orch. (in sec.) 54.4 78.9 17.0 56.1 12.9 16.2 16.0 53.2 86.0 78.1 72.9 63.5 79.4 58.8 33.9 53.6 7.4 24.1 61.1 19.0 65.3 76.5 42.6 5.7 90.8 69.9 16.8 85.7 7.3 E Orch. (in sec.) 6.4 16.9 116.2 10.3 115.8 100.2 88.6 62.5 14.8 11.5 4.5 31.9 14.5 26.8 101.3 23.5 109.0 76.3 5.7 84.2 1.7 5.5 37.1 123.0 0.4 4.4 94.0 6.1 95.3 totals (in sec.) 60.8 95.8 133.2 66.4 128.8 116.4 104.6 115.7 100.9 81.6 77.4 95.4 93.9 85.6 135.2 77.1 116.4 100.4 66.8 103.2 67.0 82.0 79.7 128.7 91.2 74.3 110.8 91.7 102.6

*Th is used for more time in the EveOrchestra than the MichaelOrchestra, although it is a Michael instrument. **Va4 is used for slightly more time in the Michael-Orchestra than the Eve-Orchestra, although it is an Eve instrument.

Example 4.6.3b
V5 F2 P1 V3 Fa1 B Sax Va5 Eh F1 T1 Va1 K Va3 Fa2 Va2 P2 Th V1 H1 V2 T2 Va4 Eu Ob V4 H2 K Tu

The A Matrix for LICHTER-WASSER.

V5 F2 P1 V3 Fa1 B Sax Va5 Eh F1 T1 Va1 K Va3 Fa2 Va2 P2 Th V1 H1 V2 T2 Va4 Eu Ob V4 H2 K Tu

v1 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 v22 v23 v24 v25 v26 v27 v28 v29 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

v2 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

v3 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

v4 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

v5 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

v6 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

v7 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

v8 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 v22 v23 v24 v25 v26 v27 v28 v29 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

303

Example 4.6.3c
The A2 Matrix for LICHTER-WASSER
V5 F2 P1 V3 Fa1 B Sax Va5 Eh F1 T1 Va1 K Va3 Fa2 Va2 P2 Th V1 H1 V2 T2 Va4 Eu Ob V4 H2 K Tu Totals

V5

F2

P1

V3

Fa1

Sax

Va5

Eh

T1 F1

Va1

Va3

Fa2

Va2

P2

Th

V1

H1

V2

T2

Va4

Eu

Ob

V4

H2

Tu

Totals 53 81

v1 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 v22 v23 v24 v25 v26 v27 v28 v29 4 4 3 3 2 3 1 4 4 1 5 3 3 5 4 1 1 2 1 3 0 3 2 0 1 0 0 0 0

v2 4 8 5 5 4 6 5 6 6 3 8 4 4 6 5 3 3 4 2 4 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 1 1

v3 4 4 9 5 5 7 6 3 4 5 6 3 3 5 8 4 4 3 2 7 4 2 4 4 0 3 3 2 6

v4 1 4 4 7 3 7 4 5 4 3 4 3 3 1 5 2 4 2 2 1 1 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

v5 2 3 4 3 8 4 4 3 4 3 3 1 1 1 6 2 4 4 1 1 0 3 2 3 1 1 3 1 1

v6 2 5 6 6 3 1 4 7 5 2 6 7 7 5 7 2 3 6 2 6 5 1 4 3 3 4 5 1 3

v7 2 3 4 4 5 4 6 2 5 3 4 1 1 2 3 3 4 3 2 3 1 2 2 3 0 1 2 1 3

v8 3 5 3 4 4 6 2 8 6 1 6 5 5 4 7 1 2 5 1 3 1 3 4 1 3 1 2 0 0

v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 v22 v23 v24 v25 v26 v27 v28 v29 4 5 7 6 5 6 5 4 9 4 7 4 4 5 6 2 5 5 5 3 1 4 2 3 0 1 3 2 2 1 3 5 4 3 5 5 2 3 8 4 1 1 2 6 4 4 1 4 1 2 4 0 3 0 1 0 2 4 5 5 6 4 4 5 4 5 6 5 10 4 4 7 7 5 3 3 3 6 5 3 5 3 2 3 2 3 3 1 3 6 6 4 7 7 3 6 7 6 3 3 2 7 5 6 3 5 3 3 4 2 4 1 1 1 2 5 3 3 3 2 1 7 0 5 3 1 4 7 7 4 6 1 1 4 2 4 3 1 3 1 3 3 2 2 1 4 5 5 4 4 6 3 5 5 3 6 5 5 3 6 7 5 9 8 7 7 8 8 8 4 4 0 3 3 6 5 6 6 3 4 5 4 2 2 4 8 7 7 4 6 2 3 6 1 5 0 2 4 4 4 1 1 5 4 4 3 5 1 4 4 4 1 1 3 6 4 8 3 5 4 1 4 2 4 0 1 3 3 5 0 0 4 2 2 5 3 2 3 2 2 4 4 5 5 2 4 8 3 6 5 3 5 3 4 4 7 5 4 0 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 5 4 4 3 3 5 5 4 3 4 7 1 4 6 3 2 2 2 3 4 3 4 4 5 4 4 5 4 3 4 2 5 4 4 9 6 2 4 6 1 9 6 2 7 4 3 5 5 4 4 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 4 1 1 3 6 5 2 2 4 3 6 3 4 3 1 4 2 3 4 0 0 2 2 3 2 5 0 3 3 4 1 1 4 5 6 5 2 6 2 3 7 2 4 0 3 4 3 5 2 1 3 0 3 2 0 3 3 1 2 4 4 5 6 0 0 6 1 5 5 1 7 2 3 4 4 4 2 0 0 5 2 4 5 3 2 3 5 4 3 3 2 8 4 5 5 4 3 4 4 4 6 2 4 3 5 5 1 2 2 2 2 5 2 4 4 2 5 5 5 7 4 3 2 6 3 4 5 4 6 1 5 4 6 3 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 2 3 2 2 7 6 2 1 4 2 6 6 4 6 2 3 5 4 3 3 0 1 2 2 4 4 3 2 3 1 1 3 3 7 6 3 4 7 4 4 5 4 5 4 3 5 10 4 4 0 0 3 1 1 3 2 1 4 4 4 3 3 5 5 3 4 7 5 4 6 4 4 5 3 4 5 7 4 0 0

3 118 2 100 2 103 3 141 4 105 0 96

1 124 3 98

1 134 1 1 92 92

10 11 7 3 2 6 3 7 5 4 6 2 3 5 5 3 2 15 6 6 10 6 7 8 10 8 6 5 6 9 5 6

4 140 6 181 5 94

4 105 2 127 4 96

5 117 4 104 3 104 4 107 5 0 4 89 52 82

4 104 3 8 80 95

304

63 111 125 75 77 131 79 96 119 83 130 116 87 133 208 116 94 106 88 129 79 87 83 107 106 88 108 104 86

Example 4.6.4d. Connectivity out, based on LW A2 Matrix

V5 F2 P1 V3 Fa1

305

Sax

Va5 T1

Eh Va1

F1

The darkest instruments send melodic movement to the greatest variety of places for paths of length 2.

Va3

Fa2

Va2

P2

Th H1 V2

V1 T2

Va4

Eu

Ob

V4

H2

Tu

Key for both examples Example 4.6.4e.

V5 F2

Connectivity in, based on LW A2 Matrix

P1 V3 Fa1

number of moves in/out 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190

Sax

Va5 T1

Eh Va1

F1

Here, the darkest instruments receive melodic movement from the greatest variety of sources for paths of length 2.

Va3

Fa2

Va2

P2

Th H1 V2

V1 T2

Va4

Eu

Ob

V4

H2

Tu

314

Example 5.3.1a. Front page of Xenakiss score to Terretektorh

315

Example 5.3.2a. Three spirals used by Xenakis in Terretektorh.

Formulas are given in polar coordinates, where radius r is a continuous function of angle . Archimedian Spiral r=a+b Distance between arms is constant.

Logarithmic Spiral r = ab Often found in nature.

Hyperbolic Spiral r = a/ Inverse of Archimedian spiral

Example 5.3.2b. Maria Harleys analysis of spatial motion in mm. 1-74 of Terretektorh.

316

319

322

Example 5.3.2g. Calculations of speed in Terretektorh, mm. 1-66.

Structure Spatial Areas Distance Time Traversed (seconds) (meters) 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 6.67 5.83 5.00 4.17 3.33 2.50 1.83 1.00 1.50 1.50 1.83 2.17 3.00 3.67 10.75 7.00 2.50 1.00 0.36 0.14 0.51 Speed (m/sec) Structure Spatial Areas Distance Time Traversed (seconds) (meters) 4.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 0.49 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 7.20 4.47 2.83 1.63 1.20 0.55 0.37 4.5 2.75 1.75 1 0.63 0.37 0.25 Speed (m/sec)

A5/6 - B5/6 B5/6 - C5/6 C5/6 - D5/6 D5/6 - E5/6 E5/6 - F5/6 F5/6 - G5/6 G5/6 - H5/6

2.53 2.53 2.53 2.53 2.53 2.53 2.53 0.76 0.87 1.01 1.21 1.52 2.02 2.77 5.06 3.37 3.37 2.77 2.33 1.69 1.38 0.47 0.72 2.02 5.06 14.06 36.14 9.92

H5/6 - H1 H1 - H2 H2 - H3 H3 - H4 H4 - H5 H5 - H6 H6 -H5 H5 - H4 H4 - H3 H3 - H2 H2 - H1

9.18 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 .70 1.13 1.79 3.10 4.22 9.20 13.68 1.24 1.84 2.89 5.06 8.03 13.68 20.24

A5/6 - B5/6 B5/6 - C5/6 C5/6 - D5/6 D5/6 - E5/6 E5/6 - F5/6 F5/6 - G5/6 G5/6 - H5/6

A5/6 - B5/6 B5/6 - C5/6 C5/6 - D5/6 D5/6 - E5/6 E5/6 - F5/6 F5/6 - G5/6 G5/6 - H5/6

A5/6 - B5/6 B5/6 - C5/6 C5/6 - D5/6 D5/6 - E5/6 E5/6 - F5/6 F5/6 - G5/6 G5/6 - H5/6

A5/6 - B5/6 B5/6 - C5/6 C5/6 - D5/6 D5/6 - E5/6 E5/6 - F5/6 F5/6 - G5/6 G5/6 - H5/6

A5/6 - B5/6 B5/6 - C5/6 C5/6 - D5/6 D5/6 - E5/6 E5/6 - F5/6 F5/6 - G5/6 G5/6 - H5/6

323

Example 5.3.2h. Calculations of speed in Terretektorh, mm. 65-74

Struc- Spatial ture Areas Distance Time Traversed (sec.) (meters) 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 2.75 1.92 0.83 0.63 0.37 0.25 0.11 1.75 1.00 0.65 0.48 0.12 0.25 0.08 1.1 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.13 0.12 0.10 Speed (m/sec.) Structure Spatial Areas Distance Time Traversed (sec.) (meters) 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 5.06 0.62 0.38 0.27 0.10 0.10 0.07 0.08 0.5 0.02 0.1 0.1 0.23 -0.08 0 -0.4 0.13 0.12 0 0.08 0 0.07 Speed (m/sec.)

8a

A5/6 - B5/6 B5/6 - C5/6 C5/6 - D5/6 D5/6 - E5/6 E5/6 - F5/6 F5/6 - G5/6 G5/6 - H5/6

1.84 2.64 6.10 8.03 13.68 20.24 46.00 2.89 5.06 7.78 10.54 42.17 20.24 63.25 4.06 10.12 10.12 20.24 38.92 42.17 50.60

8d

A5/6 - B5/6 B5/6 - C5/6 C5/6 - D5/6 D5/6 - E5/6 E5/6 - F5/6 F5/6 - G5/6 G5/6 - H5/6

8.16 13.32 18.74 50.60 50.60 72.29 63.25 10.12 253.00 (!!) 50.60 50.60 22.00 38.92 42.17 63.25 72.29

8b A5/6 - B5/6 B5/6 - C5/6 C5/6 - D5/6 D5/6 - E5/6 E5/6 - F5/6 F5/6 - G5/6 G5/6 - H5/6 8c A5/6 - B5/6 B5/6 - C5/6 C5/6 - D5/6 D5/6 - E5/6 E5/6 - F5/6 F5/6 - G5/6 G5/6 - H5/6

8e

A5/6 - B5/6 B5/6 - C5/6 C5/6 - D5/6 D5/6 - E5/6 E5/6 - F5/6 F5/6 - G5/6 G5/6 - H5/6

8f

A5/6 - B5/6 B5/6 - C5/6 C5/6 - D5/6 D5/6 - E5/6 E5/6 - F5/6 F5/6 - G5/6 G5/6 - H5/6

Example 5.4.4a. Whittakers diagram of Talliss Spem in Alium

Whittaker 1940 (1929), p. 89.

Example 5.4.4b.
Whittakers 1929 spatialization
I III VI IV VII conductor II V VIII

audience

324

Example 5.4.4c. Detailed diagram of mm. 85-110, showing paired antiphonal passages.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Example 5.4.4d.
Circular arrangement of choirs

I VIII II

VII

audience

III

VI V

IV

85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 Domine Deus, Creator caeli et terrae respice

Key
contrapuntal texture homophonic texture

325